£8 The Second Edition; greatly Improved and Enlarged. ILLUSTRATED WITH ABOVE TWO HUNDRED COPPERPLATES. VOL. VII. indocti discant, et ament meminisse periti. EDINBURGH: Printed for J. Balfour and Co. W. Gordon, J. Bell, J. Dickson, C. Elliot, W. Creech, J. McCli esh, A. Be ll, J. Hutton, and C. Macfari^u h ar. MDCCLXXXI. ? B ^ o 1965.^ A NEW Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, &c. MED Medicines, /TEDICINES, whatever fubftances ferve to Medietas. |%/1 rcftore health.—Medicines are either fnnple " "' S. ▼ JL or compound; the former being prepared by nature alone; and the latter owing to the induftry of man, by varioufly mixing the Ample together. See Pharmacy. Medicines are likewife diftinguifhed, from the man¬ ner of ufing them, into external and internal; and with regard to their" effe&s, they are faid to be emetic> ca¬ thartic, aftringent, 8ic. See Materia Medica. Pacte Medicines, in forgery, thofe which a fur- geon ought always to carry about with him, in a box, or convenient cafe. Thofe, according to Heifter, are the common di- geftive ointment, and the brown or Egyptian oint¬ ment, for cleanfing anddigefting foul ulcers; and fpme vulnerary balfams, as the tinimentum Arc\KA.-del-Campo, a large, rich, and ancient town of Spain, in the kingdom of Leon. The great fquare is very fine-, and adorned with a fuperb fountain. It is a trading place, enjoys great privileges, and is feated in a country abounding with corn and wine. W. Long. 4. 20. N. Lat. 41. 22. iAmwits-del-rio-Secco, an ancient and rich town of Spain, in the kingdom of Leon, with the title of a duchy; feated on a plain, where there are fine pattures. E. Long. 4. 33. N. Lat. 42. 8. Medina (Sir John), an eminent painter, was the fon of Medina de I’Allurias, a Spanifh captain, who had fettled at Bruffels; where the fon was born, and inftrucled in painting by Du Chatel. He married young; and in 1686 came into England, where he drew portraits for feveral years. The earl of Leven encouraged him to go to Scotland, and procured hirrj a fubfcription of 500I. worth of bufinefs. He painted moft of the Scotch nobility; and at Wentworth-caftle is a large piece, containing the firft duke of Argyle and his fon?, the two late dukes John and Archibald, in Roman habits; the ftyle Italian, and fuperior to moft modern performers. The portraits of the pro- feffors in the furgeons-hall at Edinburgh were painted by him, and are commended; and in that hall are two fmall hittory-pieces by him. He was knighted by the duke of Qiieenftierry, lord high-commiflioner; and was the laft knight made in Scotland before the Union. He was not, however, rich; for he had $0 children. He died in Scotland; and was buried in the church- 27 O 2 yard MED [4! MccHo yard ofthe Gray-friars at Edinburgh in 1711, aged 52. lanism pje was capable both of hiftory and landfcape. The - by him, MEDIOLANUM, an ancient city, the capital of the Infubtes, built by the Gauls on their fettlement in that part of Italy. A municipkim-, and a place of great ftrength. The feat of the liberal arts; whence it had the name of Nova Athena. Now Milan, capital of the Milanefe, fituate on the rivers Olana and Lombro, jL Long. 9. 30. N. Lat. 45. 25. Mediolanum Aulercorum (anc. geogr.), a town of Gallia Celtica, which afterwards took the name of the Eburovicum Civitas (Antonine); corrupted to Civitas Ebroicoram, and this laft to Ebroica; whence the modern appellation Evreux, a city of Normandy. E. Long. x. i2. N. Lat. 49. 21. Mediolanum Gag-erTwnm? (anc. geogr.), a town of Gallia Belgica, now the village Tlfcj/aW, not far from Cologne. Mediolanum Ordovicum (anc. geogr.),.a town of Britain, now Elan Vethlin, a market-town in Mont- gomerylhire in Wales. Mediolanum (anc. geogr.), which af¬ terwards taking the name of the people, was called Santonica Urbs; alfo Santones and Santoni: A town of Aquitain. Now Saintes, capital of Saintonge in Guienne, on the river Charente. W. Long. 36.0. N. Lat. 45. 50. MEDITERRANEAN sea, extends from the Straits of Gibraltar to the coaft of Syria and Pale- iline, being above 2000 miles in length, but of very unequal breadth: the weft part of it feparating Europe from Africa; and the Levant, or eaft part of it, dividing Afia from Africa, Spain, France, Italy, Turky in Europe, and Natolia, or the Leffer Afia, bounding it on the north; and the empire of Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, Barca, and Egypt, bounding it on the fouth. The Strait of Gibraltar being about 15 or 16 miles broad, a ftrong current fets through it out of the Atlantic Ocean into the Mediterranean conftantly, which requires a good gale of wind to ftem it. MEDITULLIUM, is ufed by anatemifts for that fpungy fubftance between the two plates of the cra- nium, and in the interftices of all laminated bones. See Diploe. MEDIUM, in logic, the mean or middle term of a fyllogiftn, being an argument, reafon, or confidera- tion, for which we affirm or deny any thing; or, it is the caufe why the greater extreme is affirmed or de¬ nied of the lefs in the conclufion. Medium, in arithmetic, or arithmetical medium or mean, called in the fchools medium rei; that which is equally diftant from each extreme, or w’hich exceeds the lefler extreme as much as it is exceeded by the greater, in refpe& of quantity, not of proportion; thus 9 is a medium betwixt 6 and 12. Geometrical Medium, called in the fchools medium perfona, is that where the fame ratio is preferved be¬ tween the firft and fecond as between the fecond and third terms; or that which exceeds in the fam$ ratio or quota of itfelf, as it is exceeded: thus 6 is a geo¬ metrical medium between 4 and 9. 82 ] MEG Medium, in philofopby, that fpace or region Medium through which a body in motion pafies to any point: I1 thus aether is flippofed to be the medium through 1 e^a e' which the heavenly bodies move ; air, the medium wherein bodies move near our earth; water, the me¬ dium wherein fifties live and move; and glafs is alfo a medium of light, as it affords it a free paffage. That denfity or confiftency in the parts of the medium, whereby the motion of bodies in it is retarded, is called the refijlance of the medium; which, together with the force of gravity, is the caufe of the ceffation of the motion of proje&iles. Subtile or /Etherial WL'Enium. See Ether, Elec¬ tricity, Fire, &c. Medium, in optics, any fubftance through which light is tranfmitted. MEDLAR, in botany. See Mespilus. MEDULLA, Oca Medulla Oblotigata, C ee ^NAT' ” ItouLLA %»J,. S M6-3"- MEDUSA, one of the three Gorgons, daughter of Ceto and a fea-god named Phorcus. Neptune being in love with her, forced her in the temple of Minerva; upon which that goddefs changed her hair (which was extremely fair) into ferpents, the fight of which turned the beholders into ftones : but Perfeus, armed with Mercury’s ax, with which he killed Argus, cut off Medufa’s head, from whofe blood fprang Pegafus and Chryfaor. Minerva is reprefented bearing the piifture of Medufa’s head on her fhield, to terrify her Medusa, in zoology, a genus of infefts belonging to the order of mollufca. The body is gelatinous, roundifti, and depreffed; and the mouth is in the centre of the under part of the body. There are twelve fpecies, all natives of the fea. The moft remarkable is the fimplex, or armlefs, with a plain circumference ; four apertures beneath ; no tenacula. Thefe animals inhabit all our feas; are gregarious; often feen float¬ ing with the tide in vaft numbers; feed on infedls, fmall fifh, &c. which they catch with their clafpers or arms. Many fpecies, on being handled, affeft with a nettle-like burning, and excite a rednefs. The an¬ cients, and fome of the moderns, add that they have an aphrodifiac property, and in feveral languages they are called by an obfeene name. They were known to the Greeks and Romans by the names of rivEu^a ©axacro-,©-, and pulmo marinus, or fea-lungs. They attributed medicinal virtues to them. Diolcorides in¬ forms us, that, if rubbed frefti on the difeafed part, they cured the gout in the feet, and kibed heels. jElian fays, that they were depilatory; and, if ma¬ cerated in vinegar, would take away the beard. Their pbofphoric quality is well known ; nor was it over¬ looked by the ancients. Pliny obferves, that if rub¬ bed with a flick it will appear to burn, and the wood to ftiine all over. The fame naturalift obferves, that when they fink to the bottom of the fea, they portend a continuance of bad weather. MEGALE polis, (anc.geog.), dividedly (Ptole¬ my, Paufanias) ; or conjunftly Megalopolis, (Strabo) : A town of Arcadia, built under the aufpices of Epa- minondas, after the battle of Leuftra; many incon- fiderabie towns being joined together in one great city, the M E I [ 4883 ] MEL Megameter the better to withftand the Spartans. It was the II greateft city of Arcadia, according to Strabo. Meifl(:r- MEGAMETER. See Micrometer. MEGARA (anc. geog.), a noble city, and the capital of the territory of Megaris, which for many years carried on war with the Corinthians and Athe¬ nians. It had for fome time a fchool of philofo- hers, called the Megarici, fucceflbrs of Euclid the ocratic, a native of Megara. Their dialed was the Doric; changed from the Attic, which it formely had been, becaule of Peleponnefian colonifts who fettled there. Megara (anc. geog.) formely called Hybla, a town towards the eaft coalf of Sicily ; extindl in Strabo’s time, though the name Hybla remained on account of the excellence of its honey. It was a colony of Megareans from Greece. Rifus Megarius denotes a hoarfe-laugh. MEGARIS (anc. geog.), the country of the Me¬ gareans, which Pliny makes a part of Attica; and Strabo fays, fome were of this opinion; but be him- felf makes it a diftinft part; in which Scylax, Ptole¬ my, and the hiftories that relate the wars of the Athe¬ nians and Megareans, agree. It had Attica to the eaft, Baeotia to the north and weft, and the Ifthmus of Corinth to the fouth. Megaris, a fmall ifland in the Tufcan fea, joined to Naples by a bridge. Now called Cajlello dell' ovo. MEGIDDO, (Judges v. 19.) A town of Galilee, recited (Jofhua xvii. x 1.).among the cities of Manafleh, in the tribe of Iflachar or After, on the weft fide of Jordan. Famous for the fate of Ahaziah and Jofiah, who perilhed there: near it was an open plain, fit for drawing up an army in battle-array. It was fituate to the north, contrary to its pofition in the common maps. The Canaanites beingtributary to the Ifraelities, dwelt in it, Joftnia xvii. It was rebuilt by Solomon, 1 Kings ix. MEIBOMIUS, the name of feveral learned Ger¬ mans.—John Hetiry Meibomius was profefFor of phyfic at Helmftadt, where he was born, and at Lubec ; he wrote the Life of Maecenas, publifhed at Leyden in 410.1653, with feveral other learned works.—Henry, his fon, was born at Lubec in 1638; became profeffor of phyfic at Helmftadt; and, befides works in his own profeffion, publifhed Scriptores rerum Germanicorum, 3 vol. folio, 1688 ; a very ufeful colle&ion, firft be¬ gun by his father.—Marcus Meibomius, of the fame family, publifhed a colledHon of feven Greek authors who had written upon ancient mufic, with a Latin verfion by himfelf; dedicated to queen Chriftina of Sweden, who invited him to her court. But fhe en- gaging him one day to fing an air of ancient mufic, while fomebody was ordered to dance to it, the im¬ moderate mirth which this occafioned in the fpe&ators fb difgufted him,, that he immediately left the court of Sweden. His edition of the Greek mytholo- gifts, and notes upon Diogenes Laertius in Menage’s edition, {hews him to have been a man of learning; but he fuffered no little raillery for his attempt to correft the Hebrew text of the Bible, by a kind of metre he fancies he had found out in thofe ancient Writings. MEISSEN, a confiderable town of Germany, in the ele&orate of Saxony, and in the margravatb of Miftiia, with a caftie. It formerly belonged to the bifhop, but is now fecularized, and the inhabitants Mc'es are Lutherans. In this place is a famous manufac- Mcjl|.nc tory of porcelain, E. Long. 13. 33. N. Lat. 5 1. 15. ,1^"; MELA (Pomponius), an ancient Latin writer, was — born in the province of Bastica in Spain, and fiourifh- ed in the reign of the emperor Claudius. His three books of Cofmography, or Deftu orbis, are written in a concife, perfpicuous, and elegant manner; and have been thought worthy of the attention and la¬ bours of the ableft critics. Ifaac Vofiius gave an edition of them in 1658, 410. with very large and copious notes. To this edition is added ‘Julii Ho¬ noris oratoris excerptum cofmographice, firft publifhed from the manufcript, and Mthici coftnographia. Gro- novius afterwards publifned another edition with illu- ftrations by medals- In his laft edition are added five books De geographia, written by fome later author ’r by Jornandes, as Fabricius conje&ures. MELiENA, or black flux, in medicine. See Medicine, n°495.' MELAMPYRUM, cow-wheat; a genus of the angiofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants. There are four fpecies, all of them natives of Britain, and growing fpontaneoufiy among corn¬ fields. They are excellent food for cattle; andLinnasus tells us, that where they abound the yelloweft and beft butter is made. Their feeds, when mixed with bread, give it a dufky colour; and, according to fome authors, produce a vertigo, and other diforders of the head ; but this is denied by Mr Withering, though he allows that they give it a bitter tafte. MELANCHOLY, a kind of delirium attended with gloomy thoughts, heavinefs and forrow. See Medicine, n° 185, 428, 429. MELANCTHON (Philip), born at Bretten in the Palatinate in 1495, was one of the wifeft and molt able men of his age among the Reformers, though of a mild temper, difpofed to accommodate rather than inflame difputes. In his youth he made an admirable progrefs in learning, and was made Greek profeflbr at Wirtemberg in 1509. Here his le&ures upon Ho¬ mer, and the Greek text of St Paul’s epiftle to Titus, _ drew to him a great number of auditors, and entirely- effaced the contempt to which his low ftature and mean appearance had expofed him. Melanchthon re¬ duced the fciences to fyftems; and acquired fuch repu¬ tation, that he had fometimes 2500 auditors. He fooi^entered into an intimate friendlhip with Luther, who taught divinity in the fame univerfity; and in 1519 they went together to Leipfic, to difpute with Eccius. The following years he was continually en¬ gaged in various employments; he compofed feveral books ; he taught divinity ; took feveral journeys, in order to found colleges and vifit churches ; and in- X530 drew up’ a confeffion of faith, which goes by the name of the Confeffion of Augfburg, becaufe it was pre- fented to the emperor at the diet held in that city. All Europe was convinced, that he was not, like Lu¬ ther, backward to accommodate the differences be¬ tween the various fe£ts of Chriftians. He hated reli¬ gious difputes, and was drawn into them only through the neceffity of the part he was called to aft in the world; and therefore would have facrificed many things, to have produced an union among the Prote- flants. For this reafon, Francis I, the French king,. wrote- MEL [ 4884 ] MEL Mdanc- wrote to defire him to come and confer with the doc- Melan'eria t0^S ^or^onne» *n order to agree with them - C an er a* about putting an end to all controverfies ; but though Luther endeavoured to perfuade the eleftor of Saxony to confent to that journey, and though Melanfthon himfelf defired it, that prince, whether he diflrufted Melanfthon’s moderation, or was afraid of quarrelling with the emperor Charles V. would never grant his permiffion. The king of England alfo in vain de¬ fired to fee him. Melandthon, in 1529, affifted at the conferences of Spires. In 1541, he was at the famous conferences at Ratifbon. In 1543, he went to meet the archbilhop of Cologn to affift him in in¬ troducing the reformation into his diocefe ; but that projeft came to nothing : and in 1548, he affifted at feven conferences on the fubjeft of the interim of Charles V. and wrote a cenfure on that interim, and all the writings prefented at thefe conferences. He was extremely affefted at the diflenfions raifed by Fiaccus Illyricus. His laft conference with thofe of the Roman communion was at Worms, in 1557. He died at Wittemburg in 1560, and was interred near Luther. Some days before he died, he wrote upon a piece of paper the reafons which made him look upon death as a happinefs; and the chief of them was, that it “ delivered him from theological perfecutions.’, Nature had given Melan&hon a peace¬ able temper, which was but ill fuited to the time he was to live in. His moderation ferved only to be his crofs. He was like a lamb in the midft of wolves. No body liked his mildnefs ; it looked as if he was luke¬ warm ; and even LiSther himfelf was fometimes angry at it. Melan&hon was a man in whom many good as well as great qualities were wonderfully united. He had great parts, great learning, great fweetnefs of temper, moderation, contentednefs, and the like, which would have made him very happy in any other times but thofe in which he lived. He never affedled dignities, or honours, or riches, but was rather negligent of all thefe things ; too much fo in the opinion of fome, confidering he had a family ; and his fon-in-law Sa- binus, who was of a more ambitious make, was ac¬ tually at variance with him upon this very article. Learning was infinitely obliged to him on many ac¬ counts ; on none more than this,, that, as already ob- ferved, he reduced almoft all the fciences which had been taught before in a vague irregular manner,^into fyftems. Confidering the diftradions of his life, and the infinity of difputes and tumults in which he was engaged, it is aftonifhing how he could find leifure to write fo many books. Their number is prodigious, infomuch that it was thought neceffary to publilh a chronological catalogue of them in the year 1582. His works indeed are not corred, and he himfelf owned it: but as he found them ufeful, he chofe rather to print a great number, than to finifti only a few; “ which however,” as Bayle fays, “ was poftponing his own glory to the advantage of others.” His conftitution was very weak, and required great tendernefs and ma¬ nagement ; which made Luther, as hot and zealous as he was, blame him for labouring too earneftly in the vineyard. MELANTERIA, in natural hiftory, a very beau¬ tiful foffil, of a denfe, compad, and regular texture, and of an extremely bright pale yellow, refembling no- Mekftoma thing fo much as the pureft gold. It is remarkably II heavy; and is fometimes found in little irregular mafies e“ of the bignefs of a pigeon's egg, which are broken with !— a flight blow : but it is ufually met with in the form of a fin£ gold-coloured efflorefcence on vitriolic and py- ritical bodies; or in loofe, (battery, and friable maffes of a more dufky yellow ; in which latter (late it fo much refembles a native fulphur, that it is frequently miftaken for one : however, it is not inflammable but calcines in the fire to a greyifli powder, which by burning longer changes to a deep and fine purple. The Greeks ufed it externally, as a gentle efcharotic and a ftyptic: they made it an ingredient in their ointments for old ulcers, and ufed to fprinkle the powder of it on frdh wounds in order to flop the haemorrhage. MELASTOMA, the American gooseberry- tree ; a genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants. There are a great many fpecies, all of them natives of the warm parts of America, and very beautiful on account of the varie¬ gation of their leaves. Moft of the leaves are of two different colours on their furfaces; the under fide be¬ ing either white gold-colour or ruffet, and their up¬ per parts of different (hades of green 5 fo that they make a fine appearance in the hot-houfe all the year round. There are but few of thefe plants in the Eu¬ ropean gardens ; which may perhaps have been occa- fioned by the difficulty of bringing over growing plants from the Weft Indies; and the feeds being fmall when taken out from the pulp of their fruits, rarely Jucceed. The beft way is to have the entire fruits put up in dry fand as foon as they are ripe, and forwarded by the quickeft contrivance to England. They (hould be immediately taken out when they ar¬ rive, and the feeds fown in pots of light earth, and plunged into a moderate hot-bed of tanner’s bark. When the plants come up, and are fit to be removed, they muft each be planted in a fmall pot, and plunged into the tan-bed ; and afterwards treated as other exo¬ tic plants. MELCHITES, in church-hiftory, the name given to the Syriac, Egyptian, and other Chriftians of the Levant. The Melchites, excepting fome few points of little or no importance, which relate only to cere¬ monies and ecclefiaftical difcipline, are in every refpecl profeffed Greeks: but they are governed by a parti¬ cular patriarch, who refides at Damas, and affumes the title of patriarch of Antioch. They celebrate mafs in the Arabian language. The religious among the Mel¬ chites follow the rule of St Bafil, the common rule of all the Greek monks. They have four fine convents diftant about a day’s journey from Damas, and never go out of the cloifter. MELCHISEDEGH, or Melchisedek, (the or¬ der of) ; an order of priefthood, according to the fcrip- tures of the Old and New Teftament. The firft mention of Melchifedech is in Genefis xiv. 16, 17, 18. where it is related, that, when Abraham had refcued his brother Lot and all his goods out of the hands of the five kings, he was met, upon his re¬ turn, by Melchifedech, king of Salem, who brought forth bread and wine; and he was the prieft of the Moft High God.” It is added, that he bleffed A- bra-> MEL [ 4885 ] M E L Melchife- braham; who acknowledged his priefthood, by giving dech. him tythes of all he had taken from the enemy. The next mention of Melchifedech is by the Royal Pfalmift, who, fpeaking prophetically of the Mef- fiah, fays, “ Thou art a prieft for ever after the order of Melchifedech.” Laftly, St Paul applies the ftory of Melchifedech to our Saviour, citing the very words of the Pfalmift. And, in another place, he gives this account of Mel¬ chifedech : “ This Melchifedech, king of Salem, prieft of the Moft High God, who met Abraham re¬ turning from the daughter of the kings, and blefled him ; to whom Abraham gave a tenth part of all ; firft being by interpretation king of righteoufnefs, and after that alfo king of Salem, which is, king of peace; without father, without mother, without de- fcent; having neither beginning of days, nor end of life; but made like unto the Son of God, abideth a prieft continually.” From thefe paflages it appears, that Melchifedech, whoever he was, was a type of Jefus Chrift, and his priefthood an image of our Saviour’s. Innumerable difficulties have been ftarted upon the fubjedt of Melchifedech. The firft relates to his coun¬ try, or the place where he reigned. Moft authors take Salem to be the fame as Jerufalem : but St Jerom places it near Scythopolis, where they ftill pretend¬ ed to (hew the ruins of Melchifedech’s palace. He thinks it was at this place that Jacob arrived, af¬ ter his paflage over Jordan, when he returned-from Mefopotamia. The next difficulty relates to his perfon. It is ge¬ nerally agreed by learned men, that, when the apoftle fays he was without father and without mother, no more is meant than that he is introduced into the hi- ftory of Abraham without acquainting us who he was or whence he came, when he lived or when he died. Neverthelefs, fome have taken St Paul’s words literal¬ ly, and contended, that he was not of human, but divine nature. Origen and Didymus took him to be an angel ; and the author of the Quejiions on the Old and New fejlament pretended he was the Holy Ghoft, who appeared to Abraham in a human form. About the beginning of the third century, arofe the herefy of the Melchifedechians, who affirmed, that Melchifedech was not a man, but a heavenly power, fu- perior to Jefus Chrift: For Melchifedech, they faid, was the interceflbr and mediator of the angels; but Jefus Chrift was fo only for men, and his priefthood only a copy of that of Melchifedech. This herefy was revived in Egypt by one Hierax, who pretended that Melchifedech was the Holy Ghoft. The Arabic catena upon the ninth chapter of Ge- nefis makes Melchifedech to be defcended from Shem by his father, and from Japhet by his mother. He- raclas, or Heraclim, his father, was, they fay, fon or grandfon of Phaleg, and fon of Heber ; and his mo¬ ther, named Salathiel, was daughter of Gomer, fon of Japheth. Cedrenus, and others, derive Melchifedech from an Egyptian flock. They fay his father was called Sidon or Sida, and was the founder of the city of Sidon the capital of Phcenicia. Suidas fays, he was of the curfed race of Canaan; for which reafon the fcripture does not mention his genealogy. The Jews and Samaritans believed Melchifedech to be the fame with the patriarch Shem ; which opinion Mekomti has been followed by a great number of modern wri- M ters. M. Jurieu has undertaken to prove, that he is Mc!eagr‘s- the fame as Cham or Ham. It would be endlefs to recount all the opinions upon this matter; we fhall therefore only add, that Peter Cunseus, and Peter du Moulin, have afiferted, that Melchifedech, who ap¬ peared to Abraham, was the Son of God ; and that the patriarch worfhipped him, and acknowledged him for the Meffiah. MELCOMB-regis, a town of Dorfetftn're, in England, fituated in W. Long. 2. 32. N. Lat. 50. 40. The ftreets are broad and paved; and there is an ex¬ cellent harbour, by which they carry on a pretty good foreign trade. MELEAGER, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of iEneas king of Caledonia, and Althaea the daughter of Theftius, was no fooner born than the Parcae put a firebrand in the fire, faying, “ This child (hall live as long as this firebrand (hall laft.” The three Parcae be¬ ing gone, Althaea took the brand out of the fire, and preferved it with great care. Meleager at length dif- covered great courage in killing the famous Caledonian boar which laid wafte the country, and prefented the head to Atalanta who had given the monfter the firft: blow: but Pltxippus and Toxeus, the brothers of Al¬ thaea, refolving to have the head, Meleager killed them in the quarrel, and married Atalanta, by whom he had Parthenope ; but Althaea, in revenge for the death of her two brothers, threw the fatal brand on the fire, which occafioned Meleager’s death. Meleager, a Greek poet, the fon of Eucrates, was born at Seleucia in Syria, and flourifhed under the reign of Seleucus VI. the laft king of Syria. He was educated at Tyre; and died in the ifland of Coos, anciently called Merope. He there compofed the Greek epigrams called by us the Anthohgia. The dif- pofition of the epigrams in this colleflion was often changed afterwards, and many additions have been made to them. The monk Planudes put them into the order fhey are in at prefent in the year 1380. MELEAGRIS, in ornithology, theTuRKv, a ge¬ nus of birds belonging to the order of gallinae. The head is covered with fpongy caruncles ; and there is likewife a membranaceous longitudinal caruncle 00 the throat. There are three fpecies, viz. I . The gal- lopavo, or North American turky of Ray, has a ca¬ runcle both on the head and throat; and the breaft of the male is bearded. He lives upon grain and infedts: when the-cock ftruts, he blows up his breaft, fpreads and ere&s his feathers, relaxes the caruncle on the fore¬ head, and the naked parts of the face and neck become intenfely red.—Barbot informs us, that very few tur- kies are to be met with in Guinea, and thofe only in the hands of the_chiefsof the European forts; the Ne¬ groes declining to breed any on account of their ten- dernefs, which fufficiently proves them not to be na¬ tives of that climate. He alfo remarks, that neither the common poultry nor ducks are natural to Guinea, any more than the turkey. Neither is that bird a na¬ tive of Afia: the firft that were feen in Perfia were brought from Venice by fome Armenian merchants. They are bred in Ceylon, but not found wild. In fadt, the turky, properly fo called, was unknown to the ancient naturalifts, and even to the old world* before MEL [ 4886 ] MEL Meles before the difcovery of America. It was a bird pecu- |[ liar to the new continent, and is now the commoneft e ica' wild-fowl in the northern parts of that country. It was firft feen in France, in the reign of Francis I.; and in England, in that of Henry VIII. By the date of the reign of thefe monarchs, the firft turkies muft have been brought from Mexico, the conqueft of which was completed A. D. i£2i. jElian mentions a bird found in India, which fome writers have fufpe&ed to be the turky; but Mr Pennant concludes, with Gef- ner, that it was either the peacock, or fome bird of that genus. On confulting fome gentlemen who had refided long in the Indies, Mr Pennant is of opinion, * that though the turky is bred there, it is only confi- dered as a domeftic bird, and not a native of the coun¬ try. 2. Thecriftata, orBrafilican pheafant of Ray, has an credt creft of feathers on the head, and violet-coloured temples; it has a caruncle on the throat, but none on the head. Piste 3- fetyra, or horned pheafant of Edwards, has C.LXXVJ. two blue horns behind its eyes, and a red body fpotted with black and white. It is a native of Bengal. MELES, in zoology. See Ursus. Meles, (anc. geog.), a fine river running by the wails of Smyrna in Ionia, with a cave at its head, where Homer is faid to have written his poems. And from it Homer takes his original name Melaftgenes, given himjby his mother Crithies, as being born on its banks. (Herodotus). MELIA, Azaderach, ox \\\t Bead-tree; a genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants. There are three fpecies, all of them exotic trees of the ladies, rifing near 20 feet high; adorned with large pinnated or winged leaves, and el Lifters of pentapetalous flowers. They are all pro¬ pagated by feeds fown on hot-beds. MELIANTHUS, Honey-flower; a genus of the angiofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia elafs of plants. There are two fpecies. 1. The ma¬ jor hath a thick, ligneous, fpreading root; many up¬ right, ligneous, durable ftalks, rifing fix or eight feet high; garnifhed with large pinnated leaves, of four or five pair of ferrated lobes terminated by an odd one; and, from the fides and tops of the ftalks, long fpikes of chocolate-rcoloured flowers. 2. The minor, hath a root like the former; upright, ligneous, foft, durable ftalks, rifing four or five feet high; garniftied with fmal- ler pinnated leaves ; and from the fides and ends of the branches, long, loofe, pendulous bunches of flowers tinged with green, faffron colour, and red. Both the fpecies flower about June; but rarely produce feeds in this country. They are very ornamental, both in fo¬ liage and flower, and merit admittance in every collec¬ tion. They are eafily propagated by fuckers and cut¬ tings. They thrive beft in a dry foil, and in a fhel- tered warm expofure. MELIBOEA, (anc. geog.), an ifland of Syria, at the mouth of the Orpntes; which, before it falls into the fea, forms a fpreading lake round it. ' This ifland was famous for its purple dye. Thought to be a colony of Theflalians; and hence Lucretius’s-epithet Thejfa- licus. . . MELICA, RoPEGttAss; a genus of the digynia ©rder, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants. There 2' are three fpecies; of which the moft remarkable is the Meliceres nutans. It is a native of feveral parts of Britain and l! the adjacent iflands ; and the inhabitants of fome of the weftern iflands make ropes of it for fifhing-nets, as it will bear the water for long time without rotting. MELICERES, in furgery, a kind of encyfted tu¬ mours, fo called when their contents are of the con- fiftence of honey. MELILLA, an ancient town of Africa in the king¬ dom of Fez, and in the province of Caret. It was ta¬ ken by the Spaniards in 1469, but returned back to the Moors. W. Long. 2. 9. N. Lat. 35. 20. MELILOT. See Trifolium. MELINDA, a kingdom on the eaft coaft of Africa, fituated, according to fome, between the third and fourth degree of South Latitude; though there is great difagreement among geographers as to its extent. It is allowed by all, however, that the coafts are very dangerous; being full of rocks and ftielves, and the fea at fome feafons very liable to tempefts. The king¬ dom of Melinda is for the moft part rich and fertile ; producing almoft all the neceffaries of life except wheat and rice, both which are brought thither from Cam- baya and other parts ; and thofe who cannot purchafe them make ufe of potatoes in their ftead, which are here fine, large, and in great plenty. They likewife abound with great variety of fruit-trees, roots, plants, and other efculents, and with melons of exquifite tafte. They have alfo great plenty of venifon, game, oxen, Iheep, hens, geefe, and other poultry, &c. and one breed of flieep whole tails weigh between 30 and 40 pounds. The capital city is alfo called Melinda. MELINUM, in natural hiftory, the name of an earth, famous in the earlieft ages of painting, being the only white of the great painters of antiquity; and, according to Pliny’s account, one of the three colours with which alone they performed all their works. It is a fine, white, marly earth, of a very eompadt tex¬ ture, yet remarkably light; a fort of texture which muft render any earth fit for the painter’s ufe, that is of a proper colour. It is frequently found forming a ftratum in the earth, lying immediately under the ve¬ getable mould. It is of a very fmooth but not glofly furface ; is very foft to the touch ; adheres firmly to the tongue; is eafily broken between the fingers; and ftains the Ikin in handling. It melts readily in the mouth, and is perfedily fine; leaving not the lead grit- tinefs between the teeth: thrown into water, it makes a loud bubbling and hilling noife, and moulders away into a fine powder. It does not ferment with acids; - and fuffers no change in the fire. Thefe are the cha- radters by which the melinum of the ancients is diftin- guilhed from all other white earths. It is ftill found in the fame place from which the painters of old had it, viz. the ifle of Milo or Melos, from whence it had its name ; and is common in moft of the adjacent iflands. It has of late been tried here as a paint; but is found not to make fuch a bright paint as the other fubftances now employed. It is not, however, liable, like them, to turn yellow: hence it would feem to be worth the confideration of perfons in the colour-trade; efpecially as it might be had, in any quantities, for the carriage. . - MELISSA, Baum; a genus of the gymnofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants. There MED [ 4887 ] M E D Melifla There are feveral fpecies; but the mod remarkable are 8. the following. 1. The officinalis, or common baum, hath fibrous perennial roots; many upright, fquare, branchy, annual dalks, rifing two or three feet high: garnifhed with oblong, indented, oppofite leaves by pairs, two or three inches long, and half as broad; and, from the upper axillas, verticillate clufters of fmall white flowers, upon Angle footftalks. There is alfo a kind with variegated leaves. 2. The grandiflora, or Hetrurian calamint, hath fibrous perennial roots, and annual ftalks, rifing about a foot high; garnilhed with oblong, oval, indented, hairy oppofite leaves; and from -the upper axillas verticillate clufters of large purple flowers, on forked footftalks. 3. The calamintha, or common calamint of the fliops, hath fibrous perennial roots; upright, fquare, branchy hairy ftalks, rifing a foot high ; roundifh, indented, oppofite leaves ; and verticillate clufters of fmall bluiih flowers, on forked footftalks as long as the flowers. All thefe fpecies are eafily propagated by offsets. Medicinal Ufes. The firft fpecies, when in perfec* tion,has apleafant fmell, fomewhat of the lemon kind; and a weak, roughifti, aromatic tafte. Theyoung (hoots have the ftrongeft flavour; the flowers, and the herb itfelf when old, or produced in very rich moift foils, or rainy feafons, is much weaker both in fmell and tafte. Baum is appropriated, by the writers on the materia medica, to the head, ftomach, and uterus; and in all diforders of thefe parts, is faid to do extraordinary fer- vice. So high an opinion have fome chemifts entertain¬ ed of this plant, that they have expected to find in it t a medicine which ftiould prolong life beyond the ufual period. The prefent pra&ice, however, holds it in no great efteem; and ranks it (where it certainly deferves to be) among the weaker corroborants. Infufions of the leaves in water fmell agreeably of the herb, but have not much tafte, though on being infpiffated they leave a confiderable quantity of a bitterilh auftere ex- trad. Infufions of baum do not, like other aromatics, offend the head, as is complained off from fage, &c. Cold infufions in water, or fpirit, are far better than the cohobated diftilled water, and are the belt prepa¬ rations from the plant. On diftilling the frelh herb with water, it impregnates the firft running pretty ftrongly with its grateful flavour. When large quan¬ tities are fubje&ed to the operatioa at once, there fe- parates and rifes to the furface of the aqueous fluid a fmall portion of effential oil, which fome call ol. Syria, and others «/. Germanis, It is of a yellowifti colour, and a very fragrant fmell. MELISSUS of Samos, a Greek philofopher, was the fon of Rhagines and the difciple of Parmenides ; and lived about 520 B. C. The Ephefians gave him the poft of admiral, and invefted him with extraordi¬ nary power. He pretended that the univerfe is infi¬ nite, immoveable, alone, and without a vacuum. MELITE, (anc. geog.), an ifland referred to Africa by Scylax and Ptolemy; but nearer Sicily, and allot¬ ted to it by the Romans: commended for its commo¬ dious harbours; for a city well built, with artificers of every kind, efpecially weavers of fine linen; all owing to the Phoenicians, the firft colonifts. Now Malta; remarkable for St Paul’s fliipwreck. Melite, Mehta, or Mclitina Infula; an ifland on the coaft of Illyricum in the Adriatic. The Catuli Me- Vol. VIE 2 litai, (Pliny), were famous. Now Melede, the name Melite of the ifland Samos. il Melite, (anc. geog.)^ a town of Ionia, ftruck out Melll~ of the number of Ionian towns on account of the arro¬ gance of the people, and Smyrna admitted in lieu of it. The fituation not faid. MELITENSIS terra, the Rarth'of Malta; an earth, of which there are two very different kinds; the one of the genus of boles, the other of the marles. The latter is that known by medicinal authors under this name, the former is the Malta earth now in ufe; but both being brought from the fame place, are confu- fedly called by the fame name. The Maltefe marie, which is the terra Melitenfis of medicinal authors, is a loofe, crumbly, and very light earth, of an unequal and irregular texture ; and, when expofed to the weather, foon falls into fine foft powder: but, when preferved and dried, it becomes a loofe, light mafs, of a dirty white colour, with a greyiftj caft: it is rough to the touch, adheres firmly to the tongue, is very eafily crum¬ bled to powder between the fingers, and ftains the hands. Thrown into the water, it fwells, and after¬ wards moulders away into a fine powder. It ferments very violently with acid menftruums. Both kinds are found in great abundance in the ifland of Malta, and the latter has been much efteemed as a remedy againft the bites of venomous animals. The other has fupplied its place in the German (hops ; and is ufed there as a cordial, fudorific, and aftringent. MELITO (canonized), biihop of Sardis in Lydia, in the fecond century; is remarkable for the apology he prefented to the emperor Aurelius, in favour of the Chriftians; on which Eufebius and the other ancient ecclefiaftical writers beftow great praifes: but that apo¬ logy and all Melito’s other works, are loft. MELITUS, Greek orator and poet, the accufer of Socrates. The Athenians, after the death of Socrates, difeovering the iniquity of the fentence they had paf- fed againft that great philofopher, put Melitus to death 400 B. C. MELLER, a lake of Sweden, 80 miles long, and 30 broad; on which Hands the city of Stockholm. MELLI, with the country of the Mundingoes, in Africa. The country formerly called Afe///, now chief¬ ly inhabited by the Mundingoes, who ftill retain pretty much of the character aferibed to the people of Melli, lies to the fouth of the river Gambia; on the weft it borders on the kingdom of Kabo; on the fouth it has Melli, properly fo called, and the mountains that part it from Guinea; and on the eaft it extends to the kinp-- dom of Gago. A great part of this country we are little acquainted with ; as is the cafe with regard to moft of the inland territories of Africa, but towards the fea-coaft this country is a little better known. The firft place of note we meet with is Kachao, -a Portuguefe colony, fituated on the river of St Do¬ mingo, which falls into the fea about 26 leagues below this town.—About 26 leagues above Kachao, on the fame fide of the river, is another trading town called Farini, where, in the months of 0<9ober and Novem¬ ber, one may trade for about half the quantity of wax and ivory which is traded for at Kachao. Here are alfo fome flaves to be bought.—Bot is a village near the mouth of the river Gcfves, where moft of the tra¬ ders buy rice; which is in great plepty there, and very 27 P good-. MEL [ 4888 ] MEL Mell!, good.-—Gefves is a village on a river of the fame name, Mcloehia. on ^hich the Portuguefe have a faftory. At Gefves ~ one may trade yearly for 250 flaves, 80 or 100 quin¬ tals of wax, and as many of ivory. Near the mouth of the river of Gefves is a village called Kurbali, where there is a confiderable trade for fait : here are alfo fome flaves and ivory. Rio Grande, or the Great River, runs about 10 or 12 leagues to the fouth of the river of Gefves. About 80 leagues from the mouth of it is a nation of Negroes, who are good traders in ivory, rice, millet, and fome flaves. They are called Anahns. Over-^againfl the mouth of Rio Grande, is a clufter of ifiands called Biffago IJles; the vnoft confiderable of which is Caflagut, being about fix leagues long and two broad; its foil is very good, and produces millet, rice, and. all kinds of pulfe, befides orange and palm-trees, and many others. This ifland, with thofe of Carache, Canabac, and La Gallina, are the only ones where the Europeans may trade with fome fecurity. They trade, however, fometimes at the other ifiands, but they muft be extremely cautious j and yet, after all their precautions, they will be robbed and murdered if they venture to go afhore. The river Nunho runs j6 leagues to the fouth of Rio Grande; it is very confiderable, and comes from a vaft diftance jn land. One may buy here 300 quintals of ivory and too flaves a-year. Rice grows here admirably well, and is very cheap. There are every-where fugar-canes which grow naturally; and plants of indigo, which might turn to good account. The trade is carried on here from March till Auguft. In the river of Sierra Leone, the late Royal African company of England had, in the year 1728, two ifiands; the one, called *Tajfo, a large flat ifland, near three leagues in circum¬ ference, in which the company’s flaves had a good plan¬ tation ; the reft of the ifland is covered with wood, among which are filk cotton-trees of an unaccountable fize. The other ifland is Benfe, whereon flood a re¬ gular fort. It was formerly the refidenee of one of the Englifh chiefs. MELOCHIA, Jews mallow ; a genus of the pentandria order, belonging to the monodelphia clafs of plants. There are feveral fpecies; but the only re¬ markable one is the olitorius, or common Jews-mal- low, which is a native of the warm.parts of Afia and America. It is an annual plant, which rifes about two feet high, dividing into feveral branches, garnifh- ed with leaves of different fizes and forms: fome are fpear-fhaped, others are oval, and fome almoft heart- fhaped : they are of a deep green, and flightly in¬ dented on their edges, having near their bafe two briftly reflexed fegments. They have very long flen- der footftalks, efpecially thofe which grow on the lower part of the branches. The flowers fit clofe on the oppofite fide of the branches to the leaves, coming out lingly 5 they are compofed of five fmall yel¬ low petals, and a great number of ftamina furround¬ ing the oblong germen, which is fituated in the cen¬ tre of the flower and afterwards turns to a rough fwelling capfule two inches long, ending in a point, and having four cells filled with angular greenifh feeds. This fpecies is cultivated about the city of Ajeppo in Syria, and in the Eaft Indies, as a pot-herb ; the Jews boiling the leaves, and eating them with their meat. It is fuppofed by Rauwclf to be the olus Ji> daicum of Avicenna, and the corciorurn of Tlluy. Mtiodo- MELODUNUM, (anc. geog.), Csefar ; atownof the Senones in Gallia Celtica above Lutetia; now Mc ody* Mclun, in the ifle of France on the Seine. MELODY, in mufie, a fucceflion of founds ran¬ ged in fucb a manner, according to the laws of rhyth- mus and modulation, that it may form a fentiment agreeable to the ear. Vocal melody is called ftnging; and that which is performed upon inftruments may be termed fymphonic melody. - The idea of rhythmus necefiarily enters into that of melody. An air is not an air but in proportion as the laws of meafure and quantity are obferved. The fame fucceflion of founds is fufceptible of as many different charafters, as many different kinds of melody, as the various ways by which its emphatic notes, and the quantities of thofe which intervene, maybe diverfified; and the change in duration of the notes alone, may difguife that very fucceffion in fuch a manner that it cannot be known. Thus, melody in itfelf is nothing; it is the rhythmus or meafure which determines it, and there can be no air without time. If then we abftra& meafure from both, we cannot compare melody with harmony ; for to the former it is effential, but not at all to the latter. Melody, according to the manner in which it is eonfidered, has a relation to two different principles. When regarded only as agreeable to the proportions of found and the rules of modulation, it has its principle rn harmony ; fince it is a harmonical analyfis, which exhibites the different gradations of the fcale, the chords peculiar to each mode, and the laws of modulation, which are the foie elements that compofe an air. Ac¬ cording to this principle, the whole power of melody is limited to that of pleafing the ear by agreeable founds, as the eye may be pleafed with an agreeable, affemblage of fuitable colours. But when coniidered as an imitative art, by which we may affeft the mind with various images, excite different emotions in the heart, inflame or foothe the paffions ; by which, in a word, we produce different effects upon our moral fa¬ culties, which are not to be effe&uated by the in¬ fluence of external fenfe alone, we muft explore ano¬ ther principle for melody : for in our whole internal frame there appears to be no power upon which eb ther harmony alone, or its neceflary rcfults, can feize, to affedl us in fuch a manner. What then is the fecond principle ? It is as much founded on nature as the firft ; but, in order to difeo- ver its foundation in nature, it will require a more ac¬ curate though Ampler obfervation, and a more exqui- fite degree of fenfibility in the obferver. This prin¬ ciple is the fame which varies the tone of the voice, when we fpeak, according as we are interefted in what we fay, and according to the different emo¬ tions which we feel in exprefling it. It is the accent of languages which determines the melody of every nation ; it is the accent which determines us to em¬ ploy the emphafis of fpeaking while we flng, and to fpeak with more or lefs energy according as the lan¬ guage which we ufe is more or lefs accented. That language whofe accents are the moll fenfible, ought to produce a more paflionate and more lively melody ; that which has little accentuation, or none at all, can only produce a cold and languid melody, without cha- ra&es MEL [ 4889 ] MEL Melody, rafter and without expreflion. Thefe are the true principles : in proportion as we depart Jrom them, when we fpeak of the power of mufic upon the humanheart, we dial! become unintelligible to ouf- felves and others ; our words will be without meaning. If mufic does not imprefs the foul with images but by melody, if from thence it obtains its whole power, it muft follow, that all mufical founds which are not pleafmg by themfelves alone, however agreeable to harmony they may be, is not an imitative mufic; and, being incapable, even with its moft beautiful chords, ei¬ ther to prefent the images of things, “or to excite the finer feelings, very foon cloys the ear, and leaves al¬ ways the heart in cold indifference. It follows like- wife, that notwithftanding the parts which harmony has introduced, and which the prefent talfe of mufic fo wantonly abufes, wherever two different melodies are heard at the fame time, they counteraft each o» ther, and deftroy the effefts of both, however beanti- ful each may be when performed alone: from whence it may be judged with what degree of tafte the French compofers have introduced in their operas the mifer- able praftice of accompanying one air with another, as well in finging, which is the native expreflion of pa¬ thos and ientiment, as in inftrumental performances; which is the fame thing as if whimfical orators fhould take it in their heads to recite two orations at the fame time, that the elegance of each might derive more force from the other. So much for Rouffeau. The tranflator, however, has reafon to fear, that the caufes by which national melody is diverfified and charafterifed, are more pro¬ found and permanent than the mere accentuation of language. This indeed may have great influence in determining the nature of the rhythmus, and the place of emphatic notes; but very little in regulating the nature of the emphafis and expreflion themfelves. If Roufleau’s principle be true in its full extent, he muft of neceffity acknowledge, that an air v/hich was never fet or intended for words, however melodious, cannot be imitative; he muft likewife confefs, that what is imitative in one nation cannot be fuch in another: nor can it be denied upon his hypothefis, that the recita¬ tive, which is formed upon the mode of fpeaking, is the moft forcible of all melodies ; which is abfurd. His other obfervations are at once judicious and pro¬ found. Though it is impofhble to exhibit the beauty and variety of harmony by playing the fame melody at the fame time upon different keys, admitting thofe keys to form among themfelves a perfeft chord, which will of confequence preferve all the fubfequent notes in the fame intervals; yet this perfeft harmony would by no means be uniformly pleating to the ear. We muft therefore of neceffity introduce lefs perfeft chords to vary and increafe the pleafure, and thefe chords in any complex fyftem of mufic muft of neceffity produce diffonances. It then becomes the bufinefs of thecom- pofer to be careful that tbefe difcordsmay arife as na¬ turally from, and return as naturally to, perfeft har¬ mony as poffible. All thefe caufes mutt inevitably vary the melody of the different parts; but ftillamidft all thefe difficulties, the artift ought to be zealous in preferving the melody of each as homogeneous with the others as poffible, that the refult of the whole may be in fome meafure uniform. Otherwife, by counter- Melee, afting each other, the parts will reciprocally deftroy " the effefts one of another. MELOE, in zoology, a genus of infefts of the order of coleoptera. The antennte are jointed, thelaft joint being oval ; the breaft is roundifh; the elytra are foft and flexible ; and the head is inflefted and gib¬ bous. There are 16 fpecies, principally diftinguiihed by their colour. The moft remarkable is the vefica- torius, or cantharis of the (hops ; which, whenbriiifed, is univerfally ufed as a bliftering plafter. Thefe infefttf are of a {binning green colour, intermingled with more or lefs of a blue and a gold yellow. They are found adhering to different kinds of trees and herbs, in Spain, Italy, and France : the largeft and moft ef- teemed come from Italy. Cantharides are extremely acrimonious : applied to the {kin, they firft inflame, and afterwards excoriate the part, raifing a more perfeft blifter than any of the vegetable acrids, and occafioning a more plentiful difcharge of ferum. All the bliftering compofitions havecantharidesfortheir bafis. The external application of cantharides is often followed by aftrangury, accom¬ panied with third and feverifli heat: this inconvenience may be remedied by foft unftuous or mucilaginous liquors liberally drank. Cantharides taken internally often occafion a dif¬ charge of blood by urine, with exquifite pain : if the dofe is confiderable, they feem to inflame and exul- cerate the whole inteftinal canal; the ftools become mucous and purulent; the breath fetid and cadaverous; intenfe pains are felt in the lower belly; the patient faints, grows giddy, raving mad^ and dies. All thefe terrible confequences have fometimes happened from a few grains. Herman relates, that he has known a quarter of a grain inflame the kidneys, and occafion bloody urine with violent pain. There are nevenhe- lefs cafes in which this {Emulating fly, given in larger dofes, proves not only fafe, but of Angular efficacy fordhe cure of difeales that yield little to medicines of a milder clafs. In cold phlegmatic fluggifli habits, where the vifeera are overloaded, and the kidneys and ureters obftrudted with thick vifeid mucous matter, cantharides have excellent effefts: here the abounding mucus defends the folids from the acrimony of the fly, till it is itfelf expelled; when the medicine ought t«i be difeontinued. Groenvelt employed cantharides with great fuccefs in dropfies, ohftinate fuppreffions of urine, and ulcerations of the bladder; giving very confiderable dofes made into bolufes with camphor ; and interpofing large draughts of emulfions, milk, or other emollient liquids: by this means, the exceffive irritation, which they would otherwil’e have occafioned, was in great me\fure prevented. The camphor did hot perhaps contribute fo much to this effeft as is generally imagined : fince it has no fenfible quality that promifes any confiderable abatement of the acri¬ mony of cantharides : nitre would anfwer all that the camphor is fuppofed to perform ; this, with milk, or emollient mucilaginous liquors, drank in large quan¬ tity, are the beft correftors. Cantharides, in very fmall dofes, may be given with fafety alfo ih other cafes. Dr Mead obferves, that the obftinate gleet- ings which frequently remain after.the cure of venereal maladies, and which rarely yield to balfamic medi- 27 P 2 cines. MEL [ 4890 ] MEL Melon cines, are effe&ually remedied by cantbarides; and ' that no one remedy is more efficacious in leprous dif- e t‘ orders; in which laft, proper purgatives are to be occafionaliy taken during the ufe of the cantharides. The belt and fafeft preparation of cantharides for thefe purpofes, is a fpirituous tinfture; and indeed in all cafes, the tindture is far preferable, for internal ufe, to the fly in fubflance. The virtues of cantharides are extradied by redtified fpirit of wine, proof fpirit, and water; but do not arife in diftillation. The watery and fpirituous ex- tradts blifter as freely as the fly in fubllance ; whillt the fly remaining after the feveral menftrua have per¬ formed their office, is to the tafte infipid, and does not in the lead blifter or inflame the Ikin. MELON, in botany. See Cucumis. MELOTHRIA, in botany; a genus of the mo- nogynia order, belonging to the triandria clafsof plants. There is only one fpecies, viz. the pendula, a native of Carolina, Virginia, and alfo many of the American iflands. The plants ftrike out roots at every joint, which fallen themfelves into the ground, by which means their ftalks extend to a great diftanceeach way. The flowers are very final!, in lhape like thofe of the melon, of a pale fulphur colour. The fruit in the Weft Indies grows to the fize of a pea, is of an oval figure, and changes to black when ripe : thefe are by the inhabitants fometimes pickled when they are green. In Britain the fruit are much fmaller, and are fo hid¬ den by the leaves that it is diffiolt to find them. The plants are too tender to be reared in this country without artificial heat. MELPOMENE, in fabulous hiftory, one of the nine mufes, and the inventrefs of tragedy. She is com¬ monly reprefented with a ferious countenance, and in a theatrical drefs, holding crowns and fceptres in one hand, and a dagger in the other. MELREY, or Melrose, a town of Scotland, in the county of Merfe, and on the confines of Tweedale, feated on the fouth-fide of the river Tweed; with an ancient abbey now in ruins. W. Long. 2. 32. N. Lat. 55. 32. This abbey was founded by king David I. in 1136. He peopled it with Ciftertians, brought from Rivale abbey in Yorlhire, and dedicated it to the virgin Mary. At the reformation James Douglas was appointed commendator, who took down much of the building, in order to furnilh materials for a large houfe to himfelf, which ftill remains, and is dated 1590. Nothing is left of the abbey, excepting a part of the cloifter walls, elegantly.carved ; but the ruins of the church are of moll uncommon beauty. Part is at refent ufed for divine fervice, the reft uncovered ; ut every part does great honour to the architedl.— Alexander II. was buried beneath the great altar, and it is alfo the place of interment of the Douglafes and other potent families. — Its fituation is extremely pleafant. MELT or fishes. In the melt of a living cod there are fuch numbers of thofe animalcules faid to be found in the femen of alLmale animals, that in a drop of its juice, no larger than a grain of fand, there are contained more than ro,oooof them ; and, confidering how many fuch quantities there are in the whole melt of one fuch filh, it is not incredible, that there are Melting more animals in one melt of it, than there are |j living men at one time upon the face of the earth. Memnon- However ftrange and romantic fuch a conje&ure muft appear, a ferious confideration and calculation will make it appear very plain. An hundred fuch grains of fand' as thofe juft mentioned will make about an inch in length ; therefore in a cubic inch there will be a million of fuch fands; and if there be 10,00 animals in each of thofe quantities, there muft be in the whole 150,000 millions; which is a number vaftly exceeding that of mankind, even fuppofing the whole earth as populous as Holland. MELTING cone, in effaying, an hollow cone of brafs or call iron, into which melted metalline fub- ftances are thrown, in order to free them from their fcorise. When a fmall quantity of matter is melted, it will be fufficient to rub the infide of the cone wifh greafe ; but when the quantity is very large, efpe- cially if it contains any thing fulphureous, this caution of tallowing the moulds is not fufficient. In this cafe the eflayer has recourfe to a lute reduced to thin pap with water, which effeftually prevents any injury to the cone. MELVIL (Sir James), defcended from an honour¬ able Scots family, being the third fon of the laird of Kaeth, was born about the middle of the 16th century. He went to France, very young, in the capacity of page to qneen Mary, then married to the dauphin ; and on the death of her hufband, followed her to Scoland, where he was made gentleman of her cham¬ ber, and admitted a privy-counfellor. She employed him in her moft important concerns, till her unhappy confinement in Lochleven, all which he difcharged with the utmoft fidelity; and, from his own accounts, there is reafon to conclude, that, had fhe taken his advice, fhe might have avoided many of her misfor¬ tunes. When fhe was prifoner in England, fhe re¬ commended him flrongly to her fon James; with whom he continued in favour and employmeat until the death of queen Elizabeth : James would then have taken him to England; but Melvil, now grown old, was defirous of retiring from bufinefs, and in his re¬ tirement he drew up the memorirs of his pall life for the ufe of his fon. Thefe memoirs were accidentally found in Edinburgh caftle, in the year 1660, though nobody knew how they came to be depofited there; and were publifhed in folio in 1683. MEMBER, in architedlure, denotes any part of a building; as a frize, cornice, or the like. This word is alfo fometimes ufed for the moulding. Member of Parliament. See Parliament. MEMBRANE, in anatomy, a pliable texture of fibres interwoven together in the fame plane. MEMNON, in fabulous hiflory, was the fon of Tithonus and Aurora. Having led his troops to the affiftance of Priam, in order to raife the fiege of Troy, he was killed by Achilles; when his body being placed on a funeral pile, was, at Aurora’s defire, transformed into a bird. Memhon of Rhodes, one of the generals of Darius king of Perfia, advifed that prince to lay wafte the country, in order to deprive Alexander the Great’s army of fupport, and afterwards to attack Macedon; but MEM MEM [ 4891 j Memoirs, but this counfel was difapproved by Darius’s other Memory. genera}s. Memnon behaved at the paffage of the Granicus like an experienced general. He after¬ wards defended the city of Miletum with great cou¬ rage; feized the iflands of Chio and Lefbos; fpread terror throughout all Greece; and would have put a flop to the conquefts of Alexander, if he had not been prevented by death. Barfina, Memnon’s widow, was taken prifoner with Darius’s wife, and Alexander had a fon by her named Hercules. MEMOIRS, in matters of literature, a fpecies of hiftory, written by perfons who had fome fhare in the tranfaflions they relate; anfwering to what the Romans called Commentarii.—The journals of the proceedings of a literary fociety, or a colledtion of matters tranf- aSed therein, are like wife called Memoirs. MEMORY, a faculty of the human mind, whereby it retains and recalls the ideas it has once perceived. See Metaphysics, n°42. Memory depends very much upon the temper and conftifution of the body. In fome, it is not fo fuf- ceptive of impreffions; in others, it is not fufficiently retentive: and as the feat of the memory is in the brain, whatever is hurtful to this latter, muft preju¬ dice the former. Too much deep clouds the brain, and too little over-heats it; therefore either of thefe extremes muft of courfehurt the memory. All intem¬ perance likewife, and excefs of paffion, have the fame ill effea. When we would commit any thing to memory, our firft concern fliould be to underftand it thoroughly. For we can never retain thofe things long, of which we have but an imperfea knowledge. Likewife order and method in the difcourfe itfelf is a great help to the memory. Where things have a mutual depend- ance upon each other, and go on in a feries, the thoughts pafs more readily from one to another, than where they lie confufed and without any connexion. The mind ftiould alfo be free at fuch times, and have nothing elfe to take off its attention. Nothing is a greater hindrance to the memory than a crowd of ideas, and thofe of different kinds, flowing in upon the mind at the fame time. They juftle out one ano¬ ther, fo thatbutfew of them fettle; and if they do, it is in fuch a confufed and diforderly manner, that when they come to be furveyed by reflexion, little can be made of them. To write down any thing is likewife a great ad¬ vantage towards remembering it. For the very ac¬ tion of writing helps very much to imprint it upon the mind, by engaging it to a elofer attention, and eaufing it to dwell longer upon every part than other- wife it would do ofdy in reading. And therefore the Jewifti doctors tejl us, it was for this reafon that the kings of Ifrael were enjoined always to write out a copy of the law with their own hand. And the fairer a thing is written, it is with greater eafe com¬ mitted to memory. This may poffibly at flrft feem to have little in it; but if we confult experience, we fhall generally find, that thofe things makethe deepeft impreffion upon the mind, which affedt the fenfes in the moft lively and agreeable manner. As we re¬ ceive moft of our ideas through them, the ftronger impulfe is made upon the organ, the greater attention it excites in the mind; and what we moft attend to,. we retain longeft. Memory^ A little experience and obfervation will help a per- fon to difcover the ftrength of his memory. And care (hould be taken not to over-burden it. A long difcourfe therefore fliould be committed to memory by parts, fo much at once as the memory can well receive and retain.' Thefe parts fliould not be too many, for fear of confufion. And as it is moft likely we may be at a lofs in paffing from one part to ano¬ ther, it will not be amifs in a more particular manner to imprefs upon the the mind the beginningsxif them. One letter often helps us to recover a word; that word a fentence; and the firft fentence a whole argu¬ ment. Some have therefore advifed, for the affiftance of weaker memories, to write each part of the dif- courfe in a feparate paragraph, and the firft word in larger chara; as re\, ri\, ro &c. So in de¬ cimals, rag -r^, rath ToW This is the principal part of the method which con- fifts in expreffing numbers by artificial words. The application to hiftory and chronology is alfo perform¬ ed by artificial words. The art herein confifts in ma¬ king fuch a change in the ending of the name ©f a lace, perfon, planet, coin, &c. without altering the eginning of it, as {hall readily fuggeft the thing fought, at the fame time that the beginning of the word, being preferved, {ball be a leading or prompting fyllable to the ending of it fo changed. Thus, in or¬ der to remember the years in which Cyrus, Alexander, and Julius Celar, founded their refpedfive monarchies, the following words may be formed; for Cyrus, Q,'j\uts; for Alexander, AXexita; for Julius Cefar, Julis/. Uts lignifies, according to the powers affigned to the let¬ ters before-mentioned, 536; ita is 331, and os is 46. Hence it will be eafy to remember, that the empire of Cyrus was founded 536 years before Chrift, that of Alexander 331, and that of Julius Cefar 46. This ac¬ count is taken from a treatife, entitled A New Method of Artificial Memory; where the reader will find feve¬ ral MEN Memphis ral examples in chronology, geography, &c. of fuch Si artificial words difpofed in verfes, which muft be al- Menander. ]owe£J to contribute much to tbe^afliftance of the me- ~ mory, fince being once learned they are feldom or ne¬ ver forgot. However, the author advifes his reader to form the words and verfes himfelf, in the manner de- fcribed above, as he will probably remember thefe bet¬ ter than thofe formed by another. We fhall here give his table of the kings of England fmce the conquefct; where 1000 being added to the italics in each word, expreffes the year when they be¬ gan their reigns. Thus, Will-con/tfw, Rufkoi, Wtnrag. Steph£//'& Henfec^zi/i Rizkibein, ]ann, Heth^z h’SLtichid JLdtetjp, Edtari‘e/i, Rift/ctV, Htfotouu, YLefifadque. Henfi/ei, Edquar/i?a~, Efi Rokt, Henfep/e/7, Henocfyr:. Edfex/w, Mary/ut, Els/ai, JamJj/d, Caropnm_/e/. Carfee/6>i, J'am/eif 'VJWfeik, Anpyd, Qeobo-doi. MEMPHIS, an ancient city, and the royal refi- dence of the kings in the Higher Egypt; diftant from the Delta to the fouth 15 miles, according to Pliny. Situate on the weft fide of the Nile, over-againft Ba¬ bylon. Famous for its pyramids, the burial-places of the kings. In Strabo’s time-it was flouriftiing and po¬ pulous, and fecond to Alexandria. Called alfo Moph and Noph, in fcripture. MENAGE (Giles), in Latin Mgidius, a celebrated French writer, born at Angers in 1613. He finiftied bis ftudies in that city, was mads advocate, and plead¬ ed for fome time at Angers, Paris, and Poiftiers; but, becoming at length difgufted with the bar, turned ec- clefiaftic, and gave himfelf up entirely to the ftudy of polite literature. He at length entered into the fa¬ mily of the cardinal de Retz ; but difagreeing with fome perfons belonging to his eminence, went to live in the cloyfterof Notre Dame, where he held an af- fembly of learned men every Wednefday. He read a great deal; had a prodigious memory; and was incef- fantly quoting in his converfation, verfes in Greek, La¬ tin, Italian, French, &c. on which account he was of¬ ten turned into ridicule by the wits, efpecially towards the end of his days. His great memory he retained even in his old age; and what is very rare, it returned to him after fome interruption. The reputation of his works procured him a place in the academy 7r//« Cruf- ca at Florence. He might have been a member of the French academy at its sfirft inftitution, if it had not been for his Requejie det Dittiomaires: but when.that was forgot, he was propofed in 1684 to fill up a va¬ cant place in that academy, and was excluded only by the fuperior intereft of his competitor Mr Bergent ; for there was not one member of all thofe who gave their votes againft him, but owned that he deferved the place. He would not fuffer bis friends to propofe him again. He died at Paris in i 692, aged 79. He wrote a great number of books in profe and verfe; the principal of which are, 1. Miscellaneous works. 2. The Origin of the French Language. 3. The Origin of the Italian Tongue; the beft edition of which is that of Geneva, in 1685, folio. 4. An edition of Mal¬ herbe’s Poems, with Notes. 5. An edition of Dio¬ genes Laertius, with Obfervations. 6. Remarks on the French Tongue. 7. Greek, Latin, Italian, and French poems. MENANDER, an ancient Greek poet, was bom MEN at Athens in the fame year with Epicurus, which was Menander, the third of the 109th olympiad. His happinefs in in- Menaffi:l'1' troducing the new comedy, and refining an art which, had been fo grofs and licentious in former times, quick¬ ly fpread his name over the world. Pliny informs us, that the kings of Egypt and Macedon gave a noble teftimony of his merit, by fending arriballadors to in¬ vite him to their courts, and even fleets to bring hira over; but that Menander was fo much of a philofo- pher, as to prefer the free enjoyment of his ftudies to the promifed favours of the great. Of his works, which amounted to above 100 comedies, we have had a double lofa, the originals being not only vanifhed, but the greateft part of them, when copied by Terence, having unfortunately perifhed by ihipwreck before they faw Rome. Yet the four plays which Terence bor¬ rowed from him before that accident happened, are ftill preferved in the Roman habit; and it is chiefly from Terence that moft people form their judgment of Menander, the fragments that remain of him not being fufficient to enable them to do it. The ancients have faid high things of Menander; and we find the old mafters of rhetoric recommending his works, as the true patterns of every beauty and every grace of public fpeaking. Quintilian declares, that a careful imitation of Menander only, wull fatisfy all the rules he has laid down in his Inftitutions. It is in Menander that he would have his.orator fearch for a copioufnefs of invention, for a happy elegance of expreffion, and efpecially for that univerfal genius which is able to ac¬ commodate itfelf to perfons, things, and affedtions. But Julius Cefar has left the loftieft as well as the jufteft praife of Menander’s works, when he calls Te¬ rence only a Half-Menander. For while the virtues of the Latin poet are fo defervedly admired, it is impof- fible we ftiould raife a higher notion of excellency, than to conceive the great original ftill fhining with half its luftre unrefle&ed, and preferving an equal part of its graces, above the power of the beft copier in the world. Menander died in the 3d year of the I22d olympiad,, as we are taught by the fame old infeription from which we learn the time of his birth. His tomb, in Paufa- nias’s age, was to be feen a-t Athens, in the way from the Piraeus to the city, clofe by the honorary monu¬ ment of Euripides. Quintilian, in his judgment of Afranius the Roman comedian, who imitated him, cen- fures Menander’s morals as much as he commends his writings; and his character, according to Suidas, is, that he was a very “ mad fellow after women.” Phre- drus has given him the gait and drefs of a moft affec¬ ted fop: “ Unguento delibutus, veftitu adfluens, “ Veniebat greffu delicatulo & languido.” Lib. v. fab. 2. MENASSEH (Ben Ifrael), a celebrated rabbi, born in Portugal about the year 1604, was the fon of Jofeph Ben Ifrael, and followed his father into Hol¬ land, where he was educated by rabbi Ifaac Uziel, under whom, he in a fhort time ma.de fuch progrefs in the Hebrew tongue, that at 18 years of age he fuc- ceeded him in the fynagogue of Amfterdam, in which poll he continued feveral years, and married Rachel of the family of the Abarbanels, whom the Jews imagine to be defeended from king David.. He afterwards went [ 4503 ] MEN [ 4594 ] MEN Mencke went to his brother Ephraim, a rich merchant, who J! had fettled at Bafil ; by whofe advice he entered info r en lcants trade. Some time after, the hopes of a more agree¬ able fettlement induced him to come into England, under the prote&orfhip of Cromwell 5 who gave him a very favourable reception, and one day entertained him at his table with feveral other learned divines. How¬ ever, he foon after paffed into Zealand; and died at Middleburg about the year 1657. The Jews at Am- fterdam obtained his body, and interred it at their expence. He was of the feft of the Pharifees ; had a lively wit, a folid judgment, great learning, and all Ithe virtues that can adorn private life. He wrote many works in Hebrew, Latin, Spanilh, and Eng- lifh. The principal of thofe publifhed in Latin, are, i. ,His Conciliator; a learned and curious work, in which he reconciles thofe paflages of Scripture which ’ feem to contradict each other. 2. T)c refurrettione mor- tuorum. 3. De termino vita. Dijfertatio de fragi- litate bumana, ex lapfu Adami, deque Divino in bono tpere auxilio. 5. Spes Ifrael. Dr Thomas Pococke has written his life in Englifh. MENCKE (Lewis Otto), in Latin Menckenius, a learned profeflor of morality at Leipfic, was born at Oldenburg in Weftphalia in 1644. He ftudied in fe¬ veral univerfities of Germany; and became an able phi- lofopher, civilian, and divine. He was made profelfor of morality at Leipfic in 1668; and enjoyed that poll to his death. He was five times redtor of the univer- fity of that city, and feven times dean of the faculty of philofophy. He publifhed feveral works; but his moft tonfiderable, and what alone is fufficient to perpetuate his memory, is the Ada Eruditorum of Leipfic* of which he was the firft author, and in which he was en¬ gaged till his death. The firft volume was publifhed at Leipfic, in 410, in 1682. Mencke (John Burchard), fon to the preceding. After his ftudies he travelled into England and Hol¬ land ; and upon his return was appointed profeffor of hiftory at Leipfic in 1699. He gained great reputation by his le&ures as well as his writings.. He died 10173 2, aged 58. He wrote many pieces. His De Charlatanerid cruditorum declamationes dua, is an excellent fatire, defigned to expofe the artifices nfed by falfe fcholars to raife therafelves a name. As he named and point¬ ed at certain perfons, it exafperated them, and they procured his book to be feized ; but it fpread, and editions of it were multiplied. He likewife publifhed Methode pour etudier l'Hijioire, avec tin catalogue des principaux hijioricns, &c. He made a great many ad¬ ditions to Mr Lenglet’s book, efpecially with regard to the German hiftorians. MENDICANTS, or begging friars, feveral or¬ ders of religious in Popifh countries, who having no fettled revenues, are fupported by the charitable con¬ tributions they receive from others. This fort of friars began in the 13th century. The Wald.enfes, who made profeflion of renouncing their eftates, and leading a life of poverty, gave occafion to this inftitution. Two of that feft, Bernard and Durand of Ofca, fet up a congregation in the pro¬ vince of Tarragon, and called it ‘The Poor Catho~ lies. The fame year, Dominick de Guzman, with nine more of his companions, founded the order of Preaching Friars, called front their founder Domini¬ cans. The other three Mendicant orders are, the Fran- Mendoza eifeans, Augujlins, and Carmelites. ti “ A great many have embraced this fevere order, ^cn€S- (fays Puffendorf), out of an opinion of a particular holinefs and merit which they believed did belong to it, or rather an ecclefiaftic ambition; the pride of mankind being fo great and natural to fome, that they did not think the commands of God fufficient, but would receive heaven rather as a defert than a gift, and were ambitious of having a preference before others even in another life.” Buchannan tells us, the Mendicants in Scotland, un¬ der an appearance of beggary, lived a very luxurious life; whence one wittily called them, noX. Mendicant, but Manducarit, friars. MENDOZA (Juan Gonzales de), an Auguftan friar, of the province of Caftile, was made ambaffador from the king of Spain to the emperor of China. In 1593, he was made biffiop of Liperi in Italy. In 1607 he was made bilhop of Chiapa in New Spain, and the next year was removed to the fee of Papaian in the Weft Indies." He wrote a hiftory of China in Spanifh, which has been tranfiated into feveral lan¬ guages. MENECRATES, a phyfician of Syracufe, who flourHhed about 360 B. C. is famous for his Ikill in his profeffion, but much more for his vanity. He would always be followed by fome of the patients whom he had cured, one dreffed like Apollo, another like Efculapius, a third like Hercules, &c. As for himfelf, he would be called Jupiter. He wrote a let¬ ter to Philip the father of Alexander the Great, with this fuperfeription, “ Menecrates Jupiter to king Phi¬ lip, Health:” When that prince ridiculed him by re¬ plying, “ Philip to Menecrates, Health and Good Senfe.” Menecrates compofed a book of Remedies, which is loft. MENEDEMUS, a Greek philofopher, born at Erythreum, was the fon of Califthenes, and one of Phedo’s followers. He was in greaft efteem, and en¬ joyed feveral important polls in his own country. He feveral times defended Erythreum with great bravery, and died of grief when Antigonus became mafter of it. A perfon one day faying to him, “ It is a great happinefs to have what we defi're,” he replied, “ It is a much greater to defire nothing but what we have.” He flourifhed about 300 B. C. MENELAUS, the fon of Atreus, and the brother of Agamemnon, reigned at Sparta, when Paris de¬ prived him of his wife Helen. This, rape occafioned the famous war of Troy. See Helen. Menelaus, a mathematician in the reign of the emperor Trajan, wrote three books on the Sphere, which have been publilhed by father Merfenne. MENES, born at This, a town of Thebais in Up¬ per Egypt, was the founder of the Egyptian empire. He had three fons, viz. Athotis, who ruled after him at This and Thebes; Curudes, who, in Lower Egyp^ founded the kingdom of Hdiopoli, which afterward was the kingdom of Diofpoli; and Necherophes, who reigned at Memphis. It is thought this Menes reign¬ ed 117 years after the birth of Phaleg, fon of Heber, which was the very year of the difperfion of the people throughout the whole earth. In building Memphis, he flopped the Nile near it, by the invention of a MENE- MEN [ 4895 ] MEN Meneftrier caufeway 100 furlongs broad, and caufed it to run thro’ , ® . the mountains. —n-nomt£t MENESTRIER (John Baptift le), a native of Dijon, and one of the moft learned and curious French antiquaries of his time, wrote, 1. A treatife on the medals, money, and ancient monuments of the Roman empreffes, in folio. 2. The moft fa¬ mous medals of the ancient Roman emperors and em- prefles, in quarto. He died in 1634, aged 70. MENGRELIA, a province of Turky in Afia. See Mingkelia. MENIALS, domeftic or houfehold fervants, who live under their lord or mafter’s roof. MENINGES, or Menynges, in anatomy, a name given to the dura and pia mater of the brain. See A- natomy, n° 394. MENINX, an ifland in the Mediterranean, to the weft of the Syrtis Minor. Suppofed by Strabo and Polybius to be Homer’s country of the Lotophagi ; and hence Ptolemy and Eratofthenes denominate the ifland Lotophagitis, with a cognominal town Meninx. The country of Vibius Gallus the emperor, and of Volufiamis. Now called Gerbi and Zarbi. MENISPERMUM, moonseed; a genus of the decandria order, belonging to the dicecia ckfs of plants. There are three fpecies, all of them climb¬ ing plants, riling 14 feet high, and natives of warm climates ; but noway remarkable for beauty. The feeds of a kind which grows in the Levant, being formed into a pafte, are regarded by the inhabitants as fpecilic againft lice and cutaneous eruptions. The fame pafte is likewife ufed for the purpofe of intoxi¬ cating fifties. MENOCHIUS, vulgarly Menochia, (James), a famous lawyer, meanly born at Pavia, but who became fo fkilful in the law, that he was called the Baldus and Bartholus of his age ; all the princes of Italy folici- ting him to their univerfities. He read at Padua 23 years together; and forloveof his country removed to Pavia, and fucceeded Nicholas Gratiani. He hath got an immortal fame by his works, De recuperandct pojfejjiom ; De adipifcenda poffejjione ;, De prafumtioni- bus ; De arbitrariis Judicwn queftionibus caufis con- cilhrum, tom. 13. &c. He died in 1607, aged 75. MENNITH, or Minnith, Judges xi. 33. a town near Heftibon, (Jerome), in Arabia Petraea; in a di- ftri& named Ecoftpolls, or twenty-towns, (Cellarius). There is alfo a Minnith mentioned Ezekiel xxvii. as being in a good wheat country : but whether the fame with the foregoing is uncertain ; though fome think, that the firft Minnith lay in the country of Am¬ mon, (Wells). MENNONITES, a feft of baptifts in Holland, fo called from Mennon Simonis of Friezeland, who lived in the 16th century. This feft believe, that the New Teftament is the only rule of faith; that the terms Perfon and Trinity are not to be ufed in fpeaking of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghoft ; that the firft man was not created perfeft ; that it is unlawful to fwear or to wage war upon any occafion ; that infants are not the proper fubjefts of baptifm ; and that mini- fters of the gofpel ought to receive no falary. They all unite in pleading for toleration in religion, and de¬ bar none from their aflemblies who led pious lives, and own the fcriptures for the word of God, The Vol. VII. 2 Mennonites meet privately; and every one in the af- Menology fembly has the liberty to fpeak, to expound the fcrip- tures, to pray and fing. They aflemble twice every enI ‘a* year, from all parts of Holland, at Rynfbourg, a vil¬ lage about two leagues from Leyden; at which time they receive the communion, fitting at a table, where the hrft diftributes to the reft ; and all febts are ad¬ mitted, even the Roman Catholics, if they pleafe to come. MENOLOGY, the Greek calendar, in which the lives of the faints in fhort, or barely their names, are cited ; anfwering nearly to the Martyrology of the Latin church. MENSA, in law-books, a term that includes in it all patrimony, and neceflaries for livelihood. MENSALS, mensalia, in church-hiftory, fuch livings as were formerly united to the tables of reli¬ gious houfes, and hence called menfal benefices. See the article Benefice. MENSES, fluors, Courfies, Catamenia, in medi¬ cine, the monthly evacuations from the uterus of wo¬ men not with child and not giving fuck. With regard to the caufes of this evacuation, the beft phyfiologifts are entirely at a lofs.. It was long difputed whether the menftrual blood flowed from the uterus or vagina, but fome obfervations of retroverted uteri have determined in favour of the former opinion. —For the diforders which follow a fupprefiion, or too great a flow of the menfes, fee Medicine, n° 488, 259—264. and p. 4871. MENSTRUUM, inchemiftry, any body which in a fluid or fubtilifed ftate is capable of interpofing its fmall parts betwixt the fmall parts of other bodies, fo as to divide them fubtilly, and form a new uniform compound of the two. MENSURATION, in general, denotes the aft or art of meafuring lines, fuperficies, or folids. See Geo¬ metry. MENTHA, mint; a genus of the gymnofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants. There are many fpecies; but not more than three are cultivated for ufe, namely, the viridis or common fpearmint, the piperita or peppermint, and the pule- gium or pennyroyal. All thefe are fo well known as to need no defcription ; and all of them are very eafily propagated by cuttings, parting the roots, or by offsets. Ufies. For culinary purpofes, the fpearmint is pre¬ ferable to the other two; but for medicine, the pep¬ permint and pennyroyal have in fome places almoft en¬ tirely fuperfeded it. A conferve of the leaves is very grateful, and the diftilled waters both fimple and fpi- rituous are univerfally thought pleafant. The leaves are ufed in fpring fall ads ; and the juice of them boiled up with fugar is formed into tablets. It has been ima¬ gined that cataplafms and fomentations of mint, would diflblve coagulations of milk in the breafts ; but Dr Lewis fays, that the curd of milk, digefted in a ftrong infufion of mint, could not be perceived to be any otherwife affefted than by common water: however, milk in which mint-leaves were fet to macerate, did not coagulate near no foon as an equal quantity of the fame milk kept by itfelf. Dr Lewis fays, that dry mint digefted in re&ified fpirits of wine, gives out a tincture, which appears by day-light of a fine dark 27 Ql green, Mentha, Mentz. MEN [ 4896 j M E R green, but by candle-light of a bright red colour. The fa& is, that a fmall quantity of this tin<5ture is greerl either by day-light or by candle-light, but a large quantity ofit feems impervious to common day-light ; however, when held betwixt the eye and a candle, or betwixt the eye and the fun, it appears red. The virtues of mint are thofe of a warm fto- mach and carminative : in lofs of appetite, naufea, and continual reaching to vomit, there are few fimples of equal efficacy. In colicky pains, the gripes ttf which children are fubjeft, lienteries, and other im¬ moderate fluxes, this plant frequently does good fer- vice. It likewife proves beneficial in many hyfteric cafes, and affords an ufeful cordial in languors and other weakneffes confequent upon delivery. The beft preparation in thefe cafes is a ftrong infufion of the dried herb in water, (which is much fuperior to the green), or rather a tinflure or extraft prepared with re&ified fpirit. Thefe pofTefs the whole virtues of the mint; the effential oil and diftilled water contain only the aromatic part; the expreffed juice only the aftrin- gency and bitterifhnefs, together with the mucilagi¬ nous fubftance common to all vegetables. The pep¬ permint is much more pungent than the others. Pennyroyal has the fame general charafters with the mint, but is more acrid and lefs agreeable when taken into the ftomach. It has long been held in great efteem, and not undefervedly, as an aperient and de- obftruent, particularly in hyfteric complaints and fuppreffions of the menfes. For thefe purpofes the diftilled water is generally made ufe of, or, what is of equal efficacy, an infufion of the leaves. It is obfer- vable, that both water and re&ified fpirit extract the virtues of this herb by infufion, and Hkewife elevate the greateft part of them by diftillation. The ex- preffed juice with a little fugar, is not a bad medicine in the chincough. MENTZ, an archbifhopric and deflorate in Ger¬ many. It lies on the banks of the river Mayne, be¬ tween the deflorate of Triers on the weft, the Pala¬ tinate on the fouth, Franconia on the eaft, and the Wetteraw on the north. It is about 60 miles in length from north-eaft to fouth-weft, and about 50 in breadth. A confiderable part of the deflor’s reve¬ nue arifes from the toll on the Rhine and the Mayne, and from the tax on the excellent wines produced in this country. The chief towns of any trade are, 1. Mentz, on the Rhine, near its confluence with the Mayne. This city claims a right to the invention of the art of printing, (fee Htflory of Printing.) Here is a very beautiful quay along the river, de¬ fended by feveral works well fortified with can¬ non. That part of the city which extends towards the river is mod populous. The beft vineyards for Rhenifti wine being in this neighbourhood, Mentz has a fiourifhing trade in that commodity more par¬ ticularly ; and its commerce is the briiker, by rea- fon that all the merchandize which pafies up and down the Rhine flops in its harbour to change bot¬ toms. In this neighbourhood is Hockhem, fo cele¬ brated. for good wines, that the beft Rhenifti is from thence called old hock. 2. Bingen is a plealant fmall town, which (lands in the diftrift called Rhingaw, which is fo populous, that it looks like one entire town, intermixed with gardens and vinegards. The rifing grounds about it produce wines that are efteem* ed preferable to thofe of Baccharac, fo much in vogue heretofore. 3. Elfeld, five miles weft from Mentz, is a ftrong fortified town, on the north fide of the Rhine, and the chief of the Rhingaw.—Here is Roderheim, a place noted for the growth of the beft wines in thefe parts. 4. Weifbaden lies between fix and feven leagues from Frankfort, and about five or fix miles north of Mentz : it is the metropolis of a country belonging to the branch of Naffau-Saarbrack, and is famous for its mineral waters. MENYANTHES, Marsh-trefoil, or Buck- bean ; a genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants. This plant grows wild in moift marfhy places in many parts of Britain. It has three oval leaves (landing together upon one pe¬ dicle, which iffues from the root; their tafte is very bitter, and fomewhat naufeous. According to Mr Lightfoot, the (lowers of this plant are fo,extremely beautiful, that nothing but their native foil could ex¬ clude it from a place in every garden. They grow in an elegant fpike ; are white, daftied with pink, and fringed internally with hairs. The highlanders efteem an infulion or tea of the leaves as good to ftrengthen the ftomach. According to Mr Withering, an infu¬ fion of the leaves is prefcribed in rheumatifms and dropfies; a dram of them in powder purges and vo¬ mits, and is fometimes given to deftroy worms. In a fcarcity of hops, the plant is ufed in the north of Eu¬ rope to bitter the ale. The powdered roots are fome¬ times ufed in Lapland inftead of bread, but they are unpalatable. §ome people fay, that (heep will eat it, and that it cures them of the rot; but from the Up- fal Experiments it appears, that though goats eat it, (beep fometimes will not. Cows, horfes, and fwii, ?, refufe it.^As toils medical virtues, Dr Lewis informs us, that it is an efficacious aperient and deohftruent; promotes the fluid fecretions ; and, if liberally taken, gently loofens the belly. It has of late gained great reputation in fcorbutic and fcrophulous diforders ; and its good effefls in thofe cafes have been warranted by experience. Inveterate cutaneous difeafes have been removed by an infufion of the leaves, drank to the quantity of a pint a-day, at proper intervals, and con¬ tinued for fome weeks. Boerhaave relates, that he was relieved of the gout by drinking the juice mixed with whey. MENZINI (Benedifl), a celebrated Italian poet, born at Florence, was profeflbr of eloquence at the college Della Sapienza at Rome, where he died in 1704. He wrote, 1. The art of poetry. 2. Satires, elegies, hymns, and the Lamentations of Jeremiah. 3. Academia Tufculana, a work in verfe and profe, which pafles for his mafterpiece. MEOTIS, or Palus Meotis, a fea of Turky, which divides Europe from Afia; extending from Crim Tartary to the mouth of the river Don or Tanais. MEPHITIC, a nameexpreffing any kind of noxi¬ ous vapour ; but generally applied to that fpecies of vapour called fixed air. See Air, Fixed Air, Gas, £SV. MERCATOR (Gerard), one of the moft cele* brated geographers of his time, was born at Rure- monde in 1512. He applied himfelf with fuch in- duftry Menyan. thes II - Mercator. M E R [ 4897 ] M E R Mercator, duftry to geography and mathematics, that he is faid Merchant. t0 have frequently forgot to eat and drink. The em- peror Charles V. had a particular elleem for him, and the duke of Juliers made him his cofmographer. He compofed a chronology, fome geographical tables, an Atlas, &c. engraving and colouring the maps him- felf. He died in 1594. His method of laying down charts is ftill ufed, and bears the name of Mercator's charts. Mercator (Nicholas), ah'eminent mathematician in the 17th century, was born at Holftein in Den¬ mark; and came to England about the time of the re- ftoration, where he lived many years. He was fellow of the Royal Society ; and endeavoured to reduce a- ftrology to rational principles, as appeared from a MS. of his in the.pofleffion of. William Jones, Efq ; He publifhed feveral works, particularly fhia. He gave the quadrature of the hyperbole by an infinite feries; which was the firft appearance in the learned world of a feries of this fort drawn from the particular nature of the curve, and that in a manner very new and abflra&ed. Mercator’/ Sailing, that performed by Merca¬ tor’s chart. See Navigation. MERCHANT, a perfon who buys and fells com¬ modities in grofs, or deals in exchanges ; or that traf¬ fics in the way of commerce, either by importation or exportation. Formerly every one who was a buyer or feller in the retail way was called a merchant, as they ftill are both in France and Holland ; but here fhopkeepers, or thofe who attend fairs or markets, have loft that appellation. Previous to a perfon’s engaging in a general trade, nnd becoming an univerfal dealer, he ought to treafure up fuch a fund of ufeful knowledge, as will enable him tc carry it on with eafe to himfelf, and without riflc- ing fuch Ioffes as great ill-concerted undertakings would naturally expofe him to. A merchant fhould therefore be acquainted with the following parts of commercial learning. 1. He (hould write properly and corre&ly. 2. Underftand all the rules of arithmetic that have any relation to commerce. 3. Know how to keep books of double and fingle entry, as journals, a leger, &c. 4. Be expert in the forms of invoices, accounts of fales, policies of infurance, charter-par¬ ties, bills of lading, and bills of exchange. 5. Know the agreement between the money, weights and mea- fures of all parts. 6. If he deals in filk, woollen, linnen, or hair manufaftures, he ought to know the places where the different forts of merchandizes are ma- nufa&ured, in what manner they are made, what are the materials of which they are compofed, and from whence they come, the preparations of thefe materials before working up, and the places to which they are fent after their fabrication. 7. He ought to know the lengths and breadths which filk, woollen, or hair-ftuffs, linen, cottons, fuftians, &c. ought to have accord¬ ing to the feveral ftatutes and regulations of the places where they are manufaftured, with their different pri¬ ces, according to the times and feafons ; and if he can add to his knowledge the different dyes and ingredients which form the various colours, it will not be ufelefs. 8. If he confines his trade to that of oils, wines, &c. he ought to inform himfelf particularly of the appear¬ ances of the fucceeding crops, in order to regulate his difpofing of what he has on hand ; and to learn as ex- Merchant, adtly as he can, what they have produced when got in, for his direction in making the neceffary parchafes and engagements. 9. He ought to be acquainted with the forts of merchandize found more in one country than another, thofe which are fcarce, their different fpecies and qualities, and the propereft method for bringing them to a good market either by land or fea. 10. To know which are the merchandizes permitted or prohi¬ bited, as well on entering as going out of the king¬ doms or ftates where they are made. 11. To be ac¬ quainted with the price of exchange, according to the courfe of different places, and what is the caufe of its rife and fall. 12. To know the cuftoms due on im¬ portation or exportation of merchandizes, according to the ufage, the tarifs, and regulations, of the places to which he trades. 13. To know the beft manner of folding up, embaling, or tunning, the merchandizes for their prefervation. 14. To underftand the price and condition of freighting and infuring fhips and mer¬ chandize. 15. To be acquainted with the goodnefs and value of all neceffaries for the conftru&ion and re¬ pairs of (hipping, the different manner of their build¬ ing ; what the wood, the mails, cordage, cannons, fails, and all requifites, may coft. 16. To know the wages commonly given to the captains, officers, and ftilors, and the manner of engaging with them. 1 7. He ought to underftand the foreign languages, or at leaft as many of them as he can attain to ; thefe may be reduced to four, viz. the Spanilh, which is ufed not only in Spain, but on the coaft of Africa, from the Canaries to the Cape of Good Hope : the I- talian, which is underftood on all the coafts of the Mediterranean, and in many parts of the Levant: the German, which is underftood in almoft all the northern countries ; and the French, which is now become al¬ moft univerfally current. 18. He ought to be ac¬ quainted with the confular jurifdidlion, with the laws, cuftoms, and ufages of the different countries he does or may trade to; and in general all the ordinances and regulations both at home and abroad that have any relation to commerce. 19. Though it is not ne¬ ceffary for a merchant to be very learned, it is proper ,that he Ihould know fomething of hiltory, particular¬ ly that of his own country; geography; hydrography, or the fcience of navigation ; and that he be acquaint¬ ed with the difcoveries of the countries in which trade is eftablilhed, in what manner it is fettled, of the com¬ panies formed to fupport thofe eftablilhments, and of the colonies they have fent out. All thefe branches of knowledge are of great fer- vice to a merchant who carries on an extenfive com¬ merce ; but if his trade and his views are more limited, his learning and knowledge may be fo too: but a material requifite for forming a merchant is, his hav¬ ing on all occafions a ftridt regard to trnth, and his avoiding fraud and deceit as corroding cankers that mull inevitably deftroy his reputation and fortune. Trade is a thing of fo univerfal a nature, that it is impoffible for the laws of Britain, or of any other nation, to determine all the affairs relating to it: therefore all nation's, as well as Great Britain, fhew a particular regard to the law-merchant, which is a law made by the merchants among themfelves: however, merchants and other ftrangers are fubjecl to the laws 2 7 Q_2 of M E R [ 4898 ] M E R Merchet, of the country in which they refide. Foreign mer- Mercia' chants are to fell their merchandize at the port where they land, in grofs, and not by retail; and they are allowed to be paid in gold or filver bullion, in foreign coin or jewels, which may be exported. If a diffe¬ rence arifes between the king and any foreign ftate, the merchants of that ftate are allowed fix months time to. fell their effeds and leave the kingdom; du¬ ring which time they are to remain free and unmolefted in their perfons and goods. See the articles Com¬ merce, and Mercantile Law. MERCHET (Merchetum), a fine or compofition paid by inferior tenants to the lord, for liberty to dif- pofe of their daughters in marriage. No baron, or military tenant, could marry his foie daughter and heir, without fuch leave purchafed from the king, pro maritanda filia. And many of our fervile tenants could neither fend their fans to fchool, nor give their daughters in marriage, without exprefs leave from the fuperior lord. See Kennet’s Gloffary in Maritagium. See alfo Marchet. MERCIA, the name of one of the feven kingdoms founded in England by the Saxons. Though the lateft formed, it was the largeft of them all, and grew bydegrees to be by far the moft powerful. On the north it was bounded by the Humber and the Merfey, which feparated it from the kingdom of Northumberland; on the eaft by the fea, and the territories of the Eaft- Angles and Saxons; on the fouth by the river Thames; and on the weft by the rivers Severn and Dee. It comprehended well nigh 17 of our modern counties, being equal in fize to the province of Languedoc in France; very little, if at all, lefs than the kingdom of Arragon in Spain; and fuperior in fize to that of Bo¬ hemia in Germany. Penda is regarded as its firft monarch; and the kingdom is thought to derive its name from the Saxon word mere, which fignifies a march, bound, or limit, becaufe the other kingdoms bordered upon it on every fide; and not from the river Merfey, as fome would perfuade us. Penda affumed the regal title A. D. 626, and was of the age of 50 at the time of his accefiion; after which he reigned near 30 years. He was of a moft furious and turbulent temper, breaking at diffe¬ rent times with almoft all his neighbours, calling in the Britons to his affiftance, and (bedding more Saxon blood than had been hitherto fpilled in all their inteftine quarrels. He killed two kings of Northumberland, three of the Eaft-Angles, and compelled Ken wall king of the Weft-Saxons to quit his dominions. He was at length (lain, with moft of the princes of his family, and a multitude of his fubjefls, in a battle fought not far from the Leeds, by Ofwy king of Northumberland. This battle, which the Saxon chronicle tells us was fought at Winwidfield, A. D. 655, made a great change in the Saxon affairs, which the unbridled fury of Penda had thrown into great confufion. He had the year before killed Anna king of the Eaft-Angles in battle, whofe brother Ethelred notwithftanding took part with Penda. On the other hand, Peada the eldeftfon of Penda, to whom his father had given the ancient kingdom of the Mid-Angles, had two years before married the natural daughter of king Ofwy, and had been baptized at his court. At that time it (hould feem that Ofwy and Penda were upon good terms; but after the latter had conquered Mercia. the Eaft-Angles, he refolved to turn his arms againft the kingdom of Northumberland. Ofwy by no means had provoked this rupture; on the contrary, Bede tells us that he offered large fums of money, and jewels of great value, to purchafe peace: thefe offers being re¬ jected, he was reduced to the needfity of deciding the quarrel by the fword. The river near which the battle was fought overflowing, there were more drowned than killed. Amongft thefe, as the Saxon chronicle fays, there were 30 princes of the royal line, fome of whom bore the title of kings; and alfo Ethel- red king of the Eaft-Angles, who fought on the fide of Penda againft his family and country. His fon Peada, who married the daughter of that conqueror, became a Chriftian, and was not long after murdered as is faid by the malice of his mother. His brother Wolfher becoming king of Mercia, embraced in procefs of time the faith of the Gofpel, and proved1 a very vidorious and potent monarch; and is, with no fewer than feven of his immediate fucceffors, commonly ftyled king of the Anglo-Saxons, though none of them are owned in that quality by the Saxon chronicle. *But though poffibly none of them might enjoy this ho¬ nour, they were undoubtedly very puiffant princes, maintaining great wars, and obtaining many advan¬ tages over the fovereigns of other Saxon dates, and efpecially the Eaft-Angles, whom they reduced. The extent of the Mercian territories was fa ample as to admit, and fo fituated as to require, the conftituting fubordinate rulers in feveral provinces ; to whom,-efpe¬ cially if they were of the royal line, they gave the title of kings; which occafions fome confufion in their hiftory. Befides the eftablifliing epifcopal fees and convents, the Saxon monarchs took other methods for improving and adorning their dominions; and as Mercia was the largeft, fo thefe methods were rnoft confpicuous there¬ in. Coventry, as being fituated in the centre, was ufually, but not always, the royal refidence. Penda, who was almoft continually in a ftate of war, lived as his military operations dire&ed, in fome great town on the frontiers. Wolther built a caftle or fortified palace for his own refidence, which bore his name. —Offa kept his court at Sutton Walls near Here¬ ford. In each of the provinces there refided a chief magi- ftrate; and if he was’of the royal blood, had ufually the title of king. Peada, at the time he married Of- wy’s daughter, had the title of king of Leicefer.— Ethelred made his brother Merowald king of Here¬ ford; who, dying without iffue, bequeathed it to his younger brother Mercelm. The like honours were fometimes conferred upon the princeffes; and hence, in Mercia efpecially,, we occalionally read of vice- queens. By thefe means the laws were better executed, the obedience of the fubjedls more effesftuaHy fecured, and the fplendor oi thefe refidences conftantly kept up and augmented. At length, the crown devolving fometimes on mi¬ nors, and fometimes on weak princes, inteftine fac¬ tions alfo prevailing, the force of this hitherto mighty kingdom began fenfibly to decline. This falling out in the days of Egbert, the moft prudent as well as the molt potent monarch of the Weft-Saxons, he took advantage of thefe circumftances; and having en» Mercurial, Mecurialis. M E R [ 4899 ] M E R encouraged the Eaft-Angles to make an attempt for the recovery of their independence, he, in a conjunc¬ ture every way favourable to his defign, broke with the Mercians, and after a fhort war obliged them to fubmit. But this was not an abfolute conqueft, the kings of Mercia being allowed by him and his fuc- ceffors to retain their titles and dominions, till the the invafion of the Danes put an end to their rule, when this kingdom hadfubfifted above 250 years; and when the Danes were afterwards expelled by the Weft- Saxons, it funk into a province, or rather was divided into many. MERCURIAL, fomething confiding of, or rela¬ ting to, mercury. MERCURIALIS (Jerom), an eminent Italian phyfician, born at Forli in 1530, where he firft prac- tifed; but afterwards was profeflbr of medicine fuc- ceffively at Padua, Bologna, and Pifa. His writings in phyfic are very numerous; befides giving an edi¬ tion of Hippocrates in Greek and Latin, with notes, which, however, did not anfwer the expe&ations of the learned. He died in 1606; and in 1644 fome feleft pieces of his were publilhed at Venice in one volume folio. MERCURIALIS, Mercury; a genus of the en- neandria order, belonging to the dicecia clafs of plants. There are three fpecies. 1. The annua, or French mercury, with fpiked flowers, male and female. This is an annual plant, with a branching ftalk about a foot high, garnifhed with fpear-fhaped leaves of a pale or yellowilh green colour. The male plants have fpikes of herbaceous flowers, growing on the top of the ftalks: thefe fall off footi; blit the female plants, which have tefticulated flowers proceeding from the fide of the ftalks, are fucceeded by feeds, which, if permitted to fcatter, will produce plenty of plants of both fexes. 2. The perenm's, mountain or dog’s mercury, with fpiked and tefticulated flowers, grows under hedges and in woods, in many parts of Britain. This hath a perennial root, which creeps in the ground; the ftalks are Angle, and without branches, rifing ten or twelve inches high, garnilhed with rough leaves, placed by pairs at each joint, of a dark green colour, indented on their edges: thefe have their male flowers growing in fpikes, upon different plants from thofe which produce feeds. 3. The tomentofa, or fhrubby hairy mercury, is a native of the fouth of France, Spain, and Italy. It hath a Ihrubby branching ftalk, growing a foot and an half high, garnifhed with oval leaves placed by pairs, and covered with a white down on both fides. The male flowers grow in fhort fpikes from the fide of the ftalks upon different plants from the firft. All the fpe¬ cies are eafily propagated by feeds, and are apt to be¬ come troublefome weeds where they have once got a footing. Properties. The perennis, according to Mr Light- foot, is of a foporific deleterious nature, noxious both to man and beaft. There are inftances of thofe who have eaten it by miftake inftead of chenopodinm, bo¬ nus Henricus, or Englilh mercury, and have thereby flept their laft. In the ifle of Skye, it is called lus- glen-bracadale; and an infufion of it is fometimes taken to bring on a falivation ; but our author knows not how the experiment anfwers. Tournefort informs us, that the French make a fy rup of the juice of the annua, two ounces of which is given as a purge; and that they ufe it in peffaries and clyfters, mixing one quantity of honey, to one and a half of the juice. Mr Withering differs greatly from Lightfoot concerning the quali¬ ties of the perennis. “ This plant, (fays he), drtffed like fpinach, is very good eating early in the fpring, and is frequently gathered for that purpofe ; but it is faid to be hurtful to fheep. Mr Ray relates the cafe of a man, his wife, and three children, who expe¬ rienced highly deleterious effe&s from eating it fried with bacon; but this was probably when the fpring was more advanced, and the plant become acrimonious! Steeped in water, it affords a fine deep blue colour. Sheep and goats eat it; cows and horfes refufe it. MERCURY, in natural hiftory. See Chemistry, n° 153, 205, 250, 214. See alfo Metallurgy, and Quicksilver. The ufe of mercury in medicine feems to have been little known before the 15th century. The ancients looked upon it as a corrolive poifon, though of itfelf perfectly void of acrimony, tafte, and fmell; there are examples of its having been lodged for years in cavi¬ ties both of bones and fleftiy parts, without its having injured or affe&ed them. Taken into the body in its crude ftate, and undivided, it paffes through the intef- tines unchanged, and has not been found to produce any confiderable effcer annum', and their polls, ifpurchafed* are efteemed worth 3001. The meffengers wait 2.0- M E S [ 4908 ] MET , at a time, monthly, and are didributed as follows, viz. four at court, five at one fecretary’s office, five at another, two at the third for North Britain, three at the council-office, and one at the lord chamberlain’s of the houfehold. Messengers, in Scotland. See Law, n° clviii. 16. Messengers of the Exchequer, art four officers who attend the exchequer, in the nature of purfuivants, and carry the lord treafurer’s letters, precepts, &c. Messenger of the Prefs, a perfon who, by order of the court, fearches printing-houfes, bookfellers fhops, &c. in order to difcover the printers or pu- blilhers of feditious books, pamphlets, &c. MESSIAH, a Word fignifyingone anointed, or in- ftalled into an office by un&ion. It was ufual among the Jews to anoint kings, high-priefts, and fometimes prophets, at the defignation or inftallment of them, to fignify emblematically the mental qualifications ne- cefiary for difcharging thefe offices. Saul, David, Solomon, and Joafb, kings of Judah, received the royal un&ion. Aaron and his fons received the fa- cerdotal, and Elifha thedifciple of Elijah received the prophetic, un&ion.—The name Messiah, Anointed, or Chrif (Xpiroc), was given to the kings and high- priefts of the Jews. The patriarchs and prophets are alfo called by the name of Mefiahs or the Lord's anointed. See 1 Sam. xii. 3, 5. 1 Chron. xvi. 22. Tf. cv. 15. But this name Messiah was principally and by way of eminence given by the Jews to their expeft- ed great Deliverer, whofe coming they' ftill vainly wait; and is a name the Chriftians apply to Jesus Chrif, in whom the prophecies relating to the Mef- fiah were accompliftied. The fum of thefe prophecies is, That there ftiould be a glorious perfon, named Mejfiah, defcended from Abraham, Ifaac, and Jacob, who fliould be born at Bethlehem, of a virgin of the family of David, then in its decline, before the Jewa ceafed to be a people, while the fecond temple was Handing, and about 500 years after Ezra’s time; who, though appearing in mean circumftances, fhould be introduced by a remarkable forerunner, whofe bufinefs it fhould be to awaken the attention and ex- peftation of the people. That this illuftrious perfon called Mefliah, fhould himfelf be eminent for the piety, wifdom, and benevolence of his chara&er, and the miraculous works he fhould perform: yet that, not- withflanding all this, he fhould be reje&ed and put to death by the Jews 5 but fhould afterwards be raifed from the dead, and exalted to a glorious throne, on which he fhould through all generations continue to rule, at the fame time making interceffion for finners. That great calamities fhould for the prefent be brought on the Jews for rejefting him : whereas the kingdom of God fhould by his means be eredted among the Gentiles, and difperfe itfelf even unto the ends of the earth ; wherever it came, deftroying idolatry, and eftablifhing true religion and righteoufnefs. In a word, That this glorious Perfon fhould be regarded by all who believed in him, as a divine teacher, an atoning facrifice, and a royal governor: by means of whom God would make a covenant with his people, very different from that made with Ifrael of old; in confequence of which they fhould be reftored to, and eftablifhed in, the divine favour, and fixed in a ftate of perpetual happinefs. See Jesus Chrif, and Chri¬ stianity. MESSUAGE, Messuagium, in law, a dwelling- houfe, with fome land adjoining affigned for its ufe. By the name of vtejfuage may a garden, fhop, mill, cottage, chamber, cellar, or the like, pafs.—In Scot¬ land, mejfuage denotes what is called in England the manor■ houfe ; viz. the principal dwelling-houfe within any barony. METACARPUS, in anatomy. See there, n° 54. METALEPSIS. See Oratory, n° 59. - METALLIZATION, the natural procefs by which metals are formed in the bowels of the earth. See Metallurgy, fed. i. METALS. See Metallurgy j and Chemistry, n° 43, 140,_ 192, 236, 278, 332, 348. Metal, in heraldry. There are two metals ufed in heraldry, by way of colours, viz. gold and filver, in blazon called or and argent. In the common painting of arms thefe metals are reprefented by white and yellow, which are the natu¬ ral colours of thofe metals. In engraving, gold is expreffed by dotting the coat, &c. all over; and fil¬ ver, by leaving it quite blank. It is a general rule in heraldry, never to place me¬ tal upon metal, nor colour upon colour : fo that if the field be of one of the metals, the bearing muft be of fome colour ; and if the field be of any colour, the bearing muft be of one of the metals. METAL L U R G Y. METALLURGY, according to Boerhaave, com¬ prehends the whole art of working metals, from the glebe or ore, to the utenfil; in which fenfe, effay- ing, fmelting, refining, parting, fmithery, gilding, See. are only branches of metallurgy. But, in the prefent work, Gilding, Parting; Purifying, Refining, Smithery, &c. are treated under their proper names. With others, therefore, we have chofen to reftrain Metallurgy to thofe operations required to feparate metals from their ores for the ufes of life. Thefe opera¬ tions are of two kinds: the fmaller, or Effaying; and the larger, or Smelting. But a particular deferip- tion of the ores themfelves feemed likewife neceftary to be given ; and to this place, too, we have refer¬ red a general account of metals, metallization, mines, and ores, as a proper introduftion to the fubjedt. Hence the following divifion into three parts. The treating, 1. Of metals and metallization. 2. Of mines and ores in general. 3. Of the pyrites. 4. Of the eflaying of ores in general. The fecond. Of the par¬ ticular ores, and the methods of eftaying them. The third, Of fmelting of ores, or the methods of ex- tra&ing metals from large quantities of ores for the purpo&a of commerce or manufadlure. Mefltiage II Metals. ’PART Sea. I. METALLURGY. 49° 9 PART I. Sect. I. Of Metals and Metallization. UNDER the general name jnetal, we comprehend here not only the metals properly fo called, but alfo the femimetals, or all matters which have the ef- fcntial metallic properties, which we lhall here recount. Thus the word metal and metallic fubflance will be fy- nonimous in this article. Metallic fubftances form a clafs of bodies, not very numerous, of very great importance in chemiftry, me¬ dicine, arts, and the ordinary affairs of life. Thefe fubflances have very peculiar properties, by which they differ from all other bodies. The natural bodies from which metals differ the lead are, earthy and pyritous matters, on account of their folidity and denfity. Metals and ftonesare, neverthe- lefs, very different; the heavieft ftones which are tin- metallic being much lighter than the lighted metals. A cubic foot of marble weighs 252 pounds; and an equal bulk of tin, the lighted of metals, weighs 516 pounds. The difference is much greater when the weight of fuch a done is compared with that of gold, a cubic foot of which is 1326 pounds. Opacity is another quality which metals poffefs emi¬ nently, the opacity of metals being much greater than that of any unmetallic fubftance. This great opacity of metals is a confequence of their denfity; and thefe two properties produce a third, pe¬ culiar alfo to metals, namely, a capacity of reflecting much more light than any other body : hence metals whofe furfaces are polifhed, form mirrors reprefenting the images of bodies more clearly than any other matter. Thus looking-glades produce their reflexion merely by the filvering, which is a covering of metal upon their furfaces. To this refle&ive proper¬ ty metals owe their peculiar ludre, called the metallic lujlre. Although the feveral metallic fubdances differ con- fiderably in hardnefs and fuflbility, we may fay in ge¬ neral, that they are lefs hard and lefs fulible than pure earths. Metals cannot unite with any earthy fubdance, not even with their own earths, when thefe are deprived of their metallic date: hence, when they are melted, they naturally run into globes, as much as the abfo- lute gravity of their mafs, and their preffure upon the containing veffels, will allow. Accordingly, the fur- face of a metal in fufion is always convex. A metal in that date always endeavours to acquire a fpherical form, which it does more perfeftly as the mafs is lefs. This efreA is very fenfible in quickfilver, which is nothing but a metal habitually fluid or fufed. A mafs of feve¬ ral pounds of mercury, contained in a (hallow wide¬ mouthed veffel, is fo fpread out, that its upper furface is almod flat, and the convexity is not very fenffble but at its circumference: on the contrary, if we put very fmall maffes of mercury into the fame veffel, as, for indance, maffes weighing a grain each, they be¬ come fo round as to feem perfect globes. This effeA is partly occafioned by the inaptitude of metals to unite with the veffels containing them when in fufion, by which quality the whole affinity which fubfifts betwixt the integrant parts of thefe metals is capable of adling; and partly alfo by this affinity, which difpofes the in¬ tegrant parts to come as near to each other as they can, and confequently to form a fphere. This property is not peculiar to melted metals, but to all fluids, when contiguous to bodies foil'd or fluid, with which they have no tendency to unite. Thus, for indance, maffes of water upon oily bodies, or oily maffes upon bodies moidened with water, affume al¬ ways a form fo much nearer to the fpherical as they are fmaller. Even a large drop of oil poured upon a watery liquor, fo that it (hall be furrounded with this liquor, becomes a perfeft fphere. All metals are in general foluble by all acids; but often thefe folutions require particular treatment and circumflances, which are mentioned under Chemistry,. fett. iv. With acids, they form a kind of neutral falts, which have all more or lefs cauflicity. The af¬ finity of metals is lefs than of abforbent earths and al¬ kaline falts to acids ; and therefore any metal may be feparated from any acid by thefe earthy and faline al¬ kalis. Alkaline falts are capable of a&ing upon all metallic fubdances, and of keeping them diffolved by proper management. Metals may in general be united with fulphur and liver of fulphur. With fulphur, they form compound* refembling the peculiar fubdance of ores, which are generally nothing elfe than natural combinations of fulphur and metal. Metals have lefs affinity with ful¬ phur than with acids; hence fulphur may be fepara¬ ted from them by acids. Some exceptions from thefe general rules, concerning the affinity of metals to ful¬ phur and liver of fulphur, and concerning their fepara- tion from fulphur by acids, may be feen under the ar¬ ticles of the feveral metals. But thefe exceptions do probably take place, only becaufe we have not yet- found the method of furmounting fame obdacles which occur in the ordinary methods of treating certain me¬ tals. All metals may in general be united with each other, with which they form different allays which have pe¬ culiar properties; but this rule alfo is not without fome exceptions. Metals have firong. affinity with the inflammable principle,, and ape capable of receiving it fuperabun- dantly. Laflly, oily fubdances feem to be capable of a&ing upon all metals. Some metals are eafily and copiouf- ly diffolved by oils; and perhaps they might all be found to be entirely foluble in oils, if the methods- known in chemiftry were tried for the accompliftiment of thefe folutions. The properties abevementioned agree in general to all metallic fubftances : but, befides the properties pe¬ culiar to each metal, fome properties are common to. a certain number of them ; and hence they have been divided into feveral claffes. Thofe metallic matters which, when (truck by a. hammer, or ftrongly compreffed, are extended, length¬ ened,; 491® METAL ened, and flattened, without being broken, (which property is called ductility or malleability'), and which alfo remain fixed in the moft violent and Jong conti¬ nued fire, without diminution of weight, or other fen- fible alteration, are called perfett metals. Thefe per¬ fect metals are three; gold, filver, platina. The metallic matters which are du&ile and fixed in the fire, to a certain degree, but which are deftroyed by the continued adtion of fire, that is, changed into an earth deprived of all the chara&eriftic properties of metals, are called itnperfett metals. Of this kind are four ; copper, iron, tin, lead. The metallic fubftances which, as well as the im- perfeft metals, lofe their metallic properties by expo- fure to fire, but which alfo have no duftility nor fixi¬ ty, are difiinguifhed from the others by the name of femi-metals. Of this clafs are five ; regains cf anti¬ mony, bipnuth, zinc, regains of cobalt, and regulus of arfenic. Tartly, inercury, which has all the general proper¬ ties of metals, makes a clafs feparate from the others; becaufe in purity and gravity it is fimilar to the per- fedt metals, and in volatility to the femi-metals. Its fufibility alfo fo far furpafles that of any other metallic matter, that it is fufficient to diftinguilh it from all, and to give it a diftindt clafs. . We have enumerated, therefore, in all, 13 metallic fubftances; two of which only were unknown to the ancients, namely, platina and regulus of cobalt. We have reafon to w'onder that thefe two metallic bodies, and particularly platina, which is a perfedt metal, rtiould have remained un¬ known till lately. This may give us caufe to hope, that if natural hi- ftory and chemiftry be carefully cultivated, as they have been fince the renovation of the fciences, we may ftill make eflential difcoveries in this way. Mr Cronftedt has given, in the Swedi/h Memoirs, a de- fcription of a metallic matter, which, as he fays, ap¬ pears to be a new femimetal diftiudt from the others. In that cafe, this would be the fourteenth metallic mat¬ ter known, and the third lately difcovered: but as, fince the Memoir of Mr Cronftedt, this new femimetal has not been examined by chemifts, it is yet but little known; and therefore further experiments feem requi- fite to decide whether it ought to be admitted as a new femimetal (a). As chemifts can only know compound bodies by be¬ ing capable of feparating the principles of fuch bodies, and even of re-uniting theid principles fo as to repro¬ duce fuch compounds as they were originally; and as hitherto they have not been able to accomplifh any fuch decompofition upon the perfedl metals; hence, if all the other metallic fubftances were equally unalter¬ able, we (hould be very far from having certain notions concerning metals in general r but if we except gold, filver, and platina, all the other metallic matters are fufceptible of decompofition and of recompofition, at leaft to a certain degree ; and the experiments of this kind made by chemifts, and chiefly by the modern chemifts, have thrown much light on this important fubjeft. We may obferve, that even if we had not been able L U R G Y. Sea. r. to decompofe any metallic fnbftance, Xve might ftill, by reflecting on the efiential properties of metals, difcover fufficiently well the nature of their principles. The folidity, the confiftence, and efpecially the gra¬ vity, which they poffefs in a degree fo fuperior to all other bodies, would not have allowed us to doubt that the earthy element, of which thefe are the charaCteri- ftical properties, enters largely into their compofition, and makes their bafis. The facility with which they combine with almoft all inflammable matters, and with all thofe which have great affinity with phlogifton, fuch as acids; joined to their incapacity of being allayed with meagre matters that are purely earthy or purely watery, which have no difpofition to unite with phlogifton; would alfo have furnilhed very ftrong motives to believe, that the inflammable principle enters largely into the compofi¬ tion of metals. We muft acknowledge, however, that thefe confi- derations would only have furnifhed concerning the exiftence of the inflammable principle in metals, but a fimple probability, very far from the complete proof we now have: but the combuftibility of all metals ca¬ pable of decompofition by this method, and of the fub- fequent reduftion, with all their properties, by the re- jun&ion of the inflammable principle, furnilhes the cleafeft and the moft fatisfa&ory demonftration that we have in chemiftry. We {hall now mention what is known upon this fubjeft, and the confequences necef- farily refulting. The deftruftible metals prefent exa&ly the fame phenomena as all other bodies containing the inflam¬ mable principle do, in the ftate of combuftion. When expofed to fire, without accefs of air, that is, in clofe veffels, they become red-hot, melt, or fublime, accord¬ ing to their nature: but they receive no alteration in their compofition from fire applied in this manner, and they are afterwards found to be exa&ly in the fame ftate as before. In this refpeft, they refemble perfeftly all bodies which contain no other inflammable matter than pure phlogifton. But when imperfe£l metals are expofed to fire, with accefs of air, as, for inftance, under a muffle in^a fur¬ nace which is made very hot, then they burn more or lefs fenfibly, as their inflammable principle is more or lefs abundant, or more or lefs combined. Some of them, as iron and zinc, burn with a very lively and brilliant flame ; but this flame is of the fame nature as that of charcoal, of fulphur, of all bodies, the combuftible principle of which is pure phlogifton, and is not in an oily ftate, that is, furnifhes no foot capable of black¬ ening. Alfo the imperfeft metals detonate with nitre, when all the circumftances which that detonation requires are united *. Their phlogifton is confumed by this me- * See thod much more quickly and completely than by or- nation. dinary calcination or combuftion. Their flame is alfo much more lively and brilliant; and fome of them,, as iron and zinc, are ufed in compofitions for fireworks, from their very vivid and beautiful flame. Nitre is alkalifed by thefe metallic detonations ex- aftly in the fame manner as in its detonation by coals. Laftlf, (a) See Nickel. Mr Jufti pretends that he has difcovered a new metallic fubftance contained in yellow mica. This, he fays, was of a blackilh grey colour; but when mixed with gold heightened the luftre, without deftroying the malleability of that metal, though itfelf is brittle. Sea. I. METAL Of Metal- Laftly, Iraperred metals being treated with acids lization. which have an affinity with phlogifton, that is, with the vitriolic and nitrous acids, are deprived alfo by thefe acids of a more or lefs confiderable part of their inflammable principle : they give a fulphureous quality to vitriolic acid, and are even capable of furnilhing ful- phur with that acid. Although the experiments now mentioned were the only proofs of the exiftence of an inflammable principle in metallic fubftances, thefe would be fufficient to efta- blifh it inconteftably. But we fliall fee, when we con¬ tinue to examine the phenomena attending the decom- pofition of metals, that thofe are not the only proofs. If the inflammable matter which (hews itfelf fo evi¬ dently in the burning of metals, is really one of their | conflituent parts, their eflential properties muft be al¬ tered in proportion to the quantity of it taken from them : and this evidently happens upon trial; for the refiduum of metallic matters, after calcination, departs from the metallic chara&p, and approaches to the na¬ ture of mere earth. The opacity, brilliancy, du&ility, gravity, fufihility, volatility, in a word, all the pro¬ perties by which metallic fubftances differ from Ample earths, diminifh or entirely difappear, by taking from them their inflammable principle ; fo that when their calcination has been carried as far as is poffible, they refemble mere earths, and have no longer any thing in common with metals. Thefe earths can no longer be combined with acids or with metals, but are capable of uniting with pure earths. They are then called calxes ’ or metallic earths. See Chemistry, n° 44, 45. We muft obferve concerning the decompofnion of metals, 1. That wheti only a fmall quantity of inflam¬ mable principle is taken from metals, a fmall quantity only of calx is formed, and the remaining part conti¬ nues in the metallic ftate: hence, as the portion of cal¬ cined metal can no longer remain united with the un- deftroyed metal, it feparates in form of fcales from the furface of the metal when the calcination has been performed without fufion, as generally happens to iron and to copper; or thefe fcales float upon the furface of the melted matter when the calcination is performed during fufion, becaufe the calx is fpecifically lighter than the metal; as happens to the very fufible metals, as tin, lead, and moft of the femimetals. 2. The imperfeft metals'are not all equally eafily and completely calcinable. In general, as much of their phlogifton may be eafily taken from them, as is fufficient to deprive them of their metallic properties; but the remaining portion of their phlogifton cannot be fo eafily driven,from them. Some of them, as cop¬ per, refill the firft calcination more than the reft; and others, as lead and bifrnuth, may be very eafily calci¬ ned, but only to a certain degree, and retain always obftinateiy the laft portions of their inflammable prin¬ ciple; laftly, others, as tin and regulus of antimony, may not only be eafily and quickly calcined, but alfo much more completely; All the other metals partake more or lefs of thefe properties relating to their calci¬ nation. In general, if we except the labours of alche- mifts, which are not much to be depended upon, we have not yet made all the proper efforts to arrive at a perfed calcination of the feveral metallic fubftances; which, however, is abfolutely neceflary, befo/e we can arrive at a complete knowledge of the nature of their earths, as we lhall afterwards fee. Vol. VII. I L U R G Y. 4911 When metallic earths have loft but little of their Of Meta! phlogifton, and are expo fed to ftrong fire, they melt, 1'za'10',,^ and are reduced to compaft maffes, ftill heavy and opake, although much lefs fo than the metals, and al¬ ways brittle and abfolutely unmalleable. If the Calci¬ nation has been more perfedl, the metallic earths tivt ftill fufible by fire, but lefs eafily, and convertible into brittle and tranfparent maffes poffeffed of all the pro¬ perties of glafs, and are accordingly called metallic glajfes. Thefe glaffes do not poffefs any of the pro¬ perties of their metals, excepting that they are fpeci¬ fically heavier than other glaffes, that they are capable of being attacked by acids, and that the glaffes of the femimetals are fomewhat lefs fixed than unmetallic glaffes. Laftly, when the calcinaton of metals has been carried to its greateft height, their earths are ab¬ folutely fixed, and unfufible in the fire of our furnaces, and poffefs no longer the folubility in acids by which metals are chara&erifed. Thefe are the principal changes which metals fuffer by lofing their pblogifton. They are thus changed into fubftances which have no properties but thofe of earth. This is a certain proof that the inflammable principle is one of their conftituent parts. But we have alfo other proofs of this important truth. The reduc¬ tion of metallic calxes into metal, by the addition of phlogifton alone, completes the proof; and the whole forms one of the cleared and moft fatisfa&ory demon- ftrations in all the feiences. This reduction is effected in the following manner. If the earth of a metal be mixed with any inflam¬ mable matter, which either is or can be changed into the ftate of coal, together with fome fait capable of facilitating fufion, but which, from its quantity or qua¬ lity, is incapable of receiving the inflammable principle; and if the whole be put into a crucible, and the fufion promoted by a fire gradually raifed ; then an efferve* fcence will happen, accompanied with a biffing noife, which continues a certain time, during which the fire is not to be increafed; afterwards, when the whole has been well fufed, and the crucible taken from the fire and cooled, we fhall find at the bottom, upon break¬ ing it, the metal, the earth of which was employed for the operation, poffeffed of all the properties which it had before calcination and reduftion. See Reduc¬ tion. We cannot doubt that this wonderful transformation of an earthy fubftance into a metal, is folelycaufed by the phlogifton palling from the inflammable matter to the metallic earth: for, firft, in whatever manner and with whatever fubftance metallic earths be treated, they cannot be ever reduced into metals without a con¬ currence of fome fubftance containing phlogifton. 2dly, The nature of the fubftance which is to furnifh phlogifton is quite indifferent, becaufe this principle is the fame in all bodies containing it. 3dly, If, after the operation, the fubftance furnifhing the phlogifton be examined, we lhall find that it has loft as much of that principle as the metallic earth has received. The fads related concerning the decompofition and the recompofition of metals prove inconteftably, that they are all compofed of earth and phlogifton. But w'e do not, yet certainly know whether thefe two be the only principles of metals. We might affirm this, if we could produce metals By combining phlogifton with fome matter which is certainly known to be fimple 27 S earth. 4912 METAL Of Metal- earth. But this hitherto has not been accompliihed; iization. for jf we try tQ treat ar)y eart}1) which has never been metallic, with inflammable matters, we fliall perceive that the Ample earths are not combinable with phlogi- fion fo as to form metals. We fliall even perceive that the metallic earths refill this combination, and are in¬ capable of redu&ion into metal, when they have been fo much calcined as very nearly to approximate the na¬ ture of Ample earths. Thefe confiderations, added to this, that we cannot eafily conceive how, from only two certain principles, fo many very different compounds as the feveral me¬ tallic fubftanees are, Ihould refult, are capable of indu¬ cing a belief that fome other principle is added to thefe t wo already mentioned in the compofition of metals. Many great chemilts, and particularly Beeher and Stahl, feem to be convinced of this opinion; and chiefly from the experiments concerning the mercurification of metals, they believe that this third principle exifts co- pioufly in mercury ; that it is of a mercurial nature ; that it alfo exifts in marine acid, to which it gives its fpecific chara&er; that by extra&ing this mercurial principle from marine acid, or any other body contain¬ ing it copioully, and by combining it with Ample earths, thefe may acquire a metallic chara&er, and be render¬ ed capable of receiving phlogifton, and of being com¬ pletely metallifed. Thefe chemifts admit alfo, and with probability, a different proportion of metallic principles in the feveral metals; and believe, that particularly the principle which they call mercurial earthy exifts more copioufly and fenfiblyin certain metals than in others. The moft mercurial metals, according to them, are mercury, fil- ver, lead, and arfenic. Moft chemifts diftinguifh from the other metals, filver, mercury, and lead; which they cal! 'white metals, lunar metals, or mercurial met ah. All thefe confiderations being united, and others too many to be mentioned, give fome probability to the exiftence of the mercurial principle in metals. We muft however acknowledge, that the exiftence of this prin¬ ciple is only merely probable; and, as Stahl obfcrves, is not nearly fo well demonftrated as that of the inflam¬ mable principles we may even add, that we have ftrong motives to doubt of its exiftence. To produce metals artificially has juftly been reckon¬ ed one of the moft difficult problems in chemiftry. The reflexions we fhall add upon this fubjeX will be fuffi- cient demonftration to every fenfible perfon, that great knowledge is requifite in that fcience, to attempt with any hopes of fuccefs the produftion even of the moft imperfeX femimetal. Even if we were certain that it depends only on the intimate combination of the in¬ flammable principle with a matter Amply earthy, we fhould labour by chance, and without any reafonable expeftation of fuccefs, if we were to attempt.that com¬ bination without having more knowledge than we now poffefs, concerning the true nature of the earthy prin¬ ciple which enters into the compofition of metals; for we muft acknowledge that chemiftry has made but little progrefs in this matter. Metallic fubftances, although they referable each other by the general properties mentioned in the be¬ ginning of this article, differ neverthelefs from each other very evidently by the properties peculiar to each. Do thefe differences proceed from the different propor- L U R G Y. Sed. L tion, and from the more or lefs intimate connexion of Of Mctal- the inflammable principle with the earthy principle; llzation- fuppofing that this latter Ihould be effentially the fame in all metals? or ought they to be attributed to the difference of earths, which in that cafe would be di- llinX and peculiar to each metal? or, laftly, do metals differ from each other, both by the nature of their earths, and by the proportion and intimacy of connec¬ tion of their principles ? All thefe things are entirely unknown ; and we may eafily perceive, that till they are known, we cannot difeover what method to purfue in our attempts to accomplifti the combinations we are now treating of. The moft effential point then is, to arrive at a know¬ ledge of the true nature of the earths which are in metals; and the only method of arriving at this know¬ ledge is, to reduce them to their greateft fimplicity by a perfeX calcination. But this cannot be accomplifli- ed but by long and difficult operations. We have feen above, that all metals are not calcinable with equal cafe; that the perfeX metals have not been hitherto calcined truly by any procefs; and that in general, the laft portions of phlogifton adhere very ftrongly to cal¬ cinable metals. Some metals, however, as tin and regains of anti¬ mony, may be eafily calcined fo as to be rendered irre¬ ducible. By carrying the calcination {till further by the methods known in chemiftry, we might obtain their earths fo pure, that all their effential properties may be difeovered, by which they might be eafily compa¬ red together. This comparifon would decide whether their nature be effentially different or not. If they were found to be compofed of earths effen¬ tially the fame, we might next proceed to compare me¬ tallic with unmetallic earths. If the former were found fimilar to fome of the latter kind, we fhould be then affured that the earth of metals is not peculiar to thenv and that ordinary unmetallic earths are fufceptible of metallifation. The greater the number of metals operated upon* the more general and certain the confequences refult- ing from thefe would be: fo that, for inftance, if the operation were extended to all calcinable metals;, and if the refult of each of thefe operations were, that the calxes, when perfeXly dephlogifticated, do not differ from each other, and are fimilar to earths already known ; we might conclude from analogy, and we fhould be almoft certain, that the earths of the perfeX metals are alfo of the fame nature. They who know the extent and difficulties of che¬ mical operations, will eafily perceive that this would be one of the moft confiderable. Neverthelefs,; after having determined this effential point, we fhould only have done half our work. For a knowledge of the nature of the earth of metals, and where it is to bo found, would not be fufficient; we muft further en¬ deavour to find a method.of combining with this earth a fufficient quantity of phlogifton, and in a manner Efficiently intimate, that a metal might be formed by fuch a combination. But thisfecond-difficulty is per¬ haps greater than the former.. We muft obferve here, that fome famous chemical proceffes have been confidered by many as metallifa- tions,; but which are really not fo. Such is Becher’s famous experiment of the minera. arenaria perpetuct, by Sed. L Of Metal- by which that chemtft propofed to the States General lizadou. t0 extrafl gold from any kind of fand. Such alfo is the procefs of Becher and of Geoffroy, to obtain iron from all clays by treating them with linfeed oil in clofe veflels. In thefe, and many other fuch procefles, we do only obtain metal that was already formed. Every earth and fand, as the intelligent and judicious Cra¬ mer obferves, contain fome particles of gold. Clays do not commonly contain iron ready formed; but all of them contain a ferruginous earth, naturally dif- pofed to metallifation. See Clay. Accordingly we muft conclude, that, by Mr Geoffroy’s experiment, iron is only reduced or revived, but is not produced. The great difficulties which occur in attempting to give a metallic quality to fimple earths have induced a belief, that the nature of metals ready formed might be more eafily changed, and the lefs perfeA brought to a more perfett ftate. To effeft this, which is one of the principal obje&s of alchemy, and is called tranfmutation, numberlefs trials have been made. As we have not any certain knowledge of what occafions the fpecific differences of metallic fub- ftances, we cannot decide whether tranfmutation be poffible or not. In faft, if each metallic fubftance have its peculiar earth, efientially different from the earths of the others, and confequently if the differences of metals proceed from the differences of their earths; then, as we cannot change the effential properties of any fimple fubflance, tranfmutation of metals muft be impoffible. But if the earths and other principles of metals be effentially the fame, if they be combined in different proportions only, and more or lefs ftri&ly united, and if this be the only caufe of the fpecific difference of metals, we then fee no impoffibility in their tranfmutation. Whatever be the caufe of the differences of metals, their tranfmutation feems to be no lefs difficult than the produ&ion of a new metallic fubftance ; and per¬ haps it is even more difficult. Alchemifts believe that tranfmutation is poffible, and they even affirm that they have effected it. They begin by fuppofing that all metals are compofed of the fame principles; and that the imperfedf metals do not differ from gold and filver, but becaufe their principles are not fo well combined, or becaufe they contain heterogeneous mat¬ ters. We have then only thefe two faults to remedy, which, as they fay, may be done by a proper coftion, and by feparating the pure from the impure. As we have but very vague and fuperfieial notions concerning the caufes of the differences of metals, we confefs that we cannot make any reafonable conjefture upon this matter; and we fhall only advife thofe who would proceed upon good principles, to determine previoufly, if metals have each a peculiar earth, or only one com¬ mon to them all. In the fecond place, if it fhould be demonftrated that the earthy principle is the fame in all metals, and if that be demonftrated as clearly as the identity of the inflammable principle in metals is proved ; they muft then determine whether thefe two be the only principles in metals, whether the mercu¬ rial principle exifts, and whether it be effential to all metals or to fome only, and what is the proportion of thefe two or three principles in the feveral metallic fubftances. When we fhall clearly underftand thefe principal obje&s, we may then be able to determine 4913 concerning the polfibility of tranfmntation ; and if the Of Mcufc- poffibility fhould be affirmed, we fhall then begin to l'zat!on- difeover the road which we ought to purfue. We have no reafon to believe that any other prin¬ ciple enters into the compofition of metals than thofe above-mentioned: noveftige is perceptible of cither air or water. Some chemifts have neverthelefs advanced that they contain a faline principle. If that were true, they would alfo contain a watery principle. But all the experiments adduced to prove this opinion are either falfe, or only fhow the prefence of fome faliue particles extraneous to the metals, or contained unknown to the chemifts in the fubftances employed in the experiments. For metals perfeftly pure, fub* jefted to all trials with fubftances which do not con¬ tain and which cannot produce any thing faline, do not difeover any faline property. We muft however except arfenic, and even its regulus, thefe being An¬ gular fubftances, in which the faline are as fenfible as the metallic properties. Arfenic feems to be one of thofe intermediate fub¬ ftances which nature has placed in almoft all its pro¬ ductions betwixt two different kinds, and which par¬ take of the properties of each kind. Arfenic thus placed betwixt metallic and faline fubftances has properties common to both thefe kinds of fubftanees, without be¬ ing either entirely a metal or fait. See Arsekic. As water feems to aft to a certain degree upon iron7, even without the concurrence of air, as the operation of martial ethiops fhews, we might thence fufpeA fomething faline in that metal. Neverthelefs, what happens in thatoperation has not been fowell explained, that any certain confequences can be deduced. 1. The water employed ought to be perfeftly pure ; that is, diftilled rain-water. 2. The iron employed ought alfo to be perfe&ly pure, and fuch is very difficultly to be procured. 3. The operation ought to be per¬ formed in a bottle accurately clofed, that we may be affured that the air contributes nothing to the a or the matter of mines. Thefe ores are found in earths and ftones of different kinds, as fandsj flints, cryftals, flates, indurated clays, accdrding to the ground in which they are contained. But two kinds of ftones in particular feem to accom¬ pany ores; and have therefore been confidered by fe- veral mineralogifts as matrixes, in which metals are formed. One of thefe ftdnes is a kind of cryftal, ge¬ nerally white, milky, and femi-opake, ftriking fire with fteel, and of the clafs of vitrifiable earths. It is called Quartz. The other ftone is lefs hard, which does not ftrike fire with fteel, and is fometimes milky like quartz; fometimes tranfparent and diverfely coloured, confift- ing of rhomboidal cryftals, which are compofed of plates and faces. This ftone becomes more foft and friable by being expofed to fire. It is called fpar. Spar is more like to gypfeous ftones than to any other, but it differs from gypfeous ftones in pof- fefiing a much greater denfity. Some fpars are fo heavy, that they exceed in this refped all other ftones. See Spar. Thefe earthy and ftony fubftances form the matrix ef the ore. Ores are natural compounds, containing metals al¬ layed with different fubftances. Excepting gold, and a very fmall quantity of each of the other metals found in fome places fo pure as to poffefa all their chara&eriftic properties^ nature exhi¬ bits to us metals and femimetals differently allayed not only with each other, but alfo with feveral heteroge¬ neous fubftances, which fo alter and difguife their qua¬ lities, that in this ftate they cannot ferve for any of the purpofes for which they are proper when they are fuf- ficiently pure. Ores confift, i . Of metallic fubftances calcined} or, 2. Of thefe fubftances combined with other matters, with which they are faid to be mineralifed. Calcined metallic fubftances, or calciform ores, are metallic fubftances deprived of phlogifton, and in the ftate of a calx or metallic earth. Such are all ferru¬ ginous ochres, which are calxes of iron. Mineralifed ores, are, I. Simple, containing only one metallic fubftance : or, 2. Compound, containing two or more metallic fubftances. Of the Ample, and alfo of the compound ores, four kinds may be dittinguiftied. 1. Ores confiding of metallic fubftances mineralifed by fulphur. Such is the lead-ore called com¬ pofed of lead and fulphur. 2. Ores confiding of metallic fubftances mineralifed by arfenic. Such is the white pyritis,, containing iron and arfrnic. L U R G Y. 3. Ores confifting of metallic fubftances mineralifed by fulphur and by arfenic. Such is the red Jilver-ore,' containing filver, arfenic, and fulphur. 4. Ores confiiling of metallic fubftances mineralifed by faline jnatters. Such are the native vitriols. Such alto is probably the corneous fdver-ore, which, accord¬ ing to Mr Cronftedt’s opinion, is a luna cornea, or fil¬ ver combined with marine acid. Of this kind of ores, or native metallic falls, is perhaps the (edative fait of borax, which from Mr Cadet’s experiments, publifhed in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy for the year 1766, is conje&ured to be copper combined with ma¬ rine acid, and which has been faid to be found native. To this clafs alfo maybe referred the fiver mineralifed by an alkaline fubfance, which Mr Von Jufti pretends to have difcovered. Henckel, and after him Cramer, arid the author of the Difrionary of Chemiftry, pretend, that in minera¬ lifed ores, befides the above-mentioned metallic and mineralifing fubftances, are alfo contained a metallic and an unmetallic earth. But Wallerius affirms, that the exiftence of fueh earths cannot be (hewn, and that fulphur is incapable of diffolving unmetallic earths, and even the calxes of all metallic fubftances, excepting thofe of lead, bifmuth, and nickel. Having thus defined and diftinguifhed the feveral general claffes of ores, we proceed to (hew how they are lodged, and where they are found. Metals and metalliferous ores are found in various places. I. They are found under water '} in beds of rivers* lakes, and feas, and chiefly at the flexures of thefe : fuch are the auriferous and ferruginous fands, grains of native gold, ochres, and fragments of ores wafted from mines. II. They are found dijfolved in water: fuch are the vitriolic waters containing iron, copper, or zinc. III. They are found upon the furface of the earth., Such are many ochres ; metalliferous ftones, fands, and clays; and lumps of ores- Mr Gmelin fays, that in the northern parts of Afia ores are almoft always found upon or near the furface of the ground. IV. They are found under the furface. of the earth. When the quantity of thefe collefted in one place is confiderable, it is called a mine. Subterranean metals and ores are differently difpo- fed in different places. 1. Some are infixed in fiones and earths, formed no¬ dules or fipots diverfely coloured. 2. Some are equably and uniformly diffufed through the fubfance of earths andfiones, to which they give co¬ lour, denfity, and other properties. Such are the greateft part of thofe earths, ftones, fands, clays, cry- llals, flints, gems, and fluors, which are coloured. 3:. Some form fir at a \w mountains. Such are the flates containing pyrites, copper-ore, lead-ore, filver- ore, or blend. Thefe lie in the fame direction as the flrata of ftohes betwixt which they are placed; but- they differ from the ordinary ftrata in this circum- ftance, that the thicknefs of different parts of the fame metalliferous ftratum is often very various; whereas the thicknefs of the ftony flrata is known to be generally very uniform. . < 4. Fragments of ores are frequently found accu¬ mulated in certain fubterranean cavities, in fiffures of mountains, or interpofed betwixt the ftrata of the earth. 491-5; Of Mines. 4916 METAL Of Mines: earth. Thefe are loofe, unconne&ed, frequently in- volved in clay, and not accreted to the contiguous rocks or ftrata immediately, nor by intervention of fpar or of quartz, as the ores found in veins are. Tin and iron mines are frequently of the kind here de- fcribed. 5. Large entire mafles of ores are fometimes found in the ftony ftrata of mountains. Thefe are improperly called cumulated veins, becaufe their length, relatively to their breadth and depth, is not confiderable. 6. Some inftances are mentioned of entire mountains confifting of ore. Such is the mountain Taberg in Smoland ; and fuch are the mountains of Kerunavara and Luofavara in Lapland, the former of which is 1400 perches long and 100 perches broad. Thefe mountains confift of iron-ore. 9. Laftly, and chiefly, metals and ores are found in oblong trafts, forming mafles called veins, which lie in the ftony ftrata compofing mountains. The direction of veins greatly varies ; fome being ftraight, and others curved. Their pofition alfo re- fpe&ing the horizon is very various; fome being per¬ pendicular, fome horizontal, and the reft being of the intermediate degrees of declivity. The dimenfions, the quality, and the quantity of contents, and many other circumftances of veins, are alfo very various. Miners diftinguifti the feveral kinds of veins by names expreflive of their differences. Thus veins are faid to be deep; perpendicular; horizontal, or hanging, or dilated; rich; poor; morning, noon, evening, and night veins, by which their direction to¬ wards that point of the compafs where the fun is at any of thefe divifions of the natural day, is fig- nified. The ftratum of earth or ftone lying above a vein is called its roof: and the ftratum under the vein is call¬ ed its floor. Some parts of veins are confiderably thicker than others. Small veins frequently branch out from large veins, and fometimes thefe branches return into the trunk from which they iffued. Thefe veins from which many fmaller veins depart, have been obferved to be generally rich. Veins are terminated varioufly : 1. By a gradual di¬ minution, as if they had been compreffed, while yet ■fbft, by fuperincumbent weight ; or by fplitting and dividing into feveral fmaller veins. Or, 2. They are ierminated abruptly, together with their proper ftrata in which they lie. This abrupt termination of veins and ftrata is occafioned by their being croffed by new ftrata running tranfverfely to the dire&ion of the for¬ mer; or by perpendicular fiffures through the ftrata; which-fifl’ures are frequently filled with alluvial mat¬ ters, or with water, or are empty. Thefe perpendi¬ cular fiffures feem to have been occafioned by fome rupture or derangement of the ftratum through which the vein paffes, by which one part of it has been raifed or depreffed, or removed afide from the other, proba¬ bly by earthquakes. Where the veins are terminated abruptly, it does not ceafe, but is only broken and disjoined ; and is often recovered by fearching in the analogous parts of the oppofite fide of the deranged ftratum. A principal ptirt of the art of miners conlifts in difcovering the modes of thefe derangements from external marks, that they may know where to fearch L U R G Y. Sea. II. for the disjoined vein. Of Mines. The contents of 'veins are metals and metalliferous —* minerals; as, the feveral kinds of ores, pyrites, blends, guhrs, vitriols; the feveral kinds of floors, fpars, quartz, horn-blend, in which the ores are generally embedded, or inveloped, and to which therefore the name matrix of the ore is applied 5 ftalaftites ; cry- ftallizations of thefe metalliferous and ftony fubftan- ces encrufting the fmall cavities of the circumjacent rock ; and laftly, water, which flows or drops through crevices in that rock. In a vein, ores are found fometimes attached to the rock or ftratum through which the vein runs, but more frequently to a matrix which adheres to the rock; and fometimes both thefe kinds of adhefion occur in the fame vein at different places. Frequently betwixt the matrix and the roqk is interpofed a thin cruft of ftone or of earth, called by authors the fimbria of the ore. The matrix or the ftone in which the ore lies inve¬ loped is of various kinds in different veins. And fome kinds of ftone feem better adapted than others to give reception to any ore, or to the ores of particular me¬ tals. Thus quartz* fpar, fluors, and hornblend, give reception to all ofes and metals; but flates, chiefly to copper and filver, and never to tin ; calcareous and fparry matrixes, to lead, filver, and tin; and mica to iron. Veins lie in ftrata .of different kinds of ftone ; but more frequently in fome kinds of ftone than in others. Thus of the fimple or uncompounded ftones which compofe ftrata, the following are metalliferous; CaV careous ftones ; flaty fand-ftone (cos fiflilis arenofus Wal- lerii) ; feltfpar (fpatum pyrimachum five fcintillans) ; quartz; lometimes jafper; frequently Jlates; and chiefly micaceous os talky ftones; and hornblend, (lapis corneus Wallerii; bolus indurata particulis fquamofis Cronftedt). No veins have been found in gypfeous or in filiceous ftrata, although chertz and flints frequently contain metallic particles, and fome inftances have been obferved of ores of filver and of tin in alabafter. Of compound ftones, thofe are faid to be chiefly metalli¬ ferous which confift of particles of hornblend. Veins have alfo been found in the red granite; but feldom, if ever, in any other granite, or in porphyry. In gene¬ ral, veins are more frequently found in foft, fiflile, and friable ftrata,. than in thofe which are compadt and hard. A vein fometimes paffes from one ftratum into the inferior contiguous ftratum. Sometimes even the veins of one ftratum do fo correfpond with thofe of an in¬ ferior ftratum, the contiguity of which with the for¬ mer is interrupted by a mafs of different matter thro’ which the veins do not pafs, that they feem originally to have been continued from one ftratum to the other. Thus in the mines of Derbyftiire, where the veins lie in ftrata of limeftone, the contiguity of which ftra¬ ta with each other is interrupted in fome places by a blue marie or clay, and in other, places by a com¬ pound ftone called toadftone ; the veins of one ftratum frequently correfpond with the veins of the inferior ftratura of limeftone, but are never continued through the interpofed clay or toadftone. But we muft ob- ferve, that thefe interpofed maffes, the blue marie, clay, and toadftone, have not the uniform thicknefs Sea. II. METAL Formation obfervable in regular ftrata, but are (efpecially the of Mines, toadftone) in fome places a few feet in depth, and in others fome hundreds of yards. The above difpofition feems to indicate, that thefe feveral ftrat-a of limeflone have been originally contiguous ; that the veins now disjoined have been once continued ; that thefe ftrata of limeftone have been afterwards feparated by fome violent caufe, probably by the fame earthquakes which have in a Angular manner {battered the ftrata of this mountainous country ; that the interftices thus form¬ ed between-the feparated ftrata have been filled with fuch matters as the waters could infinuate, probably with the mixed comminuted ruins of {battered ftrata ; or with the lava of neighbouring volcanoes, of which many veftiges remain. To the above hiftorical fketch of mines, we {hall add fome conje&ural remarks concerning their forma- lion. Thofe ores which are found under water (I.); up¬ on the furface of the earth (III.) ; in fiffures of moun¬ tains and fubterraneous cavities, accumulated, but not accreted to the contiguous rocks, (IV. 4.); feem from their loofe, unconnected, broken appearances, to have been conveyed by alluvion. All martial ochres have probably been feparated from vitriolic ferruginous waters (II.) either fponta- neoufly or by calcareous earth ; and thefe waters feem to have acquired their metallic contents by diffolving the vitriol which is produced by the fpontaneous de- compofition of martial pyrites. The ochres of copper, zinc, and perhaps of feveral other metals, have pro¬ bably been precipitated from vitriolic waters by fome fubftance, as calcareous earth, more difpofed to com¬ bine with acids ; and thefe vitriolic waters have pro¬ bably been rendered metalliferous, by diffolving the vi¬ triols produced by a combuftion of cupreous pyrites and of the ore of zinc called blend; for thefe minerals are not, as martial pyrites is, fufteptibie of decompo- fition fpontaneoufly, that is, by air and moifture. The metalliferous nodules and fpots (IV. I.) feem to have been infixed in ftones while thefe were yet foft. Perhaps the metalliferous and lapideous particles were at once diflblved and fufpended in the fame aqueous menftruum, and during their concretion cryftallized diftin&ly, as different falts do when diffolved in the fame fluid. The earths and ftones uniformly coloured by metals (IV. 2.) were alfo probably in a foft ftate while they received thefe tinges-. The opake-coloured ftones feem to have received their colour from metallic calxes mixed and diffufed through the foft lapideous fubftance; and the tranfparent-coloured ftones have probably re¬ ceived their colours from vitriolic falls, or from metal¬ lic particles diffolved in the fame water which foftened er liquefied the ftony fubftance ; which metallic falts and particles were fo much diffufed, that they could not be diftindlly'cryftallized. That all ftones have been once liquid and diffblved in water, appears pro¬ bable not only from their regular cryftallized forms, but alfo the folubility of fome ftones, as of gypfeous and calcareous earths, in water; and from the water which we know is contained in the hardeft marbles, as well as in alabafters; to which water thefe ftones owe the cryftallization of their particles. The veins-called cumulated (IV. 5.), and the en- L U R G Y. 4917 tire metalliferous mountains (IV. 6 ), are believed Formation by Wallerius to be analogous to the nodules (IV. 1.) of MinfS- Thefe metalliferous fubftances feem to have been ori¬ ginally formed or concreted in the places where they are found. The metalliferous ftrata (IV. 3.)- have probably been infinuated between the lapideous ftrata,. after the feparation of thefe from each other by fome violent caufe ; in the fame manner in which we fuppofed that the clay and toadftone have been infinuated betwixt the feveral flrata of lime-ftone in Derbyfliire. The matters thus infinuated may have been either fluid,, which would afterwards cryftallize and form entire regular maffes; or they may have been the ruins of fhattered ftrata and veins brought by waters, and' there depofited; in which cafe they will appear broken and irregular. The metalliferous ftrata, although frequently confounded with the horizontal or dilated veins, may be diftinguiftied, according to Wallerius, from thefe by the following properties: 1. They are generally thinner and much broader than the veins called dilated. 2. They are feldom found at a greater depth than ro© perches, and generally in the neigh¬ bourhood of veins from which they probably have received their contents. 3. From their want of the. thin encruftations calledwhich, we obferved, are frequently interpofed betwixt the rock and the ore or its matrix; and from their want of the other pro¬ perties of veins. But in veins properly fo called, the ftrongeft markc exift of ores having been there concreted, and not carried thither and depofited in their prefent ftate. Their regular, unbroken appearance; their accretion- to the contiguous rock, either immediately, or by intervention of a matrix; the regular appearance of this matrix inveloping the ore; the frequent cryf¬ tallization of the ore, and of the other contents of the vein, indicate that ores, as well as the other folid contents, have been there concreted from a fluid to a folid ftate. Moft authors believe that veins, and the perpendi¬ cular clefts in the ftony ftrata of mountains, called fiffures, have been produced by the fame caufe; or rather, they confider veins only as fiffures filled with metalliferous matters. They further believe, that fif¬ fures have been occafioned by the exficcation of ftrata, while thefe were paffing from a fluid to a folid flare. Wallerius thinks, that fiffures have been formed from exficcation; but that veins were channels made through the ftrata, while yet foft and fluid, by water, or by the more fluid parts of the flrata penetrating and forcing a paffage through the more folid parts. He thinks, that thefe fluid parts conveyed thither their metalliferous and ftony contents, which' were there coagulated or concreted. He fupports his opinion by obferving, that all the veins of the fame ftratum ge¬ nerally run parallel to each other; that they fre¬ quently bend in their courfe ; that the fame vein is fometimes contradled, and fometimes dilated; that veins are frequently terminated by being fplit, or - divided into inferior veins; that veins are frequently wider at bottom than at top, whereas fiffures are always wideft at top, and are very narrow below; all which appearances, he thinks, could, not have been produced by exficcation. From thefe rea- 49i 3 METAL ■Formation fons, fifTures appear to have had a different, and, of Mines. fr0m the disjundtion and rupture of veins croffed by ’ fiffures, they feem to have had a later origin than veins. Whether fiffures could have been produced by the very gradual exiiccation of thefe large maffes of ftrongly coherent matter; or whether they have been ■produced by the fame violent caufes, namely, earth- -quakes, by which the ftrata in which fiffures are ge¬ nerally found have been broken and deranged, and by which metalliferous mountains themfelves have been formed, or their ftrata raifed above their original level, as fome authors have with great probability conjeftured, we do not pretend to determine. Veins are feldom, if ever, found but in mountains. The reafon of which may not improbably be, that in metalliferous mountains we have accefs to the more ancient ftrata of the earth, which in plains are covered with fo many depofited, alluvial, and other later ftrata, that we can feldom, if ever, reach the former. That thefe mountains confift of ftrata which have been ori¬ ginally lower than the upper ftrata of adjacent plains, appears from an obfervation which has been made, that the ftrata of mountainous countries dip with more or lefs declivity as they approach the plains, till they gradually fink under the feveral ftrata of thofe plains, and are at laft immerfed beyond the reach of miners. This leading fa& in the natural hiftory of the earth has been obferved by a fagaciousphilofopher, Mr Mitchell, in his Conjectures concerning Earthquakes, Phil. Tranf. 1760. That the inferior ftrata of the earth contain large ■quantities of pyritous, fulphureous, and metalliferous matters, appears, 1. From the fubterranean fires in thofe inferior ftrata, which produce volcanoes, and probably earthquakes, as Mr Mitchell ingenioufly •conje&ures. 2. From the obfervation, that all kinds of mountains are not equally metalliferous; but that veins efpecially are only found in thofe mountains which, being compofed of very ancient flrata, are called primuevfil, which form the chains and extenfive ridges on the furface of the earth, which dirett the courfe of the waters, and which confift of certain ftrata, the thicknefs of each of which, its generic qualities, and its pofition relatively to the other ftrata, are, in different parts of the chain of mountains where that ftratum is found, nearly uniform and alike, not- withftanding that the numbers and the inclinations of the ftrata compofing contiguous mountains, or even different parts of the fame mountain, are often very various; and therefore that veins are feldom, if ever, found in the mountains called by authors diluvial znA temporary, which are fingle, or detached, which confift not of ftrata uniformly difpofed, but of alluvial maffes, in which fragments of ores may be fometimes, but veins never, found. Neverthelefs, fingle and feemingly detached mountains, in fmall ifiands, have fometimes been found to be metalliferous. But we muft obferve, that thefe mountains confift of uniform ftrata; that iflands themfelves, efpecially fmall iflands, may be confidered as eminent parts of fub-marine ranges of mountains, and that the mountains of fuch iflands may be confidered as apices or tops only of in¬ ferior mountains. Thofe mountains are faid to be moft metalliferous which have a gentle afeent, a moderate height, and a l u k g Y. Sea. n broad bafis, the ftrata of which are nearly horizontal, Formation and not much broken and disjoined. In thefe moun- of Mines’ tains at leaft the veins are lefs interrupted, more ex¬ tended, and confequently more valuable to miners, than the veins in lofty, craggy, irregular, and fliattered mountains. Authors difpute concerning the time in which ores have been formed; fome referring it to the creation of the world, or to the firft fubfequent ages; and others believing that they have been gradually from all times, and are now daily, formed. From the accretion of ores and of their matrices to their proper rocks, and from the infertion of metalliferous nodules and Arise in the hardeft ftones, we are inclined to believe that the matter of thefe veins and nodules are nearly coeval^ with the rocks and ftones in which they are inveloped. Neverthelefs, we cannot doubt that fmall quantities at leaft of ores are ftill daily formed in veins, fiffures, and other fubterranean cavities. Several well-attefted inftances confirming this opinion are adduced by au¬ thors: Cronftedt mentions an incruftation of filver-ore that was found adhering to a thin coat of lamp-black or of foot, with which the fmoke of a torch had foiled a rock in a mine at Koninglberg in Norway; and that this incruftation of filver-ore had been formed by a metalliferous water palling over the rock. Lehman affirms, that he poffeffes fome filver-ore attached to the ftep of a ladder found in a mine in Hartz, which had been abandoned 200 years ago; and that feveral fteps of ladders fimilarly incrufted had been found. Many other inftances are mentioned by authors, of galena, pyrites, filver-ores, and other metalliferous fubftances, having been found adhering to wood, to foffil-Coal, to ftaladiitical incruftations, to oyfter- fhells, and other recent fubftances. From thefe, and from fimilar inftances, it is probable, that not only ochres and fragments of ores may, with other alluvial matters, be now daily depofited, but alfo that fmall quantities of mineralized ores are recently formed; although many hiftories mentioned by Becher, Barba, Henckel, and other authors, of the entire renovation of exhaufted veins, and efpecially thofe of the growth and vegetation of metals and of ores, appear to be at leaft doubtful. Various opinions have been publilhed concerning th# formation of mineralized ores. According to fome, thefe ores were formed by congelation of the fluid maffes found in mines, called Guhrs. Other authors believe, that ores have been formed by the condenfa- tion qf certain mineral, metallic, fulphureous, and ar- fenical vapours, with which they fuppofe that mines abound. Some have even affirmed, that they have feen this vapour condenfe, and become in a few days changed into gold, filver, and other metallic matters. It has been above obferved, that from feveral appear¬ ances which occur in veins, there is great realon to believe, that ores have not been carried thither and depofited in their prefent ftate, but have been there concreied and cryjiallized; that is, changed from a fluid to a foil’d ftate. But the fluidity of the metalliferous matters at the time of their entrance into veins, may have been occafioned either by their having been dif- folved in water, if they were capable of fuch folution, or by their having been raif^d in form of vapour by fubterranean' fires. For the difpofition to cryftallize is Part I. METAL Of Pyrites, is acquired by every homogeneous fubftance that is '—' fluid, whether it has received its fluidity by being melted by fire, or by being difiblved in a liquid men- ftruum, or by being reduced to the ftate of vapour. Thus cryftals of fulphur have been obferved to be daily formed by the fulphureous vapours which exhale in the neighbourhood of volcanoes. The volatility of the two mineralifing fubftances fulphur and arfenic, and the power which volatile bodies pofiefs of eleva¬ ting a certain portion of any fixed matter which hap¬ pens to be united with them, render it probable, that the greateft part at lead of mineralifed ores have been formed of vapours exhaled from fubterranean fires, through the cracks Jn the intervening ftrata occa- fioned by thofe earthquakes which have, in a Angular manner, broke and deranged the ftrata of metallife¬ rous countries,"and which, as has been above remarked, have been probably occafioned by, at leaft have cer¬ tainly been always accompanied with, fubterranean fives. Sect. III. Of the Pyrites. Pyrite is a mineral refembling the true ores of metals, in the fubftances of which it is compofed, in its colour or luftre, in its great weight, and, laftly, in the parts of the earth in which it is found, fince it al- moft always ascompanies ores. It is, like ores, com¬ pofed of metallic fubftances, mineralized by fulphur or by arfenic, or by both thefe matters, and of an unme- tallic earth intimately united with its other principles. Notwithftanding the conformity of pyrites with ores properly fo called, fome chemifts and metallurgifts di- ftinguifh the former from the latter minerals; becaufe the proportion and conneftion of the materials compo- fing the pyrites differ much from thofe of ores. Thus, although fometimes pyrites contains more metal than fome ores, yet generally it contains lefs metal, and a larger quantity of mineralizing fubftances, fulphur and arfenic, and particularly of unmetallic earth. The con¬ nexion of thefe matters is alfo much ftronger in py¬ rites than in ores, and they are accordingly much hard¬ er; fo that almoft every pyrites can ftrike fparks from fteel. From the above property of ftriking fparks from fteel they have been called pyrites} which is a Greek word tigmiy'mgfire-flone. Pyrites was formerly ufed for fire¬ arms, as we now ufe flints; hence it was called carabine- » Jione. It is ftill named by fome marcaftte. Perhaps no other kind of natural body has received fo many - names. Perfons curious to known the other names lefs ufed than thofe we have mentioned, may find them in Henckel’s Pyritclogia. We think, with that celebrated chemift, that the fubjeX has been perplexed by this multiplicity of names; for before his great and excel¬ lent work, the notions concerning pyrites were very confufed and inaccurate. Pyrite differs alfo from ores by its forms and pofi- tions in the earth. Although pyritous metals generally precede, accompany, and follow veins of ores; they do not, properly fpeaking, themfelves form the oblong and continued maffes called veins, as ores do; but they form maffes fometimes greater and fometimes fmaller, but always diftinX from each other. Large quanti¬ ties of them are often found unaccompanied by ores. They are formed in clays, chalk, marks, marbles, pla- Vol. VII. p L U R G Y. 4919 fters, alabafters, flates, fpars, quartz, granites, cryftals, Of Pro us ■ in a word, in all earths and ftones. Many of them are “ ~ alfo found in pit-coals and other bituminous matters. Pyrites is alfo diftinguithable from ores by its luftre and figure^ which is almoft always regular and uniform, externally or internally, or both. Some ores indeed, like thofe of lead, many ores of filver, and fome others, have regular forms, and are in fome manner cryftalli- zed; but this regularity of form is not fo univerfal and fo confpicuous in ores as in ,pyrites. The luftre of py¬ rites feems to be caufed by its hardnefs, and the regu¬ larity of its form by the quantity of mineralizing fub¬ ftances which it contains. By all thefe marks we may eafily, and without ana- lyfis, diftinguifh pyrites from true ores. When we fee a mineral that is heavy, poffeffed of metallic luftre, and of any regular form, the mafs of which appears evi¬ dently to be entire, that is, not to have been a fragment of another mafs, and which is fo hard as to be capable of ftriking fparks from fteel, we may be affured that fuch a mineral is a pyrites, and not an ore. The clafs of pyrites is very numerous, varfous, and extenfive. They differ one from another in the nature and proportions of their component parts, in their forms, and in their colours. The forms of thefe minerals are exceedingly various. No folid, regular or irregular, can eafily be conceived, that is not perfeXly imitated by fome kind of pyrites. They are fpherical, oval, cy¬ lindrical, pyramidal, prifmatical, cubic.; they are fo- lids with y, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, &c. fides. The furface of fome is angular, and confifts of many bafes of fmall pyramids ; while their fubftance is compofed of thefe pyramids, the points of which all unite in the centre of the mafs. Pyritous minerals differ alfo in their component fiib- ftances. Some of them are called fulphureous, martial, cupreous, arfenical, as one or other of thefe fubftances predominate. We mull obferve with Henckel, whofe authority is very great in this fubjeX, that in general all pyrites are martial; as ferruginous earth is the ef- fential and fundamental part of every pyrites. This earth is united with an unmetallic earth, with fulphur or arfenic, or with both thefe matters; in which cafe, the fulphur always predominates over the arfenic, as Henckel obferves. He confiders thefe as the only ef- fential principles of pyrites; and believes that all the other matters, metallic or unmetallic, which are found in it, are only accidental; amongft which he even in¬ cludes copper, although fo much of it exifts in fome kinds of pyrites, that thefe are treated as ores of cop¬ per, and fometknes contain even yolb. of copper each quintal. Many other metals, even gold and filver, are fometimes combined in pyrites; but thefe are lefs fre¬ quent, and the precious metals always in very fmall quantities; they are therefore juftly to be confidered as accidental to pyrites. The different fubftances compo- fing pyrites fenfibly affeX its colours. Henckel di- ftinguiflies them in general into three colours, white, yellowifti or a pale yellow, and yellow. He informs us, that thefe three colours are often fo blended one with another, that they cannot be eafily diftinguiihed unlefs when compared together. The white pyrites contain moft arfenic, and are fi- milar to cobalt and other minerals abounding in arfe- nie. The Germans call them mifpickel or mifpilt. Iron 27 T and 4920 METAL Cf Pyrites, and arfenic form the greateft part of thjs pyrites. As arfenic has the property of whitening copper; fome pyritous minerals almoft white, like that of Chemnitz in- Mifnia, are found to contain 40 pounds of copper per quintal, and which are fo much whitened by the arfenic, that they are very like white pyrites. But Henckel obferves, that thefe pyritous matters are very rare, and are never fo white as the true white pyrites, which is only ferruginous and arfenical. Yellowifh pyrites is chiefly compofed of fulphur and iron. Very little copper and arfenic are mixed with any pyrites of this colour, and mod of them contain none of thefe two metallic fubflances. This is the mod common kind of pyrites: it is to be found almod every where. Its forms are chiefly round, fpherical, oval, flattened, cylindrical; and it is compofed internally of needles or radii, which unite in the centre, or in the axis of the folid. Yellow pyrites receives its colour from the copper and fulphur which enter into its compofition. Its co¬ lour, however, is inclined to a green; but is fufficiently yellow to didinguifh it from the other two kinds of pyrites, particularly when they are compared together. To make this comparifon well, the pyrites mud be broken, and the internal furfaces mud be placed near each other. The reafon of this precaution is, that the colour of minerals is altered by expofure to the air. Perfons accudomed to thefe minerals can eafily di- ftinguifh them. The chief difficulty is, to didinguifh white pyrites from cobalt and other minerals; which alfo contain fome copper and much arfenic. Hence then we fee, that arfenic is the caufe of white- nefs in pyrites, and is contained in every pyrites of that colour; that copper is the principal caufe of the yellow colour of pyrites; and that every pyrites which is evidently yellow contains copper; that fulphur and iron produce a pale-yellow colour, which is alfo pro¬ duced by copper and arfenic ; hence fome difficulty may arife in didinguifhing pyrites by its colours. We may alfo obferve, that fulphur and arfenic, without any other fubdance, form a yellow compound, as we fee from the example of orpiment or yellow arfenic. Thus, although the colours of the pyrites enable us to didin¬ guifh its different kinds, and to know their nature at fird fight, particularly when we have been accudomed to obferve them ; yet we cannot be entirely certain concerning the true nature of thefe minerals, and even of all minerals in general; that is, to know precifely the kinds and proportions of their component fub- ftances, but by chemical analyfis and decompofition. Befides the above-mentioned matters which com- pofe pyrites, it alfo contains a confiderable quantity of unmetallic earth; that is, an earth which can¬ not by any procefs be reduced to metal. Henc¬ kel, Cramer, and all thofe who have examined this matter, mention this earth, and prove its exidence. We ought to obferve, that this earth is combined with the other principles of the pyrites, and not mere¬ ly interpofed betwixt its parts. It mud therefore be didinguifned from other earthy and dony matters mix¬ ed accidentally with pyrites, and which do not make a part of the pyrites, fince they may be feparated by mechanical means, and without decompofing that mi¬ neral : but the earth of which we now treat is inti¬ mately united with the other condituent parts of the L U R G Y. Parti. pyrites, is even a condituent part of pyrites, and ef- Of Pyrites, fential to the exidence of this mineral, and cannot be ~~ ~~ feparated but by a total decompofition of it. According to Henckel, this unmetallic earth a- bounds much in the white pyrites, fince he found from the analyfes which he made, that the iron, which is the only metal exiding in thefe pyrites, is only about -y^th part of the fixed fubdance that re¬ mains after the arfenic has been expelled by torrefac- tion or fublimation. A much larger quantity of iron is in the pale-yel¬ low pyrites, according to Henckel. The propor¬ tion of iron js generally about twelve pounds to a quin¬ tal of pyrites, and fometimes 50 or 60 pounds : this is therefore called martial pyrites. It contains a- bout of its weight of fulphur, and the red is un¬ metallic earth. The quantity of unmetallic earth contained in the yellow or cupreous pyrites, which are alfo martial, fince, as we have obferved, iron is an eCential part of every pyrites, has not yet been determined. They pro¬ bably contain fome of that earth, tho* perhaps lefs of it than the others. The nature of this unmetallic earth of pyrites has not been well examined. Henckel thinks that it is an earth difpofed already by nature to metallization, but not fufficiently elaborated to be confidered as a metal¬ lic earth. This opinion is not improbable; but as alum may be obtained from many pyrites, may we not fufpeft that this unmetallic earth is of the nature of the balls of alum or argillaceous earth ? Perhaps alfo this earth is different in different kinds of pyrites. The fubjeft deferves to be well examined. Although pyrites is not fo valuable as true ores, be- caufe in general it contains lefs metal, and but exceed¬ ingly little of the precious metals ; and becaufe its me¬ tallic contents are fo difficult to be extrafted, that, ex¬ cepting cupreous pyrites, which is called pyritous cop¬ per ore, it is not worked for the fake of the contain¬ ed metal; yet it is applied to other purpofes, and fur- nilhes us with many ufeful fubdances ; for from it we obtain all our green and blue vitriols, much fulphur, arfenic, and orpiment. See the principal procejfes by •which thefe fubjlances are ext rafted from pyrites, under the fedlion Smelting ^/'Ores. As all pyrites contain iron, and mod of them con¬ tain alfo fulphur ; as the pyrite mod frequently found contains only thefe two fubdances with the un¬ metallic earth ; and as iron and fulphur have a An¬ gular aftion upon each other when they are well mixed together and moidened ; hence many kinds of pyrites, particularly'thofe which contain only the prin¬ ciples now mentioned, fudain a Angular alteration, and even a total decompofition, when expofed during a cer¬ tain time to the combined action of air and water. The moidure gradually penetrates them, divides and attenuates their parts; the acid of the fulphur particu¬ larly attacks the martial earth, and alfo the unmetallic earth, its inflammable principle is feparated from it, and is diflipated. While thefe alterations happen, the pyrites changes its nature. The acid of the fulphur which is decompofed, forms with the fixed principles of the pyrites, vitriolic, aluminous, and feleniuc falts; fo that a pyrites, which was once a fhining, compaft, very hard mineral, becomes in a certain time a greyifh, fa- Part I, METAL Of Pyrites, line, powdery mafs, the tafte of which is faline, auflere, and ftyptic. Laftly, if this mafs be lixiviated with water, cryftals of vitriol, and fometimes of alum, according to the na* ture of the pyrites employed, may be obtained by eva¬ poration and cryftallization. This alteration and fpontaneous decompofition of pyrites, is called efflorefcejue zwA vitriolization; becaufe the pyrites become covered with a faline powder, and becaufe vitriol is always formed. This vitriolization is more or lefs quickly accompliihed in pyrites according to its nature. It is a kind of fermentation excited by moifture amongft the conftituent parts of thefe mine¬ rals; and it is fo violent in thofe which are moft difpo- fed to it, that is, in the pale-yellow pyrites, which contain chiefly fulphur and iron, that when the quan¬ tity of thefe is confiderable, not only a fulphureous va¬ pour and heat may be perceived, but alfo the whole kindles and burns intenfely. The fame phenomena are obfervable, and the fame refults are formed, by mixing well together, and moiftening a large quantity of fi¬ lings of iron and powdered fulphur; which experiment Lemeri has made, to explain the caufes of fubterranean fires and volcanos. We cannot doubt that, as the earth contains very large mafles of pyrites of this kind, they muft undergo the fame changes when air and moifture penetrate the cavities containing them; and the beft natural philofo- phers agree, that very probably this furprifing decom¬ pofition of pyrites is the caufe of fubterranean fires, of volcanos, and of mineral waters, vitriolic, aluminous, fulphureous, hot and cold. No other pyrites is fubjeft to this fpontaneous de¬ compofition when expofed to humid air, but that which is both martial and fulphureous; that is, the pale- yellow pyrites. The arfenical pyrites, or that which contains little or no fulphur, is not changed by expo- fure to air. This latter kind is harder, heavier, and more compaft, than the former. The pyrites which is angular and regularly fhaped, is chiefly of this kind. Mr Wallerius, in his Mineralogy, propofes to diftin- guifti this kind of pyrites by the name of marcafite. When cut, it may be poliftied fo well as to give a luftre almoft equal to that of diamonds, but without refrac¬ ting or decompofing the light; for it is perfedtly opake. It has been employed fome years paft in the manufac¬ ture of toys, as of buckles, necklaces, &c. and is call¬ ed in commerce marcajite. We cannot, however, concur with Mr Macquer, (from whom the above is taken), in thinking that there is fufficient reafon for confidering the minerals called pyrites, as a diftimSt clafs of fubftances from ores. They have indeed no mark by which they can certain¬ ly and conftantly be diftinguiftied from thefe. The hardnefs or property of ftriking ignited fparks from fteel is not common to all the fubftances generally call¬ ed pyrites; for we find fome of thefe enumerated by mineralogifts which have not that property. Wallerius .even mentions a pyrites which contains no iron, altho’ that metal is thought by Henckel to be efiential to py¬ rites. The diftindlion of pyrites from ores has been chiefly introduced by miners; becaufe the greateft part of the former minerals contain fo little metal, and fo much of the mineralizing fubftances, fulphur, or arfe- nic, that they are feldom fmelted. Neverthelefs, fome L U It G Y. 4921 kinds of pyrites are found which contain fo much cop- Effayhig. per, that they are fmelted with great profit. Accord- ingly, fome later mineralogifts confider the cupreous yellow pyrites as an ore of copper, the pale-yellow martial pyrites as an ore of iron; and the white arfe¬ nical pyrites as an ore of arfenic. See Ores ^Cop¬ per, Iron, and of Arsenic, infra. Sect. IV. EJfaying of Ores in general. Essays are chemical operations made in fmail, to determine the quantity of metal or other matter which is contained in minerals ; or to difeover the value or purity of any mafs of gold or filver. The former kind is the fubjedt of the prefent feftion; the latter is treat¬ ed under the word Essays, in the order of the alpha¬ bet. Before efiays of ores can be well made, a preliminary knowledge of the nature of the feveral metallic mine¬ rals ought to be attained. Each metal has its proper and improper ores, which have peculiar charafters and appearances: hence perfons accuftomed to fee them, know pretty nearly, by the appearance, weight, and other obvious qualities, what metal is contained in a mineral. A good efiayer ought to be very intelligent in this matter, that he may at once know what the proper operations are which are requifite to the effay of any given mineral. As metals are very unequally diftributed in their ores, we fhould be apt to make falfe and deceitful ef- fays, if we did not ufe all poffible precautions that the proportionable quantity of metal produced by an cflay fhall be nearly the medium contained in the whole ore. This is effected by taking pieces of the mineral from the feveral veins of the mine if there be feveral, or from different places of the fame vein. All thefe mi¬ nerals are to be fhook together with their matrixes. The whole is to be well mixed together, and a conve¬ nient quantity of this mixture is to be taken for the effay. This is called the lotting of the ore. As effays, particularly the firft, are generally made in fmail, eflayers have very fmail weights correfponding to the weights ufed in the great; that is, to the quin¬ tal or hundred pounds weight, to pounds, ounces, drams, &c. The effay quintal and its fubdivifions, vary according to the difference of weights in different countries ; and this occafions fome confufion, when thefe weights are to be adjufted to each other. Tables of thefe weights are found in treatifes of effaying; and particularly in that written by Schlutter, and tranflated and rendered more complete by Hellot, which contains all the details neceffary for the fubjeft. The cuftom is to take, for the effay quintal, a real weight of a gros, or dram, which in France is equal to 72 grains; but as the whole dram reprefents 100 pounds, each grain reprefents a pound and a fradKon of a pound ; and hence fome difficulty and confufion arife in making the fubdivifions. A better method is that of Mr Hellot, which is to make the fiftitious or effay quintal equal to 100 real grains, and then each grain reprefents a real pound. This effay quintal is fufficiently exaft for ores of lead, tin, copper, iron, antimony, bifmuth, and mercury. But for ores of fil¬ ver and gold, another reprefentation is convenient: for thefe metals, as Mr Hellot fays, are generally in fo fmall quantity, that the button or fmail piece of metal 27 T 2 ob 4922 METAL EiTaying of obtained in the eflay could not be accurately weighed 0ies' if 100 real grains were made to reprefent a quintal ; and the difficulty of feparating the gold from fo fmall a quantity would be ftill greater. Thefe motives have induced Mr Hellot to ufe for thefe ores a fi&itious quintal 16 times bigger; that is, equal to t6oo real grains, which reprefent 1600 ounces; that is, loolb. or quintal. The ounce being reprefented by a grain, its feveral fubdivifions muft be reprefented by fraftions of a grain. Thus 12 grains of the fidtitious quintal eorrefpond with ^ of a real grain (b) ; and this latter quantity may be accurately weighed in effay-balances, which when well made are fenlible to a much lefs weight. See (Effay) Balance. When a quintal of an ore to be effayed has been weighed, and lotted, as we defcribed above, it is to be roafted in a teft under a muffle. It Js to be waffled, if neeeffary; and, in fflort, the fame operations are to be made in fmall which are ufually done in great. Ad¬ ditions alfo are to be made, and in proper proportions, according to the peculiar nature of the ore. The fluxes generally mixed with the ore in effays are three, four, or five parts of black flux; one, two, or three parts of calcined borax; and one half of that quantity of de¬ crepitated common fait. The more refradtory the ore is, the more neceffary is the addition of thefe fluxes: then the whole mixture is to be fufed either in a forge, or in a melting or eflay furnace. To make effays well, all poffible attention and ac¬ curacy are to be employed. This objedf cannot be too much attended td; for the leaft inaccuracy in weigh¬ ing, or lofs of the fmalleft quantity of matter, might caufe errors, fo much greater, as the difproportion be¬ twixt the weights employed and thofe reprefented is greater. The moft minute accuracy therefore is ne¬ ceffary in thefe operations. For inftance, the effay- balances ought to be fmall, and exceedingly juft. The ore ought not to be weighed till it has been reduced to grofs powder fit for roafting ; becaufe fome of it is always loft in this pulverization. When the ore is roafted, it ought to be covered with an inverted teft ; becaufe moft ores are apt to crackle and difperfe when fir ft heated. To make the fufion good and complete, the precife degree of fire which is requifite ought to be employed; and when it is finiffled, the crucible ought to be (truck two or three times with fome inftrument, to facilitate the difengagement of the parts of the re- gulus from the fcoria, and to occafion their defcent and union into one button of metal. The crucible ought not to be broken, nor its contents examined, till it is perfe&ly cold. Upon breaking the crucible, we may know that the fufion has been good, if the fcoria be neat, compact, and equal; if it has not overflowed or penetrated the crucible; if it contain no metallic grains ; and if its L U It G Y. Parti. furface be fmooth, and hollowed in the middle. TheEffaying 0f regulus or button ought to be well collected, without °res. holes or bubbles, and to have a neat convex furface; it is then to be feparated from the fcoria, well fcraped and cleaned; and, laftly, is to be weighed. If the ope¬ ration has been well made, its weight fflews the quan¬ tity of metal which every real quintal of ore will yield in the great. If the perfect fuccefs of this effay be in any refpedf doubtful, it ought to be repeated; but the bell method at all times is, to make feveral effays of the fame ore. Some fmall differences are always found, however well the efiays may have been made. By ta¬ king the medium of the refults of the feveral opera¬ tions, we may approach as nearly as poffible the true product of the ore. Laftly, as mines are not worked, nor founderies e- ftabliffled (which cannot be done without confiderabie expence), till the ore has been effayed, ten or twelve real pounds of the ore ought to be previoufly effayed; and effayers ought to be furniffled with neceffary fur¬ naces and inftruments for thefe larger effays. In Part II. to the feveral articles of the ores of me¬ tals, we (hall add the moft approved methods of effay- ing thefe ores. We (hall here only further obferve in ge¬ neral, that the methods commonly pra&ifed for effaying ores of imperfedt metals, and femimetals efpecially, are infufficient to procure the whole quantity of metal con¬ tained in ores, or even fo much as is obtained in the fmelting of large quantities of ores ; and that there¬ fore the refult of eflays is not be confidered as the pre¬ cife quantity contained in an ore, butgenerally only as an inaccurate approximation to that quantity. M.Gel- lert aferibes one caufe of the want of fuccefs of thefe operations to the alkaline falls employed as fluxes to the ores, by which moft metallic calxes are partially foluble, but more efpecially fo when any of the ful- phur of the ore remains; which, by uniting with thefe falls, forms a hepar of fulphur which is the moft power¬ ful of all folvents. He propofes therefore to omit the black flux, and other alkaline falls, and to add no¬ thing to the ore but powder of charcoal, and fome fu- fible glafs. This method, he fays, he learned from Mr Cramer, and has himfelf ufed with much fuccefs in the effays of iron and copper; but finding that other im- perfeft metallic fubftances could not fuftain the heat neceffary to effeA thefufion and vitrification of the un- metallic parts of the ore without being partly diffipa- ted, he found it neceffary to add in the effays of thefe latter njetallic matters fome borax, by which the fu¬ fion might be completed with lefs heat. As we confi- der this as a confiderabie improvement in the art of ef¬ faying ores, we (hall, to the articles of the feveral ores, add not only the proceffes commonly preferibed, but all thofe of Mr Gellert, according to the method here mentioned.. PART (b) The pounds, of which 100 is here fuppofed to make a quintal, are called Paris pounds, one of which contains 1269 Troy grains. Part II. METALLURGY. 49 2 PART II. Containing a fummary defcription of the principal Ores of each Metal, and the methods of Effaying them. Sect. I. Ores of Cold. fenic, nor with fulphur, it is never found dire&ly mi- neralifed by thefe fubftances, as the other metals are. In the fecond place, if it be mineralifed indire&ly by the union it contra&s with other metals naturally com¬ bined with fulphur and arfenic, fo fmall a quantity of it only is found in thefe ores, that they fcarcely even deferve the name of improper ores of gold. Hence gold is found either in its natural ftate, of a certain degree of purity, poffefled of all its pro¬ perties ; or engaged with fome other metals in certain minerals. The gold which is found alone is called native or virgin gold. -This is generally incrufted, and fixed Jn different kinds of ftones, principally in flints and quartz. Mr Cramer fays, that the yellow brilliant fpots of the blue ftone, called lapis lazuli, are native gold; but thefe are very fmall. Gold is alfo found in fat and muddy earths; and Mr Cramer affirms, that fcarcely any fand can be found which does not contain gold ; but he acknow¬ ledges, at the fame time, that the quantity is too fmall to compenfate for the expence of obtaining it. Laftly, the largeft quantity of native gold is to be found in the fands of fome rivers. It is chiefly colle&ed in hollows at the bottom of thefe rivers, and at their feveral bendings. The gold is collefted in thefe places by a natural operation, fimilar to that of waihing of ores. A confiderable quantity of gold is in the fand of feveral rivers in France : fo that perfons who colleft it find enough to compenfate their trouble. Mr Reaumur, in a memoir that he gave in the year 1718 concerning the rivers of France which contain gold, enumerates ten of them; namely, the Rhine, the Rhone, the Doux, the Ceze, and the Garden ; the Arriege ; the Garonne ; two ftreams which flow into the Arriege, called Ferriet and Benagues; laftly, the Salat, the fource of which is in the Pyrenean mountains. The Ceze is the river which furnifhes the largeft quantity of gold at certain times. Mr Reaumur ob¬ serves, that its particles are larger than thofe of the Rhine and of the Rhone } and fays, that in fome days a peafant will find gold to the value of a piftole, and in others will fcarcely find any. The native gold found in rivers or elfewhere is ne¬ ver perfeftly pure, or of twenty-four karats. It al¬ ways contains a certain quantity of allay, which is generally filver. The gold of the French rivers, ac¬ cording to Mr Reaumur’s trials, was found to be from eighteen to twenty-two karats, that of the Ceze being the lowed, and that of the Arriege being the pureft. Although gold, however, as above obferved from Macquer, cannot be dire&ly difiblved by fiilphur, yet it probably may be mineralifed by the intervention of other metallic matters. Thus, although no proper ore of gold exifts, yet it is found in feveral mineral fubftances, in which it is always accompanied, as Cramer affirms, with a much larger quantity of filver; to which latter metal that author attributes its mine¬ ralifed ftate. The minerals containing gold are blend, cupreous and arfenical pyrites, ore of antimony, cin¬ nabar, white ore of arfenic, vitreous and other filve? ores, and the lead-ore galena. Gold is more frequently imbedded in quartz than in any other matrix, but it is alfo found in iimeftone and in hornblend. Gold mines are in general very precarious, as they do not form regular veins, nor i* the gold uniformly diftributed through a matrix. Becher and Cramer think, that no fand is entirely free from gold. The yellow, red, black, and violet- coloured ferruginous lands, are faid to contain moft gold* Mr Hellot relates, that in a eleven effays of one kind of fand, from a quintal, or 921,600 grains, were ob¬ tained each time from 848 to 844 grains of noble metal, exclufive of the gold which remained in the fcoria ; and that of the metal thus obtained two thirds were gold, and the remaining third was filver. He fays, that parcels of fand taken up at very fmall diftances from each other cantained very unequal pro¬ portions of gold. The gold found in fands is generally lefs pure than that which is imbedded in a folid matrix. Reaumur fays, that a piece of gold, weighting 448 ounces* was (hewn to the Royal Academy at Paris, which was found upon eflay to have different finenefs in dif¬ ferent parts of the mafs. § 2. Ores and earths containing gold may he ejfayed by the methods directed for the extra&ion of gold from large quantities of thefe auriferous matters, (fee Part III. ): or they may in general be effayed by being fufed in a cupel or teft, placed under the muffle of an effay- furnace, or in a crucible placed in an air-furnace, with eight or ten times their quantity of lead if they be eafily fufible, and with a larger quantityvof lead if they be difficultly fufible ; and by fcorifying the earthy matters, while the lead becomes impregnated with the noble metals. Thefe operations are entirely, fimilar to thofe employed for the reparation of filver from its ores by precipitation with lead ; a detail of 'which fee fubjoined under the fetlion Ores of Silver, \_ProceJfes I. III. IV. V. VI.], Thefe metals are afterwards to be fe- parated from the lead by cupellation, in the manner dire&ed in the article Essay (0/' the value offilver and of gold). The gold is then to be feparated from the filver by the proceffes deferibed in the article Parting. The quantity of lead to be added to the ore in this eflay mutt be fuch as renders the fcoria very thin,, that the whole gold may be imbibed by the lead. Some iron ores containing gold cannot be reduced into- 4924 Platina and into a fcoria fufficiently thin with fixteen times their 8'lver• quantity of lead unlefs the heat be at the fame time confiderably increafed. When the ore is exceedingly refra&ory, the fcorification ought to be promoted by adding to it four times its quantity of tartar, twice its quantity of nitre, and four times its quantity of litharge. This mixture is to be put in a good effay- crucible, and covered with the fea-falt. The cru¬ cible is to be fet in a forge-hearth, and expofed gra¬ dually to heat, till the fcoria has acquired fufficient fluidity, and the lead has imbibed the noble metal. See the methods •which have been ufed for effacing auriferous funds, under Part III. Sect. II. Ores of Platina. Platina is very rare, and has been but lately dif- covered. As, like gold, it cannot be allayed with fulphur or with arfenic, probably no ore, properly fo Called, exifts of this metal. Accordingly in the only mines of platina which we know, namely, the gold mines of Santafe near Carthagena, the platina is found native like the gold, and in its metallic ftate. Sect. III. Ores of Silver. § i. Next to gold, filver is the metal moft fre¬ quently found in its metallic ftate, that is, not mine- ralifed by fulphur or by arfenic. This filver, called alfo native or virgin, generally affe&s fome regular form, and confifts of filaments or vegetations of va¬ rious figures. It is found in form of plates, of fibres, or of grains, or cryftallized. It lies generally in quartz, flint, fpar, ftate, cobalt, and in filver-ores. It is fome- times enveloped in a thin ftony cruft. It is generally allayed with fome gold : but filver, like all the other metals, is much more frequently found mineralifed by fulphur and by arfenic. Three principal proper ores of filver are known, which are very rich, but very rare. Thefe are; 1. The vitreous fiver ore. This ore has no deter¬ minate figure, and has nearly the colour, foftnefs, and fufibility of lead. It is very heavy, and contains three quarters of its weight of pure filver. In this ore the filver is minerallized by fulphur alone. Some expert ar- tifts imitate it very well by combining fulphur with fil¬ ver by fufion in a crucible. This ore, according to Cronftedt, is either in form of plates or of fibres, or is cryftallized, or has no de¬ terminate figure. It may be imitated by adding about five parts of fulphur to one part of melted filver; in which operation moft of the fulphur is confumed : or it may be imitated by expofing a plate of filver red- hot to the fumes of burning fulphur. 2. The horny or corneous fiver ore. This ore is fo called from its colour and femitranfparency, by which it refembles horn or colophony. This ore, being fud- denly heated, crackles, as almoft all ores do, and melts with a gentle heat. Two-thirds of it are filver, which is mineralifed by fulphur and arfenic. This ore is very rare. Wallerius fays, after Woodward, that it is found at Johaun-Georgen-Stadt in Saxony. Corneous ore has various colours; white, pearly, brown, yellow, greenifh, or reddilh. It is foliated and femitranfparent. It is fomewhat duftile, and fu- fible with the flame of a candle. When heated, it e- mits, as WalUrius fays, a fulphureous and blue flame, Part II. and, according to Cramer, alfo a very fmall quantity Ores of of an arfenical fume. Wallerius fays, that it contains Sllver- two-thirds of filver, with a confiderable quantity of ful- phur, and a fmall quantity of arfenic. Lehman thinks that it is filver united with a little arfenic. But Mr Cron¬ ftedt fays, that it is a luna cornea, or filver combined with marine acid; and that it is incapable of being de- compofed but by fubftances which can unite with that acid. This latter opinion feems to be the moft probable; as the ore, according to its defcription, is fimilar to luna cornea, and as it cannot be imitated by any mixture of fulphur and of arfenic with filver. The blue flame, and the fmell flightly arfenical, which are emitted from heated corneous ore, are alfo obfervable from every combination of marine acid with a fubftance containing phlogifton. 3. Red fiver ore, called alfo rofclare. Its colour is more or lefs red ; it is fometimes cryftallized, very heavy, and is fufible like the above-mentioned ores. In this ore the filver is mineralifed by arfenic and by fulphur, but chiefly by the former. It alfo contains a little iron, and furnifhes two-thirds of its weight of filver. Its red colour may proceed either from the iron it contains; or from the mixture of arfenic and fulphur; or, laftly, from the particular manner in which the arfenic is united with the filver, an example of which we have in the red precipitate of filver made by the neutral arfenical fait. Red filver ore is either plated or folid, or cryftal¬ lized, and frequently femitranfparent. Its colour is various, from a dark grey to a deep red, according to the proportions of the two mineralifing fubftances. It crackles and breaks in the fire, exhales an arfenical fume, and is readily fufed. It is found generally in quartz, fpar, cryftal, hornblend. Befides the three filver ores above defcribed, the following ores contain filver mixed with other metals. 1. Grey fiver ore. This contains copper and filver mineralifed by arfenic and fulphur, and generally more of the former than of the latter metal; but as it is va¬ lued chiefly for the filver, it has been generally enu¬ merated amongft filver ores. 2. Whitefiver ore is an arfenical pyrites containing filver. 3. Black fiver ore contains fulphur, arfenic, copper, iron, fometimes lead, and about a fourth part of filver, according to Wallerius. 4. Plumofefiver ore is white or black, ftriated like plum-alum, or like ore of antimony. It is filver mi¬ neralifed by fulphur, arfenic, and antimony. 5. Pech-blend. In this blend filver, gold, and zinc, are mineralifed by fulphur, probably by inter¬ vention of iron, by which the gold and zinc are ren¬ dered capable of uniting with the fulphur. 6. Silver is frequently found in galena ; and fome¬ times in martial pyrites; in the red ore of arfenic ; in various ores of copper, lead, tin, iron, and efpecially cobalts in blends s in yellow: or red earths; in black and blue bafaltes; and alfo in flrata of fones which do not appear externally to contain any mineral fub¬ ftance. 7. Liquidfiver ore, or guhr of fiver, is a grey or whitifh liquid mafs, which contains, as Wallerius fays, either native filver, or fome fluid fubftance capable of producing it. Mr Cronftedt mentions, in the Swe- difh METALLURGY. Part II. METAL EfiayiHg difh Memoirs, a water flowing through a mine in 9re* of Norway containing filver. Another inftancc is al- 1 v€r~ fo mentioned of a filver guhr, in the Att. Erud. Up* fal. 1720. 8. Mr Von Jufti pretends, that be has found filver mineralifed by an alkaline fubjlance} but he has not fpoken fufficiently diftinftiy concerning it, to know whether he means a faline or earthy alkaline mat¬ ter. Henckel alfo pretends, that by treating calca¬ reous earth or certain clays with pyrites, fiiver may be obtained. $ 2. Ores of filver may be ejfayed by the fame me¬ thods which are employed for the extradiion of that metal from large quantites of ores ; which methods are different, and fuited to the different qualities of the different ores. See Part III. Or, in general, ores and earths containing filver may be effayed by the fol¬ lowing proceffes, which are copied from Dr Mortimer’s Englifh edition of Cramer's Art of Efaying Metals, Part II. Procefs 1. PROCESS I. To precipitate Silver by means of Lead from fufble Ores. “ Pound the ore in a very clean iron mortar into fine powder : of this weigh one dodmaftical centner or quintal, and eight of the like centners of granula¬ ted lead. “ Then have at hand the docimaftical teft, which muff not as yet have ferved to any operation : pour into it about half of the granulated lead, and fpread it with your finger thro’ the cavity of it. “ Put upon this lead the pounded ore ; and then cover it quite with the remainder of the granulated lead. <{ Put the teft thus loaded under the muffle of an cffay-furnace, and in the hinder part of it: then make your fire, and encreafe it gradually. If you look thro* the holes of either of the Aiders, you will foon fee that the pounded ore will be raifed out of the melted lead, and fwim upon it. A little after, it will grow clam¬ my, melt, and be thrown towards the border of the left : then the furface of the lead will appear in the middle of the teft like a bright difc, and you will fee it fmoak and boil : fo foon as you fee this, it will be proper to diminifli the fire a fmall matter for a quar¬ ter of an hour; fo that the boiling of the lead may almoft ceafe. Then again, increafe the fire to fuch a degree, that all may turn, into a thin fluid, and the lead may be feen, as before, fmoking and boiling with great violence. The furface of it will then di- minifti by degrees, and be covered over with a mafs of fcorias. Finally, have at hand an iron hook ready heated, wherewith the whole mafs muft be ftirred, e- fpecially towards the border;, that in cafe any fmall parcels of the ore not yet diffolved fhould be ad¬ herent there, they may be brought down, taking great care not to ftir any the leaft thing out of the teft. “ Now, if what is adherent to the hook during the flirting, when you raife it above the teft, melts quick¬ ly again,, and the extremity of the hook grown cold is covered with a thin, fmooth, fhining cruft ; it is a fign that the fcorification is perfect; and it will be the L U It G Y. 49^ more fo as the faid cruft adherent to the hook /Hall be liflaying coloured equally on every fide : but in cafe, while the of ?res ot fcorias are ftirred, you perceive any confiderable clam- Sllvt,r~ minefs in them, and when they adhere in good quan¬ tity to the hook, though red-hot, and are inequally tinged, and feem dufty or rough with grains inter- fperfed here and there ; it is a fign that the ore is not entirely turned into fcorias. In this cafe, you muft with a hammer ftrike off what is adherent to the hook, pulverize it, and with a laddie put it again into the teft, without any lofs or mixture of any foreign body, and continue the fire in the fame degree till the fcoria has acquired its perfection and the abovementioned; qualities. This once obtained, take the teft with a pair of tongs out of the fire, and pour the lead, toge¬ ther with the fcoria fwimming upon it, into a cone made hot and rubbed with tallow. Thus will the firft operation of the procefs be performed, which does not commonly indeed laft above three quarters of an hour. “ With a hammer ftrike the fcorias off from the re- gulus grown cold, and again examine whether they have the chara&eriftics of a perfeCt fcorification ; if they have, you may thence conclude, that the filver has been precipitated out of the ore turned to fcorias, and received by the lead. “ When the fcorification lafts longer than we men¬ tioned, the lead at laft turns to fcorias or litharge, and the filver remains at the bottom of the veffel: but the fire muft be moderately fupplied, and the veffels be extremely good, to produce this effeft ; for they fel- dom refift to the ftrength of the fcorias long enough ; fo that the whole fcorification may be brought to an end ; which has afterwards this inconveniency, that the. filver is difiipated by grains in the fmall hollows of the corroded ore, and can hardly be well colleAed again, when the ore has but little filver in it. Nay, there is (till more time to be confumed to obtain the per¬ fect deftruCtion of the lead, by means of the com¬ bined aCtions of the fire and air, becaufe the fcorias fwimming at the top retard it confiderably. “ In this procefs, the fulphur and the arfenic of the filver-ore, when the ore is broken fmall, and extended widely in a fmall quantity, are in part eafily diffipated by the fire, and in part abforbed by the lead ; the lighter part of which, fwimming upon the heavier, be¬ comes very clammy by means of the fulphur which is in the ore; but when this is diffipated by the violence of fire, it turns into glafs or fcorias: but when arfe¬ nic is predominant in the ore, the plumbeous part turns immediately into a very penetrating and very fu- fible glafs, having a diffolving efficacy, unlefs the ar¬ fenic lies hidden in a white pyrite or cobalt. For this rtafon, the fixed part of the ore, which is no filver, is diffolved by that glafs, melts, and affumes the form of fcorias. The unmetallie earths and the pure copper or lead ores thereto adherent are of this kind. The filver then remains immutable; and being freed of thefe heterogeneous bodies, which are partly diffipated and partly melted, it is precipitated and received by the remaining regulus of lead. Therefore this procefs is- completed by three diftinCl operations; viz: 1. By roafting. 2. By fcorification. 3. By the melting pre¬ cipitation of the filver, which is the refult of the two former operations.. The 4926 METAL E flaying of Ores of Silver. “ The ore muft be pulverifed very fine, in order to increafe the furface, that the diffipation of the vo¬ latiles and the diffolution by litharge may be fooner effe&ed. This pulverifing muft then be done before the ore is weighed, becaufe there is always fome part of the ore adherent to the mortar or iron plate on which it is made fine ; which part being loft, the operation is not exaft. Erker was in the right when he pre- feribed eight centners of lead for the fubduing of fu- fible ores. Neverthelefs, it muft be owned, that this quantity is fuperfluous in fome cafes. However, as the fluxibility of the filver-ore depends from the ab- fence of ftohes, pyrites, &c. it is eafy to fee, that there are an infinite number of degrees of fluxibility which it would be needlefs to determine exaftly, and moft commonly very difficult to determine by the bare fight. Befides, a little more lead does not render the procefs imperfeft; on the contrary, if you ufe too fmall a quantity of lead, the fcorification is never completely made. Nay, therfe are a great many ores, containing fulphur aod arfenic in plenty, that deftroy a confiderable quantity of lead : fuch are the red fil¬ ver-ore, and that wherein there is a great deal of the fteel-grained lead-ore. If the fire muft be fometimes diminiftied in the middle of the procefs, it is in order to hinder the too much attenuated litharge, which is continually generated out of the lead, from penetrating the pores of the left, and from corroding it ; which is eafily done when the fire is over-ftrong ; for then the furface of the vefiel which is contiguous to the lead contrafts cavities, or, being totally confumed by fmall holes, lets the regulus flow out of it. The veflels that are moft fubjeft to this inconvenience are thofe in the materials of which lime, plafter, and chalk are mixed. Nay, thefe bodies, which are of their nature refra&ory, being eroded during their fcorification, at the fame time communicate a great clamminefs to the fcoria ; fo that a great quantity of the mafs remains adherent to the teft in the form of protuberances, when you pour it out ; whereby a great many grains qf the regulus are detained.” PROCESS II. The regulus obtained by the procefs I. contains all the filver of the ore, and the unfeorified part of the lead. The filver may be afterwards feparated from the lead, and obtained pure by cupellation; which procefs is deferibed under the article Essay (of the value of Silver.) PROCESS III. If the fher-ore cannot he ovajhed clean, or if it be rendered refractory by a mixture of unmetallic earths andftones, the fcorification of thefe earthy matters fre¬ quently cannot be completed by the procefs I. Cra¬ mer therefore direds, that fuch ores lhall be treated ini the following manner. “ Bruifethe ore into an impalpable powder, by grind¬ ing in a mortar ; to a docimaftical centner of it, add a like quantity of glafs of lead finely pulverifed ; for the more exaflly thefe two are mixed together, the more feafily the fcorification afterwards fucceeds. Put this mixture, together with i 2 centners of lead, into the left, according to procefs I. then put the teft under the muffle. L U R G Y. Part II. “ Make firft under it a ftrong fire, til! the lead Eflaying boils very well ; when you fee it fo, diminilh the vio- ofgCjlts of lence of the heat, as was dire&ed in the firft procefs ; 1 vcr‘ but keep it thus diminiftted a little longer: then, fi¬ nally, again increafe the fire to fuch a degree, till you perceive the figns of a perfeft fcorification and fufion. See the whole procefs I. Now this procefs lafts a little longer than the foregoing, and requires a greater fire towards the end. “ It fometimes happens that a very refra&ory ore cannot be diflblved by litharge ; and that a mafs, which has the clamminefs of pitch, fwims upon the regulus and upon the fcorias themfelves which are al¬ ready fubdued in part: when you fee this, fhut the vents of the furnace to diminifh the fire; then gently touch this refraftory body with a fmall iron cold hook, to which it will immediately flick; take it off foftly, not to lofe any thing; pound it into a fine powder, adding a little glafs of lead, and put it again into the teft; then continue the fcorification till it is brought to its perfeftion. But you muft always examine the fcoria of your refra&ory ore, to fee whether there may not be fome grains of regulus difperfed in it: for fometimes the fcorias that grow clammy retain fome- thing of the metal; which if you fufped, pound the fcorias into a fine dull, and thus the grains of metal will appear if there are any left, becaufe they can never be pounded fine. The filver is feparated from this regulus by cupelling, as in Procefs II. “ All earths and ftones are refraftory in the fire: for, although fome of them melt naturally in the fire, as thofe that are vitri^able do ; neverthelefs, all the others, a very few excepted, melt much more diffi¬ cultly than metals, and never become fo thin in the fufion as is required for the fufficient precipitation of a precious metal. But litharge itfelf does not con¬ veniently diffolve thefe refra&ory matters by the help of fire alone, unlefs you add fome mechanical mixture to them; for the very moment the faid litharge pene¬ trates through the interftices of the refra&ory ore, and begins to diffolve it, a tenacious mafs is produced, which hardly admits any farther dilution by the li¬ tharge. You may fee it plain, if you make coloured glaffes with metallic calxes; if you pour careldly upon them a calx that gives a colour, you will never obtain that they may be equally dyed on every fide, even al¬ though you fliould torture them for whole days toge¬ ther in a great fire. Nay, glafs already made can never be diluted by only pouring falls and litharge upon it. Wherefore, you muft ufe the artifice of glafs-makers, who, in the making of the moft perfect glaffes, take great care, before they put the fpecies of their ingredients into the fire, to have a mechanical mixture precede, or at leaft accede during the fufion itfelf, which is done here by pounding glafs of lead mixed with the ore: but if you think that your glaf* of lead is not fufficiently.fufible, you may add to it litharge melted firft, and then pounded into a fine powder. “ As this fcorification requires a longer and a greater fire than the foregoing, and as a greater quantity of litharge is moreover requifite to fubdue the refraclory fcoria; it is eafy to fee why a much greater quantity of lead mutt be ufed here than in Procefs I.; and, although lefs lead is often fufficient, Part II. METAL Eflaying it is neverthelefs proper always to ufe the greateft of Ores of that can be neceffary; left, for inftance, it Silver, fhnulfl be neceflary to try fo many times the lead alone, to make it evident how much filver the lead when alone leaves in the coppel. Nor need you fear left any thing of the filver be taken away by the lead, provided the coppels be good, and the cop- pelling duly put in execution : for you can hardly colledft a ponderable quantity of filver out of the col- lefted fume of the lead, which rifes during the cop- pelling, as well as out of the litharge that is withdrawn into the coppel.” PROCESS IV. . If the ore he rendered refractory by pyrites, Cramer directs that the filver fliould be precipitated by lead in the following manner. (Art of Ajfaying, Part II. proc. 4.) “ Break your ore into a rough powder, and put a centner of it into the teft: put upon this another teft in the manner of a tile; put it under the muffle hardly red-hot: increafe the fire by degrees. There will always be a crackling: which being ended, take away the upper-teft ; for when the veffels have been red- hot about one minute, the ore ceafes to fplit. Leave the ore under the muffle till the arfenic and the ful- phur are for the moft part evaporated; which you will know from the ceffation of the vifible fmoke, of the fmell of garlic, or the acid ; then take away the teft, and leave it in a place not too cold, that it may cool of itfelf. “ Pour out, without any diflipation, the roafted ore, and with a knife take away what is adherent to the veffel; pound it to a moft fubtile powder, and grind it together with an equal weight of glafs of lead ; and, finally, fcorify the whole colle&ed ore in the fame teft wherein the tefting was made, unlefs it has contra&ed chinks, as was defcribed in Procefs III. “ Remarks. Yellow pyrites-ores contain a very great quantity of fulphur, even greater than is ne¬ ceffary to faturate the metal that lies hidden in them. For which reafon this fuperfluous fulphur diflipates in a middling fire ; but if it had been mixed with lead, it would have rendered it refra&ory, nor could it after¬ wards be diffipated from it without a confiderable deftrudiion of the lead. The white arfenical pyrites turn alfo a great quantity of lead into glafs, on ac¬ count of the abundance of the arfenic they contain. For which reafon thefe ores muft be previoufly roafted, that the fulphur and arfenic may be diflipated. Nor need you fear left any part of the filver be carried away with the arfenic; for when arfenic is feparated from any fixed body, by a certain degree of fire, it carries nothing of that body away with it.” PROCESS V. SILVER may be precipitated from its ore by cupellation only, in the following Procefs, given by Cramer, {_Art of Ajfaying, Part II. Proc. 9.] “ Pound one centner of ore; roaft it in the manner direfted in the laft procefs; beat it to a moft fubtle powder; and if it melts with difficulty on the fire, grind it together with one centner of litharge, which is not neceffary when the ore melts eafily : then Vol. VII. 1 L U R G Y. 4927 divide the mixture or the powder of the ore alone into Eflaying five or fix parts, and wrap up every one of them feve- of , as y°u do the copper-ore, but in a much ftronger fire, till it no longer emits any fmell; then let it grow cold again. Compofe a flux of three parts of the white flux, with one part of fufible pulverifed glafs, or of the like fterile unfulphureous fcorias, and add fandiver and coal-duft, of each one half-part; add of this flux three times the quantity of your roafted ore, and mix the whole very well together; then choofe a very good crucible, well rubbed with lute within, to ftop the pores that may be here and there unfeen; put into it the ore mixed with the flux; cover it over with common fait; and ihut it clofe with a tile, and with lute applied to the points. “ Put the wind-furnace upon its bottom-part, ha¬ ving a bed made of coal-duft. Introduce befides into the furnace a fmall grate fupported on its iron bars, and a ftone upon it, whereon the crucible may ftand as on a fupport: furround the whole with hard coals, not very large, and light them at top. When the veffel begins to grow red, which is indicated by the com- mon falt’s ceafing to crackle, ftop with grofs lute the holes of the bottom-part, except that in which the nozzle of the bellows is received: blow the fire, and excite it with great force, adding now and then frefh fuel, that the veffel may never be naked at top: ha¬ ving thus continued your fire, in its full ftrength for three quarters of an hour, or for a whole hour, take next the veffel out of it, and ftrike feveral times the pavement upon which it is fet, that the fmall grains of iron which happen to be difperfed may be colleiled into a regulus, which you will find after having broken the veffel. “ When the regulus is weighed, try its malleabi¬ lity: then make it red-hot; and when fo, ftrike it with a hammer: if it bears the ftrokes of a hammer, both when red-hot and when cold, and extends a little, you may pronounce your iron very good; but if, when either hot or cold, it proves brittle, you may judge it to be not quite pure, but ftill in a femi-mineral con¬ dition. “ Remarks. The arfenic, but efpecially the ful- phur, muft be diflipated by roafting : for the former renders the iron brittle; and the latter not only does the fame, but, being managed in a clofe veffel, with a faline alkaline flux, turns to liver of fulphur; to the adlion of which iron yielding in every refpeft, it can upon no account be precipitated; and if not the whole, a great part of it, at leaff, is retained by the fulphu- reous fcoria; fo that in this cafe you commonly in vain look for a regulus. “ The iron obtained from this fir ft precipitation has hardly ever the requifite duftility, but is rather brittle: the reafon of which is, that the fulphur and arfenic remain in it; for notwithftanding that the greateft part of thefe is difiipated by roafting, yet fome part adheres fo ftriftly, that it can never be fe- parated but with abforbent, terreftrial, alkaline ingre¬ dients, that change the nature of the fulphur. For which reafon, in larger operations, they add quick¬ lime, or marble {tones that turn into quicklime; which, while they abforb the faid minerals, are, by it, and by help of the deftroyed part of the iron, brought to a fufion, and turn to a vitrified fcoria; although, at other times, they refift fo much by their own nature a Vol. VII. 2 L U R G Y. 493,- vitrification. Another caufe of the brittlenefs of iron Eiiaying is the unmetallic earth, when it is not yet feparated of °res of from it; for the iron ore contains a great quantity of Iron‘ it, and in the melting remains joined with the reguline part : whence the iron is rendered very coarfe and brittle. Some iron ores are altogether untradable: neverthelefs, the regulufes produced out of them, when broken, have fometimes a neat femi-metallic look ; which proceeds undoubtedly from a mixture of a fmall quantity of fome other metal or femi- metal.” PROCESS II. [The following Procefs for effaying iron ores, and ferruginous ftones and earths, is extraded from Mr Gellert’s Elements of EJfaying.~\ “ Roast two quintals of iron ore, or of ferrugi¬ nous earth: divide the roafted matter into two equal parts; to each of which add half a quintal of pulve¬ rifed glafs, if the fubftance be fufible and contain much metal; but if otherwife, add alfo half a quintal of calcined borax. If the roafting has entirely difen- gaged the fulphur and arfenic, an eighth part, or even half a quintal, of quicklime may be added. With the above matters, mix twelve pounds of charcoal- powder. “ Take a crucible, arid cover the bottom and fides of its inner furface with a pafte made of three parts of charcoal-duft and one part of clay beat together. In the hollow left in this pafte put the above mixture; prefs it lightly down; cover it with pulverifed glafs; and put on the lid of the crucible. “ Place two fuch crucibles at the diftance of about four fingers from the air-pipe, in fuch a manner that the air fhall pafs betwixt them at about the third part of the height from the bottom: fill the fpace be¬ twixt the two crucibles with coals of a moderate fize: throw lighted coals upon them, that the fire may de- feend and make them red-hot from top to bottom: at firft let the bellows blow foftly, and afterwards ftrongly during an hour, or an hour and a quarter: then take away the crucible, and break it when cold. A regulus will be found in the bottom, and fometimes fome fmall grains of iron in the fcoria, which muft be feparated and weighed along with the regulus: then try the regulus, whether it can be extended under the ham¬ mer, when hot and when cold. “ Remarks. To difengage a metal from the earthy matters mixed with it by fire, we muft change thefe matters into fcoria or glafs. This change may be effe&ed by adding fome fubftance capable of diffolving thefe matters; that is, of converting them into a fcoria or glafs, from which the metallic matters may, by their weight, feparate and form a regulus at bottom. Fixed alkali, which is an ingredient of the black and of the white flux, is a powerful folvent of earths and ftones: but the alkali does alfo diffolve iron, efpecially when this is in a calcined or earthy ftate ; and this folution is fo much more complete, as the fire is longer applied. Hence, in ordinary effays, where an alkaline fait is ufed, little or no regulus of iron is obtained. Now, glafa adts upon and diffolves e.arths and ftones; but not, or very little, iron: confequently glafs is the beft flux for fuch effays, and experience confirms this affertion. If the ore contains but little iron, we may 27 X alfo 4932 ^res of Mercury. METAL alfo add to the glafs fome borax; but borax cannot be employed fingly, becaufe it very foon fufes, and feparates from tlie ore before the metal is revived. Quicklime is added, not only to’abforb the fulphur and arfenic remaining in the ore, but alfo becaufe it diflblves and vitrifies the (tony and earthy matters of iron ores, which are generally argillaceous. For which reafon, in the large operations for fmeking iron ore, quicklime, and even in certain cafes gypfum, are com¬ monly added to facilitate the fufion. The reduction of iron-ore, and even the fufion of iron, requires a violent and long-continued heat: therefore, in this operation, we mud not emplfiy an inflammable fubftance, as pitch, that is foon confu- med, but charcoal pulverifedr which in clofe veflels is not fenfibly waded. Too much charcoal mud not be added, elfe it will prevent the adlion of the glafs upon the earthy matter of the ore, and confequently the feparation of the metallic part. Experiments have taught me, that one part of charcoal-dud to eight parts of oar was the bed proportion. When iron is furrounded by charcoal, it is not de- compofed or dedroyed: hence the iron of the ore, which finks into the hollow made of pafle of charcoal- dud and clay, remains there unhurt. The clay is added in this pade to render it more compafil, and to keep the fluid iron collefted together. The air is dire&ed betwixt the crucibles; becaufe if it was thrown dire&ly upon them, they would fcarcely be able to refid the heat. The fpace betwixt the air-pipe and the crucibles ought to be condantly filled with charcoal, to prevent the cold air from touching the crucibles. Du&ile and malleable iron is feldom obtained in this fird operation. The fulphur and arfenic, and frequently alfo an earthy matter ad¬ hering to the iron, prevent thefe qualities. Sect. VIII. Ores of Mercury. § i. Mercury is fometimes found pure, fluid, and in its proper metallic date, only mixed with earths and dones. Such are the ores of mercury found near Montpelier, in Tufcany, and in other places. But the larged quantity of the mercury found in the earth is mineralifed by fulphur, and confequently is in the form of cinnabar. Mercury is never mineralifed by arfenic. The riched mine of mercury is that of Almaden, in Spain. Linnteus and Crondedt mention a Angular ore, in which the mercury is mineralifed by fulphur and- ly copper. It is faid to be of a blackifli-grey colour, of a glaffy texture, and brittle. When the mercury and fulphur are expelled by fire, the copper is difcovered by giving an opake red colour to glafs of borax, which, by continuance and increafe of heat, becomes green and tranfparent. $ 2. Cramer dir efts, that ores of mercury Jhould be effayed by the following Procefles. PROCESS I. To feparate Mercury out of an mfulphureous Ore ly Difillation. 11 Take a lump of the pulverifed ore, one common pound, which mud Aand fo’f one centner : put it into L U R G Y. Part II. a glafs retort perfeftly clean, well loricated, or coat- Edging^ ed up to half the length of its neck : this mud be very 0^0r<:S °' long, and turned backwards with fuch a declivity, 1 t-lCU!7- that a glafs recipient may be perpendicularly applied to it : but you mud choofe a retort fmall enough, that the belly of it may be filled hardly two-thirds with the ore: this retort mud be placed fo, that nothing of the fluid adherent to the neck of it may fall into the cavity of the belly, but that the whole may run forward into the recipient. Finally, have a fmall re¬ cipient full of cold water: let it be perpendicularly fituated, and receive the neck of the retort in fuch manner that the extremity of it be hardly one half¬ inch immerfed into the water. “ Let the retort be furrounded with hot burning coals placed at fome diftanee in form of a circle, led the veflel (hould burd by too fudden a heat: then by degrees bring the burning coals nearer and nearer, and at lad Curround the whole retort with them and with frefli charcoal, that it may grow flightly red-hot: this fire having been continued for an hour, let the retort cool of itfelf: then.drike the neck of it gently, that the large drops which are always adherent to it may fall into the recipient: let the recipient be taken away, and the water feparated from the mercury by filtration, and let the mercury be weighed. This ope¬ ration may be more conveniently performed in a fand- bath; in which cafe the pot containing the fand mud be middling red-hot, and the retort be able to touch the bottom of it immediately; nor is it then neceflary that the retort be loricated.” PROCESS IT. To revive Mercury from a fulphureous Cinnalar-ore. “ Beat your ore extremely fine, and mix it exaft- ly with an equal portion of iron-filings, not rudy ; proceed to didill it with the fame apparatus as in the former procefs, but urge it with the dronged fire that can be made. “ Cinnabar may be feparated from dones by fub- limation thus: Beat it to a fine powder, and put it into a fmall narrow glafs or earthen cucurbit, the belly of which it mud not fill more than one-third part: dop the orifice at top; this mud be very nar¬ row, to hinder the free aftion of the air. Put this fmall cucurbit in an earthen pot above two inches wide in diameter, and gather fand around this pot about as high as the pulverifed ore rifes in the cucurbit. Then put it upon burning coals in fuch manner that the bottom of the pot may be middling red-hot. Thus will your cinnabar afcend and form a folid ponderous ring, which mud be got out by breaking the vefiel.” Sect. IX. Ore of the Regulus of Antimony. Native regulus of antimony was fird obferved by Mr Swab, in Sweden, in the mine of Salberg, and defcribed by him in the memoirs of the Swedifh Aca¬ demy in 1749. Mr Wallerius mentions it in his Mi¬ neralogy. Regulus of antimony is generally united with ful¬ phur, with which it forms antimony, which ought to be confidered as a true ore of the regulus of an¬ timony. Another ore of regulus of antimony is alfo known, of Part II. METAL Ores of of a red colour, In which the regulus is mineralifed Antimony, by arfenJc ancJ by fulphur. This ore refembles fome iron ores, and fome kinds of blend. It is di- fHnguidied by its great fufibility, which is fuch, that it may be eafily melted by the flame of a candle. The native regulus of antimony, by Von Sweb, is faid by that author to have differed from the re¬ gulus of antimony obtained from ores, in thefe two properties, that it was capable of being eafily a- malgamated with mercury, and that its calx fhot into cryttals during the cooling. Befides the ores of regulus of antimony enumerated above, this femimetel is alfo found in ores of other metallic fubftances, as in the plumofeJilver-ore, and in the Jlibiated lead-ore. § 2. The ores of antimony may be ejfayed by the fol¬ lowing proceffes defcribed by Mr Cramer. PROCESS I. 7c obtain antimony from its ore. “ Choose a melting crucible, or an earthen pot not glazed, that may contain fome common pounds of the ore of antimony, broken into fmall bits. Bore at the bottom of the crucible fome fmall holes, two lines in diameter. Let the bottom of the veffel be received by the orifice of a fmaller one, upon which it muft be put; and when the ore is put into it, let it be covered with a tile, and all the joints be flopped with lute. “ Put thefe veffels upon the pavement of a heath, and put ftones all around them at the diftance of fix inches. Fill this intermediate fpace with afhes, fo high that the inferior pot be covered to the upper brim. Then put frefh and burning coals upon it, and with a pair of hand-bellows excite the fire, till the upper veflels grow red-hot; take off the fire a quarter of an hour after; and when the veflels are grown cold, open them. You will find that the melted antimony has run through the holes made at the bottom of the upper veflel into the inferior one, where it is collefted.” PROCESS II. To roaji crude antimony, or its ore, ’with or 'without addition. “ Choose an earthen, flat, low difli, not glazed ; and if it cannot bear being made middling red-hot, cover it over with a coat of lute without. Spread it thinly over with crude antimony, or with its ore, beaten to a pretty coarfe powder, not exceeding a few ounces at once. Put the difh upon a fire-pan, having a few burning coals in it: increafe the fire till it begins to fmoke a little. Meanwhile you muft inceflantly move the powder with a piece of new tobacco-pipe; for this caufes the fulphur to evaporate the fooner. If you increafe the fire a little too foon, the powder imme¬ diately gathers into large clots, or even begins to melt. When this happens, take it immediately off the fire before it melts entirely. Then pulverife it again, and finally make a gentle fire under it. Your black fhining powder will affume an alh-colour almoft like that of earth, and become more refra&ory in the fire; wherefore you may then increafe the fire till your L U R G Y. powder grows middling red-hot, and let it lad till it ceafes to fmoke. If you add to your crude antimopy ' pulverifed, half or an equal quantity of charcoal-duff," and perform the reft as above, the roafting will be done more conveniently : for it does not gather fo eafily into clots, and melts with much greater difficul¬ ty. When part of the fulphur is evaporated, add fome fat to it at feveral times. Thus you will fooner finiftr the operation, and the remaining calx will not be burnt to excels. However, if it be thus expofed to too vio¬ lent and long-lafting a fire, a great quantity of it eva¬ porates ; nor does it ceafe entirely to fmoke in a great fire. And it will be enough, if, growing middling red-hot, it does no longer emit the unpleafant fmell of the acid of fulphur.” P R O C E S S III. To reduce a calx of antimony into a femi-metallic re¬ gulus. “ Mix fome calx of antimony with a quarter part of the black flux, and put it into the crucible. Cover the veflel with a tile ; make the fire as quickly as the veflel can bear it, but not greater than is neceflary to melt the flux. When the whole has been well in fufion for half a quarter of an hour (which may be tried with a tobacco-pipe, taking off the tile) pour it into the melting cone, which muft be warm and done over with tallow. Then immediately ftrike the cone feve¬ ral times. You will find, when the cone is inverted, a regulus, above which is a faline fcoria.” The methods of calcining antimony by means of nitre, are defcribed under Chemistry, n° 489—459; and thofe of obtaining a regulus of antimony without a pre¬ vious calcination or roafting, by throwing a mixture of powdered antimony, tartar, and nitre, into a red-hot crucible, and by fufing this mixture, and of obtaining a martial regulus of antimony, are defcribed at the ar¬ ticle Rf.gulus. Sect. X. Ores of Bifmuth- $ 1. Bismuth is found native, refembling the re¬ gulus of bifmuth. An ochre of bifmuth, of a whitifti yellow colour, is mentioned by Crohftedt; and is different from the ore improperly called flowers of bifmuth, which is a calx of cobalt. Bifmuth is mineralifed, 1. ’Ry fulphur. This ore has the appearance of galena. 2. With fulphuratcd iron. Bifmuth is found alfo in cobalts, and in fome ores of filver. § 2. Ores of Bifmuth may be ejfayed by the follow¬ ing procefs. PROCESS I. To melt bifmuth from its ore. “ Bismuth ore may be melted with the fame ap¬ paratus as was dire&ed for the fufion of crude anti¬ mony out of its ore. Or you may beat your ore to a very fine powder, with the . black flux, fandiver, and common fait, in a clofe veffel, like the ore of lead, or of tin, and melt it in a middling fire, having a draught of air. But as this'femi-metal is deftru&ible and vo¬ latile, you muft as quick as poffible apply to it that degree of fire which thf* flux requires to be melted ; 27 X 2 and 4933 Ores of ■ Bifmurh, 4934 METAL Ores of and fo foon as it is well melted, the veffel mud be ta- Cobalt. ken out 0f gre . anj when grown quite cold and broken, you will find your regulus.” Mr Gellert diredls that ores of bifmuth fliould be effayed by fnfing a quintal of pulverifed ore with half a quintal of calcined borax and half a quintal of pul¬ verifed glafs, in order to vitrify the adherent earths and {tones which invelop the bifmuth. But probably the heat requifite for this vitrification would volatilife part of the bifmuth. If the ore be of the kinds above defcribed, minera- lifed by fulphur, or by fulphur and iron, a previous roafting would be expedient, which may be performed in the fame manner as is dire&ed for the roafting of antimony. Sect. XI. Ores of the Regulus of Cobalt. Cobalt is a grey-coloured mineral, with more or lefs of a metallic appearance. Its grain is clofe; it is compaft and heavy, and frequently covered with an efflorefcence of peach-coloured flowers. Of this feve- * See ral kinds are known*. All the true cobalts contain the Coialt. femi_meta] called regulus of cobalt, the calx of which becomes blue by vitrification. This regulus is mine- ralifed in cobalt by fulphur, and efpecially by a large quantity of arfenic. Some cobalts alfo contain bif- muth and filver. Authors have given the name of cobalt to many mi¬ nerals, although they do not contain the femi-metal above-mentioned, but only becaufe they externally re- femble the ore of the regulus of cobalt. But thefe minerals can only be confidered as falfe cobalts. They are diftinguilhable from true cobalt by trying whe¬ ther they can yield the blue glafs called fmalt', and the fympathetic ink. The red e/Horefcence is alfo a mark by which true cobalt is diftinguifhable from the falfe s but this efflorefcence only happens when the ore has been expofed to a moift air. The principal mines of cobalt are in Saxony, where they are dug for the fake of obtaining zaffre, azure- blue or fmalt, and arfenic. Very fine cobalt is alfo found in the Pyrenean mountains. It has been like- wife found in Cornwall and Scotland. And that it is in the eaftern parts of Afia, appears from the blue co¬ louring on old oriental porcelain: but probably the mines difeovered in thefe countries are nearly exhauft- ed, as confiderable quantities of zaffre and fmalt are exported from Europe to China. Cobalt is heavier than moft other ores, from the large quantity of arfenic it contains; and in this re- fpeft it refembles the ore of tin. Befides the grey or afh-coloured cobalt above de¬ fcribed, which is the moft frequent, other cobalts are found of various colours and textures, mixed with va¬ rious fubftances. Wallerius enumerates fix fpecies of cobalts, i. The ajh-coloured ore, which is regulus of cobalt mineralifed by arfenic, confifting of fhining leaden-coloured grains. Some ores of this kind are compaft refembling fteel, and others are of a loofe texture and friable. 3. Hht fpecular ore is black, Ali¬ ning like a mirror, and laminated. This fpecies is very rare; and is fuppofed by Wallerius to be a foliated fpar, or felenites mixed with cobalt. 3. Tlhz vitreous, or flag-like ore, is of a bluifti, fliining colour, compaft, or fpongy. 4. Cryftallized We, is a grey, deep-colour- L U R G Y. Part II. ed cobalt, confifting of clufters of cubical, pyramidal, Ores of prifmatic cryftals. 5. Flowers of cobalt, red, yellow, Zmc- or violet. Thefe flowers feem to be formed froiil fome of the above-deferibed compaft ores, decompofed by expofure to moift air. This decompofition is fimilar to that which happens to ferruginous and cupreous py¬ rites. 6. The earthy coialt is of a greenifti white, or of a yellow colour, and of a foft and friable texture. This fpecies feems to be an ochre of cobalt ; and is formed perhaps from the flowers of cobalt further de¬ compofed, in the fame manner as a martial ochre is formed from the faline efflorefcence of decompofing pyrites, when this efflorefcence is further decompofed by expofure to moift air; by which the vitriolic acid contained in it is expelled, and the efflorefcence is changed from a faline ftate to that of an ochre or calx. Befides thefe proper ores, cobalt is alfo found in a blue clay along with native filver, in ores of bifmuth, and in the mineral called kupfernickel. See Nickel. The effay of cobalt is defcribed at the article Regu- lus of Cobalt. Sect. XII. Ores of Zinc. § I. The proper ore of zinc is a fubftance which has rather an earthy or ftony than metallic appearance, and is called calamy, calamine, or lapis calaminaris. This (tone, although metallic, is but moderately heavy, and has not the brilliancy of moft other ores. Its colour is yellow, and like that of ruft. It is alfo lefs denfe than other metallic minerals. It feems to be an ore naturally decompofed. The calamine is not work¬ ed diredly to obtain zinc from it, becaufe this would only fucceed in clofe veffels, and confequent- ly with fmall quantities, according to Mr Margraaf’s procefs. But it is fuccefsfully employed for the con- verfion of copper into brafs by cementation, by which the exiftence of zinc in that ftone is fufficient- ly proved. Mr Wallerius enumerates alfo amongft'the ores of zinc a very compounded mineral, confifting of zinc, fulphur, iron, and arfenic. This mineral, called blend, refembles externally the ore of lead, and hence has been called falfe'galena. Thefe blends have different forms and colours; but are chiefly red, like the red ore of antimony. Zinc is obtained from certain minerals in the Eaft Indies, of which we know little. Calciform ores of zinc, according to Cronftedt, are pure or mixed. The pure are indurated, and fome- times cryftallifed, refembling lead-fpar. The mixed ore contains alfo fome calx of iron. This is calamine. It is whitifti, yellowifti, reddifti, or brown. Zinc is mineralifed, 1. By fulphurated iron. Ore of zinc. Wallerius fays, lead is fometimes contained in this ore. It is white, blue, or brown. 2. By ful¬ phur, arfenic, and iron. Blend, or pfeudo-galena, or. falfe-galena, or black-jack. Thefe are of various co¬ lours, white, yellowifti, brown, reddifli, greenifti, black. They confift of feales, or are teffelated. Mr Cronftedt thinks, that in blends the zinc is mineralifed in the ftate of a calx, and in the ore of zinc in its metallic ftate. $ 2. Although the minerals above enumerated have been known, from their property of converting copper into bfafs, to be ores of zinc, yet the method of ef- faying Part II. METAL Ores of faying them fo as to obtain the contained zinc was not Zinc, known, or at leaft Tiot publifhed, before Mr MargraaPs Memoir of the Berlin Academy for the year i 746, up¬ on that fubjeft. That very able chemift has fhewn, that zinc may be obtained from its ores, from the flowers, or from any other calx of zinc, by treating thefe with charcoal duft, in clofe veffels, to prevent the combuftion of the zinc, which happens immediate¬ ly upon its reduction when expofed to air. For this purpofe, he put a quantity of finely powdered cala¬ mine, or roafted blend, or other calx of zinc, well mixed with an eighth part of charcoal-duft, into a ftrong, luted earthen retort, to which he fitted a recei¬ ver. -^Having placed his retort in a furnace and raifed the fire, he applied a violent heat during two hours. When the veflels were cold and broken, he found the zinc in its metallic form adhering to the neck of the retort. The chief difficulty in this operation is to get an earthen retort fufficiently compact to retain the va¬ pour of the zinc, (for it eafily pervades the Heffian crucibles, Stourbridge melting-pots, and fimilar vef¬ fels, as may be feen from the quantity of flowers which appear upon their outer furface, when zinc or its calxes and any inflammable matter have been ex¬ pofed to heat within thefe veflels) and at the fame time fufficiently ftrong to refill the violent fire which Mr Margraaf requires. A pretty exaft effay of an ore of zinc may be made in the following manner. Mix a quantity of pulverifed roafted ore or calx of zinc with an eighth part of charcoal-duft. Put this mixture into a crucible capable of containing thrice the quan¬ tity. Diffufe equally amongft this mixture a quantity of fmall grains or thin plates of copper equal to that of the calamine or ore employed, and upon the whole lay another equal quantity of grains or plates of copper ; and laftly, cover this latter portion of copper with charcoal-duft. Lute a lid upon the crucible ; and ap¬ ply a red heat during an hour or two. The copper or part of it will unite with the vapour of the zinc, and be thereby converted into brafs. By comparing the weight of all the metal after the operation, with the weight of the copper employed ; the weight acquired, and confequently the quantity of zinc united with the copper, will be known. The copper which has not been converted into brafs, or more copper with frefh charcoal dull, may be again added in the fame man¬ ner to the remaining ore, and the operation repeated with a heat fomewhat more intenfe, that any zinc re¬ maining in the ore may be thus extradted. A curious circnmftance is, that a much greater heat is required to obtain zinc from its ore, by diftillation, than in the operation now defcribed of making brafs ; in which the feparation of the zinc from its ore feems to Joe fa¬ cilitated by its difpofition to unite with copper. Sect. XIII. Ores of Arfcnic. § 1. The minerals which contain the largeft quantity of arfenic afe cobalts and white pyrites; although it is alfo contained in other ores, it being one of the mine- ralifing fubftances. But as cobalt muft be roafted to obtain the fulphur it contains, the arfenic alfo which rifes during this torrefa&ion is colledted, as we fnall fee in Part III. (Smelting of Ores,) and the particu- L U R G Y. lar articles of each of the metallic fubftances mention¬ ed in this article. I. Regulus of arfenic is found native. It is of a leaden colour; it burns with a fmall flame; and is dif- fipated, leaving generally a very fmall quantity of calx of bifmuth, or of calx of cobalt, and a very little tilver. When it is of a folid and teftaceous texture, it has been improperly called tefaceous cobalt, in German fckerlencobalt. II. Calx of arfenic is found in form of powder; native flowers of arfenic, or of indurated t'e- mitranfparent cryftals ; native cryftalline arfenic. III. Calx of arfenic is mixed, 1. With fulphur : when yellow, it is called orpiment; when red, it is called native realgar: the difference of colour depends on the proportion of the two component parts. 2. With calx of tin ; tin-grains. 3/ With fulphur and filver, in the red filver ore. 4. With calx of lead, in the lead- fpar. 5. With calx of cobalt, in the efllorefcence of cobalt.. IV. Arfenic is mineralifed, 1. With fulphu- rated iron ; arfenical pyrites. 2. With iron only ; white pyrites, or mifspickle.' 3. With cobalt, in al- moft all cobalt-ores. 4. With filver. 5. With cop¬ per. 6. With antimony. $ 2. Arfenic may be feparated from its ore or earthy matter with which it happens to be mixed, by fu- blimatibn, according to the following procefs by Mr Cramer. “ Do every thing as was faid about mercury, or • fulphur; but let the veffel which is put into the fire with the ore in it be of earth or ftone, and the reci¬ pient be of glafs, and of a middling capacity. Nor is it neceffary that this ftiould be filled with water, fo it be but well luted. The fire muft likewife be ftronger, and continued longer than for the extracting of ful¬ phur. Neverthelefs every kind of arfenic cannot be extrafted in a confined fire: for it adheres to the ma¬ trix more ftrongly than fulphur and mercury. You will find in the part of the veffel which is more re¬ mote from the fire, pulverulent and fubtle flowers of arfenic; but there will adhere to the pofterior of the neck of the retort fmall folid maffes, fhining like fmall cryftals, tranfparent, fometimes gathered into a folid fublimate, and p*rfedly white, if the Ore of the arfe¬ nic was perfedly pure; which, neverthelefs, happens very feldom. The flowers are moft commonly thin, and of a grey colour : which proceeds from the phlo- gifton mixed with the mafs. They are often of a ci¬ tron or of a golden colour, which ia a fign that there is in the mixture fome mineral fulphur; and if the fublimate be red or yellow, it is a fign of much ful¬ phur. “ As all the arfenic contained in the ore is not ex¬ pelled in clofe veffels, you muft weigh the refiduum ; then roaft it in a crucible till it fmokes no longer, or rather in an earthen flat vefiel not glazed, and in a ftrong fire to be ftirred now and then with a poker, and then weigh it when grown cold r you will be able thus to know how much arfenic remained in the clofe veffel, unlefs the ore contain bifmuth.” If the arfenic be fulphurated, it may be purified by triturating it with mercury or with fixed alkali, and by fubliming the arfenic from the remaining fulplm- rated mercury or alkali. The method of obtaining 3 regulus of arfenic is defcribed at the article Regulus of Arfenic, 4935 Ores of Arfen.c. PART 493<> METALLURGY. Part III. Sulphur- works. PART III. SMELTING of ORES. HAving fliown the nature of the principal metallic minerals, and the fubftances of which they are ' compofed ; and alfo explained the procefles by which an exatt analyfis of thefe compound minerals may be made, and the nature and quantity of the contained metals may be known ; in order to complete what re¬ lates to this important fubjeft, we (hall defcribe in this Part the principal operations by which metals, &c. are obtained “ in the great,” as it is called, or for commercial purpofes. What we lhall fay upon this fubjeft will chiefly be extrafted from a Trsatife on the Smelting of Ores, by Schlutter, tranflated from the German into French by M. Hellot; becaufe this, of all the modern works upon that fubjedl, appears to be the mod exaft. We fhall firfl: defcribe the operations upon pyritous matters for the extra&ion of fulphur, &c. and afterwards the operations by which metallic fubftances aje extrafted from ores properly fo called. Sect. I. ExtraSlionof Sulphur from Pyrites and other Minerals. In order to obtain fulphur from pyrites, this mine¬ ral ought to be expofed to a heat fufficient to fublime the fulphur, or to make it diftill in veffels, which muft be clofe, to prevent its burning. Sulphur is extra&ed from pyrites at a work at Schwartzemberg, in Saxony, in the high country of the mines; and in Bohemia, at a place called Alten- Sattel. The furnaces employed for this operation are ob¬ long, like vaulted galleries ; and in the vaulted roofs are made feveral openings. Thefe are called furnaces for extrafting fulphur. In thefe furnaces are placed earthen-ware tubes, fill¬ ed with pyrites broken into pieces of the fize of fmall nuts. Each of thefe tubes contains about 50 pounds of pyrites. They are placed in the furnace almoft ho¬ rizontally, and have fcarcely more than an inch of de- fcent. The ends, which come out of the furnace five or fix inches, become gradually narrower. Within each tube is fixed a piece of baked earth, in form of a ftar, at the place where it begins to become narrow¬ er, in order to prevent the pyrites from falling out, or choaking the mouth of the tube. To each tube is fitted a receiver, covered with a leaden plate, pierced with a fmall hole to give air to the fulphur. The other end of the tube is exadly clofed. A moderate fire is made with wood, and in eight hours the. ful¬ phur of the pyrites is found to have palled into the re¬ ceivers. The refiduum of the pyrites, after the diftillation, is drawn out at the large end, and frelh pyrites is put in its place. From this refiduum, which is called . burnings of fulphur, vitriol is extracted. The 11 tubes, into which were put, at three feveral diftillations, in all nine quintals or 900 pounds of pyrites, yield from 100 to 150 pounds of crude ful¬ phur, which is fo impure as to require to be purified by a fecond diftillation. This purification of crude fulphur is alfo done in a furnace in form of a gallery, in which five iron cucur¬ bits are arranged on each fide. Thefe cucurbits are placed in a floping dire&ion, and contain about eight quintals and a half of crude fulphur. To them are luted earthen tubes, fo difpofed as to anfwer the pur- pofe of capitals. The nofe of each of thefe tubes is inferted into an earthen pot called the fore-runner. This pot has three openingsnamely, that which receives the nofe of the tube; a fecond fmaller hole, which is left open to give air ; and a third in its lower-part, which is flopped with a wooden Peg- When the preparations are made, a fire is lighted about feven o’clock in the evening, and is a little abated as foon as the fulphur begins to diftil. At three o’clock in the morning, the wooden pegs which flop the lower holes of the fore-runners are for the firft time drawn out, and the fulphur flows out of each of them into an earthen pot with two handles, placed below for its reception. In this diftillation the fire muft be moderated and prudently conduced; other- wife lefs fulphur would be obtained, and it alfo would be of a grey colour, and not of the fine yellow which it ought to have when pure. The ordinary lofs in the purification of eight quintals of crude fulphur is, at moft, one quintal. When all the fulphur has flowed out, and has cooled a little in the earthen pots, it is caft into moulds made of beech-tree, which have been previoufly dipt in wa¬ ter and fet to drain. As foon as the fulphur is cooled in the moulds, they are opened, and the cylinders of fulphur are taken out and put up in cafks. Thefe are called roll-brimfone. As fulphur is not only in pyrites, but alfo in moft metallic minerals, it is evident that it might be ob¬ tained by works in the great from the different ores which contain much of it, and from which it muft be feparated previoufly to their fufion: but as fulphur is of little value, the trouble of colleeling it from ores is feldom taken. Smelters are generally fatisfied with freeing their ores from it, by expofing them to a fire fufficient to expel it. This operation is called torre- faciian, or roajling of ores. There ar.e, however, ores which contain fo much fulphur, that part of it is a&ually colle&ed in the or¬ dinary operation of roafting, without much trouble for that purpofe. Such is the ore of Ramelfberg in the country of Hartz. This ore, which is of lead, containing filver, is • partly very pure, and partly mixed with cupreous py¬ rites and filver; hence it is neceffary to roaft it. The roafting is performed by laying alternate ftrata of ore and wood upon each other in an open field, taking care to diminifli the fize of the ftrata as they rife higher ; fo that the whole mafs fhall.be a qua¬ drangular pyramid truncated above, whofe bale is about 3 1 feet fquare. Below, fome paffages are left open, to give free 'entrance to the air; and the fides Sulphur- works. Part III. METAL Sulphur- and top of the pyramid are covered over with fmall WOfkc* ore, to concentrate the heat and make it laft longer. In the centre of this pyramid there is a channel which defcends vertically from the top to the bale. When all is properly arranged, ladlefuls of red-hot fcoria from the (melting-furnace are thrown down the chan¬ nel, by which means the fhrubs and wood placed below for that purpofe are kindled, and the fire is from them communicated to all the wood of the pile, which con¬ tinues burning till the third day. At that time the fulphur of the mineral becomes capable of burning fpontaneoufly, and of continuing the fire after the wood is confumed. When this roafting has been continued 15 days, the,; mineral becomes greafy; that is, it is covered over With a kind of varnifh: 20 or 25 holes or hol¬ lows are then made in the upper-part of the pile in which the fulphur is collefted. From thefe cavities the fulphur is taken out thrice every day, and thrown into water. This fulphur is not pure, but crude; and is therefore fent to the manufaflurers of fulphur, to be purified in the manner above-related. As this ore of Ramelfberg is very fulphureous, the firft roafting, which we are now dcfcribing, lafts three" months; and during this time, if much rain has not fallen, or if the operation has not failed by the pile falling down or cracking, by which the air has fo much free accefs, that the fulphur is burnt and con- fumed, from 10 to 20 quintals'of crude fulphur are by this method collefted. The fulphur of this ore, like that of moft others, was formerly negledted, till, in the year 1570, a per- fon employed in the mines called Chrijlopher Sander, difcovered the method of colle&ing it, nearly as it is done at prefent. Metallic minerals are not the only fubftances from which fulphur is extrafted. This matter is diffufed in the earth in fuch quantities, that the metals cannot abforb it all. Some fulphur is found quite pure, and in different forms, principally in the neighbourhood of volcanos, in caverns, and in mineral waters. Such are the opaque kind called virgin fulphur; the tranf- parent kind called fulphur of ^uito; and the native flowers of fulphur, as thofe of the waters of Aix-la- Chapelle. It is alfo found mixed with different earths. Here we may obferve, that all thofe kinds of fulphur which are not mineralized by metallic fub¬ ftances, are found near volcanoes, or hot mineral wa¬ ters, and confequently in places where nature feems to have formed great fubterranean laboratories, in which fulphureous minerals may be analyfed and de- compofed, and the fulphur feparated, in the manner in which it is done in fmall in our works and labora¬ tories. However that be, certainly one of the beft and moft famous fulphur-mines in the world is that called Solfatara. The Abbe Nollet has publifhed, jn the Memoirs of the Academy, feme interefting obfervations upon this fubjed, which we fhall here abridge. Near Puzzoli, in Italy, is that great and famous mine t>f fulphur and alum called at prefent Solfatara. It is a fmall oval plain, the greateft diameter of which is about 400 yards, railed about 300 yards above the level of the fea. It is furrounded by high hills and great rocks, which fall to pieces, and whole fragments L U R G Y. 49J7 form very fteep banks. Almofl all the ground is bare Sulphur- and white, like marie; and is every-where fenfibly works, w-armer than the atmofphere in the greateft heat of fummer, fo that the feet of perfons walking there are burnt through their (hoes. It is impoffible not to oblerve the fulphur there; for every-where may be perceived by the fmell a lulphureous vapour, -which rifes to a confiderable height, and gives reafon to believe that there is a fubterraneous fire below, from which that vapour proceeds. Near the middle of this field there is a kind of bafon three or four feet lower than the reft of the plain, in which a found may be perceived when a perfon w-alks on it, as if there were under his feet lome great cavity, the roof of which was very thin. After that, the lake Agnano is perceived, whofe wa¬ ters feem to boil. Thefe waters are indeed hot, but not fo hot as boiling wafer. This kind of ebullition proceeds from vapours which rife from the bottom of the lake, ^tvhich being fet in motion by the a&ion of fubterranean fires, have force enough to raife all that mafs of water. Near this lake there are pits, not very deep, from which fulphureous vapours are ex¬ haled. Perfons who have the itch, come to thefe pits, and receive the vapours in order to be cured. Finally, there are fome deeper excavations, whence a foft ftone is procured which yields fulphur. From thefe cavities vapours exhale, and iffue out with noife, and which are nothing elfe than fulphur fubliming through the crevices. This fulphur ad¬ heres to the fides of the rocks, where it forms enor¬ mous maffes: in calm weather, the vapours may be evidently feen to rife 25 or 30 feet from the furface of the earth. Thefe vapours, attaching themfelves to the fides of rocks, form enormous groups of fulphur, which fome- times fall down by their own weight, and render thefe places of dangeroes accefs. In entering the 'Solfatara, there are warehoufes and buildings erefted for the refining of fulphur. Under a great (lied, or hangar, fupported by a wall behind, and open on the other three fides, the fulphur is procured by diftillation from the foft ftones we men¬ tioned above. Thefe (tones are dug from under ground; and thofe which lie on the furface of the earth are ne¬ glected. Thefe laft are, however, covered with a ful¬ phur ready formed, and of a yellow colour: but the workmen fay they have loft their ftrength, and that the fulphur obtained from them is not of fo good a quality as the fulphur obtained from the ftones which are dug out of the ground. Thefe laft mentioned are broken into lumps, and put into pots of earthen ware, containing each about 20 pints Paris meafure. The mouths of thefe pots are as wide as their bottoms; but their bellies, or middle parts, are wider. They are covered with a lid of the fame earth, well luted, and are arranged in two paral¬ lel lines along two brick walls, which form the two fides of a furnace. The pots are placed within thefe walls ; fo that the centre of each pot is in the centre of the thicknefs of the wall, and that one end of the pots overhangs the wall within, while the other end overhangs the wall without. In each furnace ten of thefe pots are placed; that is,, five in each of the two walls which- form the two fides of the furnace. Be¬ twixt 4938 M E T A L Smelting twixt thefe walls there is a fpace of 15 or 18 inches; of Ores in fpace is covered by a vault retting on the two genera . waj|3> w}10]e forms a furnace feven feet: longj two feet and a half high, open at one end, and fliut at the other, excepting a fmall chimney through which the fmoke pafles. Each of thefe pots has a mouth in its upper part without the furnace, in order to admit a tube of 18 lines in diameter and a foot in length, which communicates with another pot of the fame fize placed without the building, and pierced with a round hole in its bafe of 15 or 18 lines diameter. Laftly, to each of thefe laft- mentioned pots there is a wooden tub placed below, in a bench made for that purpofe. Four or five of thefe furnaces are built under one hangar, or (lied. Fires are kindled in each of them at the fame time ; and they are thrown down after each dittillation, either that the pots may be renewed, or that the refiduums may be more eafily taken out. The fire being kindled in the furnace, heats the firft pots containing the fulphureous ftones. The fulphur rifes in fumes into the upper part of the pot, whence it pafles through the pipe of communication into the, external veflel. There the vapours are condenfed, be¬ come liquid, and flow through the hole below into the tub, from which the fulphur is eafily turned but, be- caufe the form of the veffel is that of a truncated cone whofe narrower end is placed below, and becaufe the hoops of the tub are fo fattened that they may be oc- cafionally loofened. The mafs of fulphur is then car¬ ried to the buildings mentioned before, where it is re¬ melted for its purification, and call into rolls, fuch as we receive it. Extrattion of Vitriol from pyrites. See Chemi¬ stry, n° no, 142, 157. Extraction of Alum from pyritous fubfances and from aluminous earths. See Chemistry, n° 129. Sect. II. Smelting of Ores in general. § 1. As ores confift of metallic matters combined with fulphur and arfenic, and are befides intermixed with earthy and ftony fubftances of all kinds, the in¬ tention of all the operations upon thefe compound bo¬ dies is to feparate thefe different fubftances from each other. This is effe&ed by feveral operations founded on the known properties of thofe fubftances. We now proceed to give 3 general idea of thefe feveral opera¬ tions. Firft of all, the ore is to be feparated from the earths and ftones accidentally adherent to it; and when thefe foreign fubftances are in large maffes, and are not very intimately mixed in fmall particles with the ore, this feparation may be accompliftied by mechanical means. This ought always to be the firft operation, unlefs the adherent fubftance be capable of ferving as a flux to the ore. If the unmetallic earths be intimately mixed with the ore, tins muft neceflarily be broken and divi¬ ded into fmall particles. This operation is performed by a machine which moves peftles, called bocards or fampers. After this operation, when the parts of the mineral are fpecifically heavier than thofe of the unme¬ tallic earth or ftone, thefe latter may be feparated from the ore by wafliing in canals through which water flows. With regard to this w'afhing of ores, it is neceflary to obferve, that it cannot fuccced but when the ore ii fen- L U R G Y. Part III. fibly heavier than the foreign matters. But the con- Smelting trary happens frequently, as well becaufe quartz and of 0^s.in fpar are naturally very ponderous, as becaufe the me- & a • tallic matter is proportionably fo much lighter as it is combined with more fulphur. When an ore happens to be of this kind, it is necef- fary to begin by roafting it, in order to deprive it of the greateft part of its fulphur. It happens frequently that the pyritous matters ac¬ companying the ore are fo hard that they can fcarcely be pounded. In this cafe it is neceflary to roaft it en¬ tirely, or partly, and to throw it red-hot into cold wa¬ ter; by which the ftones are fplit, and rendered much more capable of being pulverized. Thus it happens very frequently, that roafting is the firft operation to which an ore is expofed. When the fubftance of the ore is very fufible, this firft operation may be difpenfed with, and the matter may be immediately fufed without any previous roaft¬ ing, or at leaft with a very flight one. For, to effedt this fufion, it is neceflary that it retain a great quan¬ tity of its fulphur, which, with the other fluxes added, ferves to deftroy or convert into fcoria a confiderable part of the ftony matter of the mineral, and to reduce the reft into a brittle fubftance, which is called the matt of lead, or of copper, or other metal contained in the ore. This matt is therefore an intermediate matter be¬ twixt the mineral and the metal; for the metal is there concentrated, and mixed with lefs ufelefs matter than it was in the ore. But as this matt is always fulphu¬ reous, the metal which it contains cannot have its me¬ tallic properties. Therefore it muft be roafted feveral times to evaporate the fulphur, before it is remelted, when the pure metal is required. This fufion of an ore not roafted, or but llightly roafted, is called crude fu¬ fion. We may here obferve upon the fubjeft of wafhing and roafting of ores, that as arfenic is heavier than ful¬ phur, and has nearly the weight of metals, the ores in which it prevails are generally very heavy, and uonfe- quently are fufceptible of being waflied, which is a great advantage. But on the other fide, as arfenic is capable of volatilifing, fcorifying, and deftroying many metals, thefe ores have difadvantages in the roafting and fufion, in both which confiderable lofs is caufed by the arfenic. Some ores contain, befides arfenic, other volatile femi-metals, fuch as antimony and zinc. Thefe are almoft untradtable, and are therefore neglec¬ ted. They are called miner x rap aces, “ rapacious ores.” When the metal has been freed as much as, is pof- fible from foreign matters by thefe preliminary opera¬ tions, it is to be completely purified by fufions more or lefs frequently repeated; in which proper additions are made, either to abforb the reft of the fulphur and arfenic, or to complete the vitrification or fcorification of the unmetallic ftones and earth. Laftly, as ores frequently contain Teveral different metals, thefe are to be feparated from each other by procefles fuited to the properties of thefe metals, of which we fliall fpeak more particularly as we proceed in our examination of the ores of each metal. § 2. To facilitate the extra&ion of metallic fub¬ ftances from the ores and minerals containing them, fome operations previous to the fufion or fmelting of thefe PartHI. METAL Roafting thefe ores and minerals are generally neceffary. Thefe of Ores, operations tonfift of, i. The feparation of the ores and metallic matt-ers from the adhering unmetallic earths and ftones, by hammers and other mechanical inftru* ments, and by walhing with water. 2. Their divi- Ron or reduftion into fmailer parts by contufion and trituration, that by another wafning with water they may be more perfectly cleanfed from extraneous mat¬ ters, and rendered fitter for the fubfequent operations, calcination or roafting, and fufion. 3. Roajling ox cal¬ cination; the ufe»of which operation are, to expel the volatile, utelefs, or noxious fubftances, as water, vitri¬ olic acid, fulphur, and arfenic; to render the ore more friable, and fitter for the fubfequent contufion and fu¬ fion ; and, latlly, to calcine and deftroy the viler me¬ tals, for inftance the iron of copper-ores, by means of the fire, and of the fulphur and arfenic. Stones, as quartz and flints, containing metallic veins or particles, are frequently made red-hot, and then extinguilhed in cold water, that they may be rendered fufficiently fri¬ able and pulverable, to allow the feparation of the me¬ tallic particles. Roafting is unneceflary for native metals ; for fome of the richer gold and filver ores; for fome lead-ores, the fulphur of which may be feparated during the ftl- fion; and for many calciform ores, as thefe do not ge¬ nerally contain any fulphur and arfenic. In the roafting of ores, the following attentions mud be given, 1. To reduce the mineral previoufly into fmall lumps, that the furface may be increafed ; but they mu ft not be fo fmall, nor placed fo compa&ly, as to prevent the paflage of the air and flame. 2. The larger pieces muft be placed at the bottom of the pile, where the greateft heat is. 3. The heat muft; be gra¬ dually applied, that the fulphur may not be melted, which would greatly retard its expulfion; and that the fpars, floors, and ftones, intermixed with the ore, may not crack, fly, and be difperfed. 4. The ores not tho¬ roughly roafted by one operation muft be expofed to a fecond. 5. The fire may be increafed towards the end, that the noxious matters more ftrongly adhering, may be expelled. 6. Fuel which yields much flame, as wood and foffil coals free from fulphur, is faid to be preferable to charcoal or coaks. Sometimes cold water is thrown on the calcined ore at the end of the opera¬ tion, while the ore is yet hot, to render it more fri¬ able. No general rule can be given concerning the dura¬ tion or degree of the fire, thefe being very various ac¬ cording to the difference of the ores. A roafting du¬ ring a few hours or days is fufficient for many ores; while fome, fuch as the ore of Rammelfberg, require that it fhould be continued during feveral months. Schlutter enumerates five methods of roafting ores. 1. By conftru&ing a pile of ores and fuel placed in al¬ ternate ftrata, in the open air, without any furnace. 2. By confining fuch a pile within walls, but without a roof. 3. By placing the pile under a roof, without lateral walls. 4. By placing the pile in a furnace con- fifting of walls and a foof. 5. By roafting the ore in a reverberatory furnace, in which it muft be continu¬ ally ftirred with an iron rod. Several kinds of fufions of ores may be diftinguifh- ed. 1. When a fulphureous ore is mixed with much earthy matter, from which it cannot be eafily fepar«t- Vou VII. 2 L U R G Y. 4943 ted by mechanical operations, it is frequently melted, Fufion of in order to difengage it from thefe earthy matters, and 0res' to concentrate its metallic contents. By this fufion, fome of the fulphur is diffipated, and the ore is redu¬ ced to a ftate intermediate betwixt that of ore and of metal. It is then called a matt (lapis fulphnrec-metal- licus); and is to be afterwards treated like a pure ore by the fecond kind of fufion, which is properly the fmelting, or extra&ion of the metal by fulion. 2. By this fufion or fmelting, the metal is extra&ed from the ore previoufly prepared by the above operations, if thefe be neceffary. The ores of fome very fufible me¬ tals, as of bifmuth, may be fmelted by applying a heat fufficient only to melt the metals, which are thereby feparated from the adhering extraneous matters. This feparation of metals by fufion, without the vitrification of extraneous matters, may be called eliquation. Ge¬ nerally, a complete fufion of the ore and vitrification of the earthy matters are neceffary for the perfeft fepara¬ tion of the contained metals. By this method, metals, are obtained from their ores, fometimes pure, and fometimes mixed with other metallic fubftances, from which they muft; be afterwards feparated; as we lhall fee, when we treat of the extraftion of particular me¬ tals. To procure this feparation of metals from ores, thefe muft be fo thinly liquefied, that the fmall metallic particles may difengage themfelves from the fcoria; but it muft not be fo thin as to allow the metal to preci¬ pitate before it be perfe&Iy difengaged from any ad¬ hering extraneous matter, or to pervade and deftroy the containing veffels and furnace. Some ores are fuffici¬ ently fufible; but others require certain additions call¬ ed fluxes, to promote their fufion and the- vitrification of their unmetallic parts; and alfo to render the fcoria fufficiently thin to allow the feparation of the metallic particles. Different fluxes are fuitable to different ores, ac¬ cording to the quality of the ore, and of the matrix, or ftone adherent to it. The matrixes of two different ores of the fame me¬ tal frequently ferve as fluxes to each other; as, for in¬ ftance, an argillaceous matrix with one that is calca¬ reous ; thefe two earths being difpofed to vitrification when mixed, though each of them is fingly unfufible. For this reafon, two or more different ores to be fmelt¬ ed are frequently mixed together. The ores alfo of different metals require different fluxes. Thus calcareous earth is found to be belt fuit- ed to iron-ores, and fpars and fcoria to fufible ores of copper. The fluxes moft frequently employed in the fmelting of ores are, calcareous earth, fluors or vitreous fpars, quartz and fand, fufible ftones, as flates, bafaltes, the feveral kinds of fcoria, and pyrites. Calcareous earth is ufed to facilitate the fufion of ores of iron, and of fome of the poorer ores of copper, and, in general, of ores mixed with argillaceous earths, or with feltfpar. This earth has been fometimes add¬ ed with a view of feparating the fulphur, to which it very readily unites: but by this union the fulphur is detained, and a heparis formed, which readily diffolves iron and other metals, and fo firmly adheres to them, that they cannot be feparated without more difficulty than they could from the original ore. This addition is therefore not to be made till the fulphur be previ- 27 Y oufly 4944 Of Floors. META L _oufly well expeHed. Fluors or fiiftbU fpars facilitate the fufion of moil me¬ tallic minerals, and alfo of calcareous and argillaceous earths, of (leatites, afbeftus, and fonie other unfulible ftones, but not of liliceous earths without a mixture of calcareous earth. Quartz is fometimes added in the fufion of ferrugi¬ nous copper ores, the ufe of which is faid chiefly to be, to enable the ore to receive a greater heat, and to give a more perfedf vitrification to the ferruginous fcoria. The fufible Jlones, as flutes, bafaltes, are fo tenacious and thick when fufed, that they cannot be confidered properly as fluxes, but as matters added to leffen the too great liquidity of fome very fufible minerals. The fcoria obtained in the fufion of an ore is fre¬ quently ufeful to facilitate the fufion of an ore of the fame metal, and fometimes even of ores of other me¬ tals. Sulphurated pyrites greatly promote the fufibility of the fcoria of metals, from the fulphur it contains. It is chiefly added to -difficultly-fufible copper-ores, to form the fulphureous compounds called that the ores thus brought into fufion may be feparated from the adhering earthy matters, and that the ferruginous matter contained in them may be deftroyed, during the fubfequent calcination and fufion, by means of the fulphur. As in the ores called calcifottn, the metallic matter exifts in a calcined (late; and as calcination reduces the metals of mineralized ores (excepting the perfect metals) to that ftate alfo; therefore all calciform and calcined ores require the addition of fome inflammable fubftance, to reduce them to a metallic ftate. In great works, the charcoal or other fuel ufed to maintain the fire produces alfo this effedl. Metals are fometimes added in the fufion of ores of other more valuable metals, to abforb from thefe ful¬ phur or arfenic. Thus iron is added to fulphurated, cupreous, and filver ores. Metals are alfo added in the fufion of ores of other more valuable metals, to unite with and colleft the fmall particles of thefe difperfed through much earthy matter, and thus to afiift their precipitation. With thefe intentions, lead is frequently added to ores and minerals containing gqld, filver, or copper. Ores of metals are alfo fometimes added to afiift the precipitation of more valuable metals. Thus antimony is frequently added to afiift the precipitation of gold intermixed with other metallic matters. Thus far of fmelting of ores in general. Sect. III. Operations on Ores of Native Cold and Silver, by Wafhing and by Mercury. Earths and fand are at firft feparated by wafhing with water; by which operation the greateft part of what is not gold, being lighter, is carried off. After this a fecond wafhing is made with mercury,'Which ha¬ ving the property of uniting with gold, feizes this me¬ tal, amalgamates with it, and feparates it exa&ly from the earthy matters, with all which it can form no u- nion. The mercury thus charged with gold is prefled through fhamoy leather, and the gold is retained uni¬ ted with a part of the mercury, from which it may be eafily difengaged by expofure to a proper degree of L U R G Y. Part III heat, which difiipates and evaporates the mercury, while Waibin the gold, being fixed, remains. ^GuM This is the foundation of all the operations by which ° *' gold is obtained from the rich mines of Peru belong¬ ing to the Spaniards. Thefe operations confift in wafli- ings, triturations, and amalgams in the great by help of machines. The ores of native filver are much rarer and lefs a- bundant than thofe of gold. But if any of this kind were found fuffieiently rich, they might be treated with mercury exa&Iy in the fame manner as the ores of na¬ tive gold. Gold is frequently contained in the ores of other metals, either in a native or mineralifed ftate, and in funds, efpecially thofe which are black and ferrugi¬ nous. See Part II. feft. of Ores of Gold. If gold be contained in ores of other metals, thefe metals together with the gold may be firft extratted by the ordinary procefies for fmelting thefe ores ; and the gold may be then feparated from the metallic mafs (bus obtained, by mixing and fufing this mafs with a quantity of lead, and by the procefs of cupellation deferibed in the articles Essay of the value ofJilver, and Refining. Generally, the operations for obtaining gold from ores of imperfeA metals are precifely the fame as thofe for obtaining filver, to which therefore we refer. Moft frequently a quantity of filver alfo is contained in thefe ores ; and in this cafe the per- feft metal obtained by cupellation is an allay of gold and filvCr, which muft be afterwards feparated by the proceffes called parting. See Parting. Many trials have been made to procure the fmall quantity of gold contained in the ferruginous fands, at a moderate expence (fee Part II. fedt. of Ores of Gold)\ but as no work of this kind is now eftabliflied, we may prefume they have not been fuccefsful. The beft effays of this kind have been made, according to Schlatter, in the following manner. The fand is to be made red-hot, and extinguiftied in cold water four times, by which its colour is changed from the original yellow, red, or black, to a reddifti-brown. It is obferved to emit, during the firft and fecond calcinations, an arfenical fmell ; and this fmell may be produced again in the following calcinations by adding fome inflammable matter. Let an ounce of the calcined fand be mixed with two ounces of granulated lead, and one ounce of black flux, and put into a Hefiian crucible, with half an ounce of decrepitated fea-falt upon the furface of the mixture. The crucible is to be placed in a goodblaft- furnace, and a ftrong fire is to be excited. The matter contained in the crucible is to be frequently ftirred with an iron-rod, and the heat is to be con¬ tinued till the fcoria is thin and perfe&ly fufed. When the crucible is broken, a regulus of lead will be found, containing the gold and fiiver of the fand. By this method Mr Leberecht obtained, in eleven effays, from 840 to 844 grains of perfect metal from a quintal of fand. Of the perfeft metal obtained, from a fourth to a third part was gold. Some par¬ cels of fand have yielded more than 1000 grains, and fome not more than 350 grains, per quintal. In- ftead of the granulated lead, and the black flux, which is too expenfive for great operations, fome have added, to ounce of the land, two ounces of litharge and, PartlH. METAL Smelting and a little powder of charcoal, by which they have of Ores of obtained the fame quantity of perfed metal. The Sllvcr’ fcoria in thefe effays has been always found to contain fome perfed metal. The Hungarian copper ores, from which gold and filver are profitably extraded, contain a lefs quantity of thefe .perfed metals than many ferruginous fands. But they may be formed into a matt, by fufion with pyrites, of which treatment the fands are incapable. From this matt, the gold and filver, along with the copper of the ore, may be precipitated, and feparated from the fulphur of the pyrites, by addition of iron, which being more difpofed than the Other metals to unite with fulphur, difengages thefe metals, and allows them to precipitate. Sect. IV. Smelting of Ores of Silver. § i. As hirer, even in its proper ores, is always allayed with fome other metals from which it is intended to be feparated after that the fiiver-ore has been well roafted, it muft be mixed with a greater or lefs quan¬ tity of lead previous to its fufion. Lead has the fame effcd in fufion of gold and filver as mercury has upon thefe metals by its natural fluidi¬ ty ; that is to fay, it unites with them, and feparates them from unmetallic matters, which, being lighter, rife always to the furface. But lead has the further advantage of procuring, by its own vitrification, that of all metallic fubftances, excepting gold and filver. Hence it follows, that when gold and filver are ob¬ tained by means of mercury, they ftill remain allayed with other metallic fubftances; whereas when they are obtained by fufion and fcorification with lead, they are then pure, and not allayed with any metals but with each other. In proportion as the lead, which has been united to the gold and filver of the ore, is fcorified by the aftion of the fire, and promotes the fcorification of the other metallic matters, it feparates the perfect metals, and carries with it all the others to the fur- face. There it meets the unmetallic fubftances, which it likewife vitrifies, and which it changes into a per- feft fcoria, fluid, and fuch as a fcoria ought to be to admit all the perfeft metal contained in it to pre¬ cipitate. When all heterogeneous matters have been thus difengaged by fcorification with lead, the perfeft metals, to which fome lead ftill remains united, are to be further purified by the ordinary operation of the cupel. The common rule for the fufion and fcorification of filver-ore with lead, is to add to the ore a quantity of lead fo much greater as there is more matter to be fcorified, and as thefe matters are more refraftory and of more difficult fufion. Silver ores, or thofe treated as fuch, are often rendered refra&ory by ferruginous earths, pyritous matters, or cobalts, containing al¬ ways a confiderable quantity of an earth which is un¬ metallic, very fubtile, and very refratflory, and which renders a confiderable augmentation of the quantity of lead neceffary. The quantity of lead which is commonly added to fufible filver ores, that do not contain lead, is eight times the quantity of the ore. But when the ore is refradory, it is neceffary to add twelve times the L u R G Y. quantity of lead, and even more j alfo glafs of lead, and fluxes, fuch as the white and black fluxes; to which however borax and powder of charcoal are. preferable, on account of the liver of fulphur formed by thefe alkaline fluxes. It is nectffary to obferve, that faline fluxes are only ufed in fmall operations, on account of their dearnefs. To thefe are fubftituted, in the great operations, of which we now treat, fandiver, fufible fcoria, and other matters of little value. The greateft part of filver now employed in com¬ merce isj not obtained from the proper ores of filver, which are very fcarce; but from lead, and even copper ores, which are more or lefs rich in filver. To give an idea of the manner of treating thefe kinds of ores, from which filver is extra&ed in the great works, we fliall briefly defcribe here, after Schlutter, the fmeltfng of the ore of Rammelffierg, which contains, as we have already faid, feveral different kinds of metals, but particularly lead and filver. When this mineral has been difengaged ffom its fulphur as much as poffible by three very long read¬ ings, it is melted in the Lower Hartz in Saxony, ill a particular kind of furnace, called a furnace for fmelting upon a hollow or caffe. The mafonry of this furnace is compofed of large thick flates, capable of fuftaining great heat, and cemented together by clay. The interior part of the furnace is three feet and a half long, and two feet broad at the back part, and one foot only in the front. Its height is nine feet eight inches. It has a foundation of mafonry in the ground ; and in this foundation channels are made for the evaporation of the moifture. Thefe channels are covered over with ftones called covering ftones. The hollow or caffe, which is made above thefe, is formed of bricks, upon which are placed, firft, a bed of clay ; then a bed of fmall ore and fifted vitriols ; and, laftly, a bed of charcoal-powder beat down, called light brafque. The anterior wall of the furnace is thinner than the others, and is called the chemife. The back wall, which is pierced to give paffage to the pipes of two large wooden bellows, is called'the middle wall. When the furnace is thus prepared, charcoal is thrown into the hollow, or caffe; which being kindled, the fire js to be continued during three hours, before the matters to be fufed are added. Then thefe matters are thrown in, which are not the pure ore, but a mixture of feveral fubftances, all of which are fomewhat profitable. The quantity of thefe mat¬ ters is fufficient for one day’s work ; that is, for a fufion of eighteen hours ; and it confifts of, i. Twelve Ichorbens or meafures of well roafted Rammelffierg ore ; (the fchorben is a meafure whofe contents are two feet five inches long, one foot feven inches broad, and a little more than a foot deep : it is equal to 32 quintals of that country, Cologn weight, at 123 pounds each quintal.) 2. Six meafures of fcoria pro¬ duced by the fmelting of the ore of Upper Hartz, which is refractory, and what workmen call cold. 3. Two meafures of knobben, which is an impure fcoria containing fome lead and filver, which has been formerly thrown away as ufelefs, and is now collected by women and children. Befides thefe, other mat¬ ters are added, containing lead and filver, as the lefts employed in refining, the drof# of lead, impure litharge, 27 Y 2 and 4945 Smelting of Ores of Silver, 4946 METAL Smelting and any rubbil'h containing metal, which was left in 6 Silver °f t'^e ^urnace a^ter t^e foregoing fufion. All thefe 1 ver‘ matters being mixed together, arc thrown into the furnace: and to each meafure of this mixture a mea- fure of charcoal is added. The fufion is then begun by help of bellows ; and as it proceeds, the lead falls through the light brafque, or tharcoal-bed, into the hollow, or caffe, where it is preferved from burning under the powder of charcoal. The fcoria, on the other hand, being lighter and lefs fluid, is fklmmed off from time to time by means of ladles, that it may not prevent the reft of the lead from falling down into the hollow. Thus, while the fufion lafts, frefh matters and frefh charcoal are alternately added, till the whole quantity intended for one fufion, or, as they call it, one day, be thrown in. There are feveral eflential things to be remarked in this operation, which is very well contrived. Firft, The mixture of matters from which a little lead and filver is procured, which would otherwife be loft ; and which have alfo this advantage, that they retard the fufion of the RameHberg ore, which, however well roafted it has been, retains always enough of the fulphur and iron of the pyrites mixed with it, to render it too fufible or too fluid, fo that without the addition of thofe matters nothing would be obtained but a matt. It is even neceflary, notwithftanding thefe additions, not to haften the fufion too much, but to give time for the ore to mix with other matters, elfe it would melt and flow of itfelf before the reft. Secondly, The fufion of the ore through charcoal, which is pra&ifed in moft fmelting-houfes, and for al- moft all ores, is an excellent method, the principal advantage of which is the faving of fuel. The action of the burning charcoal direfted immediately upon the mineral, at the fame time that it melts it more readily and efficacioufly, alfo fupplies it with the phlogifton neceflary to bring it to a perfeft ftate. , See From the Ramelfberg ore after its firft roafting, Chemijlry, a white vitriol is obtained and prepared at Goflar *, b0 157; ’ whofe bafis was zinc: which proves that this ore contains alfo a certain quantity of this femi-metal. As this ore is fmelted in a country where the art is well underftood of extra&ing every thing which a mineral contains, fo in this fufton zinc and cadtnia are obtained in the following manner: When the furnace is prepared for the fufion, it is neceffary to clofe it up in the fore-part, before the fufion is be¬ gun. “ Firft of all, a gritt-ftone is to be placed, fup- ported at the height of three inches. This ftone is as long as the furnace is broad, and the height of it is ■level with the hole where the bellows-pipe enters. It is faftened on each fide of the furnace, externally and internally, with clay. Upon this ftone a kind of receptacle, or,, as it is called, the feat of the zinc, is made in the following manner: A flat flaty ftone is chofen, as long as the furnace is broad, and eight inches in breadth. This is placed on the gritt- flone above-mentioned, in fuch a manner that it in¬ clines confiderably towards the front of the furnace, and that its bottom touches clofely the gritt-ftone. It is faftened with clay, which is alfo laid upon the feat of the zinc. Upon this feat, which is to receive the zinc, two round pieces of charcoal are placed, L TJ R G Y. Part III. and alfo a ftone called the zinc Jlone, which is about Smelting a foot and a half in length, and clofes one part of the of 9res of front of the furnace. This ftone alfo is faftened on Sliver' each of its fides with clay. Clay is likewife put under the ftone betwixt the two pieces of charcoal, which hinder it from touching the feat of the zinc. The under-part of this ftone is but {lightly luted, that the workmen may make an opening for the zinc to flow- out. Thus is made the feat or receptacle of the zinc to detain this metallic fubftance, which would otherwife fall into the hotteft part of the fife, called by the workmen the melting-place, and would be there burnt: whereas it is coljefled upon this receptacle during the fufion, where it is fheltered from the aftion of the bellows, and confequently from too great heat. “ When all the matter to be fufed in one day is put into the furnace, the blaft of air is continued till that matter has funk down. When it is half-way down the furnace, they draw out the fcoria, that more of the ore and other matters may be expofed to the reateft heat. As foon a? the fcoria is cooled and xed a little, two (hovel-fulls of fmall wet fcoria or fand is thrown clofe to the furnace, and beat down with the (hovel; then the workmen open the feat or receptacle of zinc, and ftrike upon the zinc-ftone to make the femi-metal flow out. As foon as the pureft part of it has flowed out, it is fprinkled with water and carried away. Then the workmen feparate en¬ tirely the zinc-ftone from the wall of the furnace, and they continue to give it little ftrokes, that the fmall particles of zinc difperfed among the charcoal may fall down. This being done, the ftone is removed; and the zinc is feparated from the charcoal by an iron- inftrument, is cleaned, and remelted along with the zinc that flowed out at firft, and is call into round cakes. The reafon why the zinc is withdrawn before the bellows ceafe to blow, is, that if it was left till the charcoal on the feat or receptacle wa$ can- fumed, it would be moftly burnt, and little would be obtained. Thus after the zinc is withdrawn, the fufion is finiftied by blowing the bellows till tlftt end.” Thus the zinc is feparated from the ore of Ra- mellberg, and is not confounded in the hollow or caffe with the lead and filver, becaufe, being a volatile femi-metal, it cannot fupport the aclivity of the fire without rifing into vapours, which are condenfed in the place leaft hot, that is to fay, upon the flones exprefsly prepared for that purpofe; and which, being much thinner than the other walls of the furnace^, are continually cooled by the external afr¬ it is alfo in this furnace, and after the fafion of the RameHberg ore, that the cadmia of zinc, or the cadmia of furnaces, is obtained. This ore is com- pofed of fulphureous and ferruginous pyrites, of true lead-ore containing filver, and a very hard and com- pa£t matter of a dark brownifti-grey colour, which, is probably a lapis calaminaris, or an ore of zinc. Thefe feveral matters of the Ramelfberg. ore are not fepa¬ rated from each other, either for the roafting or for the fufion. Thus there is zinc in all the parts of the roafted ore; and much more of it would be obtained, if it was not fo eafily inflammable. All the zinc which is obtained is preferved from burning, by falling, while PartHI. METAL Smelting while. In fufion, behind the chemife or fore-part of the ef Ores of furnace> which is, as has been faid, a kind of fchiftus §llver- or flate> callecl by the workmen Jleel-Jlone. But the part of this femi-metal which falls in the middle of the furnace, near the middle-wall, or towards the fides, being expofed to the greateft heat of the fire, is there burnt; and its fmoke or flowers attaching it- felf on all fides to the walls of the furnace, undergo there a femi-fufion, which renders this matter fo hard and fo thick, that it mull be taken away after every fourth fufion, or, at moll, after every fixth fufion. That which is found attached to the highefl. part of the furnace is the bell and pureft. The reft is altered by a mixture of a portion of lead which it has carried up with it; and which, from its great weight and fixity, has hindered the zinc from rifing fo high as it would have done alone. Therefore, with, this kind of impure cadmia, duftile brafs cannot be made. Almoft all the zinc we have, as well as the cadmia of the furnaces,, is obtained from the Ramellberg ore, by the procefs defcribed, and confeqoently is not the produce of a pure ore of zinc, or lapis calaminaris, which is never fufed for that purpofe. Before Mr Margraaf, although it was well known that this ore contained zinc, and that it was employed for the making of brafs, a convenient procefs for extradHng zinc from it was not known ; becauie, when treated by fuflon with fluxes, like other ores, it does not yield any zinc; which proceeds partly from the re- fradory quality of the earth contained in the cala¬ mine, that cannot be fufed without a very violent fire; and alfo from the volatility and combuftibility of the zinc, which for this reafon cannot be collefted at the bottom of a crucible, as a regulus under a fcoria, like moll metals. M. Margraaf has remedied thefe- inconveniences by diftilling lapis calaminaris, mixed with charcoal, in a re¬ tort, to which is joined a receiver containing fome water, and confequently in clofe vefiels, where the zinc,, by the help of-a very ftrong fire indeed, is fublimed in its metallic form without burning. He alfo by the fame method reduced into zinc the flowers of zinc, or ppm- pholix, cadmia of the furnaces, tutty, which is alfo a kind of cadmia; in a word, all matters capable of producing zinc by combination with phlogifton.— But it is evident that fuch operations as thefe are ra¬ ther fit to fupply proofs for chemical theory, than to be put in pradice for works- in great. M. Margraaf has obferved, that the zinc which he obtained by this procefs was lefs brittle than what is obtained from the fufion of ores; which may proceed from its greater purity, or from its better combination-with phlogillon. Zinc is obtained, not only in the method ufed at Goflar above-defcribed; but is alio extraded in great works, from lapis calaminaris and calcined blend, by a diftillation fimiiar to that by which M. Margraaf has effayed ores of zinc. The firft work of that kind was ereded in Sweden by Mr Vein Swab, in the year 1738. The ore employed was a kind of blend;, this ore, when calcined, powdered, and mixed with char¬ coal,, was put into iron or Hone retorts, and the zinc was obtained" by diftillation. In Briftol a work is eftablifhed in, which zinc is obtained by diftillation by defcent L U R G Y. 4947 After this digreflion which vve have now made Fining of concerning the operation in the great by which zinc Sllver~ _ and cadmia are obtained, and which we could not infert elfewhere, becaufe of the neceflary relation it has with the fmelting of the Rammellberg ore, we proceed to the other operations of the fame ore; that is to fay, to the finery, by which the filver is fc- parated from the lead, which are mixed together, form¬ ing what is called the work. This operation differs from the fining of ejfay, or in fmall, principally in this circumftance, that in the latter method of fining all the litharge is abforbed into the cupel, whereas in the former method the greateft part of this litharge is withdrawn. The fining in great of the work of Ramelfturg is performed in a furnace called a reverberatory furnace- This furnace is fo conftrufted that the flame of wood burning in a cavity called the fire place, is determined' by a current of air (which is introduced through the alh-hole, and which goes out at an opening on one fide of that part of the furnace where the work is, that is, where the lead and filver are) to circulate above, and to give the convenient degree of heat, when the fire is properly managed. In this furnace a great cupel, call¬ ed a tefl, is difpofed. This teft is made of the alhesof beech-wood, well lixiviated in the ufual manner. In fome founderies different matters are added, as fand, fpar, calcined gypfum, quicklime, clay. When the teft: is well prepared and dried, all the work is put at once upon the cold teft, to the quantity of 64 quin¬ tals for one operation. Then the fire is lighted in the fire-place with faggots; but the fufion is not ilrged too fall, 1. That the teft may have time to dry; 2. Be¬ caufe the work of the Ramellberg ore is allayed by the mixture of feveral metallic matters, which it is proper to feparate, from it, otherwife they would fpoil the li- tharge and the lead procured from it. Thefe metallic matters are, copper, iron, zinc, and matt. As thefe heterogeneous fubftances are hard and refractory, they do not melt fo foon as the work, that is, as the lead and filver; and when the work is melted, they fwim upon its furface like a Ikin, which is to be taken off. Thefe impurities are called the feum, or the firjl- wafle. What remains forms afecond feum, which ap¬ pears when the work is at its greateft degree of heat, but before the litharge begins to form itfelf. It is a fcoria which is- to be carefully taken off. It is called the fecond- wafle. When the operation is at this point, it is continued by the help of bellows, the wind of which is direfted, not upon the wood or fuel, but upon the very furface of the metal, by means of iron-plates put for that pur¬ pofe before the blaft-hole, which are called papillons. This blaft does not fo much increafe the intenfity of the fire, as it facilitates the combuftion of the lead, and throws the litharge that is not imbibed by the teft towards a channel, called the litharge way, through which it flows. The litharge becomes fixed out of the furnace: the matter which is found in the middle ot the largeft pieces, and which amounts to about a half or a third of the whole, is friable, and falls into pow- der like fand. This.is put into barrels containing each five quintals of it; and is called faleable litharge, be- . caufe it is fold in that ftate. The other part which re¬ mains folid is called cold litharge, and is again melted . and. 4948 METAL Various and reduced into lead. The fufion is called cold fu- proceffes foryj'^j and the lead obtained from it cold lead, which is ^SUver”^ g00^ ant^ when the work has been well clear- 1— ed from the heterogeneous matters mentioned above. The tefts arid cupels impregnated with litharge are added in the fufion of the ofe, as we have already re¬ lated. When two thirds, or nearly that quantity, of the lead are'converted into litharge, no more of it is formed. The filver then appears covered with a white Hein, which the finers call lightening, and the metal lightened or fined Jilver. The filver obtained by this procefs of fining is not yet altogether pure. It ftill contains fome lead, fre¬ quently to the quantity of four drams in each marc, or eight ounces. It is delivered to the workmen, who complete its purification by the ordinary method. This laft operation is the refining, and the workmen employed to do it are called refiners. A fining of 64 quintals of work, yields from 8 to 10 meres of fined iilver, and from 35 to 40 quintals of litharge ; that is, from 12 to 18 of faleable litharge, from 22 to 23 of cold litharge, from 20 to 22 quintals of impregnated tefl, and from 6 to 7 quintals of lead-drofs. The ope¬ ration lafts from x 6 to 18 hours. $ 2. Ores containing filver may be divided into four kinds, 1. Pure, or thofe which are not much com¬ pounded with other metals. 2. Galenical, in which the filver is mixed with much galena, or ore of lead mineralifed by fulphur. 3. Pyritous, in which the filver is mixed with the martial pyrites. 4. Cupreous; in which the filver is contained in copper ores. To ex- tradt the filver from thefe feveral kinds of ores, diffe¬ rent operations are necefiary. Native filver is feparated from its adhering parths and ftones by amalgamation with mercury, in the manner dire&ed for the feparation of gold ; or by fu¬ fion with lead, from which it may be afterwards fe¬ parated by cnpellation. Pure ores feldom require a previous calcination; but, when bruifed and cleanfed from extraneous matters, jnay be fufed direftly, and incorporated with a quan¬ tity of lead ; unlefs they contain a large proportion of fulphur and arfenic, in which cafe a calcination may be ufeful. The lead employed muft be in a cal¬ cined or vitrified ftate, which, being mixed with the ore, and gradually reduced by the phlogifton of the charcoal added to it, may be more effe&ually united with the filver of the ore, than if lead itfelf had been -added, which would too quickly precipitate to the bottom of the containing veffel or furnace. The fil¬ ver is to be afterwards feparated from the lead by cu- pellation. Galenical ores, efpecially thofe in which pyrites Is intermixed, require a calcination, which ought to be performed in an oven, or reverberatory furnace. They are then to be fufed together with fome inflammable matter, as charcoal, by which the lead is revived, and, together with the filver, is precipitated. Pyritous ores muft be firft melted, fo as to form a matt. If the fulphur is not fufficient for this kind of fufion, more fulphurated pyrites may be added. This matt contains, befides filver and fulphur, alfo various metals, as lead, iron, and fometimes cobalt. The matt mulTbe expofed to repeated calcinations till the L U It G Y. Part HI. fulphur is diflipated. By thefe calcinations moft of Various the iron is deftroyed. The calcined matt is to be fu- ptoccfTcs for fed with litharge, and the filver incorporated with the revived lead ; from which, and from the other imper- —■!—* feft metals with which it may be mixed, it muft after¬ wards be feparated by cupellation. The filver contained in cupreous ores may be ob¬ tained, either, 1. By feparating it from the copper itfelf, after this has been extraded along with the fil¬ ver, in the ufual manner, from the ore ; or, 2. By precipitating it immediately, from the other matters of the ore. 1, It may be feparated from the copper by two me¬ thods. 'One of thefe is by adding lead, and fcorifying the imperfed metals. By this method much of the copper would be deftroyed, and it is therefore not to be ufed unlefs the quantity of filver relatively to the copper be conliderable. Another method by which filver may be feparated from copper is, by eliquation ; that is, by mixing the mafs of copper and filver with a quantity of lead, and applying fuch a heat as fhali be juft fufficient to make the lead eliquate from the copper, together with the filver, which being more ftrongly difpofed to unite with the lead than with the copper, is thus incorporated with the former metal, and feparated from the latter. 2. Silver may alfo be extraded from thefe cupreous ores by precipitation. For this purpofe, let the ore, previoufly bruifed and cleanfed, be formed into a matt, that the earthy matters may be well feparated. Let the matt be then fufed with a ftrong heat; and when the fcoria has been removed, and the heat is dimi- niffied, add to it fome clean galena, Htharge, and granulated lead. When the fire has been raifed, and the additions well incorporated with the matt, let fome Caft or filed iron be thrown into the liquid mafs, which, being more difpofed than lead is to unite with ful¬ phur, will feparate and precipitate the latter metal, and along with it the filver or gold contained in the matt. This method was introduced by Scheffer, and is praftifed at Adelfors in Smoland. In this work the proportion of the feveral materials is, four quintals of matt, two quintals of black copper containing fome lead with the perfect metal, one quintal of galena, one quintal of litharge, a fifth part of a quintal of gra¬ nulated lead, and an equal quantity of caft iron. The filver in this, and in all other inftances where it is united with lead, is to be afterwards feparated from the lead by cupellation; which procefs is deferibed at the articles Essay of the Value of Silver, and Re¬ fining. Sect. V. Smelting of Ores of Copper. $ 1. The fmelting in great of copper ores, and even of feveral ores of (liver and lead, excepting that of Ra- mellberg, is performed in furnaces not. effentially dif¬ ferent from that already deferibed ; but in thisrefpe& only, that the fcoria and metal are not drawn out of the furnace, but flow fpontaneoufly, as foon as they are melted, into receiving bafons, where the metal is freed from the fcoria. Thefe furnaces are generally called pierced furnaces. Inftead of a light brafque, or bed of charcoal- powder, under which the metal lies hid, the bottom of thefe furnaces is covered wkh a bafon compofed of heavy PartllL METAL Smelting heavy brafque, which 7s a mixture of charcoal-powder of Ores of an(] c)ay. In the front of the furnace, and at the Copi]er' bottom of the chemife, there is a hole, called thee^e, through which the melted matter flows, and runs along a trench or furrow, called the trace, into one or more receiving bafons, made of earth, fcoria, fand, &c. There the metal is feparated from the fcoria, by making it flow from thefe bafons into another la¬ teral one. Thefe furnaees are alfo called crooked fur¬ naces. Different names are given to them according to fome difference in their conftru&ion. .For inftance, thofe which have two eyes, and two traces, through wl-.ich the melted matter flows alternately into two bafons, are called fpettade-furnaces. Their greater or lefs height gives occafxon alfo to the diftin&ion of high fur¬ naces, and middle furnaces. The high furnaces are of modern invention. They were firft introduced at Mansfeldt in the year 1727; and they are now ufed in almoft all countries where ores are fmelted, as in Saxony, Bohemia, Hungary, &c. Their chief advantage confills in Amplifying and diminifhing the labour. This advantage is effec¬ ted by the great height of the furnace, which allows the ore to remain there a long time before it falls down into the hotteft part of the fire and is melted. Con- fequently, it fuffers fuccefiively different degrees of heat; and, before it is melted, it undergoes a roaft- ing which cofts nothing : therefore the high furnaces are chiefly employed for crude fufions ; and particu¬ larly for the flate-copper ore. Thefe furnaces are above 18 feet high. A too great height is attended with an inconvenience, befides the trouble of fupply- ing it with ore and fuel, which is, that the charcoal is moftly confumed before it gets down where the greateft heat is required, and is then rendered incapable of maintaining a fire fufficiently intenfe. All the furnaces which we have mentioned are fupplied with large bellows, moved by the arbor of a wheel,'which is turned round by a current of water. The only,kind of furnace for fmelting ores where bellows are not employed, is what is called a rever¬ beratory furnace. The Germans call it a wind fur¬ nace. It is alfo diftinguifhed by the name of Englifb furnace, becaufe the invention of it is attributed to an Englifh phyfician of the name of Wright, who was well verfed in chemiftry; and becaufe the ufe of it was firft introduced in England about the end of the laft century, where it is much employed, as well as in feVeral other countries, as at Konigiberg, in Norway. The length of thefe furnaces is about 18 feet, com¬ prehending the mafonry : their breadth is 12 feet, and their height nine feet and a half. The hearth is raifed three feet above the level of the foundery : on one fide is the fire-place, under which is an afh hole hollowed in the earth ; on the other fide is a bafon made, which is kept covered with fire when there is occafion : on the anterior fide of this furnace there is a chimney, which receives the flame after it has pafled over the mineral that is laid upon the hearth. This hearth, which is in the interior part of the furnace, is made of a clay capable of fuftaining the fire. The advantage of this furnace is, that bellows’are not neceffary ; and confequently it may be conftruded where there is no L U R G Y, 4949 current of water, and wherever the mine happens to Smelting be. This furnace has a hole in its front, through of °rcs of which the fcoria is drawn out; and a bafon, as we °pli have faid, on one fide, made with fand, in which are oblong traces for the reception of the matt, and of the black copper, when they flow out of the furnace. Copper is generally mineralifed, not only by ful- phur and arfenic, but alfo by femimetals and pyritous matters, and is frequently mixed with other metals. As this metal has great affinity with fulphur and ar¬ fenic, it is almoft impoffible to difengage it from them entirely by roafting : hence, in the fmelting in great, nothing is obtained by the firft operation but a copper matt, which contains all the principles of the ore, ex¬ cepting the earthy and ftony parts, particularly when the ore is fmelted crude and unroafted. Afterwards this matt muft be again roafted and fufed. The pro¬ duce of this fecond fufion begins ftill more to.referable copper, but is not malleable. It continues mixed with almoft all the minerals, particularly with the me¬ tals. As it is frequently of a black colour, it is always called black copper, when it is unmalleable, whatever its colour happens really to be. As, of all the imperfedt metals, copper is moft dif¬ ficultly burnt and fcorified, it is again remtlted feveral times, in order to burn and fcorify the metallic fub- ftances mixed with it; and this is done till the cop¬ per is perfedlly pure, which is then called red or re¬ fined copper, and thefe laft fufions are called the fining and refining of it: red copper contains no metals but gold and iilver, if any of thefe happened to be in the ore. In order to avoid all thefe fufions, it has been pro- pofed to treat in the humid way certain copper ores, particularly thofe which are very pyritous. This me¬ thod confifts in making blue vitriol from the ore, by roafting and lixiviating it, and in precipitating pure copper from this lixivium, which is called cement- water, by means of iron : but it is not much prac- tifed, becaufe it has been obferved, that all the cop¬ per contained in the ore was not procured by this means. As expence is not much regarded in fmall effays and experiments, thefe fufions are much abridged and facilitated by adding at firft faline and glafly fluxes ; , and then by refining the black copper with lead in the cupel, as gold and lilver are done. In this me¬ thod of refining, it is to be moft carefully obferved, that the metal be fufed as quickly as poffible, and expofed to no more heat than is neceflary, left it be calcined. When the black copper contains fome iron, but not a great deal, the lead prefently feparates the iron from it, and makes it rife to the furface of the copper: but if the iron be in too large a proportion, it prevents the lead from uniting with the copper. Thefe two phe¬ nomena depend on the fame caufe, which is, that lead and iron cannot unite. Frequently copper ores contain alfo a quantity of filver fufficient to make its extraftion by particular proceffes profitable. It was long before any pro- cefs could be thought of for this purpofe which was not too expenfive and troublefome : but at length it is accomplilhed by the excellent operation called (liquation. Thee 495° METAL Smelting The copper from which filver has been feparated by o^Oresr0f eliquation muft be refined after this operation, as it is jPPCr~ generally black copper from which filver is extrafted: but even if it had not been black copper which was employed for this operation, it would require to be refined on account of a little lead it always retains. It is therefore carried to the refiners furnace, when this operation is performed by help of bellows, the blaft of which is thrown upon the furface of the melted me¬ tal. As in this refining of copper the precife time when it becomes pure cannot be known, becaufe fco- ria is always formed on its furface, it is neceffary to ufe an effay-iron, the polifhed end of which being dipt in melted copper, {hews that this metal is pure when the copper adhering to the iron falls off as foon as it is dipt in cold water. When this mark of the purity of the copper has been obferved, its furface ought to be well cleaned ; and as foon as it begins to fix, it muft be fprinkled with a broom or befom dipped in cold water. The fur¬ face of the copper which is then fixing, being fudden- ly cooled by the water, detaches itfelf from the reft of the metal, is taken hold off by tongs, and is thrown red-hot into cold water. By again fprinkling water on the mafs of copper, it is all of it reduced into plates which are called rofettes, and thefe plates are what is called rofette-copper. § 2. The copper of pyritous cupreous ores cannot be obtained without feveral operations, which vary accord¬ ing to the nature of the ores. Thefe operations are chiefly roaftings and fufions. By the firft fufion a matt is produced, which is afterwards to be roafted; and thus the fufions and roaftings are to be alternately ap¬ plied, till by the laft fufion copper is obtained. Thefe methods of treating pyritous copper ores depend on the two following fadls: i. Sdphur is more difpofed to unite with iron than with copper. 2. The iron of thefe ores is deftruflible by the burning fulphur during the roafting or the fufion of the ores, while the copper rs not injured. This fa& appears from experiments mentioned by Scheffer and by Wallerius, and from the daily praftice of fmelting cupreous ores. From thefe fa<9s we learn, i. That fulphur may be employed to feparaie and deltroy iron mixed with cop¬ per. 2. That iron may be employed to feparate the fulphur from copper, as is fometimes done in the ef- fay of fulphurated copper-ores. 3. That by adjuft- ing the proportion of the iron and fulphur to each other in the fmelting of copper-ores, thefe two fub- ftances may be made to deftroy each other, and to pro¬ cure a feparation of the copper: and this adjuftment may be effe&ed, by adding fulphur or fulphurepus py¬ rites to the copper-ore, when the quantity of fulphur contained in this ore relatively to the iron is too fmall; or by adding iron when the fulphur predominates; or by roafting, by which the fuperfluous fulphur may be expelled, and no more left than is fufficient for the de- flrndion of the iron contained in the ore. We {hall apply thefe principles to the following cafes. 1. When the quantity of fulphur and of iron in a copper-ore is fmall, and efpecially when the iron does not too much abound, a previous roaftiqg will at once calcine the iron, and expel moft of the fulphur; fo that by one fufion the calcined iron may be fcorified, and black copper may be obtained. If the fulphur has not L U R G Y. Partlll. been fufficiently expelled, a fecond roafting and fufion Smelting are requifite; for the whole quantity of fulphur ought of °res of not to be expelled during the firft roafting: but as °P COpper> or pyrites. The methods of treating ores of lead containing filver and copper, are de- feribed in the fe&ions of Smelting of Ores of Silver and of Copper} and in the former of thefe an inftance is gi¬ ven of the method of fmelting the ore of Rammelfberg, which contains all thefe three metals. Pure ores of lead, and thofe which contain fo fnvall a quantity only of filver as not to compenfate for the expence of extra&ing the nobler metal, may be fmelt- ed in furnaces, and by operations fimilar to thofe ufed at Rammelfberg, or in the following methods, i. From the lead-ore of Willach in Carinthia, a great part of the lead is obtained by a kind of eliquation, during the reading of the ore. For this purpofey»the ore is thrown upon feveral drata or layers of wood, placed in a calcining or reverberatory furnace. By kindling this wood, a great part of the lead flows out of the ore, through the layers of fuel, into a bafon placed for its reception. The ore which is thus roafled is beat into fmaller pieces, and expofed to a fecond ope¬ ration fimilar to the former, by which more metal is eliquated; and the remaining ore is afterwards ground, wafhed, and fmelted, in the ordinary method. The lead of Willach is the pured of any known. Schlutter aferibes its great purity to the method ufed in extrading it, by which the mod fufible, and confequently the pured part of the contained lead is feparated from any lefs fufible metal which happens to be mixed with it, and which remains in the roafl¬ ed ore. This method requires a very large quantity of wood. 2. In England, lead ores are fmelted either up¬ on a hearth, or in a reverberatory furnace called a cupel. In the firfl of thefe methods, charcoal is employed as fuel, and the fire is excited by bellows. Small quantities of fuel and of ore are thrown alternately and frequently upon the hearth. The fufion is very quickly effeded ; and the lead flows from the hearth as fad as it is feparated from the ore. 3. In the fecond method pradifed in England, pit- eoal is ufed as fuel. The ore is melted by means of the flame palling over its furface ; its fulphur is burnt and diflipated, while the metal is feparated from the fcoria, and colleded at the bottom of the furnace. When the ore is well cleanfed and pure, no addition is requifite ; but when it is mixed with calcareous or earthy matrix, a kind of floor or fufible fpar found in the mines is generally added to render the fcoria more fluid, and thereby to afiifl the precipitation of the me¬ tal. When the fufion has been continued-about eight hours, a paflage in the fide of the furnace is opened, through which the liquid lead flows into an iron ci- ftern. But immediately before the lead is allowed, to flow out of the furnace, the workmen throw upon the liquid mafs a quantity of flacked quicklime, which renders the fcoria fo thick and tenacious, that it may be drawn out of the furnace by rakes. Schlutter men¬ tions this addition of quicklime in the fmelting oflead ores in England, but thinks that it is intended to fa¬ cilitate the fufion of the ores; whereas it really has a contrary effect, and is never added till near the end of the operation, when the fcoria is to be raked from the furface of the metal,. L U R G Y. 4957 rfr , Smelting Sect. I a. Of the Smelting if Ores 6f Jemi- of ores of metals. Semimetals. Antimony is obtained By a kind of eliquation from the minerals containing it, as is deferibed in the article Antimony ; and the regulus of antimony is procured from antimony, by the procefles deferibed in the fame article, and in the article Regulus of Antimony. Slrfenic, fajfre, and bifvmth, are obtained general¬ ly from one ore, namely, that called The ar- fenic of the ore is feparated by roafting, and adheres to the internal furface of a chimney, which is extended horizontally about 200 or 300 feet in length, and in the fides of which are feveral doors, by means of which the arfenic, when the operation is finilhed, may be fwept out and collerfed. Thefe chimneys are ge¬ nerally bent in a zig-zag direction, that they may- better retard and flop the arfenical flowers. Thefe. flowers are of various colours, white, grey, red, yel¬ low, according to the quantity of fulphur or other im¬ purity, with which they happen to be mixed. They are afterwards purified by repeated fublimations; while fome alkaline or other fubdances are added to detain the fulphur, and to affifl the purification. In the fame roafling of the ore by which the arfenic is expelled, the bifmuth, or at lead the greated part of this femi-metal which is contained in the ore, befing^ very fufible, and having no difpofltion to unite with, the regulus of cobalt, which remains in the ore, is fe¬ parated by eli'quation. The remaining part of the roafled ore confids chief¬ ly of calx of regulus of cobalt, which not being vola¬ tile, as the arfenic is, nor fo eafily fufible as bifmuth is, has been neither volatilized nor melted. It contains alfo fome bifmuth, and a fmall quantity of arfenic, to¬ gether with any filver or other fixed metal which hap¬ pened to be contained in the ore. This roadedore be¬ ing reduced to a fine powder, and mixed with three or four times its weight of'fine fand, is the powder called faffre or zaffre. Or the roafled ore is fometimes fufed See Zaffre’.. with about thrice its quantity of pure fand and as much pure pot-afh, by which a blue glafs, calledy«z#//, See Smalt:,. is produced; and a metallic mafs,,called^?//}, is col- lecfed at the bottom of the veflel in which the matters are fufed. The metallic mafs or fpeifs is compofed of very different fubdances, according to the contents of the ore and the methods of treating it. The matters which it contains at different times are, nickel, regu¬ lus of cobalt, bifmuth, arfenic, fulphur, copper, and filver. Bifmuth is feldom procured from any other ores but that of cobalt. It might, however, be extra&ed from its proper ores, if a fufficient quantity of thefe were found, by the fame method by which it is obtained! from cobalt, namely, by eliquation. Mercury, when native, and inveloped in much earthy or other matter, from Which it cannot be feparated' merely by waffling, is diddled either by afeent or by defeent. When it is mineralifed by fulphur, that is, when it is contained in cinnabar, fome intermediate fub- flance, as quicklime, or iron, mud be added in the di- ftillation, to difengage it from the fulphur. The rich ore of Almaden in Spain is a cinnabar,, with which a calcareous ftone happens to be fo blend-- edi 4958 METAL Smelting ed, that no addition is required to difengagethe mer- Sebimetals CUI7 ^r0m ^ie ^u'p^n,r’ diftillation is there per- . Ininie a ^formed in a furnace confifting of two cavities, one of which is placed above another. The lower cavity is the fire-place, and contains the fuel, refting upon a grate, through the bats of which the air enters, main¬ tains the fire, and pafies into a chimney, placed at one fide of the fire-place immediately above the door thro’ which fuel is to be introduced. The roof of this fire¬ place, which is vaulted and pierced with feveral holes, is alfo the floor of the upper cavity. Into this upper cavity, the mineral from which mercury is to be diftil- kd is introduced, through a door in one of the fides of the furnace. In the oppofite wall of this cavity are eight openings, all at the fame height. To each of thefe openings is adapted a file of aludels connefted and luted together, extending 60 feet in length. Thefe aludels, which are earthen veffels open at each end, and wider in the middle than at either extremity, MET METAMORPHOSIS, in general, denotes the Metaphor, changing of fomething into a different form ; in which fenfe it includes the transformation of infects, as well as the mythological changes related by the ancient poets. Mythological metamorphofes were held to be of two hinds, apparent and real: thus, that of Jupiter into a bull, was oply apparent; whereas that of Lycaon into a wolf, was fuppofed to be real. Moft of the ancient metamorphofes include fome al¬ legorical meaning, relating either to phyfics dr mora¬ lity : fome authors are even of opinion that a great part of the ancient philofophy is couched under them ; and Lord Bacon and Dr Hook have attetnpted to un¬ riddle feveral of them. METAPHOR,in rhetoric. See Oratory, n° 50. Metaphor and Allegory, in poetry.—A metaphor differs from a fimile, in form only, not in fubftance: in a fimile the two fubjefts are kept diftindt in the expref- fion, as well as in the thought; in a metaphor, the two fubjefts are kept diftinA in the thought only, not in the expreffion. A hero refembles a lion, and upon that refemblance many fimilies have been raifed by Ho¬ mer and other poets. But inftead of refembling a lion, let us take the aid of the imagination, and feign or fi¬ gure the hero to be a lion: by that variation the fimile is converted into a metaphor; which is carried on by deferibing all'the qualities of a lion that refemble thofe of the hero. The fundamental pleafure here, that of refemblance, belongs to the thought. An additional pleafure arifes from the expreffion: the poet, by figu¬ ring his hero to be a lion, goes on to deferibe the lion in appearance, but in reality the hero; and hisdeferip- tion is peculiarly beautiful, by expreffing the virtues and qualities of the heroin new terms, which, properly fpeaking, belong not to him, but to the lion. This will better be underftood by examples. A family connected with a. common parent, refembles a tree, the trunk and branches of which are conneAed with a common root: but let us fuppofe, that a family is figured, not barely to be like a tree,but to be a tree; and then the fimile will be converted into a metaphor* in the following manner. L U R G Y. PartllT. are fupported upon an inclined terras; and the aludel Smelting of each file, that is moft diftant from the furnace, ter- of ?res of minates in a chamber built of bricks, which has two°emiincta * doors, and two chimneys. When the upper cavity is filled fufficiently with the mineral, a fire is made below, which is continued du¬ ring 12 or 14 hours. The heat is communicated thro’ the holes of the vaulted roof of the fire-place to the mineral in the upper cavity, by which means the mer¬ cury is volatilifed, and its vaponr paffes into the alu¬ dels, where much of it is condensed, and the reft is difeharged into the brick-chamber, in which it circu¬ lates till it alfo is condenfed. If any air or fmoke paffes through the aludels along with the vapour of the mercury, they efcape thro’ the two chimneys of the chamber. Three days after the operation, when the apparatus is fufficiently cooled, the aludels are unluted, the doors of the chamber are opened, and the mercury is colleAed. MET Edward’s fev’n fons, whereof thyfelf art one, Metaphor. Were fev’n fair branches, fpringing from one root; Some of thefe branches by the defl’nies cut: But Thomas, my dear lord, my life, my Glo’fter, One flourilhing branch of his moft royal root. Is hack’d down, and his fummer-leaves all faded, By Envy’s hand and Murder’s bloody axe. Richard II. att \. fc. 3. Figuring human life to be a voyage at fea: There is a tide in the affairs of men, Which, taken at the flood, leads one to Fortune: Omitted, all the voyage of their life Is bound in (hallows and in miferies. On fuch a full fea are we now afloat; And we muft take the current when it ferves, Or lofe our ventures. Julius Cafar, aft iv. fc. 5. ’ Figuring glory and honour to be a garland of flowers: * Hotfpur. ——Wou’d to heav’n. Thy name in arms were now as great as mine! Pr.Henry. I’ll make it greater, ere I part from thee; And all the budding honours on thy creft I’ll crop, to make a garland for my head. Firjl part of Henry IV. att v. fc. 9. Figuring a man who hath acquired great reputation and honour to be a tree full of fruit: Oh, boys, this ftory The world may read in me: my body’s mark’d With Roman fwords; and my report was once Fir ft with the bell of note. Cymbeline lov’d me; And when a foldier was the theme, my name Was not far off: then was I as a tree, Whofe boughs did bend with fruit. But in one night, A ftorm or robbery, call it what you will, Shook down my mellow hangings, nay my leaves; And left me bare to weather. Cymbeline, all iii. fc. 3. “ Bleft be thy foul, thou king of (hells, faid Swaran of the dark-brown (hield. In peace, thou art the gale of fpring; in war, the mountain-ftorm. Take now’ my hand in friendftiip, thou noble king of Morven.” Fingal. Thou MET [ 4959 ] M £ T Metaphor. « Thou dwelleft in the foul of Malvina, fofi of mighty Offian. My fighs arife with the beam of the eaft: my tears defcend with the dropa of night. I was a lovely tree in thy prefence, Ofcar, with all my branches round me: but thy death came like a blaft from the defart, and laid my green head low; the fpring re¬ turned with its (howers, but no leaf of mine arofe.” Fingal. An allegory differs from a metaphor; and what lord Kaim’s calls a figure of fpeech differs from both. A metaphor is defined above to be an a& of the imagi¬ nation, figuring one thing to be another. An allegory requires no fuch operation, nor is one thing figured to be another: it confifts in choofinga fubjeft having pro¬ perties or circumftances refembling thofe of the prin¬ cipal fubjeft; and the former is defcribed in fuch a manner as to reprefent the latter: the fubje& thus re- prefented is kept out of view: we are left to difcover it by refle&ion; and we are pleafed with the difcovery, becaufe it is our own work. (See the word Allegory.) Quintilian gives the following inftance of an allegory, O navis, referent in mare te novi Flu&us. O quid agis? fortiter occupa portum. Horat. lib. i. ode 14. and explains it elegantly in the following words: “ To- tufque ille Horatii locus, quo navim pro republica, fluftuum tempeftates pro bellis civilibus, portum pro pace atque Concordia, dicit.” In a figure of fpeech, there is no fi&ion of the ima¬ gination employed, as in a metaphor; nor a reprefen- tative fubjedt introduced, as in an allegory. This fi¬ gure, as its name implies, regards the exprefiion only, not the thought; and it may be defined, the ufing a word in a fenfe different from what is proper to it. Thus youth, or the beginning of fife, is expreffed fi¬ guratively by morning of life: morning is the begin¬ ning of the day; and in that view it is employed to fignify the beginning of any other feries, fife efpecially, the progrefs of which is reckoned by days. See Fi¬ gure of Speech. Metaphor and allegory are fo much connected, that it feemed proper to handle them together : the rules, particularly for diftinguifhing the good from the bad, are common to both. We fhall therefore proceed to thefe rules, after adding fome examples to illuftrate the nature of an allegory, which, with a view to this ar¬ ticle, was but flightly illuftrated under its proper name. Horace, fpeaking of his love to Pyrrha, which was now extinguifhed, expreffeth himfelfthus: Me tabula facer Votiva paries indicat uvida Sufpendiffe potenti Veftimenta maris Deo. Carm. lib. i. ode g. Again: Phoebus volentem praglia me loqui, Vi&as et urbes, increpuit lyra: Ne parva Tyrrhenum per sequor Vela darem. . Carm. lib. v. ode ry. Queen. Great Lords, wife men ne’er fit and wail their lofs, But cheerly feek how to redrefs their harms. What though the mail be now blown overboard. The cable broke, the holding-anchor loft, Vol. VII. 2 And half our failors fwallowed in the flood ? Metaphor. Yet fives our pilot ftill. Is’t meet that he Should leave the helm, and, like a fearful lad. With tearful eyes add water to the fea, And give more ftrength to.that which hath too much; While in his moan the fhip fplits on the rock, Which induftry and courage might have fav’d? Ah, what a fhame! ah, what a fault were this! Third part Henry VI. aft v. fc. 5. Oroonolo. Ha! thou haft rous’d The lion in his den; he ftalks abroad, And the wide foreft trembles at his roar. I find the danger now. Oroonoko, aft iii. fc. 2. “ My well-beloved hath a vineyard in a very fruitful hill. He fenced it, gathered out the ftones thereof, planted it with the choiceft vine, built a tower in the midft of it, and alfo n^ade a wine-prefs therein; he looked that it fhould bring forth grapes, and it brought forth wild grapes. And now, O inhabitants of Jeru- falem, and men of Judah, Judge, I prny you, betwixt me and my vineyard. What could have been done more to my vineyard, that I have not done? Where¬ fore, when I looked that it fhould bring forth grapes, brought it forth wild grapes? And now go to, I will tell you what I will do to my vineyard: I will take a- way the hedge thereof, and it fhall be eaten up; and break down the wall thereof, and it fhall be trodden down. And I will lay it wafte: it fhall not be pruned, nor digged, but there fhall come up briars and thorns: I will alfo command the clouds that they rain no rain upon it. For the vineyard of the Lord of hofts is the houfe of Ifrael, and the men of Judah his pleafant plant.” Ifaiah, v. 1. The rules that govern metaphors and allegories are of two kinds. The conftruftion of thefe figures comes under the firft kind : the propriety or impropriety of introduftion comes under the other.—To begin with rules of the firft kind; fome of which coincide with thofe already given for fimilies; fome are peculiar to metaphors and allegories: In the firft place, it has been obferved, that a fimile cannot be agreeable where the refemblance is either too ftrong or too faint. This holds equally in meta¬ phor and allegory; and the reafon is the fame in all. In the following inftances, the refemblance is too faint to be agreeable. Malcolm.— But there’s no bottom, none, In my voluptuoufnefs: your wives, your daughters. Your matrons, and your maids, could not fill up The ciftern of my luft. Macbeth, aft iv. fc. iv. The beft way to judge of this metaphor, is to convert it into a fimile; which would be bad, becaufe there is fcarce any refemblance between luft and a ciftern, ojr betwixt enormous luft and a large ciftern. Again: He cannot buckle his diftemper’d caufe Within the belt of rule. Macbeth, Afts.fc. 2. There is no refemblance between a diftempered caufe and any body that can be confined within a belt. Again: Steep me in poverty to the very lips. Othello, Aft iv. fc. 9. Poverty here muft be conceived a fluid, which it re- fembles not in any manner. 28 A Speaking MET [ 4960 ] MET aphor. Speaking to Bolingbroke banifh’d for fix years: The fallen paflage of thy weary fteps Efteem a foil, wherein thou art to fet The precious jewel of thy home-return. Richard II. aQ ii. fc. 6. Again: Here is a letter, lady. And every word in it a gaping wound Iffuing life-blood. Merchant of Vemce, Aft u\. fc. 3. Tantae ?noUs erat Romanam condere gentem. JEneid. i. 37. The following metaphor is ftrained beyond all endu¬ rance: Timur-bec, known to us by the name of Ta- merlane the Great, writes to Bajazet emperor of the Ottomans in the following terms: “ Where is the monarch who dares refift us? where is the potentate who doth not glory in being numbered among our attendants ? As for thee, defcended from a Turcoman failor, fince the veffel of thy unbounded ambition hath been wreck’d in the gulf of thy felf-love, it would be proper, that thou (houldft take in the fails of thy temerity, and call the anchor of repentance in the port of fincerity and juftice, which is the port of fafety; left the tempeft of our vengeance make thee perilh in the fea of the punilhment thou deferveft.” Such ftrained figures, as obferved above, are not un¬ frequent in the firft dawn of refinement: the mind in a new enjoyment knows no bounds, and is generally car¬ ried to excefs, till tafte and experience difcover the pro¬ per limits. Secondly, Whatever refemblance fubjefts may have, it is wrong to put one for another, where they bear no mutual proportion. Upon comparing a very high to a very low fubjedl, the fimile takes on an air of bur- lefque: and the fame will be the effed, where the one is imagined to be the other, as in a metaphor; or made to reprefent the other, as in an allegory. Thirdly, Thefe figures, a metaphor efpecially, ought not to be crowded with many minute circumftances; for in that cafe it is fcarcely poffible to avoid obfcurity. A metaphor above all ought to be fhort: it is difficult, for any time, to fupport a lively image of a thing be¬ ing what we know it is not; and for that reafon, a me¬ taphor drawn out to any length, inftead of illuftrating or enlivening the principal fubjeft, becomes difagree- able by overftraining the mind. Here Cowley is ex- trememely licentious: take the following inftance. Great and wife conqu’ror, who, where-e’er Thou corn’d, doft: fortify, and fettle there! Who can ft defend as well as get; And never hadft one quarter beat up yet; Now thou art in, thou ne’er will part With one inch of my vanquifh’d heart; Tor fince thou tookft it by affault from me, "} ’Tis garrifon’d fo ftrong with thoughts of thee C It fears no beauteous enemy. j For the fame reafon, however agreeable long allegories may at firft be by their novelty, they never afford any lading pkafure: witnefs the Fairy Queen, which with great power of expreffion, variety of images, and me¬ lody of verfification, is fcarce ever read a fecond time. In the fourth place, the comparifon carried on in a fimile, being in a metaphor funk by imagining the Metaphor, principal fubje£t to be that very thing which it only * refembles; an opportunity is furnifhed to deferibe it in terms taken ftridtly or literally with refpedl to its ima¬ gined nature. This fuggefts another rule, That in con- ftrudling a metaphor, the writer ought to make ufe of fuch words only as are applicable literally to the ima¬ gined nature of his fubjefl:: figurative words might carefully to be avoided ; for fuch complicated figures, inftead of fetting the principal fubjeft in a ftrong light, involve it in a cloud; and it is well if the reader, with¬ out reje&ing by the lump, endeavour patiently to ga¬ ther the plain meaning, regardlefs of the figures: A ftubborn and unconquerable flame Creeps in his veins, and drinks the ftreams of life. Lady fane Gray, atl i. fc. I. Copied from Ovid, Sorbent avidae prsecordia flammae. Metannorph. lib. ix. 172. Let us analyfe this exprefiion. That a fever may be imagined a flame, we admit; though more than one ftep is neceffary to come at the refemblance : a fever, by heating the body, refembles fire; and it is no ftretch to imagine a fever to be a fire : again, by a figure of fpeech, flame may be put for fire, becaufe they are com¬ monly conjoined; and therefore a fever may be termed a flame. But now, admitting a fever to be a flame, its effe&s ought to be explained in words that agree lite¬ rally to a flame. This rule is not obferved here ; foe a flame drinks figuratively only, not properly. King Henry to his fon prince Henry: Thou hid’ft a thoufand daggers in thy thoughts, Which thou haft whetted on thy ftony heart To ftab at half an hour of my frail life. , - Second part Henry IV. a cl iv. fc. 1 r. Such faulty metaphors are pleafantly ridiculed in the Rehearfal: “ Phyftcian. Sir, to conclude, the place you fill has more than amply exafted the talents of a wary pilot; and all thefe threatening ftorms, which, like impregi nate clouds, hover o’er our heads, will, when they once are grafp’d but by the eye of reafon, melt into fruitful fhowers of bleffings on the people. “ Bayes. Pray mark that allegory. Is not that good? “ Johnfon. Yes, that grafping of a ftorm with the eye is admirable.” Act ii. fc. 1. Fifthly, The jumbling different metaphors in the fame fentence, beginning with one metaphot and end¬ ing with another, commonly called a rnixt metaphor, ought never to be indulged. K. Henry. Will you again unknit This churlifh knot of all-abhorred war. And move in that obedient orb again, Where you did give a fair and natural light? Firjl part Henry VI. att v. fc. X. Whether ’tis nobler in the mind, to fuffer The flings and arrows of outrageous fortune; Or to take arms againft a fea of troubles. And by oppofing end them. Hamlet, aft iii, fc. 2. In the fixth place, It is unpleafant to join different metaphors in the fame period, even where they are preferved Metaphor. MET [ 4961 ] MET Metaphor, preferved dfftinft: for when the fubje£l is imagined to “ be firft one thing and then another in the fame period without interval, the mind is diftra&ed by the rapid tranfuion ; and when the imagination is put on fuch hard duty, its images are too faint to produce any good effeft: At regina gravi jamdudum faucia cura, Vulnus alit venis, et casco carpitur igni. lEneid. iv. I. Eft mollis flamma medullas Interea, et taciturn vivit fub pe&ore vulnus. JEneid. iv. 66. Motum ex Metello confule civicum, bellique caufas, et vitia, et modos, JLudumque fortune, gravefque Principum amicitias, et arma Nondum expiatis unfla cruoribus, Periculofae plenum opus alese, Traftas, et incedis per ignes Subpofitos cineri dolofo. Horat. Carm, lib. ii. ode I. In the lad place, It is ftill worfe to jumble together metaphorical and natural expreffion, fo as that the pe¬ riod muft be underftood in part metaphorically in part literally ; fop the imagination cannot follow with fuffi- cient eafe changes fo fudden and unprepared: a meta¬ phor begun and not carried on, hath no beauty; and inftead of light, there is nothing but obfcurity and con- fufion. Inftances of fuch incorreft compofition are without number: we lhall, fora fpecimen,, feledt a few from different authors. ' Speaking of Britain. This precious done fet in the fea, Which ferves it in the office of a wall, Or as a moat defenfive to a houfe Againft the envy of lefs happier lands. Richard II. aft ii. fc. I. In the ftrft line Britain is figured to be a precious ftone: in the following lines, Britain, divefted of her meta¬ phorical drefs, is prefented to the reader in her natu¬ ral appearance. Thefe growing feathers pluck’d from Casfar’s wing, Will make him fly an ordinary pitch, Who elfe would foar above the view of men, And keep us all in fervile fearfulnefs. Julius Cafar, acl u fc. I. Rebus anguftis animofus atque Fortis adpare: fapienter idem Contrahes vento nimium fecundo Turgida vela. Her. The following is a miferable jumble of expreffions, ari- fing from an unfteady view of the fubjed, between its figurative and natural appearance: But now from gath’ring clouds deflru&ion pours. Which ruins with mad rage our halcyon hours: Mifts from black jealoufies the tempeft form, ai Whilft late divifioris reinforce the ftorm. Difpenfary, canto iii. To thee the world its prefent homage pays> The harveft early, but mature the praife. Pope's imitation of Horace, B. ii. Oui, fa pudeur ne’ft que franche grimace, Quhine ombre de vertu qui garde mal la place, Et qui s’evanouit, comme Pon peut favoir, Aux rayons du foleil qu’une bourfe fait voir. Moliere, L'Etourdi, all iii. fc. 2. Et fon feu, depourvu de fenfe et de lefture, S’eteint a chaque pas, faut de nourriture. Boileau, L'art poetique, chant, iii. 1. 319. Dryden, in his dedication of the tranflation of fa- venal, fays, “ When thus, as I may fay, before the ufe of the loadftone, or knowledge of the compafs, I was failing in a vaft ocean, without other help than the pole-ftar of the ancients, and the rules of the French flage among the moderns, See.” “ There is a time when fa&ions, by the vehemence of their own fermentation, ftun and difable one another.” Bolingbroke. This fault of jumbling the figure and plain expre.f- fion into one confufed mafs, is not lefs common in al¬ legory than in metaphor. Take the following ex¬ amples. — HeuL quoties fidem, Mutatofque Deos flebit, et afpera Nigris asquora ventis Emirabitur infolens, Qui nunc te fruitur credulus aurea: Qui femper vacuam, femper amabilem Sperat, nefeius auras Fallacis. Horat. Carm. lib. i. ode 5. Pour moi fur cette mer, qu’ici bas nous courons, Je fonge a me pourvoir d’efquif et d’avirons, A regler mes defirs, a prevenir 1’orage, Et fauver, s’il fe pent, ma Raifon du naufrage. Boileau, epitre 5. Lord Halifax, fpeaking of the ancient fabulifts : “ They (fays he) wrote in figns, and fpoke in para¬ bles: all their fables carry a double meaning:''the ftory is one, and entire; the charafters the fame-throughout; not broken or changedrand always conformable to the nature of the creature they introduce. They never tell you, that the dog which fnapped at a ftadow, loft his troop of horfe; that would be unintelligible. This is his (Dryden’s) new way of telling a ftory, and con¬ founding the moral and the fable together.” After inftancing from the hind and panther, he goes on thus: “ What relation has the hind to our Saviour? or what notion have we of a panther’s Bible ? If you fay he means the church, how does the church feed on lawns,- or range in the foreft? Let it be always a church, or always a cloven-footed beaft; for we cannot bear his ftiifting the feene every line.” A few words more upon allegory. Nothing gives greater pleafure than this figure, when the reprefenta- tive fubjeft bears a ftrong analogy, in all its circum- ftances, to that which is reprefented: but the choice is feldom fo lucky; the analogy being generally fo faint and obfeure, as to puzzle and not pleafe. An allegory js ftill more difficult in painting than in poetry: the former can fhow no refemblance but what appears to the eye; the latter hath many other refources for fhow- ing the refemblance. And therefore, with refpeft to what the Abbe du Bos terms inixt allegorical compofi- tions, thefe may do in poetry; becau'fe, in writing, the allegory can eafily be diftinguifhed from the hiftoricaF part: no perfon, for example, miftakes Virgil’s Fame MET [ 4962 ] MET Metaphor, for a real being. But fuch a mixture in a pi&ureis in- tolerable ; becaufe in a picture the objects mult appear all of the fame kind, wholly real or wholly emblema¬ tical. For this reafon, the hiftory of Mary de Medicis, in the palace of Luxembourg, painted by Rubens, is unpleafant by a perpetual jumble of real and allegori¬ cal perfonages, which produce a difcordance of parts, and an obfcurity upon the whole: witnefs, in particu¬ lar, the tablature reprefenting the arrival of Mary de Medicis at Marfeilles ; where, together with the real perfonages, the Nereids and Tritons appear founding their (hells: fuch a mixture of fiftion and reality in the fame group, is ftrangely abfurd. The picture of Alex¬ ander and Roxana, defcribed by Lucian, is gay and fanciful; but it fuffers by the allegorical figures. It is not in the wit of man to invent an allegorical repre- fentation deviating farther from any flradow of refem- blance, than one exhibited by LewisXIV. anno 1664; in which an enormous chariot, intended to reprefent that of the fun, is dragged along, furrounded with men and women, reprefenting the four ages of the world, the celeftial figns, the feafons, the hours, &c.; a mon- ftrous compofition, and yet fcarce more abfurd than Guido’s tablature of Aurora. In an allegory, as well as in a metaphor, terms ought to be chofen that properly and literally are applicable to the reprefentative fubjeft: nor ought any circum- ilance to be added that is not proper to the reprefen¬ tative fubjeft, however juftly it may be applicable pro¬ perly or figuratively to the pricipal. The following al¬ legory is therefore faulty. Ferus et Cupido, Semper ardentes acuens fagittas Cote cruentd. Horat. lib. ii. ode 8. For though blood may fuggeft the cruelty of love, it is an improper or immaterial circumftance in the repre¬ fentative fubjeft: water, not blood, is proper for a whetftone. We proceed to the next head, which is, to examine in what circumftrnces thefe figures are proper, in what improper. This inquiry is not altogether fuperfeded by what is faid upon the fame fubjeft in the article Comparison ; becaufe, upon trial, it will be foud, that a (hort metaphor or allegory may be proper, where a fimile, drawn out to a greater length and in its nature more folemn, would fcarce be reliihed. And, in the firft place, a metaphor, like a fimile, is excluded from common converfation, and from the de- fcription of ordinary incidents. Second, in exprefiing any fevere paffion that totally occupies the mind, metaphor is unnatural. The following example, of deep defpair, befide the highly figurative ftyle, hath more the air of raving than of fenfe: Calijla. Is it the voice of thunder, or my father ? Madnefs! Confufion! let the ftorm come on, Let the tumultuous noar drive all upon me, Dafh my devoted bark ; ye furges, break it; ’Tis for my ruin that the tempeft rifes. When I am loft, funk to the bottom low, Peace fhall return, and all be calm again. Fair Penitent, aft 4. The following metaphor is fwect and lively; but it fuits not the fiery temper of Chamont, inflamed with Metaphor, paffion : parables are not the language of wrath vent- Metaphraft, mg itfelf without reftraint : Chamont. You took her .up a little tender flower, Juft fprouted on a bank, which the next froft Had nipp’d ; and with a careful loving hand, Tranfplanted her into your own fair garden, Where the fun always fhines : there long (he flourifh’d, Grew fweet to fenfe, and lovely to the eye ; Till at the laft a cruel fpoiler came, Cropt this fair rofe, and rifled all its fweetnefs, Than caft it like a loathfome weed away. Orphan, aft 4. The following fpeech, full of imagery, is not natural in grief and deje&ion of mind. Gonfalez. O my fon ! from the blind dotage Of a father’s fondnefs thefe ills arofe. For thee I’ve been ambitious, bafe and bloody: For thee I’ve plung’d into this fea of fin ; Stemming the tide with only one weak hand, While t’other bore the crown, (to wreathe thy brow), Whofe weight has funk me ere I reach’d the fliore. Mourning Bride, aft 5. fc 6. There is an enchanting pi&ure of deep diftrefs in Macbeth, where Macduff is reprefented lamenting his wife and children, inhumanly murdered by the tyrant. Stung to the heart with the news, he queftions the meffenger over and over: not that he doubted the faft, but that his heart revolted againft fo cruel a misfor¬ tune. After ftruggling feme time with his grief, he turns from his wife and children to their favage botcher ; and then gives vent to his refentment, but Hill with manlinefs and dignity : O, I could play the woman with mine eyes, And braggart with my tongue. But, gentle Heav’n ! Cut fhort all intermiffion ; front to front Bring thou this fiend of Scotland and myfelf; Within my fword’s length fet him. If he ’fcape, Then Heav’n forgive him too. Metaphorical exprefiion, indeed, may fometimes be ufed with grace where a regular fimile would be in¬ tolerable : but there are fuuations fo fevere and difpi- riting, as not to admit even the flighteft metaphor. It requires great delicacy of tafte to determine with firmnefs, whether the prefent cafe be of that nature: perhaps it is; yet who could wifh a Angle word of this admirable fcene altered ? But metaphorical language is proper when a man ftruggles to bear with dignity or decency a misfor¬ tune however great; the ftruggle agitates and animates the mind: Wolfey. Farewell,a long farewell, to all mygreatnefs! This is the ftate of man ; to-day he puts forth The tender leaves of hope; to-morrow bloffoms. And bears his blufhing honours thick upon him; The third day comes a froft, a killing froft, And when he thinks, good eafy man, fullfurely His greatnefs is a ripening, nips his root, And then he falls as I do. Henry VIII. aft 3. Je. 6. METAPHRAST, a tranflator, or perfon who renders an author into another form or another lan¬ guage, word for word. METAPHYSICS. (I) METAPHYSICS. Metaphysics is that part of phiiofophy which confiders the nature and properties of thinking beings. Ariftotle, after treating on phyfics, begins his next book, (in which he pretends to elevate the mind above corporeal objedls, to fix it on the contemplation of God, of angels, and of things fpiritual, and to enable it to judge of the principles of fciences by abftraflion,) with the Greek words T* fvcnv.a, p0ft phyficam, i. e. after phyfics. His difciples, and fucceeding philofo- phers, have formed, of thefe two, one word. Meta¬ physics, by which they mean that fcience of which we have juft now given the definition. Metaphyfics is divided, according to the objefts that it confiders, into fix principal parts, which arc called, i. Ontology. 2. Cofnwlogy. 3. Anthrophology. 4. Pfychology. 5. Pneumatology ; and, 6. Theodicy, or metaphyfical theology. 1. The do&rine that is named ontology, is that part of metaphyfics which inveftigates, and explains, the nature and general efience of all beings, as well as the qualities and attributes that eflentially appertain to them, and which we ought to aflign them by abftrae- tion, as confidering them a priori. Hence it appears, that this doftrine fhould proceed in its operations from the moft Ample ideas ; fuch as do not admit of any other qualities of which they may be compounded. Thefe fimple ideas are, for example, thofe of being, of eflence, of fubftance, of mode, of exiftence as well with regard to time as place, of a neceffary caufe, of unity, the idea of negation, the difference between a being that is fimple or compound, neceffary or acci¬ dental, finite or infinite ; the idea of eflential and ab- ftraft properties, as of the greatnefs, perfeftion, and goodnefs of beings ; and fo of the reft. The bufinefs therefore of ontology, is to make us acquainted with every kind of being in its effence and abftraA qualities, and fuch as are diftinft from all other beings. This knowledge being once eftablifhed on fimple principles, juft confequences may from thence be drawn, and thofe things proved after which metaphyfics inquires, and which is its bufinefs to prove. It is eafy to conceive, that even a clear knowledge of beings, and their effential properties, would be ftill defeftive and ufelefs to man, if he did not know how to determine and fix his ideas by proper denomina¬ tions, and confequently to communicate his percep¬ tions to thofe whom he would inftrudt, or againft whom he is obliged to difpute, as they would not have the fame perceptions that he has. It is, by the way, perhaps, one of the greateft advantages that we have over other animals, to be able fo to determine our ideas by figns or denominations, either of wri¬ ting or fpeech, as to refer each particular perception to its general idea, and each general perception to its particular idea. To render therefore our ideas intel¬ ligible to others, we muft have determinate words or denominations for each being, and the qualities of each being; and ontology teaches us thofe terms which are fo neceflary to fix our ideas, and to give them the requifite perfpicuity and precifion, that we may not difpute about words when we endeavour to extend the fphere of our knowledge, or when w^e de¬ bate concerning the eflence of an objed, or endeavour to make it more evident. It is for this reafon that on¬ tology was formerly regarded as a barren fcience, that confifted of technical terms only; as a mere terminology; whereas the beft modern philofophers make it a more fubftantial fcience, by annexing determinate ideas to thofe words, and the examination of thofe objedsthem- felves that thefe terms imply. But the misfortune is, to fpeak the truth, that in this ontologic determination there is ftill much uncertainty and fophiftry. For, in the firft place, we yet know of no metaphyfics where all the definitions are juft ; and in thefecond place, the words that are employed in thefe definitions have al¬ ways fomething equivocal in their meaning, and have confequently themfelves need of definitions; and in this manner we may recede to infinity, unlefs we re¬ cur to the firft impreflions that the fimple words have made in our minds, and the primitive ideas which they there excite. The words man, love, coach, &c. fay more, and make a ftronger impreflion, than all the definitions we can give of them ; by ontologic explications they are almoft always covered with a dark cloud. 2. Metaphyfics, after having, in as folid a manner as poflible, explained and eftablifhed the principles above-mentioned, continues its inquiries to the fecond part, that is called Cofmology, and examines into the eflence of the world, and all that it contains ; its eter¬ nal laws ; of the nature of matter ; of motion ; of the nature of tangible bodies, of their attributes and ef¬ fential qualities, and of all that can be known by ab- flra&ion, and fometimes alfo by adding the lights that man acquires concerning them by the experience of his fenfes. It is alfo in cofmology that we examine the Leibnitzian fyftem; that is, whether God in creating the world muft neceflarily have created the beft world ; and if this world be fo in effedf. And in this manner theypurfue the argument from confequencc to confequence to its laft refort. All philofophers, how¬ ever, do not go equally deep. Each mind has its dofe of penetration. Due care fhould be likewife taken, that fubtilty, in this chain of reafoning, carried beyond the general bounds of the human mind, do not preju¬ dice either the perfpicuity or the truth of ideas: fee¬ ing that error here too nearly approaches the truth j and that every idea, which cannot be rendered intelli* gible, is in effeft equal to a falfe idea. 3. Anthrophology, or the knowledge of man, forms the third branch of metaphyfics. It is fubdivided into two parts. The firft, which confifts in the knowledge of the exterior parts of the human frame, does not be¬ long to this fcience : anatomy and phyfiology teach that. The bufinefs here is only a metaphyfical ex¬ amination of man, his exiftence, his effence, his ef¬ fential qualities and neceflary attributes, all confir dered a priori: and this examen leads at the fame time to 4. Pyfychology, which confifts in the knowledge of the foul in general, and of the foul of man in particu- [ a ] larj ( 2 ) M E T A P General Jar; concerning which the mod profound, the mod view‘ fubtle and abdradl refearches have been made, that the human reafon is capable of producing ; and con¬ cerning the fubdance of which, in fpite of all thefe efforts, it is yet extremely difficult to affert any thing that is rational, and dill lefs any thing that is pofitive and well fupported. 5. The fifth part of metaphyfics 'is called pntuma- tology. It is not a very long time fince this term has been invented, and that metaphyficians have made of it a diftindt dodtrine. By this they mean the know¬ ledge of all fpirits, angels, &c. It is eafy to conceive that infinite art is neceffary to give an account of what we do not abfolutely know any thing, and of which, by the nature of the fubjedl itfelf, we never can know any thing. But the metaphyfician prefently offers to fhow us, “ what is the idea of a fpirit ; the effedtive cxiftence of a fpirit ; what are its general qualities and properties ; that there are rational fpirits, and that thefe rational fpirits have qualities that are founded in the moral qualities of God:” for this is, in fo many words, what is taught us by pneumatology. 6. Metaphyjlcal Theology, which M. Leibnitz and fome others call Theodicy, is the fixth and laft dodtrine of metaphyfics. It teaches us the knowledge of the exiftence of God ; to make the moft rational fuppofi- tions concerning his divine effence, and to form a juft idea of his qualities and perfedtions, and to demon- ftrate them by abftradt reafoning a priori. Theodicy differs from natural theology, in as much as this laft borrows, in fadl, from theodicy proofs and demon- ftrations to confirm the exiftence of a Supreme Being; but after having folidly eftablifhed that great truth, by extending its confequences, natural theology teaches us what are the relations and connexions that fubfift between that Supreme Being and man, and what are the moral duties that refult from that connexion. As pneumatology is a fcience highly infidious and chime¬ rical, fo is metaphyfical theology fufceptible of found argument and demonftration ; to the great comfort of mankind, the whole of whofe happinefs is founded on the certainty of this fcience. If the effedls and opera¬ tions of fpirits in the univerfe were as evident as the effedts and operations of the Deity, and their necef¬ fary exiftence as capable of being proved a priori, pneumatology would be a dodtrine of equal certainty with theodicy: but as neither one nor the other can be proved with regard to fpirits in general, whilft God manifefts himfelf in every part of nature, we have only to defcend from the moft fimple and abftradt ideas, to thofe that are the moft compound ; and from thence to reafcend, by a chain of reafonings, from the crea¬ ture up to the Author of the creature and of all na¬ ture : we Ihall find, that the refult of all thefe opera¬ tions of the mind will conftantly be, The neceffity of the exiftence of a God; and we may at all times de¬ termine, tho’ very imperfedtly, from the weaknefs of our difcernment, what that Supreme Being muft be, by pofitively determining what he cannot be. Every thing that can concur to furnifti new proofs en this fubjedt, or to elucidate and eftablilh thofe which are already known, is therefore of ineftimable value to mankind : and though this were the only objedt of metaphyfics, it would highly merit the attention of thofe of the moft refined and moft exalted genius. H Y S I C S. Sea. I. IT. After giving this general view of the fubjedt, we Of Ideas fhall proceed to give the fubftance of what Mr Locke has delivered upon it. Sect. I. Of Ideas in general, and their Original. 7. By the term idea, as defined by Mr Locke, is meant whatever is the objedt of the underftanding when a man thinks, or whatever it is which the mind can be employed about in thinking. 8. In order to trace the manner by which we ac¬ quire thtfe ideas, let us fuppofe the mind to be, as we fay, white paper, void of all charadters, without any ideas : how comes it to be furnifhed ? whence has it all the materials of reafon and knowledge? From ex¬ perience and obfervation. This, when employed about external fenfible objedts, we may call fenfation: by this we have the ideas of litter, fweet, yellow, hard, &c. which are commonly called fenfible qnalities, be- caufe conveyed into the mind by the fenfes. The fame experience, when employed about the internal operations of the mind, perceived and refledted on by us, we may call reflexion : hence we have the ideas of perception, thinking, doubting, willing, redfon~ ing, &c. 9. Thefe two, viz. external material things as the objedts of fenfation, and the operations of our own minds as the objedfs of refledlion, are the on\y originals from whence all our ideas take their beginnings : the underftanding feems not to have the leaft glimmering of ideas which it doth not receive from one of thefe two fources. Thefe, when we have taken a full fur- vey of them, and their feveral modes and compofitions, we ftiall find to contain our whole ftock olideas: and that we have nothing in our minds which did not come in one of thefe two ways. 10. It is evident, that children come by degrees to be furnifhed with ideas from the objedfs they are con- verfant with : they are fo furrounded with bodies that perpetually and diverfely affedt them, that fome ideas will (whether they will or no) be imprinted on their minds. Light and colours, founds and tangible qualities, do continually folicit their proper fenfes, and force an entrance into the mind. It is late, commonly, be¬ fore children come to have ideas of the operations of their minds ; and fome men have not any very clear or perfedt ideas of the greateft part of them all their lives : becaufe, tho’ they pafs there continually, yet, like floating vifions, they make not deep impreffions enough to leave in the mind clear and lafting/Vea/, till the .underftanding turns inward upon itfelf, and refledts on its own operation, and makes them the objedts of its own contemplation. 11. When a man firfl perceives, then he may be faid to have ideas ; having ideas, and ’ .rception, fig- nifying the fame thing. Sect. II. Of Simple Ideas. Of ideas, fome are fimple, others complex. A ftmplc idea is one uniform appearance or conception in the mind, which is not diftinguilhable into different ideas. Such are the ideas of fenfible qualities, which though they are in the things themfelves fo united and blended, that there is no feparation, no diftance be¬ tween them, yet the ideas they produce in the mind enter by the fenfes fimple and unmixed. Thus, tho* Sea. m/ M E T A P Different the hand feels foftnefs and warmth in the fame piece of forts of yet the fimple ideas thus united in the fame fub- Edeas‘ jeft are as perfedlly dijiintt as thofe that come in by different fenfes. 12. Thefe fimple ideas are fuggefled no other way than from the two ways above-mentioned, viz. fenfa- tion and reflection. 13. The mind being once ftored with the fimple ideas, has the power to repeat, compare, and unite them to an infinite variety ; and fo can make, at plea- fure, new complex ideas. But the moft enlarged un- derftanding cannot frame one ntmfimple idea ; nor by any force deftroy them that are there. 14. Ideas, with reference to the different ways wherein they approach the mind, are of four forts. Firft, There are fome which come into our minds by one fenfe only. Secondly, There are others conveyed into the mind by more fenfes than one. Thirdly, Others that are had from refleftion only. Fourthly, There are fome fuggefted to the mind by ail the ways of fenfation and reflection. Sect. III. Of Ideas of one Senfe. 1^. Some ideas enter into the mind only by one fenfe peculiarly adapted to receive them. Thus colours, founds, fmells, &c. come in only by the eyes, ears, and nofe. And if thefe organs are any of them fo dif- ordered as not to perform their fun&ions, they have no other way to bring themfelves in view, and be percei¬ ved by the underftanding. 16. We fhall here mention one, which we receive by our touch, becaufe it is one of the chief ingredients in many of our complex ideas; and that is, the idea of folidity: it arifes from the refiftance one body makes to the entrance of another body into the place it poffeffes, till it has left it. There is no idea which we more conflantly receive from fenfation than this. In whatever pofture we are, we feel fomewhat that fup- ports us, and hinders us from finking downwards: and the bodies we daily handle, make us perrceive, that while they remain between them, they do, by an un- furmountable force, hinder the approach of the parts of our hands that prefs them. This feems to be the moft effential property of body, and that whereby we con¬ ceive it to fill fpace : the idea of which is, that where we imagine any fpace taken up by a folid fubftance, we conceive it fo to poffefs it, that it excludes all other folid fubftances. This refiftance is fo great, that no force can furmount it. All the bodies in the world preffing a drop of water on all fides, will ne¬ ver be able to overcome the refiftance it makes to their approaching one another, till it be removed out of their way. 17. The idea of folidity is diftinguifhed from that of pure fpace, in as much as this latter is neither ca¬ pable of refiftance nor motion : it is diftinguifhed from hardnefs, in as much as hardnefs is a firm cohefion of the folid parts of matter making up maffes of a fen- fible bulk, fo that the whole doth not eafily change its figure. Indeed, hard and foft, as commonly ap¬ prehended by us, are but relative to the conftitutions of our bodies: that being called hard which will put tis to pain fooner than change its figure by the pref- £ure of any part of our bodies ; and that fofi, which H Y S I C S. ( 3 ) changes the fituation of its parts upon an eafy and un- Senfation painful touch. Refleftion 18. This difficulty of changing fituation among the i- parts, gives no more folidity to the hardeft body than to the fofteft; nor is an adamant one jot more folid than water. He that fhall fill a yielding foft body well with air or water, will quickly find its refiftance. By this we may diftinguifh the idea of the extenfion of body, from the idea of the extenfion of fpace: That of body, is the cohefion or continuity of folid, feparable, and moveable parts; that of fpace, the continuity of unfolid, infeparable, and immoveable parts. Upon the folidity of bodies depend thei: mutual impulfe, refift¬ ance, and protrufion. Sect. IV. Of Simple Ideas of different Senfes. 19. Some ideas we get into the mind by more than one fenfe} as fpace, extenfion, figure, reft, and motion. Thefe are perceivable by the eyes and touch. Sect. V. Of Simple Ideas of RefteElion. 20. Some ideas are had from refle&ion only. Such are the ideas we have of the operations of our minds: of which the two principal are, perception, or thinking; and volition, or willing. The powers of producing thefe operations are called faculties; which are, the underftanding, and will. The feveral modes of think¬ ing, &c. belong to this head. Sect. VI. Of Simple Ideas of Senfation and Reflc Elion. 21. There are fome fimple ideas conveyed into the mind by all the ways of fenfation and reflection; fuch are pleafure, pain, power, exiftence, unity, fucceflion. Pleafure or delight, pain or uneafinefs, accompany al- moft every impreffion on our fenfes, and every a£fion or thought of the mind. 22. The Author of our beings having given a power to our minds, in feveral inftances, to choofe amongft its ideas which it will think on ; to excite us to thefe ac¬ tions of thinking and motion, - he has joined to feveral thoughts and fenfations a perception of delight; with¬ out this we fhould have no reafon to prefer one thought or aftion to another. 23. Pain has the fame efficacy to fet us on work that pleafure has; fince we are as ready to avoid that, as to purfue this. This is worth our confideration, that pain is often produced by the fame objetts and ideas that produce pleafure in us. This their near conjundlion gives us new occafion of admiring the wifdom and goodnefs of our Maker; who, defigning the preferva- tion of our being, has annexed pain to the application of many things to our bodies, to warn us of the harm they will do us, and as advices to withdraw us from them. But he not defigning our prefervation barely, but the prefervation of every part and organ in its perfe&ion, hath in many cafes annexed pain to thofe very ideas which delight us. Thus heat, that is very agreeable to us in one degree, by a Httle greater in- creafe of it proves no ordinary torment: Which is wifely ordered by nature, that when any objeft does by the vehemence of its operation diforder the inftru- ments of fenfation, whofe ftruftures cannot but be very delicate, we might by the pain be warned to withdraw before the organ be quite put out of order. That this is the end of pain, appears from this confi- [ a 2 ] deration} ( 4 ) M E T A P Simple deration ; that though great light is infufferable to Ideas.' t[ie eyes> yet the higheft degree of darknefs does not " at all difeafe them, becaufe that caufes no diforderly motion in that curious organ the eye. But excefs of cold, as well as heat, pains us ; becaufe it is equally deftru&ive to the temper which is necefiary to the prefervation of life. 24. Exiftence and unity are two other ideas fug- gelled by every object without, and every idea within. When ideas are in our minds, we confider them as being adtually there, as well as we confider things to be adtually without us; which is, that they exijl, or have exiftence: And whatever we confider as one thing, whether a real being, or idea, fuggefts the idea of unity. 25. Power is another idea derived from thefe fources: For finding in ourfelves that we can think, and move feveral parts of our bodies at pleafure, and obferving the effefts that natural bodies produce in one another; by both thefe ways we get the idea of power. 26. Succefton is another idea fuggefted by our fenfes, and by refledtion on what pafleS in our minds: For if we look into ourfelves, we (hall find our ideas always, whilft we are awake, or have any thought, palling in train, one going and another coming, with¬ out intermilfion. Sect. VII. Some farther Confderations con¬ cerning Simple Ideas. 27. Whatsoever is able, by affedling our fenfes, to. caufe any perception in the mind, doth hereby pro¬ duce in the underftanding z fmple idea; which, what- foever be the caufe of it, is looked upon as a realpoji- five idea in the underftanding. Thus the ideas of heat and cold, light and darknefs, motion and reft, &c. are equally pofitive in the mind, though fome of their caufes may be mere privations. 28. That a privative caufe may produce a pofitive idea, appears from (hadows; which, though nothing but the abfence of light, are difcernible, and caufe clear and pofitive ideas. We have indeed fome nega~ live names which (land not diredlly for pofitive ideas, but of their abfence; fuch z%infipid,flence, which denote pofitive ideas, viz. tajle and found, with a fignification of their abfence. 29. It will be ufeful to diftinguilh ideas as they are perceptions in our minds, from what they are in the bo¬ dies that caufe fuch perceptions in us; for we are not to think the former exa& images and refemblances of fomething inherent in the fubjedt, moft of thofe of fenfation being, in the mind, no more the likenefs of ibmething exifting without us, than the names that {land for them are the likenefs of our ideas, which yet, upon hearing, they excite in us. 30. Whatfoever the mind perceives in itfelf, or is the immediate objedl of perception, thought, or un¬ derftanding, is an idea: And the power to produce any idea in our mind, is the quality of the fubjefl wherein that power exifts. Thus a fiiow ball having the power to produce in us the ideas of white, cold, and round; thofe powers, as they are in the fnow-ball, are called qualities; and as they are fenfations or per¬ ceptions in our underftandings, they are called ideas. Thefe qualities are of two forts; H Y S I C S. Sea. VIII. 31. Firft, Original, or primary; fuch are folidity. Perception. extenfion, motion, or reft, number, and figure. Thefe ~ are infeparable from body, and fuch as it conftantly keeps in all its changes and alterations. 32. Secondly, Secondary qualities; fuch as colours, fmells, taftes, founds, &c. which, whatever reality we by miftake may attribute to them, are in truth nothing in the obje&s themfelves, but powers to produce vari¬ ous fenfations in us; and depend on the qualities be- forementioned. 33. The ideas oi primary qualities of bodies, are refemblances of them; and their patterns really exift in bodies themfelves: But the ideas produced in us by fecondary qualities have no refemblance of them at all; and what is fweet, blue, or warm, in the idea, is but the certain bulk, figure, and motion of the fen- fible parts in the bodies themfelves, which we call fo. 34. Thus we fee, that fire at one diftance produces in us the fenfation of warmth, which at a nearer ap¬ proach caufes the fenfation of pain. Now what rea- fon have we to fay, that the idea of warmth is adlually in the fire, but that of pain not in the fire, which the fame fire produces in us the fame way? The bulk, number, figure, and motioti of the parts of fire, are really in it, whether we perceive them or not; and therefore may be called real qualities, becaufe they really exift in that body: But light and heat are no no more really in it, than ficknefs or pain: Take away the fenfation of them ; let not the eyes fee light or colours, nor the ear hear founds; let the palate not tafte, or the nofe fmell; and all colours, taftes, odours, and founds, as they are fuch particular ideas, vanifti and ceafe, and are reduced to their caufes, that is, bulk, motion, figure, &c. of parts. 35. Thefe fecondary qualities are of two forts» Firft, Immediately perceivable: which by immediately operating on our bodies, produce feveral different ideas in us. Secondly, Mediately perceivable; which, by operating on other bodies, change their primary qualities, fo as to render them capable of producing ideas in us different from what they did before. Thefe laft are powers in bodies, which proceed from the particular conftitution of thofe primary and original qualities, to make fuch a change in the bulk, figure,. texture, &c. of another body, as to make it operate on our fenfes different from what it did before ; as in fire, to make lead fluid. Thefe two laft being no¬ thing but powers relating to other bodies, and re- fulting from the different modifications of the original qualities, are yet otherwife thought of; the former being efteemed real qualities, but the latter barely powers. Sect. VIII. Of Perception¬ 's. Perception is the firft idea we receive from refle&ion. It is by fome called thinking in general : Though thinking, in the propriety of the Englijh tongue, fignifies that fort of operation of the mind about its ideas, wherein the mind is a&ive ; where it confiders any thing with fome degree of voluntary attention: For in bare perception the mind is, for the moft part, only paffive; and what it perceives, it can¬ not avoid perceiving. What this is, we cannot other- wife know, than by refledting on what paffes in our minds when we fee, feel, hear, &c. 37. Im- V Sea. IX. METAPHYSICS. ( 5 ) Retention. 37. Impreffions made on the outward parts, if they are not taken notice of within, caufe no perception; as we fee in thofe whofe minds are intently bufied in the contemplation of certain objefts. 38. We may obferve, that the ideas we receive from fenfation, are often in grown people ajtered by the judgment, without our taking notice of ilfr' Thus a globe of any uniform colour, as of gold or jet, be¬ ing fet before our eyes, the idea thereby imprinted is of a flat circle varioufly lhadowed : But being ac- cuftomed to perceive what kind of appearance convex bodies are wont to make in us, the judgment alters the appearance into their caufes; and, from that va¬ riety of lhadow or colour, frames to itfelf the percep¬ tion of a convex figure of one uniform colour. This in many cafes, by a fetled habit, is performed fo rea¬ dily, that we take that for the perception of our fen¬ fation, which is but an idea formed by the judgment; fo that one ferves only to excite the other, and is fcarce taken notice of itfelf: As a man who reads or hears with attention, takes little notice of the charac¬ ters or founds, but of the ideas that are excited in him by them. 39. Perception is alfo the firft ftep and degree to¬ wards knowledge, and the inlet of all the materials of it; fo that the fewer fenfes any man has, and the duller the impreffions that are made by them are, the more remote he is from that knowledge which is to be found in other men. Sect. IX. Of Retention. 40. The next faculty of the mind whereby it makes a further progrefs towards knowledge, is called reten¬ tion; which is the keeping of thofe ideas it has re¬ ceived. Which is done two ways: 41. Firji, By keeping the idea which is brought in¬ to the mind for fome time a&ually in view; which is called contemplation. 24. Secondly, By reviving thofe ideas in our minds which have difappeared, and have been, as it were, laid out of fight: And this is memory ; which is, as it were, the ftore-houfe of our ideas; for the narrow mind of man not being capable of having mlny ideas under view at once, it was neceffary to have a repofi- tory to lay up thofe ideas, which at another time it may have ufe of. But our ideas being nothing but aftual perceptions in the mind, which ceafe to be any thing when there is no perception of them, this laying up of our ideas in the repofitory of the memory fignifies no more but this, that the mind has a power, in many cafes, to revive perceptions it has once had, with this additional perception annexed to them, that it has had them before. And it is by the affiftance of this faculty, that we are faid to have all thofe ideas in our underftandings which we can bring in fight, and make the objefts of our thoughts, without the help of thofe fenfible qualities which firft. imprinted them there. 43. Thofe ideas that are often refreffied by a fre¬ quent return of the objefts or adlions that produce them, fix themfelves belt in the memory, and remain • longeft there: Such are the original qualities of ladies. viz. Solidity, extenfion, figure, motion, Thefe and the like are feldom quite loll while the mind re¬ tains any ideas at all. SEcf. X. Of Difcerning, and other Operations of Complex the Mind. 44. Another faculty of the mind, is that of difcerning between its ideas. On this depends the evi¬ dence and certainty of feveral general propofitions. In being able nicely to dillinguilh one thing from a- nother, where there is the leaft difference, confifts, in a great meafure, that exaftnefs of judgment and clear- nefs of reafon which is to be obferved in one man above another. 45. To the well diftinguiihing our ideas, it chiefly contributes that they be clear and determinate ; and when they are fo, it will not breed any confufion or miftake about them, though the fenfes Ihould convey them from the fame objedt differently on different occafions. 46. The comparing of our ideas one with another in refpect of extent, degree, time, place, or any other circumftances, is another operation of the mind about its ideas, which is the ground of relations. Brutes feem not to have this faculty in any great degree. They have probably feveral ideas diftinft enough ; but cannot compare them farther than fome fenfible circumftances annexed to the objefts themfelves. 47. Compojition is another operation of the mind, whereby it combines feveral of its fimple ideas \n\.o complex ones : Under which operation we may reckon that of enlarging; wherein we put feveral ideas toge¬ ther of the fame kind, as feveral units to make a dozen. 48. Abjlraftion is another operation of the mind, whereby the mind forms general ideas from fuch as it received from particular objedts; which it does by c'onfidering them, as they are in the mind fuch ap¬ pearances feparate from the circumftances of real exiftence, as time, place, Ike. Thefe become general reprefentatives of all the fame kind, and their names applicable to whatever exifts comformable to fuch abftradt ideas. Thus the colour received from chalk, fnow, and 7?iilk, is made a reprefentative of all of that kind ; and has a name given it (whitenefs), which fignifies the fame quality, wherever to be found or imagined. And thus univerfals, both ideas and terms, are made. Sect. XI. Of Complex Ideas. 49. In the reception of fimple ideas the mind is on\y pajfive, having no power to frame any one to itfelf, nor having any idea which does not wholly confift of them. But about thefe fimple ideas it exerts feveral adls of its own, whereby out of them, as the materials and foundations of the reft, the others are framed. The adls of the mind, wherein it exerts its power over its fimple ideas, are chiefly thefe three. Firjl, It combines feveral fimple ideas into one compound one ; and thus all complex ideas are made. Secondly, It brings two ideas, whether fimple ox complex, together, and fets them by one another, fo as to take a view of them at once, without uniting them into one ; by which way it gets all its ideas of relations. Thirdly, It feparates them from all other ideas that accompany them in their real exiftence : And thus all hs general ideas are made. As funple ideas are obferved to exift in feveral combinations united together, fo the mind may confider them as united, not only as they are really (6) METAPHYSICS. Sed. XIII. Of Space, really united in external objefts, but as itfelf has joined them. Ideas thus made up of feveral ones put together, are called complex; as man, army, beauty, gratitude, 8cc. By this faculty of repeating and joining together its ideas, the mind has great power in varying and multiplying the objefts of its thoughts. But it is ftill confined to thofe fimple ideas which it received from the two fources offenfation and reflection. It can have no other ideas of fenfible qualities than what come from without by the fenfes, nor any other ideas of the operations of a thinking fubftance than what it finds in itfelf; but having once got thefe fimple ideas, it can by its own power put them toge¬ ther, and make new complex ones, which it never re¬ ceived fo united. 50. Complex ideas, however compounded and de¬ compounded, though their number be infinite, and their variety endlefs, may all be reduced under thefe three heads: ift, Modes; zdly, Subjlances; 3dly, Relations. 51. Firft, Modes are fuch complex ideas as contain not the fuppofition of fubfifting by themfelves; but are confidered as dependences on, and affe&ions of, fubftances ; as triangle, gratitude, murder, &c. Thefe inodes are of two forts: Firft, Simple; which are combinations of the fame fimple idea; as a dozen, fcore, &c. which are but the ideas of fo many diftinft units put together. Secondly, Mixed; which are compounded of fimple ideas of feveral kinds; as beauty, which confifts in a certain compofition of colour and figure, caufing delight in the beholder; theft, which is the concealed change of the poffeffion of any thing, without the confent of the proprietor. Thefe vifibly contain a combination of ideas of feveral kinds. 52. Secondly, Subfances. The wfew of fubftances are only fuch combinations of fimple ideas, as are taken to reprefent diftinft particular things fubfifting by themfelves, in which the confufed idea of fubftance is always the chief. Thus a combination of the ideas of a certain figure, with the powers of motion, thought, and reafoning, joined to fubftance, make the ordinary idea of man. 53. Thefe again are either of fingle fubflances, as man, flone; or of collective, or feveral put together, as army, heap. Ideas of feveral fubftances thus put together, are as much each of them one fingle idea, as that of a man or an unit. 54. Thirdly, Relations; which confift in the con- fideration and comparing of one idea with another. Of thefe feveral kinds we (hall treat in their order. Sect. XII. Of Simple Modes: And, firft, of the fimple modes of Space. 55. Concerningfimple modes we may obferve, that the modifications of any fimple ideas are as perfe&ly different and diftind ideas in the mind, as thofe of the greateft diftance or contrariety: Thus two is as di- ilinft from three, as bluenefs from heat. 56. Space is a fimple idea which we get both by our fight and touch. When we confider it barely in length between two bodies, it is called difiance : when in length, breadth, and thicknefs, it may be called capacity. When confidered between the extremities of matter, which fills the capacity of fpace with fome-thing folid, tangible, and moveable, it is called extenfion. And thus extenfion will be an idea be- Duration, longing to body ; fpace may be conceived without it. 57. Each different difiance is a different modifica¬ tion of fpace ; and each idea of any different fpace is a fimple mode of this idea. Such are an inch, foot, yard, &C. When thefe ideas are made familiar to mens thoughts, they can in their minds repeat them as often as they will, without joining to them the idea of body, and frame to themfelves the ideas of feet, yards, or fathoms, beyond the utmoft bounds of all bodies; and by adding thefe ftill one to another, enlarge their idea of fpace as much as they pleafe. Ff«m this power of repeating any idea of diftance, without being ever able to come to an end, we come by the idea of immen- fity. 58. Another modification offpace is taken from the relation of the parts of the termination of extenfion or circumfcribed fpace amongft themfelves; and this is what we call figure. This the touch difcovers in fen¬ fible bodies, whofe extremities come within our reach ; and the eye takes both from bodies and colours, whofe boundaries are within its view; where obferving how the extremities terminate either in ftraight lines, which meet at difcernible angles, or in crooked lines, where¬ in no angles can be perceived; by confidering thefe as they relate to one another in all parts of the extremi¬ ties of any body or fpace, it has that idea we call fi¬ gure: which affords to the mind infinite variety. 59. Another mode belonging to this head, is that of place. Our idea of place is nothing but the relative polition of any thing with reference to its diftance from fome fixed and certain points. Whence we fay, that a thing has or has not changed place, when its diftance either is or is not altered with refpedt to thofe bodies with which we have occafion to compare it. That this is fo, we may eafily gather from hence, that we can have.no idea of the place of the univerfe, though we can of all its parts. To fay that the world is fome- where, means no more than that it does exifi. The word place is fometimes taken to fignify that fpace which any body takes up; and fo the univerfe may be conceived in a place. Sect. XIII. Of Duration, and its Simple Modes. 60. There is another fort of difiance, the idea of which we get from the fleeting and perpetually perifhing parts of fuccefiion, which we call duration. The fimple modes of it are any different lengths of it whereof we have diftinft ideas; as hours, days, years, &c. time and eternity. 61. The ideaoifuccejfionh got byrefle&ing on that train of ideas which conftantly follow one another in our minds as long as we are awake. The diftance be¬ tween any parts of this fuccefion, is what we call dura¬ tion; and the continuation of the exiftence of ourfelves, or any thing elfe, commenfurate to the fucceffion of any ideas in our minds, is what we call our own duration, or that of another thing co-exifting with our thinking. That this is fo, appears from hence, that we have no perception of fucceffion or duration, when that fuccef¬ fion of our ideas ceafes, as in fleep: the moment that we fleep, and awake, how diftant foever, feems to be joined and connefted. And poffibly it would be fo to a waking man, could he fix upon one idea without va¬ riation and the fucceffion of others. And we fee that. they Sea. XIV. M E T A P Of they whofe thoughts are very intent upon one thing, Number. jet out Qf tj]£jr account a g00d part 0f that Jura. tion, and think that time fhorter than it is. But if a man, during his deep, dream, and a variety of ideas make themfelves perceptible in his mind one after an¬ other, he hath then, during fuch dreaming, a fenfe of duration, and of the length of it. A man having once got this idea of duration, can apply it to things which exift while he does not think: and thus,we meafure the time of our deep, as well as that wherein we are awake. Duration, as marked by certain periods and mea- fures, is what we mod; properly call time; which we meafure by the diurnal and annual revolutions of the fun, as being conftant, regular, and univerfally obfer- vable by all mankind, and fuppofed equal to one an¬ other. The mind having once got fuch a meafure of time, as the annual revolution of the fun, can eafdy apply it to duration wherein that meafure itfelf did not exift ; and the idea of duration equal to an annual revolution of the fun, is as eafily applicable in our thoughts to du¬ ration where no fun nor motion was, as the idea of a foot or yard to diftances beyond the confines of the world. By the fame means, and from the fame original that we come to. have the idea of time, we have alfo that idea which we call eternity ■ for having got the ideas of certain lengths of duration, we can in our thoughts add them to one another as oft as we pleafe, without ever coming to an end. And thus it is plain, that from the two fountains of all knowledge before mentioned, viz. Jenfation and re- flettion, we get the ideas of duration, and the feveral meafures of it. Sect. XIV. Of Number. 62. The complex ideas of number are formed by adding feveral units together. The ftmple modes of it are each feveral combinations, •&%t'ino, three, &c. Thefe are of all others moft diftinft, the ;neareft being,as clearly different from each other as the moft remote: two being as diftindt from one, as two hundred. But it is hard to form diftindl ideas of every the leaft ex- cefs in extenfion. Hence demonftrations in numbers are more general in their ufe, and more determinate in their application, than thofe of extenfion. 63. Simple modes of numbers being in our minds but fo many combinations of units, which have no variety but more or lefs; names for each diftindt combination feem more neceffary than in any other fort of ideas; For without a name, or mark, to diftinguifh that pre- cife colledtion, it will hardly be kept from being a heap of confufion. Hence fome Americans have no diftinft idea of any number beyond twenty; fo that when they are difcourfed with of greater numbers, they fhew the hairs of their head. So that to reckon right, two things are required. 64. Firjl, That the mind diftinguiih carefully two ideas which are different one from another only by the addition or fubtradfion of one unit. 65. Secondly, That it retain in memory the names or marks of the feveral combinations, from an unit to that number; and that in exadt order, as they follow one another. In either of which if it fails, the whole H Y S I C S. ( 7 ) bufinefs of numbering will be difturbed j and there will Of remain only the confufed idea of multitude; but the ideas neceffary to diftindt numeration will not be at¬ tained to. Sect. XV. Of Infinity. 66. The idea fignified by the infinity, is beft examined, by confidering to what infinity is by the mind attributed, and then how it frames it. Finite and infinite, then, are looked upon as the modes of quantity; and attributed primarily to things that have parts, and are capable of increafe or diminution by the addition or fubtraftion of any the leaft part. Such are the ideas offpace, duration, and number. 67. When we apply this idea to the Supreme Being, we do it primarily, in refpedt of his duration and ubi¬ quity; more figuratively, when to his wifdom, power, goodnefs, and other attributes, which are properly in- exhaufiible and incomprehenfible: for when we call them infinite, we have no other idea of this infinity, but what carries with it fome refledlion on the number or the extent of the atts or objecls of God’s power and wif¬ dom, which can never be fuppofed fo great, or fo many, that thefe attributes will not always furmount and ex¬ ceed, though we multiply them in our thoughts with the infinity of endlefs number. 68. The next thing to be confidered, is, How we come by the idea of infinity. Every one that has any idea of any ftated lengths of fpace, as & foot, yard. See. finds that he can repeat that idea, and join it to ano¬ ther, to a third, and fo on without ever coming to an end of his additions. From this power of enlarging his idea of fpace, he takes the idea of infinite fpace, or immenfity. By the fame power of repeating the idea of any length of duration we have in our minds, with all the endlefs addition of number, we come by the idea of eternity. 69. If our idea of infinity be got by repeating with¬ out end our o\nn ideas; why do we not attribute it to other ideas, as well as thofe offpace and duration; fince they may be as eafily and as often repeated in our minds as the other? yet nobody ever thinks of infi¬ nite fweetnefs or whitenefs, though he can repeat the idea of fweet or white as frequently as thofe of yard or day. But thofe ideas that have parts, and are ca¬ pable of increafe by the addition of any parts, afford us, by their repetition, an idea of infinity; becaufe with the endlefs repetition there is continued an enlarge¬ ment, of which there is no end. But it is not fo in o- ther ideas: for if to the perfedt idea I have of white, I add another of equal whitenefs, it enlarges not my idea at all. Thofe ideas that confift not of parts, can¬ not be augmented to what proportion men pleafe, or be ftretched beyond what they have received by their fenfes: but fpace, duration, and number, being capable of increafe by repetition, leave in the mind an idea of an endlefs room for more ; and fo thofe ideas alone lead the mind towards the thought of infinity. Sect. XVI. Of the Modes of Thinking. 70. When the mind turns its view inwards upon it¬ felf, thinking is the fir ft idea that occurs: wherein it obferves a great variety of modifications; and thereof frames to itfelf diftinft ideas. Thus the perception annexed to any impreffion on the body made by an ex¬ ternal ( 8 ) Pleafure ternal obje&, is called fenfation. When an idea re- ai.d Pam. curs wjt})0ut tjje prefence 0f the objeft, it is called re¬ membrance: when fought after by the mind, and brought again in view, it is recolleflian: when held there long under attentive confideration, \\.K\s contem¬ plation. When ideas float in the mind without regard or refleftion, it is called in French reverie; our lan¬ guage has fcarce a name for it: When the ideas are taken notice of, and as it were regiftered in the memory, it is attention’. When the mind fixes its view on any one idea, and confiders it on all fides, it is intention and Jludy. Sleep, without dreaming, is reft from all thefe: And dreaming is the perception of ideas in the mind, not fuggefted by any external ob- jedfs, or known occafions; nor under any choice or conduft of the underftanding. Sect. XVII. Of the Modes of Pleafure and Pain. 71. Pleasure and pain are fimple ideas, which we receive both from fenfation and refleftion. There are thoughts of the mind, as well as fenfations, accompa¬ nied with pleafure or pain. Their caufes are termed good or evil. Pleafure and pain, and their caufes good and evil, are the hinges upon which our paffions turn; by reflecting on the various modifications or tempers of mind, and the internal fenfations which pleafure and pain, good and evil, produce in us, we may thence form to ourfelves the ideas of our paffions. Thus by reflecting upon the thought we have of the delight which any thing is apt to produce in us, we have an idea we call love: and on the contrary, the thought of the pain which any thing prefent or abfent produces in us, is what we call hatred. Defire is that uneafinefs which a man finds in himfelf upon the abfence of any thing the prefent enjoyment of which carries the idea of delight with it. Joy is a delight of the mind ari- fing from the prefent or aflured approaching pofieffion of a good. Sorrow is an uneafinefs of the mind, up¬ on the thought of a good loft, or the fenfe of a prefent evil. Hope is a pleafure in the mind, upon the thought of a probable future enjoyment of a thing which is apt to delight. Fear is an uneafinefs of the mind, upon the thought of a future evil likely to befal us. Anger is a difcompofure of the mind, upon the receipt of in¬ jury, with a prefent purpofe of revenge. Defpair is the thought of unattainablenefs of any good. Envy is an uneafinefs of the mind, caufed by the confidera¬ tion of a good we defire, obtained by one we think fhoipd not have had it before us. •ji. It is to be confidered, that, in reference to the paffions, the removal or leffening of a pain is confi¬ dered and operates as a pleafure ; and the lofs or di- minifhing of a pleafure, as a pain : And farther, that the paffions in moft perfons operate on the body, and caufe various changes in it; but thefe being not al¬ ways fenfible, do not make a neceffary part of the idea of each paffion. Sect. XVIII. Of Power. 73. The mind being every day informed by the fenfes of the alteration of thofe fimple ideas it obferves in things without, reflecting alfo on what pafles with¬ in itfelf, and obferving a conftant change of its ideas, fometimes by the impreffions of outward objeCts upon the-denfes, and fometimes by the determination of its Sea. XVIII. own choice; and concluding, from what it has fo con- Of Power, ftantly obferved to have been, that the like changes-" will for the future be made in the fame things, by the fame agents, and by the like ways, confiders in one thing the poffibility of having any of its fimple ideas changed, and in another the poffibility of making that change, and fo comes by that idea which we call power. Thus we fay fire has a power to melt gold, and make it fluid ; and gold has a power to be melted. 74. Power thus confidered, is twofold, viz. as able to make, or able to receive any change : the one may be called attive, the other pafiive power. Of pajfive power all fenfible things abundantly furnilh us with ideas, whofe fenfible qualities and beings we find to be in a continual flux. Nor have we of adlivepower fewer inftances ; fince whatever change is obferved, the mind muft colled a power fomewhere able to make that change. But yet, if we will confider it atten¬ tively, bodies by our fenfes do not afford us fo clear and diftind an idea of aflive power as we have from refledion on the operation of our minds. For all power relating to adion, and there being but two forts of adion, viz. thinking and motion, let us confi¬ der whence we have the cleared ideas of the powers which produce thefe adions. 75. Of thinking body affords us no idea at all: it is only from refledion that we have that; neither have we from body any idea of the beginning of motion. A body at reft, affords us no idea of any aftive power to move; and when it is fet in motion itfelf, that mo¬ tion is rather a paffion^han adion in it. The idea of the beginning of motion, we have only by refledion on what paffes in ourfelves; where we find by expe¬ rience, that barely by willing^ it, we can move the parts of our bodies which were before at reft. We find in ourfelves a power to begin or forbear, continue or end, feveral adions of our minds, and mo¬ tions of our bodies, barely by a thought, or prefe¬ rence of the mind. This power which the mind has thus to order the confideration of any idea, or the for¬ bearing to confider it; or to prefer the motion of any part of the body to its reft, and vice verfa, in any particular inftance, is that we call the will; the adual exercife of that power is that which we call volition or willing. The forbearance or performance of that ac¬ tion, confequent to fuch order or command of the mind, is called voluntary; and whatfoever adion is performed without fuch a thought of the mind, is call¬ ed involuntary. 77. The power of perception is that we call the underfianding. Perception, which we make the ad of the underftanding, is of three forts : iy?, The percep¬ tion of ideas in our minds, idly. The perception of the fignification of figns. ^dly. The perception of the agreement or difagreement of any diftind ideas. Thefe powers of the mind, viz. of perceiving and pre¬ ferring, are ufually called by another name ; and the ordinary way of fpeaking is, that the underftanding and will are two faculties of the mind. 78. From the confideration of the extent of the power of the mind over the adions of the man, which every one finds in himfelf, arife the ideas of liberty an<\ necejfity: fo far as a man has a power to think or not to think, to move or not to move, according to the preference or diredion of his own mind, fo far is a man METAPHYSICS. Sea. XIX. M E T A P Of Power, free. Wherever any performance or forbearance are not equally in a man’s power; wherever doing, or not doing, will not equally follow upon the preference of his mind ; there he is not free^ though perhaps the ac¬ tion may be voluntary. So that the idea of liberty is the idea of a power in any agent to do or forbear any aftion, according to the determination or thought of the mind whereby either of them is preferred to the other. Where either of them is riot in the power of the agent to be produced by him according to his vo¬ lition, there he is not at liberty; that agent is under necefity. So that liberty cannot be where there is no thought, no volition, no ‘will; but there may be thought, there may be will, there may be volition, where there is no liberty. Thus a tennis-ball, whether in motion by the ftroke of a racket, or lying {til! at reft, is not by any one taken to be a free agent. So a man ftri- king himfelf or his friend by a convulfive motion of his arm, which it is not in his power by volition or the direction of his mind to flop or forbear; nobody thinks he has in this liberty; every one pities him, as ailing by necefity and conjlraint. Again, fuppofe a man be carried while fail afleep into a room where is a perfon he longs to fee, and be there locked faft in beyond his power to get out; he awakes, and is glad to fee him¬ felf in fo defirable company: which he flays willingly in, that is, prefers his {laying to going away. Is not this ftay voluntary ? no body will doubt it; and yet being locked faft in, he is not at liberty to ftay, he has not freedom to be gone. So that liberty is not an idea belonging to volition or preferring, but to the perfon having the power of doing, or forbearing to do, ac¬ cording as the mind {hall choofe or direct. 79. As it is in the motions of the body, fo it is in the thoughts of our minds : where any one is fuch, that we have power to take it up, or lay it by, accord¬ ing to the preference of the mind, there we are at li¬ berty. A waking man is not at liberty to think, or not to think, no more than he is at liberty whether his body {hall touch any other or no: but whether he will remove his contemplation from one idea to another, is many times in his choice. And then he is, in refpeft of his ideas, as much at liberty, as he is in refpeft of bodies he refts on. He can at pleafure remove him¬ felf from one to another: but yet fome ideas to the mind, like fome motions to the body, are fuch, as in certain circumftances it cannot avoid, nor obtain their abfence by the utmoft effort it can ufe. Thus a man on the rack is not at liberty to lay by the idea of pain, and entertain other contemplations. 80. Wherever thought is wholly wanting, or the power to a6t or forbear according to the direction of thought, there neceffity takes place. This, in an agent capable of volition, when the beginning or continua¬ tion of any adlion is contrary to the preference of his mind, is called when the hindering or flop¬ ping any adtion is contrary to his volition, it is called rejlraint: agents that have no thought, no volition at all, are in every thing neceflary agents. Sect. XIX. Of Mixed Modes. 81. Mixed modes are combinations of fmtple ideas of different kinds. The mind being once furnifhed with fimple ideas, can put them together in feveral •compofitions, without examining whether they exift 2 H Y SICS. ( 9 ) fo together in nature. And hence it is that thefe Mixed ideas are called notions, as if they had their original f'Iodcj” and conftant exiftence more in the thoughts of men than in the reality of things: and to form fuch ideas, it fufficed that the mind put the parts of them toge¬ ther, and that they were confi{lent in the underftand- ing, without corifidering whether they had any real being. There are three ways whereby we get thtfe complex ideas of mixed modes- \Jl, By experience, and obfervation of things them- felves : Thus by feeing two men wreftlc, we get the idea of wreftling. idly, By invention, or voluntary putting together of feveral fimple ideas in our own minds : So he that firft invented printing, had an idea of it firft in his mind before it ever exifted. $dly, By explaining the names of actions we never faw, or nations we cannot fee; and by enumerating all thofe ideas which go to the making them up. Thus the mixed mode, which the word lie {lands for, is made up of thefe fimple ideas 1 ft, Articulate founds. 2dly, Certain ideas in the mind of the fpeaker. 3dly, Thofe 'words, the figns of thefe ideas. 4thly, Thofe ftgns put together, by affirmation or negation, other- wife than the ideas they {land foi are in the mind of the fpeaker. Since languages are made, cosnplex ideas are ufually got by the explication of thofe terms that {land for them: for fince they confift of fimple ideas combined, they may, by words Handing foe thofe fimple ideas, be reprefented to the mind of one who underftands thofe words, though that combina¬ tion of fimple ideas was never offered to his mind by the real exiftence of things. 82. Mixed modes have their unity from an aft of the mind, combining thofe feveral fimple ideas together, and confidering them as one complex one : the mark of this union is one name given to that combination. Men feldom reckon any number of ideas to make one complex one : but fuch collections as there be names for. Thus the killing of an old man, is as fit to be united into one complex idea as that of a father; yet there being no name for it, it is not taken for a particular complex idea, nor a diftinft fpecies of aftion from that of killing any other man. 83. Thofe collections of ideas have names generally affixed which are of frequent ufe in converfation : in which cafes, men endeavour to communicate their thoughts to one another with all poffiblc difpatch. Thofe others, which they have feldom occafion to mention, they tie not together nor give them names. 84. This gives the reafon why there are words in every language which cannot be rendered by any¬ one fingle word of another. For the faftiions and cuftoms of one nation make feveral combinations of ideas familiar in one which another had never any occafion to make. Such were orpxxije&s wherein they are to one another, in refpeft of thofe fimple ideas : As whiter, fweeter, jnore, lefs, &c. Thefe Sea. XXIV. M E T A P Various Thefe depending on the equality and excefs of the Relations. fame fimple ideal, in feveral fubje&s, may be called 'proportional relations. 122. Another occafion of comparing things is ta¬ ken from the, eircumftances of their origin ; as fa¬ ther, fin, brother, &c. Thefe may be called natural relations. 123. Sometimes the foundation of confidering things, is fome act whereby any one comes by a mo¬ ral right, power, or obligation to do fomething : Such are general, captain, burgher. Thefe are injlituted and voluntary relations ; and maybe diftinguilhed from the natural, in that they are alterable and feparable from the perfons to whom they fometimes belonged, tho’ neither of the fubftances fo related be deftroyed. But natural relations are not alterable, but are as lafting as their fubje&s. 124. Another relation is the conformity or difa- greement of mens voluntary aftions to a rule to which they are referred, and by which they are judged of: thefe may be called moral relations. It is this confor¬ mity or difagreement of our a&ions to fome law (whereby good or evil is drawn on us from the will and power of the law-maker, and is what we call re¬ ward orpunijhment) that renders our a&ions morally good or evil. 125. Of thefe moral rules or laws there feem to be three forts, with their different enforcements : fird, The divine law ; fecondly, Civil law; thirdly, The law of opinion or reputation. By their relation to the firft, our a&ions are either Jins or duties', to the fecond, criminal or innocent; to the third, virtues or vices. 126. Firft, The divine law is- that law which God has fet to the a&ions of men, whether promul¬ gated to them by the light of nature or the voice of revelation. 127. That God has given a law to mankind, feems undeniable, fince he has, firft, A right to do it ; we are his creatures. Secondly, Goodnefs and wifdom, to dired our a&ions to what is beft. Thirdly, Power to enforce it by reward and puniftiment, of infinite weight and duration; This is the only true touch- ftone of moral reditude, and by which men judge of the mod confiderable moral good or evil of their ac¬ tions ; that is, whether, as duties or fins, they are like to procure to them happinefs or mifery from the hands ©f the Almighty. x 28. Secondly, The civil law is the rule fet by the commonwealth to the adions of thofe that belong to it. This law nobody overlooks; the rewards and puniftiments being ready at hand to enforce it, extend¬ ing to the proteding or taking away of the life, li¬ berty, and eftate, of thofe who obferve or difobey it. X29. Thirdly, The law of opinion or reputation* Virtue and vice are names fuppofed every where to ftand for adions in their own nature right and wrong. As far as they are really fo applied, they fo far are coincident with the divine law. But it is vilible that thefe names, in the particular inftances of their appli¬ cation, through the feveral nations and focieties of men, are conftantly attributed only to fuch adions as in each country and fociety are in reputation or dif- eredit. So that the meafure of what is every where called and efteemed virtue and vice, is the approbftroa h y s 1 c s. ( 13 ) or difhke, praife or blame, which by a tacit confent Various eftablifhes itfelf in the focieties and tribes of men in the RelalK)llS- world ; whereby feveral adions come to find credit or difgrace amongft them, according to the judgment, maxims, or falhions of the place. 130. That this is fo, appears hence: That tho’ that pafies for virtue in one place which is elfewhere ac¬ counted vice, yet every where virtue and praife, vice and blame, go together. Virtue is every where that which is thought praife-worthy ; and nothing elfe but that which has the allowance of public efteem, is called virtue. Thefe have foelofe an alliance, that they are often called by the fame name.- 131. It is true, virtue and vice do, in a great mea¬ fure, every where correfpond with the unchangeable rule of right and wrong, which the laws of God have eftablifhed; becaufe the obfervation of thefe laws vi- fibly fecures and advances the general good of man¬ kind, and the negled of them breeds mifohiefand con-- fufion : and therefore men* without renouncing all fenfe and reafon, and their own intereft, could not general¬ ly miftake in placing their commendation and blame on that fide that deferved it not. 132. They who think commendation and difgrace not fufficient motives to engage men to accommodate themfelves to the opinions and rules of thofe with whom- they converfe, feem little flcilled in the hiftory of man¬ kind ; the greateft part whereof govern themfelves by this law of fajhion. 133. The penalties that attend the breach of God’s laws are feldom ferioufly refle&ed on; and thofe that d>o refleft on them entertain thoughts of future reconci¬ liation ; and fbr the puniftiment due from the laws of the commonwealth, men flatter themfelves with the hopes of impunity: but no man efcapes cenfure and diftike, who offends againft faftiion ; nor is there one of ten thoufand ftiff and infenfible enough to bear up under the conftant diflike and condemnation of his own club. 134. Morality- theti is nothing but a relation to thefe laws or rules : and thefe rules being nothing elfe but a colledlion of feveral fimple ideas, the conformity there¬ to is but fo ordering the adlion that the fimple ideas belonging to it may correfpond to thofe which the law requires. By which we fee, how moral beings and' notions are founded on and terminated in the fimple ideas of fenfation and refleflion. For example ; let us confider the complex idea fignified by the word mur¬ der. Firft, from reflexion, we have the ideas of will¬ ing, confidering, purpofing, malice, &c. alfo of lifer perception, and felf motion. Secondly,.from fenfation,. we have the ideas of man, and of fome adlion whereby we put an end to that perception and motion in the' man : all which fimple ideas are comprehended in the word murder. 135. This colleftion of fimple being found to1 agree or difagree with the efteem of the country I have been bred in, and to be held worthy of praife or blame, I call the aftion virtuous or vicious. If I have the will of a fupreme invifible Law-maker for my rule then as I fuppofe the adlion commanded or forbidden- by ,God, I call it good or evil,fin or duty ; if Lcompare it with the civil law of my country, I call it lawful' or unlawful, a crime or no crime. 136. Moral a&ions may be confidered two ways;. Firft, ( >4 ) Real and Firft, As they are in themfelves a colle&ion of ^Ideas^ ,,mP^e ideas ; in which fenfe they are pofitive abfoiute ' ideas. Secondly, As good, or bad, or indifferent: in this refpeft they are relative, it being their conformity or difagreement with fome rule that makes them fo. We ought carefully to diftinguifb between the pofitive idea of the adfion, anithe reference it has to a rule* both which are commonly comprehended under one name, which often occafions confufion, and mifleads the judgment. 137. Thus the taking from another what is his, without his confent, is properly called Jlealinf>: but that name being commonly underftood to fignify alfo the moral pravity of the a&ion, men are apt to con¬ demn whatever they hear called Jlealingzs an ill aftion difagreeing with the rule of right. And yet the pri¬ vate taking away his fword from a madman, to prevent his doing mifchief, though it be properly denominated Jiealing, as the name of fuch a mixed mode; yet, when compared to the law of God, it is no fin or tranfgref- fion, tho’ the name Jiealing ordinarily carries fuch an intimation with it. Sect. XXV. Of Real and Fantajlical Ideas. 138. Our ideas, in reference to things from whence they are taken, or which they may be fuppofed tore- prefent, come under 2. threefold and are, firft, either real or fantafical; fecondly, adequate ox inadequate; thirdly, true or falfe. 139. .are fuch as have a foundation in nature, fuch as have a conformity with the real being and exiftence of things, or with their.archetypes. 140. Fantajlical are fuch as have no foundation in nature, nor any conformity with that reality of being to which they are referred as to their archetypes. By examining the feveral forts of ideas we fhall find, that, firft, our fmple ideas are all real; not that they are images or reprefentations of what does exift, but as they are the certain effedts of powers in things without us, ordained by our Maker to produce in us fuch fenfations : they are real ideas in us, whereby we diftinguiftt the qualities that are really in things them¬ felves. 141. Their reality lies in the fteady correfpondence they have with the diftinft conftitutions of real beings. But whether they anfwer to thofe conftitutions as to caufes or patterns, it matters not; it fuffices that they are conftantly produced by them. 142. Complex ideas, being arbitrary combinations of fmiple ideas put together, and united under one ge¬ neral name, in forming of which the mind ufes its li¬ berty, we muft inquire which of thefe are real, and which imaginary combinations. 143. Firft, Mixed modes and relations having no other reality than what they have in the minds of men, nothing elfe is required to make them real, but a pofii- bility of exifting conformable to them. Thefe ideas being themfelves archetypes, cannot differ from their archetypes, and fo cannot be chimerical; unlefs any one will jumble together in them inconfiftent ideas. Thofe indeed that have names affigned them in any language, muft have a conformity to the ordinary fig- nification of the name that is given them, that they may not be thought fantaftical. Sea. XXVI. 144. Secondly, Our complex ideas of fubftances Of Ideas being made, in reference to things exifting without fde^uate 01 us, whofe reprefentations they are thought, are no far-ina equa f' ther real than as they are fuch combinations of fmple ideas as are really united, and co-exift in things without us: thofe are fantaftical which are made up of feveral ideas that never were found united, as Cen¬ taur, See. Sect. XXVI. Of Ideas Adequate or Inadequate. 145. Real ideas are either adequate or inadequate. Firft, adequate •, perfectly reprefents thofe ar¬ chetypes which the mind fuppofes them taken from, and which it makes them to (land for. Secondly,/«- adequate-, which are fuch as do but partially or in¬ completely reprefent thofe archetypes to which they are referred. Whence it appears, 146. Firft, That all oorfmple ideas are adequate ; for they being but the effefts of certain powers in things fitted and ordained by God to produce fuch fenfations in us, they cannot but be correfpondent and adequate to fuch powers, and we are fure they agree to the rea¬ lity of things. 147. Secondly, Our complex ideas of modes being voluntary colleftions offmple ideas, which the mind puts together without reference to any real archetypes, cannot but be adequate ideas. They are referred to no other pattern, nor made by any original, but the good¬ liking and will of him that makes the combination. If indeed one would conform his ideas to thofe which are formed by another perfon, they may be wrong or in¬ adequate, becaufe they agree not to that which the mind defigns to be their archetype and pattern ; in which refpedl only any ideas of modes can be wrong, imperfeft, or inadequate. 148. Thirdly, Our ideas of fubfances have in the mind a double reference: Firft, They are fometimes referred to a fuppofed real effence, of each fpecies of things ; fecondly, They are defigned for reprefenta¬ tions in the mind, of things that do exift, by ideas dif- coverable in them: in both which refpe&s they are inadequate. 149. Firft, If the names of fubftances ftand for things, as fuppofed to have certain real effences, whereby they are of this or that fpecies, of which real effences men are wholly ignorant; it follows, that the ideas they have in their minds, being referred to . real effences as archetypes which are unknown, they muft be fo far from being adequate, that they cannot be fuppofed to be any reprefentation of them at all. Our complex ideas of fubftances are nothing but certain colle&ions of fimple ideas that have been obferved or fuppofed conftantly to exift together. But fuch a com¬ plex idea cannot be the real effence of any fubftance: for then the properties we difeover in it would be dedu- cible from it, and their neceffary connexion with it be known ; as all the properties of a triangle depend on and are deducible from the complex idea of three lines including a fpace : but it is certain, that in our com¬ plex ideas of fubftances are not contained fuch ideas on which all other qualities that are to be found in them depend. 150. Secondly, Thofe that take their ideas of fub¬ ftances from their fenfible qualities, cannot form ade¬ quate ideas of them: becaufe their qualities and powers METAPHYSICS. Sea. XXVII. M E T A P True and powers are fo various, that no man’s complex/Verr can Falfe Ideas. contajn them a]], Moft of our fimple ideas, where¬ of our complex ones of fubftances do conlift, are pow¬ ers, which being relations to other fubftances, we can¬ not be fure we know all the powers, till we have tried what changes they are fitted to give and receive from other fubftances in their feveral ways of application ; which being not poffible to be tried upon one body, much lefs upon all, it is impoffible we ftiould have ade¬ quate ideas of any fubftance made of a colle&ion of all its properties. Sect. XXVII. Of True and Falfe Ideas. 151. Truth and falfehood, in propriety of fpeech, belong only to propofitions; and when ideas are termed . true or falfe, there is fome fecret or tacit propofition . which is the foundation of that denomination. Qxsx ideas being nothing but appearances or perceptions in the mind, can, in ftri&nefs of fpeech, no more be faid to be true or falfe than fingle names of things can be faid to be true or falfe. The idea of Centaur has no more falfehood in it when it appears in our minds, than the name Centaur when it is pronounced or writ on paper. For truth or falfehood lying always in fome affirma¬ tion or negation, our ideas are not capable, any of them, of being falfe, tiH the mind pafles fome judge¬ ment on them, that is, affirms or denies fomething of them. In a metapkyfical fenfe they may be faid to be true, that is, to be really fuch as they exift ; tho’ in things called true, even in that fenfe, there is perhaps a fecret reference to our ideas, looked upon as the ftandaj-ds of that truth ; which amounts to a mental proportion.' 152. When the mind refers any of its ideas to any thing extraneous to it, they are then capable ofbeing true or falfe: becaufe in fuch a reference, the mind makes a trrit fuppofition of their conformity to that thing ; which fuppofition, as it is true or falfe, fo the ideas themfelves come to be denominated. This hap¬ pens in thefe cafes: 1 ft, When the mind fuppofes itsconformable to that in other mens minds called by the fame name, fuch as that of juft ice, virtue, &c. 2dly, When the mind fuppofes any idea conform¬ able to fome real exiftence. Thus, that of Man is true, that of Centaur falfe ; the one having a confor¬ mity to what has really exifted, the other not. 3dly, When the mind refers any of its ideas to that real conftitution and effence of any thing whereon all its properties depend : and thus the greateft part, if not all our ideas of fuhjlances are falfe. 153. As to the firft, when we judge of our ideas by their conformity to thofe of other men, they may be any of them falfe : but fimple ideas are lead liable to be fo miftaken. We feldom miftake green for blue, or bitter for fweet; much lefs do we confound the names belonging to different fenfes, and call a colour by the name of a tajie. Complex ideas are much more liable to falfehood in this particular; and thofe of mixed modes more than fubftances: becaufe, in fubftances, their fenfible qualities ferve, for the moft part, to di- ftinguilh them clearly ; but in mixed modes we are more uncertain, and we may call that jujlice which ought to be called by another name. The reafon of this is, that the abftraft ideas, of mixed modes being h y s 1 c s. (is) mens voluntary combination of fuch a precife collec- True and tion of fimple ideas, we have nothing die to refer our jdeas‘ ideas of mixed modes or Standards to, but the ideas of thofe who are thought to ufe names in their proper fignifications; and fo as our ideas conform or differ from them, they pafs for true or falfe. 154. As to the fecond. When we refer our ideas to the real exiftence of things, none can be termed falfe but our complex ideas oi fubftances: for our fimple ideas being nothing but perceptions in us anfwerable to certain powers in external objedts, their truth con- fifts in nothing but fuch appearances as are produced in us fuitable to thofe powers: neither do they become liable to the imputation of falfehood, whether we judge thefe ideas to be in the things themfelves, or nor for God having fet them as marks of diftinguilhing things, that we may be able to difeern one thing from another, and thereby choofe them as we have occafion, it alters not the nature of our fimple ideas, whether we think the idea of blue (for inftance) to be in the violet itfelf, or in the mind only: and it is equally from that appearance to be denominated blue, whether it be that real colour, or only a peculiar texture in it, that caufes in us that idea; fince the name blue notes properly no¬ thing but that mark of diftinftion that is in a violet, difcernible only by our eyes, whatever it confifts in. 155. Neither would our fimple ideas be falfe, if by the different ftrufture of our organs it were fo ordered that the fame objeft fhould produce in feveral mens minds different ideas: for this could never be known, fince objedts would operate conftantly after the fame manner. It is moft probable,’ neverthelefs, that the ideas produced by the fame objedfs in different mens minds are very near and undifcernibly like. Names of fimple ideas may be mifapplied; as a man, ignorant in the Englijh tongue, may call purple, fcarlet: but this makes no falfehood in the idea. 156. Complex ideas of modes cannot be falfe, in re¬ ference to the effence of any thing really exifting; be¬ caufe they have no reference to any pattern exifting, or made by nature. 157. Our complex ideas of fubftances, being all re¬ ferred to patterns in things themfelves, may be falfe. They are fo, \Jl, When looked upon as reprefentationi of the unknown effences of things: zdly. When they put together fimple ideas which in the real exiftence of things have no union ; as in Centaur, ^dly, When from any collediion of fimple n/ew,that do not always exift together, there is feparated, by a diredl negation^ anyone fimple idea which is conftantly joined with them. Thus, if from extenfion, folidity, fixednefs, malleablenefs, fufibility, &c. we remove the colour obferved in gold: if this idea be only left out of the complex one of gold, it is to be looked on as an ina¬ dequate and imperfedf, rather than a falfe one; fince though it contains not all the fimple ideas that are uni¬ ted in nature, yet it puts none together but what do really exift together. 158. Upon the whole, our ideas, as they are confi- dered by the mind, either in reference to the proper fignification of their names, or in reference to the rea¬ lity of things, may more properly be called right or ’wrong ideas, according as they agree or difagree to thofe patterns to which they are referred. The ideas: that are in mens minds, limply cot^dered, cannot be wrong ( ,6 ■) M E T A P Ailbciation wrong, unlefs camp'ex ideasy wherein inconfiftent parts of Ideas. afe jumbled together. All other ideas are in them- ‘ ftlves right, and the knowledge about them right and true knowledge. But when we come to refer them to any patterns, or archetypes, then they are capable of being wrong, as far as they difagree with fuch arche¬ types. Sect. XXVIII. Of the Jjfociation of Ideas. 159. Some of ®ur ideas have a natural correfpon- dence and conneftion one with another: it is the of¬ fice and excellency of our reafon to trace thefe, and hold them together in that union and correfpondence which is founded in their peculiar beings. Befides this, there is another connexion of ideas wholly owing to chance or cuftom: ideas that in themfelves are not at all of kin, come to be fo united in fome mens minds, that it is very hard to feparate them; they always keep company, and the one no fooner comes into the un- derflanding, but its aflociate appears with it; and if they are more than two, the whole gang always infe- parably Ihew thcmfelves together. This ftrong com- bination of ideas, not allied by nature, the mind makes ^ in itfelf either voluntarily or by chance : and hence it comes in different men to be very different, according to their different inclinations, educations, interefis, &c. Cuftom fettles habits of thinking in the underftanding, as well as of determining in the will, and of motions in the body; all which feem to be but trains of mo¬ tion in the animal-fpirits, which, once feta-going, con¬ tinue on in the fame fteps they have been ufed to ; which by often treading are worn into a fmooth path, and the motion in it becomes eafy, and, as it were, natural. As far as we can comprehend thinking, thus ideas fecm to be produced in our minds; or if they are not, this may ferve to explain their following one another in an habitual train, when once they are put into that trad, as well as it does to explain fuch mo¬ tions of the body. 160. This connexion in our minds of ideas, in them¬ felves loofe and independent one of another, is of fo great force to fet us awry in our a&ions, as well mo¬ ral as natural, paffions, reafonings, and notions them¬ felves, that perhaps there is not any one thing that de¬ fences more to be looked after. Thus the ideas of gob¬ lins and fprights have really no more to do with dark- nefs than light; yet let but a foolifh maid inculcate thefe often on the mind of a child, and raife them there to¬ gether, poffibly he (hall never be able to feparate them again fo long as he lives, but darknefs (hall ever after¬ wards bring with it thofe frightful ideas. A man has fuffered pain or ficknefs in any place; he faw his friend die in fuch a room; though thefe have in nature no¬ thing to do one with another, yet when the idea of the place occurs to his mind, it brings that of the pain and difpleafure with it; he confounds him in his mind, and can as little bear the one as the other. 161. Intellettualhabits and dcfedfs this way contrac¬ ted, are not lefs frequent and powerful, though lefs obferved. Let the ideas of being and matter be ftrong- ly joined either by education or much thought, whilft thefe are ftill combined in the mind, what notions, what reafonings will there be about feparate fpirits? Let cuftom from the very childhood have joined dgure and ftiape to the idea of God, and what abfurdities H Y S I C S. Sea. XXIX. will that mind be liable to about the Deity? Let the Knowledge 5! idea of infalliblity be joined to any perfon, and thefe 10 ge»erat. ! two conftantly together poffefs the mind; and then one body in two places at once (hall be fwallowed for a certain truth, whenever that imagined infallible per¬ fon di&ates, and demands affent without inquiry. 162. Some fuch wrong combinations of ideas will be found to eftablifh the irreconcileable oppofition be¬ tween different fe&s of philofophy and religion : for we cannot imagine every one of their followers to im- pofe wilfully on himfelf, and knowingly refufe truth offered by plain reafon. Intereft, though it does a great deal in the cafe, yet cannot be thought to work whole focieties of men to fo univerfal a perverfenefs, as that every one of them fhould knowingly maintain falfehood ; fome at leaft muft be allowed to do what all pretend to, i. e. to putfue truth fincerely. That therefore which captivates their reafons, and leads men of fincerity blindfold from common fenfe, will, when examined, be found to be what we are fpeaking of: fome independent ideas are by education, cuftom, and the conftant din of their party, fo coupled in their minds, that they always appear there together; and they can no more feparate them in their thoughts, than if they were but one idea’, and they operate as if they were fo. This gives fenfe to jargon, demonftration to abfurdities, and conliftency to noafenfe, and is the foun¬ dation of the greateft errors in the world. The con- fufion of two different ideas, which a cuftomary con¬ nexion of them in their minds hath to them in effeft made but one, cannot but fill mens heads with falfe view's, and their reafonings with falfe confequences. Sect. XXIX. Of Knovsledge in general. 163. Since the mind, in all its thoughts and rea¬ fonings, has no other immediate objeX but its own ideas, which alone it does or can contem,plate, it is evident that our knowledge is only converfant about them. Knowledge then feems to be nothing but the perception of the conneXion and agreement, or dif- agreement and repugnancy of any of our ideas: where this perception is, there is knowledge; and where it is not, there, though we fancy, guefs, or believe, yet we always come (hort of knowledge. When we know that white is not black, what do we but perceive that thefe two ideas do not agree? Or that the three angles of a triangle, are equal to two right ones; what do we more but perceive that equality to two right ones does ne- ceffarily agree to and is infeparable from the three angles of a triangle ? But to underftand a little more diftinXly wherein this agreement or difagreement con- fifts, we may reduce it all to thefe four forts: iff, Iden¬ tity ox diverfity; adly, Relation; 3dly, Co-exijlence; 4thly, Real exiflence. 164. I. Identity or diverfity. It is the firft aX of the mind to perceive its ideas ; and, fo far as it per¬ ceives them, to know each what it is, and thereby to perceive their difference, that is, the one not to be the other: by this the mind clearly perceives each idea to agree with itfelf, and to be what it is; and all diftinX ideas to difagree. This it does without any pains or deduXion, by its natural power of perception and di- ftinXion. This is what men of art have reduced to thofe general rules, viz. IVhat is, is; and, It is in;- poffible for the fame thing to be and not to be. But no maxim Sea. XXX. METAPHYSICS. ( 17 ) Knowledge, maxim can make a man know it clearer, that round is not fquare, than the bare perception of thofe two ideas, which the mind at firft fight perceives to difagree. 165. II. The next fort of agreement or difagree- ment the mind perceives in any of its ideas may be called relative, and is nothing but the perception of the relation between any two ideas of what kind fo- ever; that is, their agreement or difagreement one with another in feveral ways the mind takes of comparing them. 166. III. The third fort of agreement or difagree- ment to be found in our ideas, is, coexijlence ox mn ex- iflence in the fame fubje& ; and this belongs particu¬ larly to fubftances. Thus when we pronounce con¬ cerning^/^, that it is fixed; it amounts to no more but this, that fixednefs, or a power to remain in the fire unconfumed, is an idea that always accompanies that particular fort of yellonunefs, weight, fufibility. See. which make our complex idea fignified by the word gold. 167. IV. The fourth fort is that of aftual and real exigence agreeing to any idea. Within thefe four forts of agreement or difagreement, is contained all the knowledge we have, or are capable of. For all that we know or can affirm concerning any idea, is. That it is, or is not, the fame with fome other; as, that blue is not yellow: That it does, or does not, coexift with ano¬ ther in the fame fubjeft; as, that iron is fufceptible of magnetical imprejfions: That it has that or this rela¬ tion to fome other ideas; as, that two triangles, upon equal bafes upon two parallels, are equal: or, That it has a real exiftence without the mind; as, that God is. 168. There are feveral ways wherein the mind is pofleffed of truth, each of which is called knowledge. Firfi, There is aflual knowledge, when the mind has a prefent view of the agreement or difagreement of any of its ideas, or of the relation they have one with ano¬ ther. Secondly, A man is faid to know any propofi- tion, when having once evidently perceived the agree¬ ment or difagreement of the ideas whereof it confifts, and fo lodged it in his memory, that whenever it comes to be reflefted on again, the mind affents to it without doubt or hefitation, and is certain of the truth of it. And this may be called habitual knowledge. And thus a man may be faid to know all thofe truths which are lodged in his memory by a foregoing, clear, and full perception. 169. Of habitual knowledge there are two forts: the «ne is of fuch truths laid up in the memory, as when¬ ever they occur to the mind, it adually perceives the relation that is between thofe ideas. And this is in all thofe truths, where the ideas themfelves, by an imme¬ diate view, difeover their agreement or difagreement one with another. The other is of fuch truths, where¬ of the mind having been convinced, it retains the me¬ mory of the conviAion, without the proofs. Thus a man that remembers certainly, that he once perceived the demonftration, that the three angles of a triangle are equal to two right ones, knows it to be true, when 1 that demonftration is gone out of his mind, and poffibly cannot be recolle&ed: but he knows it in a different way from what he did before, namely, not by the in¬ tervention of thofe intermediate ideas, whereby the a- greement or difagreement of thofe in the propofition was at firft perceived, but by remembering, i. e. know¬ ing that he was once certain of the truth of this pro- Degrees of pofition, that the three angles of a triangle are equal Knowledge, to two right ones. The immutability of the fame re- lations between the fame immutable things, is now the idea that Ihews him, that if the three angles of a tri¬ angle were once equal to two right ones, they will al¬ ways be fo. And hence he comes to be certain, that what was once true, is always true ; what ideas once agreed, will always agree; and confequently, what he once knew to be true, he will always know to be true, as long as he can remember that he once knew it. Sect. XXX. Of the Degrees of our Knowledge. 170. All our knowledge confiding in the view the mind has of its own ideas, which is the utmoft light and greateft certainty we are capable of, the different clearnefs of our knowledge feems to lie in the different way of perception the mind has of the agreement or difagreement of any of its ideas. 171. When the mind perceives this agreement or difagreement of two ideas immediately by themfelves, without the intervention of any other, we may call it intuitive knowledge', in which cafes the mind perceives truth, as the eye does light, only by being dire&ed towards it. Thus the mind perceives, that white is not black ; that three are more than two, and equal to one and two. This part of knowledge is irrefiftible, and, like the bright funfhine, forces itfelf immedi¬ ately to be perceived as foon as ever the mind turns its view that way. It is on this intuition that depends all the certainty and evidence of our other knowledge ; which certainty every one finds to be fo great, that he cannot imagine, and therefore not require a greater. 172. The nex^ degree of knowledge is, where the mind perceives not this agreement or difagreement im¬ mediately, or by the juxta-pofition, as it were, of the ideas, becaufe thofe ideas concerning whofe agreement or difagreement the inquiry is made, cannot by the mind be fo put together as to Ihew it. In this cafe the mind is fond to difeover the agreement or difagreement which it fearches, by the intervention of other ideas : And this is that which we call reafoning. And thus, if we would know the agreement or difagreement in bignefs between the three angles of a triangle and two right angles, we cannot by an immediate view and comparing them do it; becaufe the three angles of a triangle cannot be brought at once, and be compared with any other one or two angles. And fa of this the mind has no immediate or intuitive knowledge. But we muft find out fome other angles to which the three angles of a triangle have,equality ; and finding thofe equal to two right ones, we come to know the equality of thefe three angles to two right ones. Thefe intervening ideas which ferve to ftiew the agree¬ ment of any two others, are called proofs ; and where the agreement or difagreement is by this means plain¬ ly and clearly perceived, it is called demonf ration. A quicknefs in the mind to find thofe proofs, and to apply them right, is that which is fagacity. 173. This knowledge, though it be certain, is not fo clear and evident as intuitive knowledge. It re¬ quires pains and attention, and fteady application of mind, to difeover the agreement or difagreement of the it confiders; and there muft be a progreffion by fteps and degrees before the mind can in this way [c] arrive I ( 18 ) METAPHYSICS. Sed. XXX. Degrees of arrive'at certainty. Before demonftration there was a Knowledge.rjQjjbt, which, in intuitive knowledge, cannot happen to the mind that has its faculty of perception left to a degree capable of diftinft ideas, no more than it can be a doubt to the eye (that can diftinftly fee white and black) whether this ink and paper be all of a co¬ lour. 174. Now, in every ftep that reafon makes in de*- monflrative knowledge, there is an intuitive knowledge of that agreement or difagreement it feeks with the next immediate idea-, which it ufes as a proof: for if it were not fo, that yet would need a' proof; fince without the perception of fuch agreement or difagree¬ ment, there is no knowledge produced. By which it is evident, that every Hep in reafoning that produces knowledge has intuitive certainty ; but when the mind perceives, there is no more required but to remember it, to make the agreement or difagreement of the ideas concerning which we inquire vifible and certain. This intuitive perception of the agreement or difagreement of the intermediate in each ttep and progreffion of the demonftration,. muft alfo be exadly carried in the mind ; and a man muft be fure that no part is left out; which becaufe in long deductions the memory cannot eafily retain, this knowledge becomes more im- perfeft than intuitive, and men often embrace falfe- hoods for demonftrations. 175. It has been generally taken for granted, that mathematics alone are capable of demonftrative cer¬ tainty. But to have fuch an agreement or difagree¬ ment as may be intuitively perceived, being not the privilege of the ideas of number, extenjion, and figure alone, it may poffibly be the want of due method and ap¬ plication in us, and not of Sufficient evidence in-things, that demonftratioft has been thought to have fo little to do in other parts of knowledge : For in whatever ideas the mind can perceive the agreement or difagree¬ ment immediately, there it is capable of intuitive know¬ ledge : And where it can perceive the agreement or difagreement of any two ideas by an intuitive percep¬ tion of the agreement or difagreement they have with any intermediate ideas, there the mind is capable of demonftration which is not limited to the ideas of fi¬ gure, number, extenfion, or their modes. The rea¬ fon why it has been generally fuppofed to belong to them only, is becaufe in comparing their equality or excefs the modes of nmubers have every the lead diffe¬ rence very clear and perceivable : And in extenfion, though every the leaft excefs is not fo perceptible, yet the mind has found out ways to difcover the juft equa¬ lity of two angles, extenfions, or figures ; and both, that is, numbers and figures, can be fet down by vi¬ fible and lading marks. 176. But in other fimple ideas, whofe modes and differences are made and counted by degrees, and not quantity, we have not fo nice and accurate a diftinc- tion of their differences as to perceive or find ways to meafure their juft equality or the leaft differences: for thofe other fimple ideas being appearances or fenfations produced in us by the ftze, figure, motion, &c. of mi¬ nute corpufcles fingly infenfible, their different degrees alfo depend on the variation of fome or all of thofe caufes; which fince it cannot be obferved by us in par¬ ticles of matter, whereof each is too fubtile to be per¬ ceived, it is impoffible for us to have any exa& mea- fures of the different degrees of thefe fimple ideas. Extent of Thus, for inftance, not knowing what number of par-Knowledge* tides, nor what motion of them, is fit to produce any precife degree of whitenefs, we cannot demonftrate the certain equality of any two degrees of whitenefs, be¬ caufe we have no certain ftandard to meafure them by, nor means to diftinguifh every the leaft difference ; the only help we have being from our fenfes, which in this point fail us. 17,7. But where the difference is fo great as to pro¬ duce in the mind ideas clearly diftinft, there ideas of colours, as we fee in different kinds, [blue and red, for inftance), are as capable of demonftration as ideas of number and extenfion. What is here faid of colours holds true in all fecondary qualities. Thefe two then, intuition and demonflration, are the degrees of our knowledge ; whatever comes ftiort of one of thefe is but faith or opinion, not knowledge, at leaft in all ge¬ neral truths. There is indeed another perception of the mind employed about the particular exifience of fi¬ nite beings without us ; which going beyond probabi¬ lity, but not reaching to either of the foregoing de¬ grees of certainty, paffes under the name of know¬ ledge. 178. Nothing can be more certain than that the idea we receive from an external objeift is in our minds s This is intuitive knowledge; but ^whether we can thence certainly infer the exiftence of any thing with¬ out us correfponding to that idea, is that whereof fome men think there may be a queftion made, becaufe men may have fuch an idea in their minds when no fuch things exift, no fuch objeft affe&s their fenfes. But it is evident that we are invincibly confcious to ourfelves of a different perception, when we look upon the fun in the day, and think on it by night ; when we aftu- ally tafte wormwood or fmell a rofe, or only think on' that favour or odour. So that we may add to the two former forts of knowledge this alfo of the exift¬ ence of particular external objefts, by that perception and confcioufnefs we have of the actual entrance of ideas from them, and allow thefe three degrees of knowledge, viz. intuitive, demonjlrative, and fenflive. 179. But fince our knowledge is founded on and em¬ ployed about our ideas only, will it follbw thence that- it muft be conformable to our ideas p and that where our ideas are clear and diftinft, obfeure and confafed, there our knowledge will be fo too ? No. For our know¬ ledge confifting in the perception of the agreement or difagreement of any two ideas, its clearnefs or otf- feurity confifts in the clearnefs- or obfeurity of that perception, and not in theclearneft or obfeurity of th‘e ideas themfelves. A man (for inftance) that has a clear idea of the angles of a triangle, and of equality to two right ones, may yet have but an obfeure per¬ ception of their agreement; and fo have but a very- obfeure knowledge of it. But obfeure and confufed ideas can never produce any clear or diftinft know¬ ledge ; becaufe, as far as any ideas are obfeure or con¬ fufed, fo far the mind can never perceive clearly whe¬ ther they agree or difagree. Sect. XXXI. Of the Extent of Human Know¬ ledge. 180. From what has been faid concerning know- ledge, it follows, Firft, That we can have no know- ledge Sea. XXXI. M E T A P Extent of ledge farther than we have ideas. ■Knowledge Secondly, That we have no knowledge farther than ” we can have perception of that agreement or difagree- !ment of our ideas, either by intuition, de'tnonjiration, or fenfation. Thirdly, We cannot have an intuitive knowledge that lhall extend itfelf to all our ideas, and all that we would know about them, becaufe we cannot examine and perceive all the relations they have one to another fry juxta-pofition, or an immediate comparifon one with another. Thus we cannot intuitively perceive the equality of two extenfions, the difference of whofe fi¬ gures makes their parts incapable of an exadf imme¬ diate application. Fourthly, Our rational knowledge cannot reach to the whole extent of our ideas; becaufe between two different ideas we would examine, we cannot always find fuch proofs as we can conneft one to another, with an intuitive knowledge in all the parts of the de¬ duction. Fifthly, Senfttive knowledge reaching no farther than the exiftence of things adtually prefent to onr fenfes, is yet much narrower than either of the former. Sixthly, From all which it is evident, that the ex~ tent of our knowledge comes not only fhort of the rea¬ lity of things, but even of the extent of our own ideas. We have the ideas of a fquare, a circle, and equality ; and yet perhaps fhall never be able to find a circle equal to a fquare. 181. The affirmations or negations we make con¬ cerning the ideas we have, being reduced to the four forts above-mentioned, viz. identity, Coexijience, rela¬ tion, and real exiftence, we fhall examine how far our knowledge extends in each of thefe. 182. Firft, As to identity and diverfly, our intuitive knowledge is as far extended as our ideas themfelves ; and there can be no idea in the mind which it does not prefently, by an intuitive knowledge, perceive to be what it is, and to be different from any other. 183. Secondly, As to the agreement or difagree- ment of our ideas in coexiftence : in this our know¬ ledge is very fhort; tho' in this confifts the greateft and moft material part of our knowledge, concerning fubftances. For our ideas of fubftances being nothing but certain colleftions of ftmpie ideas, coexifting in one fubjetl, (our idea of fame, for inftance, is a body hot, luminous, and moving upward; when we would know any thing farther concerning this, or any other fort of fubftance, what do we do but inquire what other qua¬ lities or powers thefe fubftances have, or have not ? Which is nothing elfe but to know what other Ample ideas do or do not coexift with thofe that make up that complex idea. The reafon of this is, becaufe the fimple ideas which make up our complex ideas of fubftances, have no vifible neceffary connedlion or inconfiftence with other fimple ideas whofe coexiftence with them we would inform ourfelves about. Thefe ideas be¬ ing likewife, for the moft part, fecondary qualities, which depend upon the primary qualities of their mi¬ nute or infenfible parts, or on fomething yet more re¬ mote from our comprehenfion, it is impoffible we fhould know which have a neceffary union or incon- fiftency one with another, fince we know not the root from whence they fpring, or the fize, figure, and tex¬ ture of parts on which they depend, and from which H Y S I C S. ( I9 ) they refult. Extent of *184. Befides this, there is no diftcoveralle connec- Knowledge. tion between any fecondary quality, and thofe primary ~ qualities that it depends on. We are fo far from knowing what figure, fize, or motion produces (for (inftance), a yellow colour, or fweet tafle, or a ftharp found, that we can by no means conceive how anyftze, figure, ox motion, can poffibly produce in us the idea of any colour, tafte, or found, whatfoever; and there is no conceivable connfdion between the one and the other. f 85. Our knowledge therefore of coexiftence reaches little farther than experience. Some few, indeed, of the primary qualities have a neeeffary dependence and vilible connexion one with another ; as figure necef- farily fuppofes extenfton, receiving or communicating motion by impulfe fuppofes folidity. But qualities co- exiftent in any fubjeft, without this dependence and conneftion, cannot certainly be known to coexift any farther than experience by our fenfes informs us. Thus, though upon trial we find goldytWom, weighty, malleable, fufible, xnd fixed, yet becaufe none of thefe have any evident dependence or neceffary connexion with the other, we cannot certainly know that where any four of thefe are, the fifth will be there alfo, how highly probable foever it may be: but the higheft de¬ gree of probability amounts not to certainty; with¬ out which there can be no true knowledge: for this coexiftence can be no further known, than it is per¬ ceived; and it cannot be perceived, but either, in par¬ ticular fubjefts, by the obfervation of our fenfes, or, m general, by the neceffary connexion of the ideas themfelves. 186. As to incompatibility, or repugnancy to coex¬ iftence, we may know, that any fubjeft can have of each fort of primary qualities but one particular at once, one extenfion, one figure; and fo of fenfible ideas, pe¬ culiar to each fenfe : for whatever of each kind is pre¬ fent in any fuhjeft, excludes all others of that fort ; for inftance, one fubjeft cannot have two fmells or two colours at the fame time. 187. As to powers of fubftances, which make a great part of our inquiries about them, and are noin- confiderable branch of our knowledge ; our knowledge as to thefe reaches little farther than experience, be¬ caufe they confift in a texture and motion of parts which we cannot by any means come to difeover. Experience is that which in this part we muft de¬ pend on ; and it were to be wifhed that it were more improved. 188. As to the third fort, the agreement or difa- greement of our ideas in any other relation, this is the largeft field of knowledge, and it is hard to deter¬ mine how far it may extend. This part depending on our fagacity in finding intermediate ideas that may fhew the habitudes and relations of ideas, it is an hard matter to tell when we are at the end of fuch difcove- ries. They that are ignorant of algebra* cannot ima¬ gine the wonders in this kind that are to be done by it; and what further improvements and helps advanta¬ geous to other parts of knowledge the fagacious mind of man may yet find out, it is not eafy to determine. The ideas of quantity are not thofe alone that are ca¬ pable of demonftration and knowledge; other, and per¬ haps more ufeful parts of contemplation, would un- [ c 2 ] doubt- ( 20 ) METAPHYSICS. Sea. XXXI. Extent of doubtedly afford us certainty, if vices, paffions, and Knowledge, jgrcdfjgmjjg intereft, did not oppofe or menace endea- vours of this kind. 189. The idea of a Supreme Being, infinite in power, goodnefs, and wifdom, whofe workmanfliip we are, and on whom we depend ; and ideas of our- felves, as underltanding rational creatures; would, if duly confidered, afford fuch foundation of our duty, and rules of aftion, as might place morality among the fciences capable of demonftration. The relations . of other modes may certainly be perceived, as well as thofe of number and extenfion. Where there is no pro¬ perty, there is minjuftice, is a propofition as certain as any demonftration in Euclid: for the idea of property being a right to any thing ; and the idea of injuftice being the invafion or violation of that right; it is evi¬ dent, that thefe ideas being thus eftablifhed, and thefe names annexed to them, we can as certainly know this propofition to be true, as that a triangle has three angles equal to two right ones. Again, No government allows ahfolute liberty. The idea of government being the eftablifhment of fociety upon certain rules or laws which require conformity to them, and the idea of al- folute liberty being for any one to do whatever he plea- fes, we are as capable of being certain of the truth of this propofition as of any in mathematics. 190. What has given the advantage to the ideas of quality, and made them thought more capable of cer¬ tainty and demonftration, is, 191. Firft, That they can be reprefented by fen- fible marks, which have a nearer correfpondence with them than any words or founds. Diagrams drawn on paper are copies of the ideas, and not liable to the uncertainty that words carry in their fignification: but we have no fenfible marks that referable our moral ideas, and nothing but words to exprefs them by; which though when written they remain the fame, yet the ideas they ftand for may change in the fame man; and it is very feldom that they are not different in different perfons. 192. Secondly, Moral ideas are commonly more complex than figures. Whence thefe two inconvenien¬ ces follow : x. That their names are of more uncertain fignification ; the precife colle&ion of fimple ideas they ftand for not being fo eafily agreed on, and fo the fign that isufed for them, in communication always, and in thinking often, does not fteadily carry with it the fame idea. 2. The mind cannot eafily retain thofe pre¬ cife combinations fo exaftly and perfectly as is necef- fary, in the examination of the habitudes and corre- fpondencies, agreements or difagreements, of feveral of them one with another, efpecially where it is to be judged of by long dedu&ions, and the intervention of feveral other complex ideas to ftiew the agree¬ ment or difagreement of two remote ones. 193. Now one part of thefe difadvantages in moral ideas, which has made them to be thought not capable of demonftration, may in a good meafure be remedied by definitions, fetting down that colle&ion of fimple ideas which every term ftiall ftand for, and then ufing the terms fteadily and conftantly for that precife col- lettion. 194. As to the fourth fort of knowledge, viz. of the real aftual exi/lence of things, we have an intuitive knowledge of our own er.iflence; a demonjlravive knowledge of the exifience of God; 'and a fenfitive Caufes of knowledge of the e5/V t0 t^ie harbour of St Juan de Ullua ; where they emperor of were met ^7 two Mexican canoes, who carried two Mexico, ambaffadors from the emperor of that country, and Ihewed the greatejl figns of peace and amity. Their language was unknown to Aguilar; but one of the fe¬ male flaves above-mentioned underftood it, and tranf- lated it into the Yucatan tongue; after which Aguilar interpreted the meaning in Spanilh. This (lave was af¬ terwards named Donna Marina, and proved very ufe- 3 ful in their conferences with the natives. State of the this time the Mexican empire, according to that tirne R°bertfon, was arrived at a pitch of grandeur to which no fociety had ever attained in fo Ihort a pe¬ riod. Though it had fubfifted only for 130 years, its dominion extended from the north to fouth fea ; over territories ftretching about 500 leagues from eaft to weft, and more than 200 from north to foiith ; com¬ prehending provinces not inferior in fertility, popula¬ tion, and opulence, to any in the torrid zone. The reigning emperor was called Montezuma, otMotezuma, whofe authority was very, defpotic, and his temper haughty and cruel. Though by nature he poffeffed a good deal of courage and refolution ; yet from the firft moment that the Spaniards appeared on his coaft, he difcovered fymptoms of timidity and embarraffment, and all his fubje&s were embarraffed as well as himfelf. The general difmay which took place on this occafion was partly owing to the ftrange figure the Spaniards made, and the prodigious power of their arms; but partly alfo to the following circumftance. An opi¬ nion prevailed almoft univerfally among the Americans, if we may believe the earlieft and moft authentic hiftorians, that fome dreadful calamity impended over their heads, from a race of formidable invaders who Ihould come from regions towards the riling fun, to over-run and defolate their country. Whether this difquieting apprehenfion flowed from the memory of M E X fome natural calamity which had aifli&ed that part of Mexico, the globe, and impreffed the minds of the inhabitants with fuperftitious fears and forebodings; or whether it was an imagination accidentally fuggefteft by, the aftonilhment which the firft fight of a race of new men occafioned, it is impoffible to determine. But as the Mexicans were more prone to fuperftition than any people in the new world, they were more deeply affe&ed with the appearance of the Spaniards, whom they inftantly fuppofed to be the inftruments deftined to bring about that fatal revolution which they dreaded: and this produced the embaffy above-mentioned. By means of his two interpreters, Donna Marina, and Aguilar, Cortes learned that the chiefs of the Mexican embaffy were deputies from Pilpatoe and Teutile ; the one governor of a province under the emperor, and the other the commander of all his forces in that province: the purport of their embaffy was, to inquire what his intentions were in vifiting their coafts, and to offer him what affiftance he might need in order to continue his voyage. Cortes, in his turn, alfo profefled the greateft friendfliip; and informed the ambaffadors, that he came to propofe matters of the utmoft confequence to the welfare of the prince and his kingdom; which he would more fully unfold in 4 perfon to the governor and the general. Next morning, Cortes lands without waiting for any anfwer, he landed his troops, ^ fortifies his horfes, and his artillery; began to ered huts for hish'3 camP* men, and to fortify his camp. The natives, inftead of oppofing the entrance of thefe fatal guefts into their country, affifted them in all their operations, with an alacrity which they had ere long reafon to repent. The next day the ambaffadors had a formal audi¬ ence; at which Cortes acquainted them, that he came from Don Carlos of Auftria, king of Caftile, the greateft monarch of the eaft, and was intruded with propofitions of fuch moment, that he would impart them to none but the emperor himfelf, and therefore required to be conduded immediately to the capital. f This demand immediately produced the greateft un-Thelnfiians eafinefs; and the ambaffadors did all in their power toe!lf!eav0lir diffuade Cortes from his defign, endeavouring to con-himViom® ciliate his good-will by the prefents lent him by going to Montezuma. Thefe they introduced with great pa- the capital, rade, and confided of fine cotton-cloth, of plumes ofbut in vain* various colours, and of ornaments of gold and filver to a confiderable value, the workmanlhip of which appeared to be as curious as the materials were rich. But thefe prefents ferved only to excite the avidity of the Spaniards, and to increafe their defire for be¬ coming matters of a country which abounded with fo many precious commodities. Cortes indeed could fcarce- ly reftrain himfelf fo far as to hear the arguments made ule of by the ambaffadors to diffuade him from going to the capital ; and, in a haughty, determined tone, infifted on his former'demand of being admitted to a perfonal interview with their fovereign. During this converfation, fome painters in the retinue of the Mexican chiefs had been diligently em¬ ployed in delineating, upon white cotton cloths, figures of the ihips, horfes, artillery, foldiers, and whatever elfe attraded their eyes as lingular. When Cortes obferved this, and was informed that thefe pi&ures were to be fent to Montezuma, he refolved to render the reprefentation Hill more ftriking and interefting. The trumpets, by his orders, founded an alarm ; the troops [ 4968 ] M E X [ 49^9 ] M £ X feats. MeK*co. troops fornred in order of battle, and fhewed their agility and ftrength in the belt manner they could ; while the artillery was pointed againft the neighbour¬ ing trees, among which it made dreadful havock. The Indians for fome time looked on with filent a- ftonifhment; but at the explofion of the cannon, fome • fled, others fell to the ground, and all were fo con¬ founded, that Cortes found it difficult to quiet and 6 compofe their minds. Monte- When the painters had exerted their utmoft efforts zuma made jn reprtfenting all thefe wonderful things, meffengers witiThis6 were immediately difpatched to Montezuma with the defign. pi&ures, and a full account of every thing that had paffed fince the arrival of the Spaniards, together with fome European curiofities to Montezuma; which, though of no great value, Cortes believed would be acceptable on account of their novelty. The Mexi¬ can monarchs, in order to obtain the earlieft informa¬ tion of every occurrence in all parts of their empire, had couriers polled at proper ftations along the prin¬ cipal roads; and as thefe were trained to agility by a regular education, they conveyed intelligence with furprifing rapidity. Though the city in which Montezuma refided was above 180 miles from St Juan de Ullua, Cortes’s prefents were carried thither, and •j an anfwer returned to his demands, in a few days. Sends an As the anfwer was unfavourable, Montezuma had en- 7fayoi;r; deavoured to molh’fy the Spanilh general by the rich- bu^accom-' ne^s Prefents- Thefe confifted of the manufac- panied with tures of the country; cotton-fluffs fo fine, and of fuch rich pre- delicate texture, as to refemble filk ; pictures of ani¬ mals, trees, and other natural obje&s, formed with feathers of different colours, difpofed and mingled with fuch {kill and elegance as to rival the works of the pencil in truth and beauty of imitation. But what chiefly attra&ed their attention, were two large plates of a circular form ; one of maffive gold repre- fenting the fun, the other of filver reprefenting the moon. Thefe were accompanied with bracelets, col¬ lars, rings, and other trinkets of gold ; and that no¬ thing might be wanting which could give the Spaniards a complete idea of what the country afforded, fome boxes filled with pearls, precious ftones, and grains of gold unwrought, as they had been found in the mines oj- rivers, were fent along with the reft. Cortes re¬ ceived all with an appearance of the moil profound refpeft for Montezuma; but when the Mexicans, prefuming upon this, informed him, that their mailer, though he defired him to accept of what he had fent as a token of his regard for the prince whom he repre- fented, would not give his confent that foreign troops fhould approach nearer to h‘s capital, or even allow jj .cortes them to continue longer in his dominions. Cortes de- infifts on dared, in a manner more refolute and peremptory hisdemand.than formerly, that he mull infill on his firil demand; as he could not, without diihonour, return to his own fovereign until he was admitted into the prefence of the prince whom he was appointed to vifit in his name. The Mexicans were aftoniihed at the fight of a man who dared to oppofe the will of their emperor; but not being willing to come to an open rupture with fuch formidable enemies, with much ado they prevailed upon Cortes to promtfe that he would not move from his prefent camp until the return of a meffenger whom they fent to Montezuma for further inftruftions. The pufillauimity of the Indian monarch afforded time to the Spaniards to take meafures which would Mextce, have been out of their power had they been vigoroufly attacked on their firfl refufal to obey his orders. Cortes nfed every method of fecuring the affe6!ions of the foldiers; which indeed was very nectffary, as many of them began to exclaim againft: the raflinefs of his attempt in leading them againft the whole force ^ of the Mexican empire. In a ihort time Teutile Monte- arrived with another prefervt from Montezuma, andzumape- together with it delivered the ultimate orders of that remptoriiy monarch to depart inftantly out of his dominions; and when Cortes, inftead of complying with hisdemands, hi$ domi- renewed his requeft of audience, the Mexican imme- moss, diately left the camp with ftrong marks of furprife and refentment. Next morning, none of the natives ap¬ peared; all friendly correfpondence feemed to be at an end, and hoililities were expefted to commence every moment. A fudden condensation enfued among the Spaniards, and a party was formed againft him by the adherents ofVelafques; who took advantage of the oc- cafion, and deputed one of their number, a principal of¬ ficer, to remonftrate, as if in name of the whole army, againft. his rafhnefs, and to urge the necefiity of his returning to Cuba. Cortes received the meffage with¬ out any appearance of emotion; and ae he well knew the temper and wiihes of his foldiery, and forefaw how they would receive a propofition fo fatal to all the fplen- did hopes and fchemes which they had been forming with fuch complacency, he pretended to comply with, the requeft now made him, and iffued orders that the army fhould be in readinefs next day to embark for Cuba. Upon hearing this, the troops, as Cortes had expedled, were quite outrageous : they pofitively refufed to comply with thefe orders, and threatened immediately to choofe another general if Cortes con¬ tinued to infill on their departure. Our adventurer was highly pleafed with the difpo- fition which now appeared among his troops: never- thelefs, diffembling his fentiments, he declared, that his orders for embarking had proceeded from a per- fuafion that it was agreeable to his fellow-foldiers, to whofe opinion he had facrificed his own ; but now he acknowledged his error, and was ready to refume his original plan of operation. This fpeech was highly applauded ; and Cortes, without allowing his men time to cool, fet about carrying his defigns into exe- t9 cution. In order to give a beginning to a colony, he Villa Riea affembled the principal perfpns in his army, and by founded, their fuffrages ele£led a council and magiltrates, in whom the government was to be veiled. The perfons chofen were moll firmly attached to Cortes; and the new fettlement had the name of Fi/la Rica de la vera Cruz ; that is, the rich town of the true crofs. Before this court of his own making, Cortes did not hefitate at refigning all his authority, and was Ir immediately re-eleded chief-juflice of the colony, The go- and captain-general of its army, with an ample com- v ■ ment miffion, in the king’s name, to continue in force till of,the ne^ the royal pleafure Ihonld be farther known. The ve foldiers eagerly ratified their choice by loud acclama-Cortes, tions; and Cortes, now confidering himfelf as no longer accountable to any fubjecl, began to affume a much greater degree of dignity, and to exercife more exten- five powers, than he had done before. Some of the foldiers began to exclaim againft the proceedings of the council as illegal; but the ringleaders were in- 28 C 2 flantly M E X [49: Mexico, ftantly fent on board the fleet loaded with irons. By " this timely feverity the reft were overawed; and Cortes, knowing of how great importance unani¬ mity was to his future fuccefs, foon found means to reconcile thofe who were moft difaffefted; to which purpofe a liberal diftribution of the Mexican gold, both among friends and foes, contributed not a IT little. Makes an Cortes, having thus flrengthened himfelf as well as alliance he could, refolved to advance into the country; and Caci ri^of t0 was eDC0Uragcd by the behaviour of the Zempoalla. or Petty prince of Zempoalla, a confiderable town at no great diftance. This prince, though fub- je ^crc's meat, bread, and fruit, to nourifh you.” granted. After this addrefs, the peace was foon concluded, to the great fatisfaftion of both parties. The Tlafcalans yielded themfelves as vaflals to the crown of Caftile, and engaged to affift Cortes in all his operations; while he took the republic under his prote&ion, and promi- fed to defend their perfons and pofftflions from injury ao and violence. Great di- This reconciliation took place at a very feafonable theS^Y^ jtindlure for the Spaniards. They were not only worn niards.*' oat if'Ceffant toil, but fo deftitute of neceffaries, that they had no other falve to drefs their wounds but what was compofed of the fat of Indians whom they had llain. Their diftreffes, in (hort, were arifen to fuch an height that they had begun to murmur, and even to defpair, infomuch that Cortes had much diffi¬ culty in reftraining them within any kind of bounds : but the fubmiffion of the Tlafcalans, and their own triumphant entry into the city, where they were recei¬ ved with the reverence due to a fuperior order of be¬ ings, banifhed at once all memory of paft fufferings, difpelled every anxious thought, and fully convinced them that they could not be refitted by any power in America. Cortes left no method untried-to gain the favour and confidence of the Tlafcalans; which, however, he had almoft entirely loff, by his untimely zeal in de- ftroying their idols as he had done thofe of Zempo- alla. But he was deterred from this rafh adtion by his chaplain, father Bartholomew de Olmedo; and left the Tlafcalans in the undifturbed exercife of their fu- perftition, requiring only that they, ffiould defitt from St their horrid pradlice of offering human vidlims. As dnuesYs" k°n 38 ^'s trooPs were fit for fervice, he refolved to march for continue his march towards Mexico, notwithftanding Mexico. the remonftrances of the Tlafcalans, who looked upon his deftrudion as unavoidable if he put bimfelf into the power of fuch a faithlefs prince as Montezuma. But the emperor, probably intimidated with the fame of his exploits, had refolved to admit bis vifit; and in¬ formed Cortes that he had given orders for his friendly reception at Cholula, the next place of any confequence a* on the road to Mexico. In this, however, he was by oflviontX n° means fincere- Cholula was looked upon by all the 2 ima and inhabitants of the empire as a very holy place; the the Cholu- fanduary and chief feat of their gods, to which pil~ fans. grims reforted from every province, and a greater number of human vidims were offered in its principal temple than even in that of Mexico. Montezuma therefore invited the Spaniards thither, either from fome fuperttitious hope that the gods would not fuffer this facred manfion to be defiled; or from a belief, that he himfelf might there find an opportunity of cutting them off with more certainty of fuccefs, when under Mexico, the immediate protedion of his gods. Cortes, how- ~ ever, was received with much feeming cordiality; but 6000 Tlafcalan troops who accompanied him were ob¬ liged to remain without the town, as the Cholulans re- fufed to admit their ancient enemies within their pre- einds. Yet two of thefe, by difguifing themfelves, got into the city, and acquainted Cortes that they ob- ferved the women and children belonging to the prin¬ cipal citizens retiring every night in a great hurry, and that fix children had been facrificed in the great temple ; a fign that fome warlike enterprife was at hand. At the fame time Donna Marina, the inter¬ preter, received information from an Indian woman of diftindion, whofe confidence fhe had gained, that the deftrudion of the Spaniards was concerted ; that a body of Mexican troops lay concealed near the town; that fome of the ftreets were barricaded, in others deep pits or trenches were dug, and flightly covered over, as traps into which the horfe might fall; that ftones and miffive weapons were colkded on the tops of the temples, with which to overwhelm the infantry ; that the fatal hour was already at hand, and their ruin un- ^ avoidable. Cortes, alarmed at this news, fecretly ar-Severe pa- refted three of the chief priefts, from whom he extort- niftment of ed a confeffion that confirmed the intelligence he had j^sCholu' already received. As not a moment was to be loft, he inftantly refolved to prevent his enemies, and to in- flid on them fuch dreadful vengeance as might ftrike Montezuma and his fubjeds with terror. For this pur- pofe the Spaniards and Zempoallans were drawn up in a large court, which had been allotted for their quar¬ ters, near the centre of the town; the Tlafcalans had orders to advance ; the magiftrates and chief citizens were fent for under various pretexts, and feized. On a fignal given, the troops rufhed out, and fell upon the multitude, deftitute of leaders, and fo much aftonifhed, that the weapons dropped from their hands, and they flood motionlefs, and incapable of defence. While the Spaniards attacked them in front, the Tlafcalans did the fame in the rear; the flreets were filled with daugh¬ ter; the temples, which afforded a retreat to the priefts and fome leading men, were fet on fire, and they pe- rifhed in the flames. This fcene of horror continued two days; during which the wretched inhabitants fuf- fered all that the deftruftive rage of the Spaniards, or the implacable revenge of their Indian allies, could in- flidl. At length the carnage ceafed, after the daugh¬ ter of 6000 Cholulans, without the lofs of a fingle Spaniard. Cortes then releafed the magiftrates; and reproaching them bitterly for their intended treachery, declared, that as juftice was now appeafed, he forgave the offence ; but required them to recall the inhabi¬ tants who had ded, and re-eftablifh order in the town. Such was the afcendant that the Spaniards had now obtained over this fuperftitious race, that this order was inftantly complied with; and the city was in a few days again filled with people, who paid the moft re- fpe&ful fervice to thofe men whofe hands were ftained with the blood of their relations and fellow-citizens. 14 From Cholula, Cortes advanced dire&ly towards Difaffeflion Mexico; and throughout the whole of his journey was of Monte- entertained with accounts of the oppreffions and Cruel-?uma s ful1’ ty of Montezuma. This gave him the greateft hope^cfts' of accomplifhing his defign; as he now perceived that the M E X [ 4873 ] M E X : Mexico, the empire was entirely divided, and no fort of unani- ~ mity prevailed among them. No enemy appeared to check his progrefs. Montezuma was quite irrefolute; and Cortes was almoft at the gates of the capital, be¬ fore the emperor had determined whether to receive him as a friend, or oppofe him as an enemy. But as no fign of openhoftility appeared, the Spaniards, with¬ out regarding the fluctuations of Montezuma’s fenti- ments, continued their march to Mexico, with great cir- cumfpedtion and the ftriCteft difcipiine, though with¬ out feeming to fufpeCt the prince whom they were a- sj bout to vifit. Meeting of When they drew near the city, about 1000 perfons, Cortes and wj)0 appearec] to be of diftindtion, came forth to meet zuma.'* them, adorned with plumes, and clad in mantles of fine cotton. Each of thefe, in his order, pafied by Cortes, and fainted him according to the mode deemed mod refpedtful and fubmiflive in their country. They an¬ nounced the approach of Montezuma himfelf, and foon after his harbingers came in fight. There appeared firft 200 perfons in an uniform drefs, with large plumes of feathers, alike in fafhion, marching two and two, in deep filence, barefooted, with their eyes fixed on the ground. Thefe were followed by a company of higher rank, in their moft fhowy apparel; in the midft of whom was Montezuma, in a chair or litter richly or¬ namented with gold, and feathers of various colours. Four of his principal favourites carried him on their flioulders, others fupported a canopy of curious work- manfliip over his head. Before him marched three of¬ ficers with rods of gold in their hands, which they lifted up on high at certain intervals; and at that fig- nal all the people bowed their heads, and hid their faces, as unworthy to look on fo great a monarch. When he drew near, Cortes difmounted, advancing towards him with officious hafte, and in a refpedlful pofture. At the fame time Montezuma-alighted from his chair, and leaning on the arms of two of his near relations, approached with a flow and (lately pace, his attendants covering the ftreet with cotton cloths, that he might not touch the ground. Cortes aceofted him with profound reverence, after the European faflrion. He returned the falutadon, according to the mode of his country, by touching the earth with his hand, and then killing it. This ceremony, the cuftomary expref- fion of reverence from inferiors towards thofe who are above them in rank, appeared fuch amazing condefcen- fion in a proud monarch, who fcarcely deigned to con- fider the reft of mankind as of the fame fpecies with himfelf, that all his fubje&s firmly believed thofe per¬ fons, before whom he humbled himfelf in this man¬ ner, to be fomething more than human. Accord¬ ingly, as they marched through the crowd, the Spa¬ niards frequently, and with much fatisfadlion, heard themfelves denominated teules, or divinities. Nothing material palled in this firft interview. Montezuma con¬ ducted Cortes to the quarters which he had prepared for his reception; and immediately took leave of him, withapolitenefs not unworthy of a court more refined. “ You are now, (fays he), with your brothers, in your own houfe; refrelh yourfelves after your fatigue, and be happy until I return.” The place allotted to the Spaniards for their lodging was a houfe built by the father of Montezuma. It was furrounded by a ftone-wall, with towers at proper diftances, which fer- ved for defence as well as for ornament; and its apart- Mexico, ments and courts were fo large as to accommodate ' " both the Spaniards and their Indian allies. The firft care of Cortes was to take precautions for his fecurity, by planting the artillery fo as to command the dif¬ ferent avenues which led to it, by appointing a large divifion of his troops to be always on guard, and by polling centinels at proper ftations, with injundliona to obferve the fame vigilant difcipiine as if they were within fight of an enemy’s camp. In the evening Montezuma returned to vifit his guefts with the fame pomp as in their firft interview; xand brought prefents of fuch value, not only to Cortes and to his officers, but even to the private men, as proved the liberality of the monarch to be fuitable to the opulence of his kingdom. A long conference en- fued, in which Cortes learned what was the opinion of Montezuma with refpedt to the Spaniards. It was an eftablilhed tradition, he told him, among the Mexicans,, that their anceftors came originally from a remote re¬ gion, and conquered the provinces now fubjeft to his dominion ; that after they were fettled there, the great captain who conduced this colony returned to his own country, promifing, that at fome future period his de- feendants Ihould vitit them, aflume the government, and reform their conftitutions and laws ; that, from what he had heard and feen of Cortes and his follow¬ er*, he was convinced that they were the very perfons whofe appearance and prophecies taught them to ex- pe£l ; that accordingly he had received them, not as ftrangers, but as relations of the fame blood and pa¬ rentage; and defired that they might confider them¬ felves as mailers in his dominions ; for both himfelf and his fubjefts Ihould be ready to comply with their will, and even to prevent their wilhes. Cortes made a re¬ ply in his ufual ftyle with refpefl to the dignity and' power of his fovereign, and his intention in fending him into that country ; artfully endeavouring fo to frame his difeourfe, that it might coincide as much as poffible with the idea which Montezuma had formed concerning the origin of the Spaniards. Next morn¬ ing, Cortes and fome of his principal attendants were admitted to a public audience of the emperor. The three fubfequent days were employed in viewing the city ; the appearance of which, fo far fuperior in the order of its buildings and the number of its inhabi¬ tants to any place the Spaniards had beheld in Ame¬ rica, and yet fo little refembling the ftru&ure of an European city, filled them with furprife and admira¬ tion. Mexico, Tenuchtitlan, as it was anciently called Dcfcriptioa; by the natives, is fituated in a large plain, environed of the city, by mountains of fuch height, that though within theof Mexico., torrid zone, the temperature of its climate is mild and healthful. All the moifture which defeends from the high grounds is collected in feveral lakes, the two largeft of which, of about 90 miles in circuit, commu¬ nicate with each other. The waters of the one are frelh, thofe of the others brackiih. On the banks of the latter, and on fomefmall iflands adjoining to them, the capital of Montezuma’s empire was built. Theac- cefs to the city was by artificial caufeways or ftreets, formed of Hones and earth, about 30 feet in breadth. As the waters of the lake, during the rainy feafon, overflowed the flat country, thefe caufeways were of? con.?- M E X Mexico, confiderable length. That of Tacuba on the weft a “ “mile and a half; that of Tezeuco on the north-weft three miles; that of Cuoyacan towards the fouth fix miles. On the eaft there was no caufeway, and the city could be approached only by canoes. In each of thefe caufeways were openings, at proper intervals, through which the waters flowed; and over thefe beams of timber were laid, which being covered with earth, the caufeway or ftreet had every where an uni¬ form appearance. As the approaches to the city were Angular, its conftruftion was remarkable. Not only the temple of their gods, but the houfes belonging to the monarch and to perfons of diftinftion, were of fuch dimenfions, that, in comparifon with any other buildings which had been difcovered in America, they might be termed magnificent. The habitations of the common people were mean, refembling the huts of other Indians. But they were all placed in a regular manner, on the banks of the canals which puffed thro* the city, in fome of its diftricts, or on the fides of the directs which interfe&ed it in other quarters. In feve- ral places were large openings or fquares, one of which, allotted for the great market, is faid to have been fo fpacious, that 40,000 or 50,000 perfons carried on traffic there. In this city, the pride of the New World, and the nobleft monument of the induftry and art of man, while unacquainted with the ufe of iron, and deflitute of aid from any domeftic animal, the Spaniards, who are moft moderate in their computa¬ tions, reckon that there were at leaft 60,000 inhabi- iT tants. But how much foever the novelty of thofe obje&s niards ^ might amufe or aftonifh the Spaniards, they felt the utmoft folicitude with refpeft to their own fituation. From a concurrence of circumftances, no lefs unexpec¬ ted than favourable to their progrefs, they had been allowed to penetrate into the heart of a powerful king¬ dom, and were now lodged in its capital, without ha¬ ving once met with open oppofition from its monarch. The Tlafcalans, however, had earneftly diffuaded them from placing fuch confidence in Montezuma as to en¬ ter a city of fuch a peculiar fituation as Mexico, where that prince would have them at mercy, fliut up as it were in a fnare, from which it was impoffible to efcape. They affured him that the Mexican priefts had, in the name of the gods, counfelled their fovereign to admit the ftrangers into the capital, that he might cut them off there at one blow with perfedl fecurity. The Spaniards nowperceived,tooplainly,thattheapprehenfions ofthen- allies were not deftitute of foundation; that, by break¬ ing the bridges placed at certain intervals on the caufe¬ ways, or by deftroying part of the caufeways them- felves, their retreat would be rendered imprafticable; and they muft remain cooped up in the centre of a ho- ftile city, furrounded by multitudes fufficient to over¬ whelm them, and without a poffibility of receiving aid from their allies. Montezuma had, indeed, received them with diftinguifhed refpedl. But ought they to reckon upon this as real, or to confider it as feigned? Even if it were fincere, could they promife on its con¬ tinuance? Their fafety depended upon the will of a monarch in whofe attachment they had no reafon to confide; and an order flowing from his caprice, or a word uttered by him in paffion, might decide irre¬ vocably concerning their fate. M E X Thefe refle&ions, fo obvious as to occur to the Mexico, meaneft foldier, did not efcape the vigilant fagacity of Jg ' their general. Before he fet out from Cholula, Cor-Some hofti* I tes had received advice from Villa Rica, that Qual-lities 9 popoca, one of the Mexican generals on the frontiers, || having affembled an army in order to attack fome ofanci Mexi- the people whom the Spaniards had encouraged to can-, throw off the Mexican yoke, Efcalante had marched out with part of the garrifon to fupport his allies; that an engagement had enfued, in which, though the Spa¬ niards were victorious, Efcalante, with feven of his men, had been moj-tally wounded, his horfe killed, and one Spaniard had been furrounded by the enemy and taken alive; that the head of this unfortunate captive, after being carried in triumph to different cities, in or¬ der to convince the people that their invaders were not immortal, had been fent to Mexico. Cortes, though alarmed with this intelligence, as an indication of Mon¬ tezuma’s hoftile intentions, had continued his march. But as foon as he entered Mexico, he became fenfible, that, from an excefs of confidence in the fuperior va¬ lour and difcipline of his troops, as well as from the difadvantage of having nothing to guide him in an un¬ known country but the defeiftive intelligence which he received from people with whom his mode of com¬ munication was very imperfedt, he had pufhed forward into a fituation, where it was difficult to continue, and from which it was dangerous to retire. Difgrace, and perhaps ruin, was the certain confequence of attempt¬ ing the latter. The fuccefs of his enterprife depend¬ ed upon fupporting the high opinion which the people of New Spain had formed with refpedt to the irrefift- ible power of his arms. Upon the firft fymptom of ti¬ midity on his part, their veneration would ceafe, and Montezuma, whom fear alone reftrained at prefent, would let loofe upon him the whole force of his em¬ pire. At the fame time, he knew that the countenance of his own fovereign was to be obtained only by a fe- ries of vidtories; and that nothing but the merit of extraordinary fuccefs could fcreen his condudt from the cenfure of irregularity. From all thefe conliderations, it was neceffary to maintain his ftation, and to extri¬ cate himfelf out of the difficulties in which one bold ftep had involved him, by venturing upon another ftill bolder. The fituation was trying, but his mind was equal to it; and after revolving the matter with deep attention, he fixed upon a plan no lefs extraordinary than daring. He determined to feize Montezuma in Cortes re. | his palace, and carry him a prifoner to the Spanifti f°lves to j quarters. From the fuperftitious veneration of thefcize M?n* 1 Mexicans for the perfon of their monarch, as well as i*is paiace. j their implicit fubmiffion to his will, he hoped, by ha¬ ving Montezuma in his power, to acquire the fupreme diredtion of their affairs ; or at leaft, with fuch a fa- cred pledge in his hands, he made no doubt of being fecure from any effort of their violence. This he immediately propofed to his officers. The timid ftartled at a meafure fo audacious, and railed ob¬ jections. The more intelligent and refolute, confcious that it was the only refource in which there appeared any profpedt of fafety, warmly approved of it, and brought over their companions fo cordially to the fame opinion, that it was agreed inftantly to make the at¬ tempt. At his ufual hour of vifiting Montezuma, Cortes went to the palace, accompanied by Alvarado, Saudoval, [ 4574 1 M E X [ 4975 ] M E X Mexico. Sandoval, Lugo, Velafquez de Leon, and Davila, five of his principal officers, and as many trafty foldiers. Thirty chofen men followed, not in regular order, but fauntering at fome diftance, as if they had no objedf but curiofity; fmall parties were polled at proper in¬ tervals, in all the ftreets leading from the Spanilh quar¬ ters to the court; and the remainder of his troops, with the Tlafcafan allies, were under arms, ready to fally out on the firft alarm. Cortes and his attendants were admitted without fufpicion ; the Mexicans reti¬ ring, as ufual, out of refpeft. He addrefled the mo¬ narch in a tone very different from that which he had employed in former conferences; reproaching him bit¬ terly as the author of the violent affault made upon the Spaniards by one of his officers, and demanded public reparation for the lofs which he had fuftained by the death of fome of his companions, as well as for the in- fult offered to the great prince whofe fervants they were. Montezuma, confounded at this unexpe&ed ac- cufation, and changing colour either from the confci- oufnefs of guilt, or from feeling the indignity with which he was treated, afferted his own Innocence with great earneftnefs; and, as a proof of it, gave orders inftantly to bring Qualpopoca and^his accomplices pri- foners to Mexico. Cortes replied, with feeming com- plaifance, that a declaration fo refpedlable left no doubt remaining in his own mind; but that fomething more was requifite to fatisfy his followers, who would never be convinced that Montezuma did not harbour hoftile intentions againft them, unlefs, as an evidence of his confidence and attachment, he removed from his own palace and took up his refidence in the Spanilh quar¬ ters, where he (hould be ferved and honoured as be¬ came a great monarch. The firft mention of fo ftrange a propofal bereaved Montezuma of fpeech, and almoft of motion. At length he haughtily anfwered, “ That perfons of his rank were not accuftomed voluntarily to give up themfelves as prifoners ; and were he mean enough to do fo, his fubjefts would not permit fuch an affront to be offered to their fovereign.” Cortes, un¬ willing to employ force, endeavoured alternately to foothe and intimidate him. The altercation became warm; and having continued above three hours, Ve¬ lafquez de Leon, an impetuous and gallant young man, exclaimed with impatience, “ Why wafte more time in vain? Let us either feize him inftantly, or ftab him to the heart.” The threatening voice and fierce gef- tures with which thefe words were uttered, ftruck Mon¬ tezuma. The Spaniards, he was fenfible, had now proceeded fo far, as left him no hope that they would recede. His own danger was imminent, the neceffity unavoidable. He faw both ; and abandoning himfelf 3o to his fate, compliedjwith their requeft. The empe- His officers were called. He communicated to them ror carried his refolution. Though aftonilhed and affli&ed, they s° prefumed not to queftion the will of their mafter, but quarters, carried him in filent pomp, all bathed in tears, to the Spanilh quarters. When it was known that the ftran- gers were conveying away the emperor, the people broke out into the wildeft tranfports of grief and rage, threatening the Spaniards with immediate deftru&ion, as the punilhment juftly due to their impious audacity. But as foon as Montezuma appeared with a feeming gaiety of countenance, and waved his hand, the tumult was hulhed; and upon his declaring it to be of his own Vol. VII. i choice that he went to refide for fome time among his Mexico, new friends, the multitude, taught to revere every inti- mation of their fovereign's pleafure, quietly difperfed. The Spaniards at firft pretended to treat Montezu¬ ma with great refpeft; but foon took care to let him know that he was entirely in their power. Cortes wilh- ed that tj,ie Ihedding the blood of a Spaniard fliould appear the moll heinous crime that could be commit¬ ted ; and therefore not only took a moft exemplary vengeance on thofe who had been concerned in the af¬ fair of Villa Rica, but even put the emperor himfelf in chains till the execution of the Mexican general was v over. By thefe, and other infults, he at laft ga‘nedCortgS entirely the afcendant over this unhappy monarch ; luies th« and he took care to improve his opportunity to theempire. utmoft. He fent his emiffaries into different parts of the kingdom, accompanied with Mexicans of diftinc- tion, who might ferve both to guide and to protect them. They vifited moft of the provinces, viewed their foil and produ&ions, furveyed with particular care the diftri&s which yielded gold or filver, pitched upon feveral places as proper for future colonies, and endeavoured to prepare the minds of the people for fubmitting to the Spanilh yoke: and while they were thus employed, Cortes, in the name and by the au¬ thority of Montezuma, degraded fome of the principal officers in the empire, whofe abilities or independent fpirit excited his jealoufy ; and fubftituted in their place perfons who he imagined would be more obfe- quibus. One thing, however, was ftill wanting to com¬ plete his fecurity. He wilhed to have fuch a command , of the lake as might enfure a retreat, if, either from le¬ vity or difguft, the Mexicans fliould take arms againft him, and break down the bridges or caufeways, in order 33 to inclofe him in the city. In order to obtain this with- By a pre- out giving difguft to the emperor or his court, Cortestenc?> he artfully inflamed the curiofity of the Indians with ac-”^^ counts of the Spanilh Ihipping, and thofe floating pa-bmij two laces that moved with fuch velocity on the water, with- brigantines out the affiftance of oars; and when he found that theon die monarch himfelf was extremely defirous of feeing fuch ake‘ a novelty, he gave him to underftand, that nothing was wanting to his gratification befides a few neceffa- ries from Vera Cruz, for that he bad workmen in his army capable of building fuch veffels. The bait took with Montezuma; and he gave immediate orders that all his people Ihould affift Cortes in whatever he Ihould •direft concerning the Ihipping. By this means, ,in a few days, two brigantines were got ready, full-rigged and equipped; and Montezuma was invited on board, to make the firft trial of their failing, of which he could form no idea. Accordingly he embarked for this purpofe, and gave orders for a great hunting up¬ on the water, in order that all his people might be di¬ verted with the novelty prefented by the Spaniards. On the day appointed, the royal equipage was ready early in the morning; and the lake was covered with a multitude of boats and canoes Ibaded. wuh people. The Mexicans had augmented the number of their rowers on board the royal barges, with an intention to difgrace the Spanifli veffels, which they regarded as clumfy, unweildy, and heavy. But they were foon undeceived ; a frefh gale ftarted up, the brigantines hoifted fail, to the utter aftonifhment of all the fpe&a- torst, and foon left all the canoes behind; while the 28 D monarch. M E X [ 4976 ] M E X Mexico, monarch exulted in the victory of the Spaniards, with- ~ ' ^but once coafidering that now he had tffeftualiy rivet- 33 ted his own chains. Monte- Cortes having obtained this important point, refol- ved t0 P'14 l^e condefcenfion of the emperor to a trial vaflil to ftih more fevere. He urged Montezuma to acknow- the king of ledge himfelf a vaffal to the crown of Caftile: to hold Spain. his crown of him as fuperior, and to fubjeft his domi¬ nions to the payment of an annual tribute. With this requifition, humiliating as it was, Montezuma com¬ plied. He called together the chief men of his em¬ pire, and, in a folemn harangue, reminded them of the traditions and prophecies which led them to expect the arrival of a people fprung from the fame ftodi with themfelves, in order to take poffeffion of the fupreme power; he declared his belief that the Spaniards were this promifed race ; and that therefore he recognized the right of their monarch to govern the Mexican em¬ pire, would lay his crown at his feet, and obey him as a tributary. While uttering thefe words, Montezuma dlfcovered how deeply he was alfe&ed in making fuch a facrifice. Tears and groans frequently interrupted his difcourfe. The firlt mention of fuch a refolution ftruck the afiembly dumb with aftonifhment. This was followed by a fallen murmur of forrow mingled with indignation; which indicated fome violent erup¬ tion of rage to be near at hand. This Cortes forefaw, and feafonably interpofed to prevent it, by declaring that his mailer had no intention to deprive Montezuma of the royal dignity, or to make any innovation upon the conftitution and laws of the Mexican empire. This affurance, added to their dread of the Spanilh arms, and the authority of their monarch’s example, extort¬ ed the confent of the aflembly; and the aft of fubmif- fion and homage was executed with all the formalities which the Spaniards pleafed to prefcribe. Montezuma, at the requeft of Cortes, accompanied this profeffion of fealty and homage with a magnifi- eent prefent to his new fovereign; and, after his ex- ample, his fubje&s brought in very liberal contribu- The Spa- tions. The Spaniards then colledfed all the treafure niards di- which had been either voluntarily bellowed upon them trcafure^ at <^‘^'ererit t*11163 ^7 Montezuma, or had been extort- rea ure. from his people under various pretences ; and ha¬ ving melted the gold and filver, the value of thsfe, with¬ out including jewels and ornaments of various kinds, which were preferved on account of their curious work- manlhip, amounted to 600,000 pefos. The foldiers were impatient to have it divided ; and Cortes com¬ plied with thrir defire. A fifth of the whole was fet apart as the tax due to the king. Another fifth was allowed to Cortes, as commander. The fums advan¬ ced by the governor of Cuba, who had originally fit¬ ted out the expedition, were then dedu&ed. The re¬ mainder was then divided among the army, including the garrifon of Vera Cruz, in proportion to their dif¬ ferent ranks; and after fo many dedudlions, the (hare of a private man did not exceed too pefos. This fum fell fo far below their fanguine expe&ations, that it re¬ quired all the addrefs, and no fmall exertions of the li¬ berality of Cortes to prevent an open mutiny. How¬ ever, he at lall reftored tranquillity; but had no foon- er efcaped this danger, than he involved himfelf, by his imprudent zeal for religion, in one much worfe. Mon¬ tezuma, though often importuned, had obftinately re- fufed to change his religion, or abolilh the fuperftiti- Mexico, ous rites which had been for fuch a long time pra&i- “ " fed throughout his dominions. This at laft tranfport-Cortes at- ed the Spaniard with fuch rage, that, in a fally of tempts to zeal, he led out his foldiers in order to throw down thecle^r.oy the idols in the great temple by force. But the priefts^£icaa taking arms in defence of their altars, and the people crowding with great ardour to fupport them, Cortes’s prudence over-ru'led his zeal; and induced him to defill from his rath attempt, after diflodging the idols from one of the (hrines, and placing in their Head an image of the Virgin Mary. From this moment the Mexicans began to meditate which pro- the expulfion or the deftru&ion of the Spaniards. Theduces a ge- riefts and leading men held frequent meetings withner®1 (hfaf- lontezuma for this purpofe. But as any violent at-fe^ion* tempt might have proved fatal to the captive monarch, it was thought proper firft to try more gentle means. Having called Cortes into his prefence, he obferved, that now, as all the purpofes of his embalfy were fully accomplilhed, the gods had declared their will, and the people fignified their defire, that he and his followers Ihould inftantly depart out of the empire. With this-j'j,c|pa. he required them to comply, or unavoidable deftruc- niards are tion would fall fuddenly on their heads. This unex-command- pefted requifition, as well as the manner in which iterifoner, gle&ed to vifit Montezuma, but expreffed himfelf very obliging all his troops to own allegiance to himfelf. Nothing could be more feafonable than this viftory, by which Cortes found his army very confiderably in- creafed ; for moft of the foldiers of Narvaez chofe rather to follow Cortes than to return to Cuba, whither the conqueror had offered to fend them if they ^angerous chofe. His affairs at Mexico, in the mean time, contemptuoufly concerning him. Thefe expreffions Bnt being reported among the Mexicans, they ail at once rioufly at- flew to arms, and made fuch a violent and fudden tacked by attack, that all the valour and /kill of Cortes were 'J16 na‘ fcarce fufficient to repell them. This produced greattives" uneafinefs among the foldiers of Narvaez, who had imagined there was nothing to do but to gather the Ituation of were in the utmoft danger of being totally ruined ; fpoils of a conquered country. Difcontent and mur- irdHeft Mexi- and had this decifive vidtory been delayed but . a few days longer, he muft have come too late to fave his companions. A fhort time after the defeat of Nar¬ vaez, a courier arrived from Mexico with the dif- agreeable intelligence that the Mexicans had taken arms; and having feized and deftroyed the two brigan¬ tines which he had built in order to fecure the com¬ mand of the lake, had attacked the Spaniards in their quarters, killed fome, and wounded many more, burnt their magazine of provifions, and, in fhort, carried munngs, however, were now of no avail; they were inclofed in an hoftile city, and, without fome extra¬ ordinary exertions, were inevitably undone. Cortes therefore made a defperate fally ; but, after exerting his utmoft efforts for a whole day, was obliged to retire with the lofs of 12 killed, and upwards of 60 wounded. Another fally was attempted with the like bad fuccefs, and in it Cortes himfelf was wounde-d in the hand. The Spanifh general was now thoroughly convinced on hoftilities with fuch fury, that though Alvarado of his error ; and therefore betook himft-lf to the and his men defended themfelves with undaunted re- only refource which was left ; namely, to try what folution, they muft either be cut off by famine, or effedt the interpofition of Montezuma would have to fink under the multitude of their enemies. This re- footh or overawe his fnbje&s. When the Me. :cans volt was excited by motives which rendered it fUll approached the next morning to rentfw the affault, 2 281/2 that M E X [ 4978 ] M E X Me th31 before the foldiers, appointed to guard killed. Montezuma, had time to cover him with their fhields, he was wounded with two arrows, and a blow on his temple with a ftone ftruck him to the ground. On feeing him fall, the Mexicans inltantly fled with the utmoft precipitation : but the unhappy monarch, now convinced that he was become an objeft of contempt even to his own fubjefts, obftinately refufed all nourifh- ment; and thus in a fhort time ended his days. A terrible On the death of Montezuma, Cortes having loft all engagement hope of bringing the Mexicans to any terms of peace, between prepared for retreat. But his antagonills, having niardsTnd taken poffefilon of a high tower in the great temple, Mexicans, which overlooked the Spanifh quarters, and placing there a garrifon of their principal warriors, the Spa¬ niards were fo much expofed to their miffile weapons, that none could ftir without danger of being killed or wounded. From this poll, therefore, it was neceffary to diflodge them at any rate ; and Juan de Efcobar, with a large detachment of chofen foldiers, was ordered to make the attack. But Efcobar, though a valiant officer, and though he exerted his utmoft efforts, was thrice repulfed. Cortes, however, fenfible, that not only his reputation, but the fafety of his army, de¬ pended on the fuccefs of this affault, caufed a buckler to be tied to his arm, as he could not manage it with his wounded hand, and rufhed with his drawn fword among the thickeft of the combatants. Encouraged by the prefence of their general, the Spaniards re¬ turned to the charge with fuch vigour, that they gra¬ dually forced their way up the fteps, and drove the Mexicans to the platform at the top of the tower. There a dreadful carnage began ; when two young Mexicans of high rank, obferving Cortes, as he ani¬ mated his foldiers, refolved to facrifice their own lives in order to cut off the author of fo many calamities which defolated their country. They approached him in a fuppliant pofture, as if they intended to lay down their arms, and feizing him in a moment, hur¬ ried him towards the battlements, over which they threw themfelves headlong, in hopes of dragging him along with them. But Cortes, by his ftrength and agility, difengaged himfelf from their grafp; fo that the two Mexicans periffied alone. As foon as the Spaniards became mailers of the tower, they fet fire to it, and without further mole- ftation continued the preparations for their retreat. This became the more neceffary, as their emenies, aftonilhed at this laft effort of their valour, had now entirely changed their fyftem of hoftility ; and, inftead ©f inceffant attacks, endeavoured, by barricading the ffreets, and breaking down the caufeways, to cut off the communication of the Spaniards with the conti- Mexico. nent, and thus to ftarve an enemy whom they could not fubdue. The firft point to be determined was whether they ffiould march out openly in the face of day, when they could difeern every danger, or whether they ffiould endeavour to retire f cretly in the night. The latter was preferred, partly from hopes that the fuperftition of the Mexicans would prevent them from attacking them in the night, and partly from their own fuperftition in giving credit to the predictions of a private, foldier, who pretended to aftrology, and affured them of fuccefs if they retreated in this manner. Towards midnight, therefore, they began their march, in three divifions. Sandoval led the van ; Pedco Alva¬ rado and Veles Guez de Lean had the condudl of the rear; and Cortes commanded in the centre, where he placed the prifoners, among whom were a fon and two daughters of Montezuma, "together with feveral Mexicans of diftimftion ; the artillery, baggage, and a portable bridge of timber intended to be laid .over the breaches in the caufeway. They marched in profound filence along the caufeway which led to Tacuba, becaufe it was Ihorter than any of the reft, and, lying moft remote from the road towards Tlafcala and the fea-coaft, had been left rnoft entire^by the Mexicans. They reached the lirft breach in the caufeway with- 4? out moleftation, hoping that their retreat was undif- ^°^'sw7th covered. But the Mexicans had not only watched all gre^i™fs. their motions, but made preparations for a mpft for-& midable attack. While the Spaniards were intent up¬ on placing their bridges in the breach, and occupied in conducing their horfes and artillery along it, they were fuddenly alarmed with the found of warlike in- ftrqments, and found themfelves affaulted on all fides by an innumerable multitude of enemies. Unfortu¬ nately the wooden bridge was wedged fo faft in the mud by the weight of thp artillery, that it was impof- fible to remove it. Difmayed at this accident, the Spaniards advanced with precipitation to the fecond breach. /.The Mexicans hemmed them in on every fide ; aifd though they defended themfelves with their ufual courage, yet, crowded as they were in a narrow caufeway, their difeipline and military Ikiil were of little avail; nor did the obfeurity of the night allow them to derive much advantage from their fire-arms or the fuperiority of their other weapons. At laft the Spaniards, overborne with the numbers of their ene¬ mies, began to give way, and in a moment the confufion was univerfal. Cortes, with about too foot-foldiers, and a few horfe, forced his way over the two remain¬ ing breaches in the caufeway, the bodies of the dead ferving to fill up the chafms, and reached the main land. Having formed them as fpon as they arrived, he returned with fuch as were yet capable of fervice, to affift his friends in their retreat. He met with part of his foldiers who had forced their way through the enemy, but found many more overwhelmed by the multitude of their aggreffors, or perilhing in the lake; and heard the grievous lamentations of others whom the Mexicans were carrying off in triumph, to be fa- crificed to the god of war. In this fatal retreat more than one half of Cortes’s army periffied, together with many officers of diftinc- tion. All the artillery, ammunition, and baggage were - M E X [ 4979 ] M E X Mexico were loft ; the greater part of the horfes and above r 2000 Tlafealans were killed, and only a very fmall part of their treafure faved. The firft care of the Spanifti general was to find fo«ne Ihelter for his wearied troops; for, as the Mexicans infefted them on every fide, and the people of Tacuba began to take arms, he could not continue in his prefent ftation. At :]aft he difco- vered a temple feated on an eminence, in which he found not only the ftrelter he wanted, but fome provi- fions ; and though the enemy did not intermit their attacks throughout the day, they were without much I difficulty prevented from making any imprtffion. For fix days after, they continued their march through a barren, ill-cultivated, and thinly:peopled country, where they were often obliged to feed on berries, roots, and the (talks of green maize; at the fame time they were harafled without intermiffion by large parties of Mexicans, who attacked them on all fides. On the fixth day they reached Otumba, not far from the road between Mexico and Tlafcala. Early next morning they began to advance towards it, flying parties of the enemy (till hanging on their rear; and amidft the in- fults with which they accompanied their hoftilities, Donna Marina remarked, that they often exclaimed with exultation, “ Go on, robbers; go to the place where you (hall quickly meet the vengeance due to your crimes.” The meaning of this threat the Spa¬ niards did not comprehend, until they reached the fum- mit of an eminence before them. There a fpacious valley opened to their view, covered with a vaft army as far as the eye could reach. The Mexicans, while with one body of their troops they hara(fed*the Spa¬ niards in their retreat, had affembled their principal 45 force on the other fide of the lake ; and marching I •'phe battle a^ong the road which led dire&ly to Tlafcala, potted ft Otumba.it in the plain of Otumba, through which they knew Cortes mutt pafs. At the fight of this incredible mul¬ titude, which they could furvey at once from the rifing ground, the Spaniards were aftonifhed, and even the boldeft began to defpair. But Cortes, without allow¬ ing their fears time to operate, after warning them briefly that no alternative remained but to conquer or die, led them inftantly to the charge. The Mexi¬ cans waited their approach with unufual fortitude : if, . yet, fuch was the fuperiority of the Spaniffi difcipline and arms, that the impreffion of this fmall body was irrefiftible ; and which ever way its force was dire&ed, it penetrated and difperfed the moft numerous batta¬ lions. But while thefe gave way in one quarter, new combatants advanced from another; and the Spa¬ niards, though fuccefsful in every attack, were ready to fink under thefe repeated efforts, without feeing any end to their toil, or any hope of vi&ory. At that time Cortes obferved the great ftandard of the empire, which was carried before the Mexican general, advan¬ cing ; and fortunately recollecting to have heard, that on the fate of it depended the event of every battle, he affembled a few of his braveft officers, whofe horfes were (till capable of fervice, and, placing himfelf at their head, puttied towards the ftandard with fuch im- petuofity that he bore down every thing before him. A chofen body of nobles, who guarded the ftandard, made fome refiftance, but were foon broken. Cortes, with a ftroke of his lance, wounded the Mexican ge¬ neral, aad threw him to the ground. One of his fol¬ lowers alighting, put an end to his life, and laid hold Mexico* of the imperial ftandard. The moment that their leader fell, and the (landard, towards which all diredfed their Me,xjcans eyes, difappeared, an univerfal panic (truck the Mexi-defeated, cans; and, as if the bond which held them together had been diffolved, every enfign was lowered, each foldier threw away his weapons, and fled with preci¬ pitation to tile mountains. The Spaniards, unable to purfue them far, returned to collect the fpoils of. the field ; and thefe were fo valuable as to be fome com- penfation for the wealth which they bad loft in Mexi¬ co ; for in the enemy’s army were moft of their prin¬ cipal warriors dreffed out in their richeft ornaments, as if they had been marching to affured victory. The day after this important aftion, (being July 8th 1520), the Spaniards entered the Tlafcalan terri¬ tories, where they were received with the moft cordial friendftiip. Cortes endeavoured to avail hlmfe’fof this difpofition as much as poffible ; for which purpofe he diftributed among them the rich fpoiis taken at Otum¬ ba with fuch a liberal hand, that he made himfelf fure of obtaining from the republic whatever he (hould de¬ fire. He drew a fmall fupply of ammunition, and two or three field-pieces from his (lores at Vera Cruz. He difpatched an officer of confidence with four (hips of Narvaez’s fleet to Hifpaniola and Jamaica,, to en¬ gage adventurers, and to purchafe horfes, gunpowder, and other military (lores. And, as he knew that it would be in vain to attempt the reduftion of Mexico, unlefs he could fecure the command of the lake, he gave orders to prepare, in the mountains of Tlafcala, materials for building 12 brigantines, fo that they might be carried thither in pieces, ready to be put to¬ gether, and launched when he flood in need of their fervice. But, in the mean time, his foldiers, alarmed at the thoughts of being expofed to fuch calamities a fecond time, prefented a remonftrance to their general, in which they reprefented the imprudence of attack¬ ing a powerful empire with his (battered forces, and formally required him to return back to Cuba. All the eloquence of Cortes could now only prevail with them to delay their departure for fome time, when he promifed to difmifs fuch as (hould define it. How¬ ever, this was only a pretence; for Cortes, in fadl, had the conqueft of Mexico as much at heart as ever. Without giving his foldiers an opportunity of cabal¬ ling, therefore, he daily employed them againft the people of the neighbouring provinces, who had cut off fome detachments of Spaniards during his misfortunes at Mexico; and by which, as he was conftantly at¬ tended with fuccefs, his men foon reffimed their wont¬ ed fenfe of fupCriority. 49, But all the efforts of Cortes could have been of little Cortes re¬ avail, had he not unexpectedly obtained a reinforcement C£ives of Spanifti foldiers.. The governor of Cuba, to whom^]^*cef the fuccefs of Narvaez appeared an event of infallible mept. certainty, having fent two fmall (hips after him with new inftruflions, and a fupply of men and military (lores, the officer whom Cortes had appointed to com¬ mand on the coaft, artfully decoyed them into the harbour of Vera Cruz, feized the veffels, and eafily perfuaded the foldiers to follow the ftandard of a more able leader than him whom they were deftined to join. Soon after, three (hips of more confiderable force came into the harbour feparately. Thefe belonged to M E X [ 4980 ] M E X MfK'1C0- an armament fitted out by JYancifco de Garay, gover¬ nor of Jamaica, who had long aimed at dividing with Cortes the glory and gain of annexing the empire of Mexico to the crown of Caftile. They had, however, unadvifedly made their attempt on the northern pro¬ vinces, where the country was poor, and the inhabitants fierce and warlike; fo that, after a fucceffion of dif- afters, they were now obliged to venture into Vera Cruz, and call themfelves upon the mercy of their countrymen; and here they alfo were foon perfuaded to throw ofF their allegiance to their mailer, and to enliil with Cortes. About the fame time a ihip arrived from Spain, freighted by fome private adventurers, with military (lores ; and the cargo was eagerly pur- chafed by Cortes, while the crew, following the ex¬ ample of the reft, joined him at Tlafcala. From thefe various quarters, the army of Cortes was augmented with 180 men, and 20 horfes ; by which means he was enabled to difmifs fuch of the fol- diers of Narvaez as were mod troublefome and difcon- tented; after the departure of whom, he dill mufter- ed 550 infantry, of whom 80 were armed with muf- 4!) kets or crofs-bows, 40 horfemen, and nine pieces of He fets out artillery. At the head of thefe, with r0,000 Tlafca- again for jans anc] other friendly Indians, he began his march v towards Mexico, on the 28th of December, fix months after his fatal retreat from that city. The Mexicans, in the mean time, had made thebeft preparations they could for oppofing fuch a formidable enemy. On the death of Montezuma, his brother Quetlavaca was raifed to the throne; and he had an immediate opportunity of (hewing that he was worthy of their choice, by conducing in perfon thofe .fierce J0 attacks which obliged the Spaniards to retire from his Prepara- capital. His prudence in guarding againtt the return lions of the 0f tfje invaders was equal to the fpirit he had (hewn in fbrhieir* ^em out. He repaired what the Spaniards defence. l'u'fied in the city, llrengthened it with fuch for- tifications as his people could erefl; and befides fill¬ ing his magazines with the ufual weapons of war, gave direilions to make long fpears, headed with the iwords and daggers which they had taken from the Spaniards, in order to annoy the cavalry. But in the raidft of thefe preparations he was taken off by the fmall-pox; andGuatimozin, his nephew andfon-in-law, raifed to the throne. As foon as Cortes entered the enemy’s territories, he difeovered various preparations to obftruft his pro- grtfs. But Iris troops forced their way with little dif¬ ficulty ; and took poffeffion of Tezenco, the fecond city of the empire, fituated on the banks of the lake, about 20 miles from Mexico. Here he determined to eftablifti his head-quarters, as the mod proper ttation for lanching his brigantines, as well as for making his approaches to the capital. In order to render his^e- fidence there more fecure, he depofed the cazique or chief, who was at the head of that community, under pretence of fome defeft in his title, and fubftituted in his place a perfon whom a fadlion of the nobles pointed out as the right heir of that dignity. Attached to him by this benefit, the newcazique and his adherents fer- ved the Spaniards with inviolable fidelity. As the conftrudlion of the brigantines advanced flowly under the unflulful hands of foldiers and In- ffians, whom Cones was obliged to employ in aflifting three or four carpenters who happened fortunately to Mexico, be in his ferviee, and as he had not yet received the 1 reinforcement which he expelled from Hifpaniola, he was not in a condition to turn hie arms diredlly againft the capital. To have attacked a city fo populous, fo well prepared for defence, and in a fituation of Inch peculiar ftrength, muft have expofed his troops to ine¬ vitable deftruclion. Three months'elapfed before the materials for conftrufting the brigantines were finifh- ed, and before he heard any thing with refpedt to the fuccefs of his negotiation in Hifpaniola. This, how- st ever, was not a feafon of inaftion to Cortes. He at- Cortes tacked fucceffively feveral of the towns fituated around makes the lake ; and though all the Mexican power was ex-.j^^ pi<> erted to obftruA his operations, he either compelleds them to fubmit to the Spanifh crown, or reduced them to ruins. Other towns he endeavoured to con¬ ciliate by more gentle means; and though he could not hold any intercourfe with the inhabitants but by the intervention of interpreters, yet, under all the dis¬ advantage of that tedious and imperfeft mode of com¬ munication, he had acquired filch thorough knowledge of the (late of the country, as well as of the difpofitions of the people, that he conduced his negotiations and intrigues with aftonilhing dexterity and fuccefs. Mod of the cities adjacent to Mexico were originally the capitals of fmall independent dates; and (ottfe of them having been but latciy annexed to the Mexican empire, dill retained the remembrance of their ancient liberty, and bore with impatience the rigorous yoke of their new mafters. Cortes having early obferved fymptoms of their d#affe6lion, availed himfelf of this knowledge to gain their confidence and friendfhip. By offering with confidence to deliver them from the odious do¬ minion of the Mexicans, and by liberal promifes of more indulgent treatment if they would unite with him againft their oppreffors, he prevailed on the peo¬ ple of feveral" conliderable diftrifls, not only to ac¬ knowledge the king of Cadile as their fovereign, but to fupply the Spanidi camp with provifions, and to ftrerrgthen his army with auxiliary troops. Guatimo- zin, on the firft appearance of defection among his fubjeCls, exerted himfelf with vigour to prevent or to punilh their revolt; but, in fpite of his efforts, the fpi- rit continued to fpread. The Spaniards gradually ac¬ quired new allies; and with deep concern he beheld Cortes arming againft his empire thofe very hands which ought to have been a&ive in His defence, and ready to advance againft the capital at the head of a numerous body of his own fubjetffs. While, by thofe various methods, Cortes was gra¬ dually circumfcribing the Mexican power within fitch narrow limits that his profpedl of overturning it feemed neither to be uncertain nor remote, all his fchemes were well nigh defeated by a confpiracy againft his own perfon, and which was difeovered only a (hort time before it was to have been executed. Though many, were concerned, Cortes did not think proper to punilh any more than the principal ringleader, whom he caufed immediately to be hanged; and then, without allowing them leifure to ruminate on what had hap¬ pened, and as the mod effectual means of preventing the return of a mutinous fpirit, he determined to call forth his troops immediately to a&ion. Fortunately, a proper occafion for this occurred, without his feeming to M E X [ 4981 ] M E X Mexico, to court it. He received intelligence, that the mate- ,1'' rials for building the brigantines were at length com¬ pletely hnifhed, and waited only for a body of Spa¬ niards to conduct them to Tezeuco. The command of this convoy, confiding of 200 foot-foldiers, 15 horfemen, and 2 field-pieces, he gave to Sandoval, who, by the vigilance, a&.ivity, and courage, which he manifefted on every occafion, was growing daily in. his confidence, and in the edimation of his fellow- foldiers. The fervice was no lefs fingular than im¬ portant; the beams, the planks, the mads, the cor¬ dage, the fails, the irpn-work, and all the infinite va¬ riety of articles requifite for the condru&ion of 13 bri¬ gantines, were to be carried 60 miles over land, thro’ a mountainous country, by people who were unac¬ quainted with the minidry of domedic animals, or the aid of machines to facilitate any work of labour. The Tlafcalans furniflied 8000 Tavieneji an inferior order of men dedined for fervile talks, to carry the mate¬ rials on their (houlders, and appointed 15,000 war¬ riors to accompany and defend them. Sandoval made the difpofition for their progrefs with great propriety, placing the Tamenes in the centre, one body of war¬ riors in the front, another in the rear, with confider- able parties to cover the flanks. To each of thefe he joined fome Spaniards, not only to affid them in dan¬ ger, but to accudom them to regularity and fubordi- nation. Parties of Mexicans frequently appeared ho- ; vering around them on the high grounds: but percei¬ ving no profpeft of fuccefs in attacking an enemy con¬ tinually on his guard, and prepared to receive them, they did not venture to moled him; and Sandoval had the glory of conducing fafely to Tezeuco, "a convoy on which all the future operations of hia countrymen depended. tie Spa- This was followed by another event of no lefs mo- j jnds re- ment. Four flu’ps arrived at Vera Cruz from Hifpa- 'lve a^0‘ niola, with 200 foldiers, 80 horfes, two battering can- rce-C1U* ■non> an^ a confiderable fupply of ammuniton and arms. £nt< Elevated with obferving that all his preparatory fchemes, either for recruiting his own army, or im¬ pairing the force of the enemy, had now produced their full etfedt, Cortes, impatient to begin the fiege in form, hadened the launching of the Frigantines. To facili¬ tate this, he had employed a vad number of Indians, for two months, in deepening the fmall rivulet which - runs by Tezeuco into the lake, and in forming it in¬ to a canal near two miles in length : and though the Mexicans, aware of his intentions, as well as of the ; danger which threatened them, endeavoured frequent¬ ly to interrupt the labourers, or to burn the brigan¬ tines, the work was at lad completed. On the 28th of April, all the Spanifh troops, together with auxiliary Indians, were drawn up on the banks of the canal ; and with extraordinary military pomp, heightened and | rendered more folemn by the celebration of the mod I facred rites of religion, the brigantines were launch¬ ed. As they fell down the canal in order, Father 01- medo blefled them, and gave* each its name. Every • ' eye followed them with wonder and hope, until they entered the lake, when they hoided their fails, and bore away, before the wind. A general fhout of joy was raifed; all admiring that bold inventive genius, which, by means fo extraordinary, that their fuccefs aimed exceeded belief, had acquired the command of a fleet, without the aid of which Mexico would have Mtxiro. continued to fet the Spanilh power and arms at de- fiance. f3 Cortes determined to attack the city from three dif- The city ferent quarters ; from Tezeuco on the ead fide of the lake, from Tacuba on the wed, and from Cuyocan to¬ wards the fouth. Thofe towns were fituated on the principal caufeways which led to the capital, and in¬ tended for their defence. He appointed Sandoval to command in the fird, Pedro de Alvarado in the fecond, and Chridoval de Olid in the thud ; allotting to each a numerous body of Indian auxiliaries, together with an equal divifion of Spaniards, who, by the jundtion of the troops from Hifpaniola, amounted now to 8& horfemen, and 818 fpot-foldiers; of whom 118 were armed with mufkets. or crofs bows. Their train of ar¬ tillery confided of three battering cannon, and 15 field- pieces. He referved for himfelf, as the dation of great- ed importance and danger, the condudf of the brigan ¬ tines, each armed with one of his fmall cannon, and manned with 25 Spaniards. As Alvarado and Olid proceeded towards the pods affigned them, they broke down the aquedu&s which the ingenuity of the Mexicans hadereded for convey¬ ing water into the capital, and, by the diftrefs to which this reduced the inhabitants, gave a beginning- to the calamities which they were dedined to fuller. Alvarado and Olid found the towns, of which they were ordered to take poffeffion, deferted by their in¬ habitants, who had fled for fafety to the capital, where Guatimozin had colle&edthe chief force of his empire, as there alone he could hope to make a fuccefsful band againd the formidable enemies who were approaching to affault him. The fird effort of the Mexicans was to dedroy the-p^e fleet of brigantines, the fatal effe&s of whofe opera- mauls ac¬ tions they forefaw and dreaded. Though the brigan- feat the .tines, after all the labour and merit of Cortes in form- Mexicans, ing them, were of inconfiderable bulk, rudely con- brudbed, and manned chiefly with landmen, hardly pof- the lake, feffed of fkill enough to condudd them, they mud have been obje&s of terror to a people unacquainted with any navigation but that of their lake, and poffeffed of no veffel larger than a canoe. Neceffity, however, ur¬ ged Guatimozin to hazard the attack; and hoping to fupply by numbers what he wanted in force, he affem- bled fuch a multitude of canoes as covered the face of the lake. They rowed on boldly to the charge, while the brigantines, retarded by a dead calm, could icarce- ly advance to meet them. But as the enemy drew near, a breeze fuddenly fprung up ; in a moment the fails were fpread, and the brigantines with irrefidible impetuofity broke their feeble opponents, overfet many canoes, and diffipated the whole armament with fucfi flaughter, as convinced the Mexicans, that the pro- refs of the Europeans iti knowledge and arts ren- ered their fuperiority greater on this new element than they had hitherto found it by land. From that time Cortes remained mader of the lake; and the brigantines not only preferved a communica¬ tion between the Spaniards in their different dations, though at confiderable didance from each other ; but were employed to cover the Caufeways on each fide, and keep off the canoes, when they attempted to an¬ noy the troops as they advanced towards the city. He formed- M E X [ 4982 ] M E X formed the brigantines in three divifions, allotting one to each ftation, with orders to fecond the operations of the officer who commanded there. / From all the three ftations he pufhed on the attack againft the city with equal vigour; but in a manner fo very different from that whereby fieges are conduced in regular war, as might appear no lefs improper than Angular to per- fons unacquainted with his fituation. Each morning his troops affaulted the barricades which the enemy had e- re&ed on the caufeways, forced their way over the trench¬ es which they had dug, and thro’ the canals where the bridges were broken down, and endeavoured to pene¬ trate into the heart of the city, in hopes of obtaining -fome decifive advantage, which might force the enemy to furrender, and terminate the war at once; but ■when the obftinate valour of the Mexicans rendered the efforts of the day ineffectual, the Spaniards retired in the evening to their former quarters. Thus their toil and danger were, in fome meafure, continually renew¬ ed ; the Mexicans repairing in the night what the Spa¬ niards had deftroyed through the day, and recovering the polls from which they had driven them. But ne- ceffity prefcribed this flow and untoward mode of ope¬ ration. The number of his troops Was fo'fmall, that Cortes durft not, with a handful of men, attempt to make a lodgtnent in a city where he might be fur- rounded and annoyed by fuch a multitude of enemies. The remembrance of what he had already fuffered by ■the ill-judged confidence with which he had ventured into fuch a dangerous fituation, was ftill frefh in his mind. The Spaniards, exhaufted with fatigue, were unable to guard the various polls which they daily gained ; and though their camp was filled with Indian auxiliaries, they durlt not devolve this charge upon them, becaufe they were fo little accuftomed to difci- pline, that na confidence could be placed in their vi¬ gilance. Befides this, Cortes was extremely felicitous to preferve the city as much as poffible from being de- -ftroyed, both as he deftined it to be the capital-of his conquelts, and wilhed that it might remain as a mo¬ nument of his glory. From all thefe confideratiohs, he adhered obftinately, for a month after the fiege was opened, to the fyftem which he had adopted. The Mexicans, in their own defence, difplayed valour which was hardly Inferior to that with which the Spa¬ niards attacked them. On land, on water, by ifight and by day, one furious conflidl fucceeded to another. Several Spaniards were killed, more wounded, and all were ready to fink under the toils of unintermitting fervice, which were rendered more intolerable by the injuries of the feafon, the periodical rains being now fet in with their ufual violence. Aftonifhed and difconcerted with the length and dif¬ ficulties of the fiege, Cortes determined to make one great effort to get poffeffiqn of the city before be re- linquifhed the plan which he had hitherto followed, and had recourfe to any other mode of attack. With this view, he fent inftru&ions to Alvarado and Sando¬ val to advance with their divifions to a general affault, and took the command in perfon of that polled on the caufeway of Ctiyocan. Animated by his prefence, and the expe&ation of fome decifive event, the Spaniards puflted forward with irrefiftible impetuofity. They broke thtough one barricade after another, forced their way over the ditches and canals, and having entered MexicaJ the city, gained ground inceffantly, in fpite of the mul- *j titude and ferocity of their opponents. Cortes, though delighted with the rapidity of his progrefs, did not forget that he might Hill find it neceffary to retreat; and in order to fecure it, appointed Julian de Alderete, a captain of chief note in the troops which he had re¬ ceived from Hifpaniola, to fill up the canals and gaps in the caufeway as the main body advanced. That of¬ ficer deeming it inglorious to be thus employed, while his companions were in the heat of action and the ca¬ reer of vi&ory, neglefted the important charge com¬ mitted to him, and hurried on inconfiderately to mingle with the combatants. The Mexicans, whofe military attention and flcill were daily improving, no foonerob- ferved this, than they carried an account of it to their monarch. Guatimozin inllantly difeerned the confequences of the error which the Spaniards had committed, and, with admirable prefence of mind, prepared to take ad¬ vantage of it. He commanded the troops polled in the front to flacken their efforts, in order to allure the Spaniards to pufh forward, while he difpatched a large body of chofen warriors through different ftreets, fome by land, and others by water, towards the great breach in the caufeway, which had been left open. On a fignal which he gave, the priefts in the great temple llruck the great drum confecrated to the god of war. No fooner did the Mexicans hear its dole¬ ful folemn found, calculated to infpire them with con¬ tempt of death and with enthufiaftic ardour, than they rufhed upon the enemy with frantic rage. The Spa¬ niards, unable to refill men urged on no lefs by reli¬ gious fury than hope of fuccefs, began to retire, at firfl leifurely, and with a good countenance; but as the enemy preffed on, and their own impatience to efcape increafed, the terror and confufion became fo general, that when they arrived at the gap in the caufeway, Spaniards and Tlafcalans, horfemen and in¬ fantry, plunged in promifeuoufly, while the Mexicans rulhed upon them fiercely from every fide, their light canoes carrying them through Ihoals which the bri¬ gantines could not approach. In vain did Cortes at- Cort*/rej tempt to Hop and rally his flying troops; fear render- puifajUil ed them regardlefs of his intreaties or commands, attack. " Finding all his endeavours to renew the combat fruit- lefs, his next care was to fave fome of thofe who had throyn themfelves fnto the water; but while thus em¬ ployed, with more attention to their fituation than to his own, fix Mexican captains fuddenly laid hold of him, and were hurrying him off in triumph ; andtho’ two of) his officers refeued Tim at the expence of their own lives, he received feveral dangerous wounds before he could break loofe. Above 60 Spaniards pe- rilhed in the rout; and what rendered the difafter more affli&ing, 40 of thefe fell alive into the hands of an enemy never known to Ihew mercy to a captive. The approach of night, though it delivered the de- je&ed Spaniards from the attacks of the enemy, ufher- ed in, what was hardly lefs grievous, the noife of their barbarous triumph, and of the horrid fellival with which they celebrated their vi&ory. Every quarter of the city was illuminated ; the great temple (hone with fuch peculiar fplendour, that the Spaniards could plainly M E X [ 4983 ] M E X Mexico, plainly fee the people in motion, and the priefts bufy in haftening the preparations for the death of the pri- foners. Through the gloom they fancied that they difcerned their companions by the whitenefs of their fkins, as they were (tripped naked and compelled to dance before the image of the god to whom they were to be offered. They heard the (hrieks of thofe who were facrificed, and thottght they could diftinguifh each unhappy vidtim by the well-known found of his voice. Imagination added to what they really faw or heard, and augmented its horror. The moft unfeeling melted into tears of compaflion, and the ftouteft heart trem¬ bled at the dreadful fpe&acle which they beheld. Cortes, who, befides all that he felt in common with his foldiers, was opprefled with the additional load of anxious refledtions natural to a general on fuch, an un- expedled calamity, could not like them relieve his mind by giving vent to its anguifh. He was obliged to af- fume an air of tranquillity in order to revive the fpirits jS _ and hopes of his followers. The jundture, indeed, re- The Mex'-quired an extraordinary exertion of fortitude. The the^uaclT Mexicans, elated with their vidtory, fallied out next with great morning to attack him in hfs quarters. But they did fury. not rely on the efforts of their own arms alone. They fent the heads of the Spaniards whom they had facri¬ ficed to the leading men in the adjacent provinces, and affured them that the god of war, appeafed by the blood of their invaders, which had been (lied fo plentifully on his altars, had declared with an audible voice, that in eight days time thofe hated enemies (hould be final¬ ly deflroyed, and peace and profperity re-eflablifhed in the empire. A predi&ion, uttered with fuch confidence, and in terms fo void of ambiguity, gained univerfal credit among a people prone to fuperftition. The zeal of the provinces which had already declared againft the Spaniards augmented, and feveral which had hitherto remained inactive took arms with enthufiaftic ardour to execute the decrees of the gods. The Indian auxi¬ liaries who had joined Cortes, accuftomed to venerate I the fame deities with the Mexicans, and to receive the refponfes of their priefts with the fame implicit faith, abandoned the Spaniards as a race of men devoted to certain deftru&ion. Even the fidelity of -the Tlafca- lans was fhaken, and the Spanifh troops were left al- moft alone in their ftations. Cortes finding that he at¬ tempted in vain to difpel the fuperftitious fears of his confederates by argument, took advantage from the imprudence of thofe who had framed the prophecy in fixing its accomplifhment fo near at hand, to give them a finking demdnftration of hisfalfity. He fufpend- ed all military operations during the period marked out by the oracle. Undercover of the brigantines, which kept the army at a diflanee, his troops lay in fafety, and the fatal term expired without any difafter. His allies, afhamed of their own credulity, returned to their ftation. Other tribes, judging that the gods, who had now deceived the Mexicans, had decreed fi¬ nally to withdraw their protection from them, joined A his ftandard ; and fuch was the levity of a fimple ■fortes ad* people, moved by every flight impreffion, that, in a i ^tious11316 ^011 t'me a^ler a general defection of his confe- vethod of derates, Cortes faw himfelf, if we may believe his own i oceeding. account, at the head of 150,000 Indians. Even with fuch a numerous army, he found it neceffary to adopt I Vo*. VII. 1 a new and more wary fyflem of operation. IhSead of Mexico, renewing his attempts to become mafter of the city at ~ once, by fuch bold -but dangerous efforts of valour as he had already tried, he made his advances gradually, and with every poflible precaution againft expofing his men to any calamity fimilar'to that which they (till bewailed. As the Spaniards puflied forward, the In¬ dians regularly repaired the caufeways behind them. As foon as they got pofleflion of any part of the town, the houfes were inllantly levelled with the ground. Day by day, the Mexicans, forced to retire as their ene¬ mies gained ground, were hemmed in within more narrow limits. Guatimozin, though unable to flop the career of the enemy, continued to defend his capi¬ tal with obftinate refolution, and difputed every inch of ground. But the Spaniards, having not only va¬ ried their moHe of attack, but, by orders of Cortes, having changed the weapons with which they fought, were again armed with the long Chinantlan fpears, which they had employed with inch fuccefs agaihft Narvaez; and, by the firm array in which this en¬ abled them to range themfelves, they repelled, with little danger, the loofe affault of the Mexicans: in¬ credible numbers of them fell in the conflidls, which they renewed every day. While war wafted without, famine began to confume them within the city. The Spanifh brigantines, having the entire command of the lake, rendered it impoflible to receive any fupply of provifions by water. The vaft number of his Indian auxiliaries enabled Cortes to (hut up the avenues to the city by land. The ftores which Guatimozin had laid up were exhaufted by the multitudes which crowd¬ ed into the capital, to defend their fovereign and the temples of their gods. Not only the people, but per- fons of the higheft rank, felt the utmoft diftreffes of want. What they fuffered brought on infectious and mortal diftempers, the laft calamity that vifits be- fieged cities, and which filled up the meafure of their woes. _ Ss But, under the preffure of fo many and fuch various Guatimo&in evils, the fpirit of Guatimozin remained firm and un-J.efafe.s to fubdued. He rejefted with fcorn every overture of^“ peace from Cortes; and, difdaining the idea of fubmit- y ting to thS oppreffors of his country, determined not to furvive its ruin. The Spaniards continued their progrefs. At length all the three divifions penetrated into the great fquare in the centre of the city, and made a fecure lodgment there. Three-fourths of the city were now reduced, and laid in ruins. The re¬ maining quarter was fo clofely prefled, that it could not long withftand aflailants who attacked it from their new ftation with fuperior advantage, and more affured expectation of fuccefs. The Mexican nobles, foli- citous to fave the life of a .monarch wdiom they reve¬ red, prevailed on Guatimozin to retire from a place where refiftance wras now vain, that he might roufethe more diftant provinces of the empire to arms, and maintain there a more fuccefsful ftruggle with the pub¬ lic enemy. In order to facilitate the execution of this meafure, they endeavoured to amufe Cortes with over¬ tures of fubmiflion, that, while his attention was em¬ ployed in adjufting the articles of pacification, Gua- timozin might efcape unperceived. But they made this attempt upon a leader of greater fagacity and difcefn- ment than to be deceived by their arts. Cortes fufpec- 28 E ting M E X Mexico, ting their intention, and aware of what moment it was to defeat it, appointed Sandoval, the officer on whofe vigilance he could moll perfectly rely, to take the command of the brigantines, with drift injunftions to watch every motion of the enemy. Sandoval, atten¬ tive to the charge, obferving feme large canoes crowd¬ ed with people rowing |long the lake with extraordi¬ nary rapidity, inftantly gave the fignal to chace. Gracia Holguin, who commanded the fleeted brigan¬ tine, foon overtook them, and was preparing to fire on the foremod canoe, which feemed to carry fome perfon whom all the red followed and obeyed. At once the rowers dropt their oars, and all on board, 59 throwing down their arms, conjured him with cries ^rifoner^"atH tears to forbear, as the emperor was there. Hoi- [ 49S4 ] M E X guin eagerly feized his prize ; and Guatimozin, with a dignified compofure, gave himfelf up into his hands, requeding only that no infult might be offered to the emprefs or his children. When condufted to Cortes, he appeared neither with the fullen fiercenefs of a bar¬ barian, nor with the dejection of a fupplicant. “ I have done,” faid he, addrefling himfelf to the Spanilh general, “ what became a monarch. I have defended my people to the lad extremity. Nothing now re¬ mains but to die. Take this dagger,” laying his hand on one which Cortes wore, “ plant it in my bread, and put an end to a life which can no longer be of ufe.” As foon as the fate of their fovereign was known, the refidance of the Mexicans ceafed ; and Cortes took podefiion of that fmall part of the capital which yet remained undedroyed. Thus terminated the fiege of thofe fanguine hopes which had animated them amidft Mexicn, fo many hardfliips and dangers. Indead of the inex- — haudible wealth which they expefted from becoming maders of Montezuma’s treafures, and the ornaments of fo many temples, their rapacioufnefs could colleft only an inconfiderable booty amidd ruins and defola- tion (a). Guatimozin, aware of his impending fate, had ordered what remained of the riches amaffed by his ancedors to be thrown into the lake. The Indian auxiliaries, while the Spaniards were engaged in con- flift with the enemy, had carried off the mod valuable part of the fpoil. The fum to be divided among the conquerors was fo fmal!, that many of them difdained to accept of the pittance which fell to their (hare, and all murmured and exclaimed ; fome againd Cortes and his confidents, whom they fufpefted of having fe- cretly appropriated to their own ufe a large portion of the riches which Ihould have been brought into the common dock; others againd Guatimozin, whom they accufed of obdinacy, in refufing to difeover the place where he had hidden his treafure. Arguments, intreaties, and promifes, were em¬ ployed in order to foothe them; but with fo little ef- feft, that Cortes, from folicitude to check this grow¬ ing fpirit of difeontent, gave way to a deed which dained the glory of all his great aftions. Without s Bartholo¬ mew de las Cas takes their part. however, the real caufe, the principal fource of the depopulation of Mexico; it was the work of a flow tyranny, and of that avarice which exacted from its wretched inhabitants more rigorous toil than was com¬ patible with their conftitution and the climate. This oppreffion was coeval with the concpieft of the country. All the lands were divided between the crown, the companions of Cortes, and the grandees or miniiterS who were nioft in favour at the court of Spain. The Mexicans, appointed to the royal do¬ mains, were deftined to public labours, which origi¬ nally were confiderable. The lot of thofe who were employed on the eftates of individuals was dill more wretched. All groaned under a dreadful yoke; they were ill-fed; they had no wages given them; and fervices were required of them, under which the moft robuft men would have funk. 1 heir misfor¬ tunes excited the compafiion of Bartholomew de las C'sfss# This man, fo famous in the annals of the new world, had accompanied his father in the firft voyage made by Columbus. The mildnefs and fimplicity of the Indians affefted him fo ftrongly, that he made himfelf an ecclefiallic, in order to devote his labours to their converfion. But this foon became the lead of his attentions. As he was more a man than a prieji, he felt more for the cruelties exercifed againft them than for their fuperftitions. He was conti¬ nually hurrying from one hemifphere to the other, in order to comfort the people for whom he had co0- ceived an attachment, or to foften their tyrants. This conduft, which made him be idolized by the one, and dreaded by the other, had not the fuccefs he expeded. The hope of ftriking awe, by a charaaer revered among the Spaniards, determined him to accept the bifhopric of Chiapa in Mexico. When he was con¬ vinced that this dignity was an infufficient barrier againft that avarice and cruelty which he endeavoured to check, he abdicated it. It was then that this courageous, firm, difinterefted man, accufed his coun¬ try before the tribunal of the whole univerfe. In his account of the tyranny of the Spaniards in America, he accufes them of having deftroyed 15,000,000 of Indians. They ventured to find fault with the acri¬ mony of his ftyle; but no one convifted him of exaggeration. His writings, which indicate the ami¬ able turn of his difpofition, and the fublimity of his fentiments, have ftamped a difgrace upon his barba¬ rous countrymen, w’hich time hath not, and never will, The court of Madrid, awakened by the reprefenta- tions of the virtuous Las Cafas, and by the indigna 6f which is a kind of window; between this and the wall of the building is a very deep fpace, of near 100 feet perpendicular, at the bottom of which is another window opening to the fea. It is called the Hole of T/lontgomeri; and the hiftory of it is as follows: In the year 1559, Henry II. king of France was unfor¬ tunately killed at a tournament by the count de Mont- ISeeFnjKcr, gomeri J. He was a Huguenot; and having efcaped o0 80. the mafiacre of Paris, made head againft the royal forces in Normandy, fupported by queen Elizabeth with arms and money. Being driven from his fortreffes in thefe parts, he retired to a rock called the Tombe- labie. This is another fimilar to Mount Michael; only three quarters'of a league from it, and of nearly equal dimenfions. At that time there was a caftle upon it, which hath fince been demolilhed, arid of whichfcarce any veftiges now remain. From this fortrefs, accef- Cble only at low-water, he continually made excurfions, and annoyed the enemy, who never dared to attack him. He coined money, laid all the adjacent country under contribution, and rendered himfelf univerfally dreaded. Defirous, however, to furprife Mount Mi¬ chael, he found means to engage one of the monks re- fjdent in the abbey; who promifed to give him the fig- nal for his enterprife by difplaying a handkerchief. The monk having made the fignal, betrayed him, and armed all his aflbeiates, who waited Montgomeri’s ar¬ rival. The chieftain came, attended by 50 chofen fol- diers, all defperate, and capable of any attempt. They croffed the fand.; and having placed their fcaling-ladr ders, mounted one by one. As they came to the top, they were difpatched, each in turn, without noife. Montgomeri, who followed laft, difeovered the per¬ fidy, and efcaped with only two of his men, with whom Michael, he regained the Tombelaine. They preferve with great care the ladders and grappling irons ufed on this oc- cafion. The count was at laft befieged and taken pri- foner, by the mareftial deMatignon, in 1574,31 Dom- front in Normandy; and Catharine de Medicis, who hated him for having been, though innocently, the caufe of her hufband’s death, caufed him to be imme¬ diately executed. The church of Mount Michael is a great curiofity. It Hands on nine pillars of moft enormous dimenfions, built on the folid rock. Each of them appear to be about 25 feet in circumference: befides thefe, there are two others much inferior in fize, on which the centre of the church refts, and over which is the tower. The following is the legendary account of the origin of this church: In the reign of Childebert II. there was a bilhop of Avranches named St Hubert. To this holy man the archangel Michael was pleafed to appear one night, and ordered him to go to this rock to build a church. St Aubert treated this as a dream; upon which the angel appeared a fecond time; and being ftill difobeyed, he returned a third time; when, by way of imprinting his command upon the faint’s memory, he made a hole in his Ikull, by touching it with his thumb. The Ikull is ftill preferved in the treafury of the church. It is inclofed in a little ftirine of gold, and a cryftal, which opens over the orifice, admits the gratification of curiofity by the minuteft examination of it. The hole is of a fize and fhape proportionable to the thumb faid to have produced it; but it is impoffible to deter¬ mine whether it has been really made by a knife, or any other way. It is not to be fuppofed that the faint would forget fuch a fenfible mark of the angel’s dif- pleafure ; he therefore immediately repaired to the rock, and conftrufted*a fmall church, as he had been commanded. Here, however, true hiftory fupplies the place of fable ; and informs us, that it was in 966 when Richard the fecond duke of Normandy began to build the abbey. It was completed about the year 1070, under William the Conqueror, though many other additions were made by fucceeding abbots. In the treafury of the church are innumerable other relics; among which fome few have a real and intrin- fic value. There is a fine head of Charles VI. of France, cut in a cryftal, and the reprefentation of acockle-fhell in gold, weighing many pounds, given by Richard II. duke of Normandy when he founded the abbey. There is an arm faid to belong to St Richard king of Eng¬ land; but who this faint was, muft be very difficult to' determine. MICHAELMAS, or Feajl of St Michael and all Angels, a feftival of the Chriftian church, obferved on the 29th of September. The Scripture account of Michael is, That he was an archangel, who prefided over the Jewilh nation, as other angels did over the Gentile world, as is evident of the kingdoms of Perlia and Greece; that he had an army of angels under his command ; that he fought with the Dragon, or Satan and his angels; and that, contending with the devil, he difputed about the body of Mofes. As to the combat between Michael and the Dra¬ gon, fome authors underftand it literally, and think it means the expulfion of certain rebellious angels, with their MIC [ 4991 ] MIC Miciocofm their head or leader, from the prefeirceof God. Others ' II take it io a figurative fenfe; and refer it, either to the icrcmeter conteft happened at Rome between St Peter and Simon Magus, in which the apoftle prevailed over the magician ; or to thofe violent perfecutions, under which the church laboured for 300 years, and which happily ceafed when the powers of the world became Chri- flian. The conteft about the body of Mofes is likewife taken both literally and figuratively. Thofe who un¬ derhand it literally, are of opinion, that Michael, by the order of God, hid the body of Mofes after his death, and that the devil endeavoured to difcover it, as a fit means to entice the people to idolatry by a fu- perflitious worfhip of his relics. But this difpute is figuratively underftood to be a controverfy about re¬ building the temple, and reftoring the fervice of God among the Jews at Jerofalem, the Jewifh church being fitly enough ftyled the body of Mofes. It is thought by fome, that this ftory of the conteft between Michael and the devil was taken by St Jude out of an apocry¬ phal book, called the AJfumption of Mofes. MICROCOSM, a Greek term ftgnifying the little ‘world; ufed by fome for man, as being fuppofed an epitome of the univerfe or great world. MICROGRAPHY, the defcription of objefts too minute to he viewed without the affiftance of a micro- fcope. See Microscopic Objefls. MICROMETER, an inftrument, by the help of which the apparent magnitudes of obje&s viewed thro’ telefeopes or microfcopes are meafured with great ex- aflnefs. The firft micrometers were only mechanical contri¬ vances for meafuring the image of an objedt in the fo¬ cus of the objedt-glafs. Before thefe contrivances were thought of, aftronomers were accuftomed to meafure the field of view in each of their telefcopes, by obfer- ving how much of the moon they could fee through it, the femidiameter being reckoned at 15 or 16 minutes; and other diftances were eftimated by the eye, compa¬ ring them with the field of view. Mr Gafcoigne, an Englifh gentleman, however, fell upon a much more exadl method, and had a treatife on Optics prepared for the prefs; but he was killed during the civil wars, in the fervice of Charles I. and his manufcript was ne¬ ver found. His inftrument, however, fell into the hands of Mr R. Townly, who fays, that by the help of it he could mark above 40,000 divifions in a foot. Mr Gafcoigne’s inftrument being fhewn to Dr Hook-e, he gave a drawing and defcription of it, and propofed feveral improvements in it, which may be feen in Phil. Tranf. abr. Vol. I. p. 217. Mr Gafcoigne divided the image of an objeft, in the focus of the ob- je&-glafs, by the approach of two pieces of metal, ground to a very fine edge, in the place of which Dr Hooke would fubftitute two fine hairs ftretched paral¬ lel to oiie another. Two other methods of Dr Hooke’s, different from this, are are deferibed in his Pofthumous Works, p. 497, 498. An account of feveral curious obfervations that Mr Gafcoigne made by the help of his micrometer, particularly in the menfuration of the diameters of the moon and other planets, may be feen in the Phil. Tranf. Vol. XLVIH. p. 190. Mr Huygens, as Appears by his Syftem of Saturn, publilhed in 1650, ufed to ineafure the apparent dia* Vol. VII, 2 meters of the planets, or any fmall angled by firft mea- Micfdmcie/ hiring the quantity of the field of view in his telefcope; which, he fays, is belt done by obferving the time which a ftar takes up in palling over it^ and then prepa¬ ring two or three long and flender brafs plates, of va¬ rious breadths, the fides of which were very ftraight, and converging to a fmall angle. In making ufe of thefe pieces of'brafs, he made them Hide in two flits, that were made in the fides of the tube, oppofite to the place of the image, and obferved in what place it juft covered' the diameter of any planet, or any fmall di- fiance that he wanted to meafure. It was obferved, however, by Sir Ifaac Newton, that the diameters of planets, meafured in this manner, will be larger than they fhoukl be, as all lucid objefts appear to be, when they are viewed upon dark ones. 1 In the’ Ephemerides of the Marquis of Malvafia, publilhed in 1662, it appears that he had a method of meafuring fmall diftances between fixed liars, and the diameters of the planets, and alfo of taking accurate draughts of the fpots of the moon ; and this was by a net of filver wire, fixed in the common focus of the ob* jedl and eyoglafs. He alfo contrived to make one of two liars to pafs along the threadsof this net, by turn¬ ing it, or the telefcope, as much as was neceffary fof that purpofe; and he counted, by a pendulum-clock, beating feconds, the time that elapfed in itS paflage from one wire to another, which gave him the numbjft- of the minutes and feconds of a degree contained be¬ tween the intervals of the wires of his net, with refpeft to the focal length of his telefcope. In 1666, Meffrs Auzout and Picard publilhed a de¬ fcription of a micrometer, which was nearly the fame with that of the Marquis of Malvafia, excepting the method of dividing it, which they performed with more exaflnefs by a ferew. In fome cafes they ufed threads of filk, as being finer than filver wires. Dechales alfo reconrtnends a micrometer confifting of fine wires, of filken threads, the diftances of which were exa&ly known, difpofed in the form of a net, as peculiarly convenient for taking a map of the moon. M. de la Hire fays, that there is no method fnore fimple or commodious for obferving the digits of aft eclipfe than a net in the focus of the telefcope. Thefe, he fays, were generally made of filken threads; and that for this particular purpofe fix concentric circles had alfo been made ufe of, drawn upon oiled paper; but he advifes to draw the circles on very thin pieces of glafs with the point of a diamond. He alfo gives feveral particular dire6t:ons to aflift perfons in the ufe of them. In another memoir he fhews a method of making ufe of the fame net for all eclipfes, by ufing a telefcope with two object-glaffes, and placing them at different diftances fiom one another. M. Cafiini invented a very ingenious method of afeer- taining the right afeenfions and declinations of liars, by fixing four crofs hairs in the focus of the telefcope, and turning it about its axis, fo as to make them move in a line parallel to one of them. The difficulty there was in accomplilhing this was entirely removed by a mechanical contrivance of Dr Bradley. M. Lewenhoek’s method of eftimating the fize of fmall objedls was by comparing them with grains of fand, of which 100 placed in a line took up an inch, Thefe grains he laid on the fame plate with his ob- 2*> F jeclst, MIC f 4992 ] M I C Micrometerje&s, and viewed them at the fame time. Dr Jurin’s __ fngjjjod was fimilar to this of M. Lewenhoek; for he found the diameter of a piece of fine filver-wire, by- wrapping it as clofe as he could about a pin, and ob- ferving how many rings made,an inch. For he ufed this wire in the fame manner as Lewenhoek ufed his fund. Mr Martin, in his Optics, recommends fuch a mi¬ crometer to a microfcope as had been applied to tele- fcopes; for he advifes to draw a number of parallel lines on a piece of glafs, with the fine point of a dia¬ mond, at the diftance of ^ of an inch from one ano¬ ther, and to place it in the focus of the eye-glafs. By this method Dr Smith contrived to take the exaft draught of obje&s viewed by a double microfcope. For he advifes to get a lattice, made with fmall fiiver wires or fmall fquares, drawn upon a plain glafs by the flrokes of a diamond, and to put it into the place of the image formed by the objeft-glafs. Then by tranf- ferring the parts of the objed, feen in the fquares of the glafs or lattice, upon fimilar correfponding fquares, drawn on paper, the pi&ure may beexa&ly taken. Mr Martin alfo introduced into compound mifcrofcopes another micrometer, confiding of a fcrew. Dr Hooke ufed to look upon the magnified objed with one eye, while, at the fame time, he viewed other objeds placed at the fame diftance with the other eye. In this manner he was able, by the help of a ruler, di¬ vided into inches and fmall parts, and laid on the pfe- deftal of the microfcope, to call, as it were, the mag¬ nified appearance of the obj.ed upon the ruler, and thereby exadly to meafure the diameter which it ap¬ peared to have through the glafs; which being compa¬ red with the diameter as it appeared to the naked eye, eafily (hewed the degree in which it was magnified. This, fays Mr Baker, is a ready and good method for many objeds; and he declares, from his own experi¬ ence, that a little pradice will render it exceedingly eafy and pleafant. We are obliged to Dr Hooke for an excellent me¬ thod of viewing the fun without injuring our eyes. For this purpofe he contrived that the rays (hould be refleded from one plane to another, till it was fo much weakened that the eye might receive it with great fafety and pleafure. This method is much preferable to that of looking at the fun through a fmoky or co¬ loured glafs, which gives it a red and difagreeable hue. Jdis difcourfe on this fubjed was read before the Royal Society June 28 1675. Thefe micrometers, however, have feveral confider- able defeds. In particular, it is not eafy to meafure with them objeds that are in motion, or thofe which are too large to come within the field of view; fo that the diameters of the fun and moon cannot well be mea- fured with them to any great degree of exadnefs. An¬ other method was found of meafuring the apparent magnitude of the objcd, free from the inconveniencies above mentioned, by means of a telefcope furnifhed with two objed-glaffes. This ingenious method was hit upon about the fame time both by Mr Servington Sauvery and the celebrated M. Bouguer. In this inftrument, both objed-glaffes are of equal focal diftance, and placed one of them by the fide of the othier;. fo that the fame eye-glafs may ferve for them both. By this means two diftind images of an objed Micrometer i are formed in the focus of the eye-glafs; and fince the' diftance of thefe images depends upon the diftance at which the two objed-glaffes are placed from one ano¬ ther, it may be meafured with great accuracy. Nor is it neceffary that the whole difc of the fun or moon come within the field of view; fince, if the images of a fmali part of the difc be formed by each objed-glafa, the whole diameter may eafily be computed, by their pofition with refped to one another. For if the ob- jed be large, the images will approach towards, or perhaps even ly over one another. And the objed- glaffes being moveable, the two images may always be brought exadly to touch one another, and the diame¬ ter may be computed from the known diftance of the centres of the two glaffes. Another advantage attending this inftrument is, that by having a common micrometer in the focus of the eye-glafs, when the two images of the fun or moon are made in part to cover one another, that part which is common to both the images may be meafured -with great exadnefs, as being viewed upon a ground that is only one half lefs luminous than itfelf; whereas, in general, the heavenly bodies are viewed upon a dark ground, and on that account are imagined to be lar¬ ger than they really are. By a fmall addition to this iaftrument, provided it be of a moderate length, M. Bouguer thought it very poftible to meafure angles of three or four degrees; which is of particular confe- quence in taking the diftance of ftars from the moon. Mr Sauvery’s paper containing a very particular defcription of his conftrudion of this inftrument was read at the Royal Society Odober 27. 1743, and M. Bouguer’s account of his inftrument which he called an heliometer is contained in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences for the year 1748, p. 15. A very great improvement was made in this kind of micrometer by Mr Dollond ; for, inftead of two complete objed-glaffes, he ufed only one, cut into two equal parts, one of them Aiding by the other. Each half of this objed-glafs will give a feparate and diftind image; and as the diftance at which their centres are placed from one another may be exadly afcertained, the fame ufes may be made of them as of two entire objed-glaffes, and the application of them is much more commodious. But the ground or reafon of this new micrometer, as applied to the refradory or refleding telefcope, may be illuftrated by figures, as follows r Let ABCD reprefent any very diftant objed, as the fun, &c. and AB its diameter; alfo let EFGS re Plate F clxxvJt prefent the objed-glafs confiding of two fegments®^ 7- EFG and ESG divided through the centre N in the right line EG. The angle under which, it appears at the end of the telefcope will be ANB equal to the angle KNL, under which the image KL is contained. Now, fuppofe the moveable fegment EFG were by a mechanical contrivance drawn off to the pofition HI, the diftance of their centres would be NO ; and the two lines AN and BO palling through the centres. N, O, of the fegments, if produced,, meet at the focus in L; and fince BL and BK do alfo pafs through the centres N and O, and the objed being at an in¬ definitely great diftance, the line OL will be parallel MIC [ 4993 J MIC Micrometer to NK, and confequently the angle NLO is equal-to —the angle KNL or ANB; that is to fay, the angle under ‘which the objett appears from the end of the tele- fcope (or to the naked eye), is equal to the angle under ‘which the diftance between the two centres of the feg- ments appear from the folar focus of the telefcope. And this will be the cafe in every diftance of an objed : for fuppofing the objed AB were at fome near dittance from the telefcopc, and fubtended the fame angle ANB, the only confequence would be, that its image would be formed at a greater diftance from the glafs, fuppofe at MP: it would ftill be con¬ tained under the fame angle MNP, equal to NLO, as before, upon the fuppofition that the fegment HI and BO produced meets AP in the point P; that is to fay, fuppofe that the fegment HI is in fuch pofition that the moveable image QJ?- formed by it, exadly coincides with the fixed image MP, farmed by the fegment ESG. Concerning this vitreous micrometer we may far¬ ther obferve, that its great excellency confifts in this, that it depends folely in meafuring the diftance of the centres of the two fegrnents, not only when applied alone at the end of a telefcope, but even in conjunc¬ tion with the objed-glafs of any common telefcope; p. 6 for, let £G and HI reprefent the two fegments, ' ’ as before, of a glafs whofe focal diftance is very long, fuppofe, for inftance, 50 feet; then, at a fmall diftance from it, let AB reprefent the objeft-glafs of a common long telefcope, whofe focal diftance of pa¬ rallel rays is C d, or its focus of very diftant objects elc. Then this glafs, combined with the foregoing fegments, will have its focus ftiortened, and the com¬ mon focus of both will be in point q. Then becaufe the triangles RGQ^and PNM are fimilar to the tri¬ angles rOq and N w refpe&ively; therefore the images RQjand PM will be fimilar, and alike pofited to the two fmall images r q and p m; and therefore when-thefe two images are in contaft in the focus of the femi-lenfes, they will likewife be in contadl in the fhortened compound focus. And as the centres N and O of the two femi-lenfes GE and IH are fepa- rated farther from, or brought nearer to, each other, the images in either focus will be moved in fimilar man¬ ner; and when the centres N and O coincide, the linages in each focus refpe&ively will alfo coincide, or become one entire image; the difference in every cafe being only as to large and fmall, greater or lefler di¬ ftance. Confequently, in the micrometer by which thofe two femi-lenfes are moved by each other, the fame turns of the fcrew which meafures the angle OPN, and which brings the images into an exact conta£l in the fingle focus at will be neceflary for the fame purpofe in the compound foCus alfo; fo that by this means we have an opportunity of meafuring the faid angle OPQ^ without being obliged to have fo great and fo unmanageable a length of the tele¬ fcope. However, the larger the focal diftance of the lens AB is, the more diftinft the contact of the images will appear ; and becaufe this is the point on which the whole perfection of this micrometer depends, it will be likewife neceflary to have it fo contrived, when applied to a telefcope, that the centres NO may be equally diftant from the axis of the telefcope or centre of the aperture on either fide; becaufe, in this cafe,Micrometer the point of contaft in the two images will be juft in the centre of the focus, and therefore the moft diftinCfc that it poflibly can be. But the application of this micrometer torefrafting telefcopes will be lefs convenient than when it is ap¬ plied to a reflecting telefcope; for if it be placed on the open end of the reflecting telefcope, then will the rays that tend to form the larger images RQ_and PM be incident upon the larger fpeculum Fig- 5- AB, and from thence reflecled to a compound focus, where the fimilar images rq and pm will be formed as before; the rays proceeding from thefe two images to the fmaller fpeculum a b, will be refle&ed back through the hole of the larger, to form the images QR and PM, which likewife will ftill be in contaCk in the focus of the eye-glafs DC, where it will be di- ftin&ly perceived by the eye at I. This contadl will likewife be ftiewn in the focus of the eye-glafs, if the centres O and N are properly difpofed, as before- mentioned. From what has been faid, the general rationale of this micrometer will evidently appear; but one thing muft not pafs unregarded in an affair of fuch moment and confequence as the meafuring thefe fmall angles in the faience of aftronomy. It has been cuftomary to fuppofe, that the focus of a lens, or the local diftance of rays parallel to its axis, is equal to the radius in a double and equally convex lens. But this is too great an error not to be noticed here ; for in different forts of glafs there is found a different re¬ fractive power, and the focus of parallel rays is at a different diftance in each; but this diftance in no fort of glafs is equal to the radius, but falls ffiort of it more or lefs. Now the foregoing demonftration re¬ gards the radius, and not the focal diftance of parallel rays. With regard to the planets, as Jupiter is the largeft: of all, and fubtends an angle to the eye of f 12", the diameter of his image in the focus of a 50 foot glafs will be about half an inch; and that will be the ut- moft diftance to which the centres of the fegments will be required to be feparated for meafuring the apparent diameters of the planets. But for a heliometer, the diameter of the fun, being near 10 times as great as that of Jupiter, will require the centres of the fegments in a glafs of 40 or 50 feet focus to be removed from each other at lea ft to the diftance of four or five inches; and to take in the whole fyftem of Jupiter’s moons, the diftance of the centres will be required much larger; and therefore, for fuch purpofes, the fegments of glaffes of a lefs focal length muft be ufed. But, valuable as the obje£f-glafs micrometer un¬ doubtedly is, fome difficulties have been found in the ufe of it, owing to the alterations in the focus of the eye, which are apt to caufe it to give dif¬ ferent meafures of the fame angle at different times. For inftance, in meafuring the fun’s diameter, the axes of the pencils of rays, which come through the two fegments of the objefl-glafs from contrary limbs of the fain, croffing one another at the focus of the tele-si fcope under an angle equal to that of the fun’s diame¬ ter, the union of the limbs of the two images of the fun cannot appear perfett unlefs the eye be difpofed to 28 F 2 fac MIC [ 4994 ] MIC Miescm^tcrJee-obje&s diftinflly wiich are placed at the point of interfeflion. But if the eye be difpofed to fee objefts diifinftlyj which are placed nearer the pbjedt-glafs than the interfe&ibn is, the two-limbs will appear fe- parated by tbe interval of the axes of the pencils in that place ; and if the eye be difpofed to fee objedfs di- flindtly, which are placed farther from the objeft-glafs than the interfe&ion is, the two limbs will appear to encroach upon each other by the diftartce of the axes of the pencils, after their croffing, taken at that place. Tig. x. To explain this, let OV reprefent the centres of the two femicircular glaffes of the objedf-glafs microme- meter, feparated to the distance OV from each other, fubtending the angle OaV, equal to the fun’s diame¬ ter, at the point a, which is the common focus of the two pencils of rays having Oa and \a for their axes, namely, thofe proceeding from contrary fides of the fun, and palling through the contrary femi-circles; and let d be the eye-glafs. It is evident, that if d be properly placed to give diftinft vifion of objefts placed at the point a, the rays Oa, Va, as well as all the other rays belonging to thofe pencils, will be colle&ed into one point upon the retina of the eye; and con- fequently, the two oppolite limbs of the two images of the fun will feem to coincide, and the two images of the fun to touch one another externally. But if the Hate of the eye Ihould alter, the place of the eye-glafs remaining the fame, the eye will be no longer difpofed to fee the image formed at the point a dittin&ly, but to fee an objeft placed at e/J nearer to or farther from the objeft-glafs diftindtly ; and therefore an image will be formed on the retina exa&ly fimilar to the fome- what confufed image formed by the rays on a plane perpendicular to their courfe at e/T Confequently, as the two cones of folar rays, bO a, cWa, formed by the two femi-circles, are feparated or encroach upon one another at this point of the axis by the diftance ef, the two images of the fun will not feem to touch one another externally, but to feparate or to encroach upon one another by the interval ef. The error here¬ by introduced into the meafure of the fun’s diameter will be the angle ?rf, fubtended by tf at r the middle point between O and V, which is to eafor OaW, the fun’s apparent diameter, as e e to e r, or even to ar, on account of the fmallnefs of «e with refpeft to a r. Thefe confiderations concerning the caufeof a prin¬ cipal error that has been found in the objeft-glafs mi¬ crometer led to an inquiry, whether fome method might not be found of producing two diftinft repie- fentations of the fun, or any other objeft, which (hould have the axes of the pencils of rays, by which they are formed, diverging from one and the fame point, or nearly fo: and it occurred to Mr-Maikelyne, that this might be done by the refraftion of a prifm placed to receive part of the rays proceeding from the objeft, ei¬ ther before or after their refraflion through the ob- jedl-glafs of a telefcope. If the prifm be placed with¬ out the objeft-glafs, the rays that are refra&ed thro’ it will make an angle with the rays that pafs befide it equal to the refraftion of the prifm ; and this angle will not be altered by the refraftion of the objed-glafs afterwards. Confequently, two images of an obje& vrill be reprefented, and the prifm fo applied will en¬ able us to mcafure the apparent diameter of any ob-MkHnncfcr jeft, or any other angular diftance which is equal to" " the refra&ion of the prifm. But if the prifm be pla¬ ced within theobjeft-glafs, that is to fay, between the obje6t-glafs and eye-glafs, the angle meafured by the inftrument will vary according to the diftance of the prifm from the focus of th^ objtd-glafs, bearing the fame ratio to the refradtion of the prifm, as the diftance of the prifm from the focus bears to the focal length of the objeft-glafs. Let ACB (fig. 2.) reprefent the objeft-glafs and d the eye-glafs of a telefcope, and PR a prifm placed to intercept part of the rays coming from an objedf, fuppofe the fun, before they fall on the objedl-glafs. The rays EE proceeding from the eaftern limb of the fun, and refra&ed. through the objedt-glafs ACB without pafiing through the prifm, will form the cor- refponding point of the fun’s image at e; and the rays WW proceeding in like manner from the wefternlimb of the fun will be refra&ed to form the correfponding point of the fun’s image at W. But the rays 2E, 2E, 2W, 2W, proceeding in like manner from the eaftern and weftern limbs of the fun, and falling on the prifm PR, and thence refrafled to the objedl-glafs ACB, will, after refradlion through it, form the correfpon- dent points of the fun’s image at 2e, 2W. Let the refradlion of the prifm be equal to the fun’s apparent diameter: in this cafe, at whatever diftance the prifm be placed beyond the objedt-glafs, the two images of the fun We, 2W 2e, will touch one another external¬ ly at the point e2W; for the fays 2W, 2W, pro¬ ceeding from the weftern of the fun being inclined to the rays EE proceeding from the eaftern limb in the angle of the fun’s apparent diameter, will, after fuf- fering a refradtion in paffing through the prifm equal to the fun’s apparent diameter, emerge from the prifm and fall upon the objedt-glafs parallel to the rays EE, and confequently will have their focus 2W coincident with the focus e of the rays EE; and therefore the two images of the fun We, 2W 2e, will touch one another externally at the point e 2W, and the inftrument will meafure the angle EC2W, and that only. But if the prifm be placed within the telefcope, the angle meafured by the inftrument will be to the refrac¬ tion of the prifm as the diftance of the prifm from the focus of the objedl-glafs is to the focal diftance of the objedl-glafs : or if two prifms be ufed to form the two images, with their refradting angles placed con¬ trary ways, as reprefented in fig. 3. and 4. the angle meafured will' be to the fum of the refradf ions of the prifm, as the diftance of the prifms from the focus of the objedf-glafs is to the focal diftance of the object glafs. For let ACB (fig. 3.) reprefent tbe objedt- glafs, and d the eye-glafs of a telefcope, and PR, RS, two prifms interpofed between them, with their re¬ fradting angles turned contrary ways, and the common fedtions of their refradting planes touching one ano¬ ther at R. The rays proceeding from an objedt, fup¬ pofe the fun, will be difpofed, by therefradtion of the objedt-glafs, to form an image of the fun at the fo¬ cus ; but part of them falling on one prifm, and part on the other, will be thereby refradted contrary ways, fo as to form two equal images We, 2W 2e, which, if the refradtions of the prifms be of proper quantities, will touch one another externally at the point e 2W. MIC [ 4995 ] M I C Micrometer Let ECN be the axis of the pencil of rays EE pro- '*■" ceeding from the fun’s eaftern limb ; and WCO the axis of the pencil of rays WW proceeding from the fun’s weftern limb ; and the point N the place where the image of the fun’s eaftern limb would be formed, and the point O where that of the weftern limb would be formed, were not the .rays diverted from their courfe by the refra&ions of the prifms. But by this means part of the rays EE, which were proceeding to N, falling on the prifm PRr will be refrafted to form an image of the fun’s eaftern limb at !T‘ . of the uterus is alfo formed, and gradually becomes more and more bulky, the fymptoms it occafions are fo ftrongly marked, and the refemblance to pregnancy fo very ftriking, that the ignorant patient is often deceived, and even the experienced phyfician im- pofed on. Scirrhous, polypous, or farcomatous tumours in or about the uterus or pelvis; dropfy or ventofity of the uterus or tubes; fteatoma or dropfy of the ovaria, and ventral conception, are the common caufes of fuch fallacious appearances. In many .of thefe cafes the menfes difappear; naufea, retchings, and other fymp¬ toms of breeding, enfue; flatus in the bowels will be miftaken for the motion of the child; and in the ad¬ vanced ftages of the difeafe, from the preffure of the fwelling on the adjacent parts. Tumefaction and hardnefs of the mammas fupervene, and fometimes a vifcid or ferous fluid diftills from the nipple; circum- ftances that ftrongly confirm the woman in her opi¬ nion, till time, or the dreadful confequences that often enfue, at laft convince her of her fatal mif- take. Falfe Conception.-—Mola. Other kinds of fpurious gravidity, lefs hazardous in their nature than any of the preceding, may under this head alfirbe clafled; difeafes commonly known by the names of falfe con¬ ception and mola: The former of thefe is nothing more than the diflblution of the foetus in the early months; the placenta is afterwards retained in the uterus, and from the addition of coagula, or in confequence of difeafe, is excluded in an indurated or enlarged ftate; when it remained for months or longer, and came off in the form of a flefliy or fchir- rous-like mafs, without having any cavity in the centre, it was formerly diftinguilhed by the name of mola. Mere coagula of blood, retained in the uterus after delivery, or after immoderate floodings at any period of life, and fqueezed, by the preffure of the uterus, into a fibrous or compaft form, conftitute another fpecies of mola, that more frequently occurs than any of the former. Thefe, though they may affume the appearances of gravidity, are generally however ex¬ pelled fpontaneoufly, and are feldom followed with dangerous confequences. Chap. III. Superfastation. Soon after impregnation takes place, the cervix uteri becomes entirely flint up by means of a thick vifcid gluten : the internal cavity is alfo lined by the external membrane of the ovum, which attaches itfelf to the whole internal furface of the fundus uteri* the fallopian tubes alfo become flaccid;, and are, as gra¬ vidity advances, fuppofed to be removed at fuch a diftance, that they cannot reach the ovaria to receive or convey another ovum into the uterus. For thefe, and other reafons, the do&rine of fuperfstation is now pretty generally exploded.—A do&rine that feems to have arifen from the cafe of a double or triple conception, where, fome time after their forma¬ tion in utero, one foetus has been expelled, and ano¬ ther has remained; or after the extinftion of life at an early period, one or more may be ftill retained, and thrown Chap. Vf. MIDWIFERY. Monta, thrown off in a firal! and putrid (late, after the birth man in different pregnancies, and at different periods 50*7 ~ of a full-grown child. The uterus of brutes is divided into different cells; and their ova do not attach themfelves to the uterus v the human fubjeft, but are fuppofed to of the fame pregnancy. Pregnancy,—though a natural alteration of the animal-oeconomy, which every female feems originally formed to undergo, and hence not to be confidered as fo early as in the human fubjea, but are fuppofed to tormea to unaergo, ana ucncc uoi 10 uc cuuuucrcu < receive their nourifhment for fome time by abforp- a ftate of difeafe, occafions, however, iooner or late, tion. Hence the os uteri does not clofe immediately in many women, various complaints, which evidently after conception ; for a bitch will admit A variety of 'depend on it as a caufe. dogs while fhe is in feafon, and will bring forth pup- Difeafes incident to the pregnant ftate may be con- pies of thefe different fpecies: thus it is common for fidered, either, t. As anfing from fympathy in the a Trey-hound to have, in the fame litter, one of the early months; or, 2. As depending dn the ftretchmg grey-hound kind, a pointer, and a third, or more, and preffure of the uterus towards the more advanced different from both ; another circumftance that has ftages. given rife to fuper-frtatien in the human fubjeft, I- Though the former of thefe complamts are which can only happen when there is a double fet of generally to be accounted for from other caufes than - • • that of plethora; yer, in many confhtutions, a certain plethoric difpofition in the early months of pregnancy i'eems to prevail in the vafcular fyftem : And therefore, though many, inconveniencies may enfue from a too parts, inftances of which are very rare. Chap.,IV. Extra-uterine Foetufes, or ventral Conception. The impregnated ovum, or rudiments of the foetus, frequent, a too copious, or an indiferiminate ufe of venefe&ion ; yet, if prudently and judicioufly em- is not always received from the ovarium by the tuba pi0yed, abortion by this means will not be endao Fallopiana, to be thence conveyed into the cavity of gered, as fome late authors have alleged; but, on the the uterus; for there are inftances where the foetus contrary, on many ocCafions, a feafonable bleeding fometimes remains in the ovarium, and fometimes even w;u be attended with the mod beneficial and falutary in the tube ; or where it drops out of the ovarium, effe&s. miffes the tubes, and falls into the cavity of the ab- jn y0Un2r women, tuddenly affe&ed with fevere domen, takes root in the neighbouring parts, and is fleknefs and loathing, febrile commotion, head-acb, thereby nourifhed: But as thefe feetufes cannot there vertig0} and other fymptoms of breeding, more efpe- receive fo much nourifhment as in thefucculent uterus, r;ajiv in full fanTifineous habits, befides a fuare liglr they are lefs, and generally come to their full growth before the common term. Of thefe fome burft in the abdomen; and others __ form abfeefles, and are thereby difeharged ; others tjon> ancj occafionally repeated according to the ur- cially in full fanguineous habits, befides a fpare light diet and fuitable exercife, recourfe mud bejiad to proper evacuations, the chief of which is venefe£tidn.- this may be fafely performed at any term of gravida- dty, and appear bony, and remain fo during life, or are difeharged as above, or by dool, &c. Chap. V. Mongers. When two or more ova contained in the uterus attach themfelves fo near one another as to adhere in whole or in part, fo as to form only one body with membranes and water in common, this body will form a confuied irregular mafs called monftrous; and thus a monder may be either defe&ive in its organic parts. gency of the fymptoms : fmall breedings, at proper intervals, are preferable to copious evacuations, which in early pregnancy ought always to be carefully guarded againd. When the domach is loaded with pntrid bile dr acrid faburra, the offenfive matter fhould be difeharged by gentle vomits of ipecacuan, or of infufions of cha¬ momile flowers. The violent efforts to retch and vo»- mit, and the commotions thence excited, which often , „ . occafion the expulfion of the foetus, will by this means or be fupplied with a fupernumerary fet of parts de- frequently be removed, in mod cafes greatly dimi- rived from another ovum. This feems a rational con- nifhed. During the term of breeding, the date of je&ure; but, while every thing relative to generation the belly mud be alio attended to: When laxative ts a mydery, how can we account for the extraordi¬ nary phsenomena? Some authors enumerate a third fpecies of monder, the produft of a mixed breed, ex¬ medicines become neceffary, thofe of the milded and gentled kind fhould be adminidered. In women liable to nervous complaints, whe * emplified, for indance, in the mule, produced by the the domach is weak, and the ficknefs violent and mixed generation of an afs and a mare. In this ani- continued, the patient fhould be put on a courfe of mal there-are organical parts.different from what pre- light, aromatic, and drengthening bitters; fuch as ,■» • of infufions of bark, columbo, &c. and her diet, air> exefeife, company, and amufement, fhould be regu¬ lated: In order to fettle the domach, and leflen the fenfibility of the fydem, opiates will often happily fucceed, when every other remedy fails. Heart-burn and diarrhoea,—common fymptoms of breeding, or of pregnancy, mud be treated pretty much as at other times: Both complaints chiefly de¬ pend on the date of the domach. Furnefadion, tenfion, and pains in the mamma:.— If tight lacing here be only avoided, and the breads have room to enlarge and fwell, no inconvenience ever 28 H follows: exided in the parents; there is a defeat of fome parts, a luxuriant growth of others ; and the defeft in the parts of generation, which renders the animal unfit for propagation, conditutes a very curious and parti¬ cular fpecies. Chap. VI. Difeafes of Pregnancy. After Conception, a remarkable change is foon produced in the genital fyftem. Tin’s is the fource from whence arife different fymptoms, that are how¬ ever liable to confiderable variation, not only in the conditution of different women, but in the fame wo- VOL. VII. 2 5og8 Difeafes follows: ■ Theft- effcfts arife from a natural caufe, and p of , feldom -require medical treatment. If very trouble- — ilfome and uneafy, bathing with oil, or anointing with pomatum, and covering with foft flannel or fur, will in moft cafes prove the cure. The menfirual evacuation—is in fome women regular for the firft, fccond, or third period after con¬ ception. This feldom happens but in women of fan- guinary plethoric habits, fuch as have been accuftomed to large copidus evacuations at other times, when the , difcbarge is to be coniidered as beneficial. Deliquia, nervous, or hyfteric fits.—When thefe are occafioned by falls, frights, and paffions of the mind, they frequently end in the lofs of the child: But when they happen about the term of quicken¬ ing, they feem to arife from the efcape of the uterus from its confinement within the capacity of the pel¬ vis; in which cafe they are,commonly flight, of fhort duration, and never threaten any dangerous confe- quence. II. The fecond clafs of complaints, viz. thofe that are incident to the advanced ftagee of utero- geftation, and that depend on the change of fituation of the gravid uterus, its enlargement and preffure on the neighbouring parts, are more painful in their fymptoms, and more dangerous in their confequences, than thofe enumerated in the preceding clafs. The premature exclufion of the foetus is generally the worft: inconvenience refulting from the one; the death of the mother, along with the lofs of the child, is too frequently an attendant of the other. Difficulty or fiuppreffion of urine—is fometimes occafioned by the preflure of the uterus on the neck of the bladder, before the fundus uteri efcapes from its confinement within the brim of the pelvis. This complaint, if early attended to, will feldom prove " trcrublefome or hazardous; but cannot be entirely re¬ moved till the uterus rifes above the brim of the pel¬ vis, and by its enlargement becomesfupported by reft- ing on the expanded bones of the ofia ilia. But if neglefted in the beginning, retroverjion of the uterus—is generally the con- fequence, a cafe that demands particular attention. Here the fundus uteri, inftead of being loofe, falls back in a reclined ftate within the hollow of the os facrum : thus a tumor is formed in the vulva, where¬ of the os tincae makes the fuperior part; the body of the uterus, by this means, becomes ftrongly wedged between the reftum and bladder; and, from the en¬ largement of the uterus itfelf, and accumulating load of faeces and urine, the reduction will prove in many inftances utterly impra&icable. A total fupprefiion of urine, or a rupture of the coats of the bladder, fever, inflammation, or gangrene of the uterus, often enfue; and thefe are fucceeded by delirium, convulfions, death. The indications of cure, in this dangerous dif- cafe, are fufficiently obvious: For, in the firft place, every obftacle that prevents the reduction fhould be removed : thus the contents of the re&um and bladder muft, if poffihle, be evacuated ; emollient fomenta¬ tions and cataplafms muft be applied, if indicated by imflammation or tumefa&ion of the parts. Secondly, The reduction of the prolapfed uterus muft be at¬ tempted, by placing the patient upon her knees, with Chap. VI. her head low and properly fupported. While this is Difeafes attempted within the vagina, a finger or two ftiould of alfo be pafled within the redtum, by which the opera- re^nancy* tion in fome cafes may be facilitated : but, at other times, no power whatever will be fufficient for this purpofe. Laftly, If the redudtion be accompliflied, the fever, inflammatory fymptoms, and other con¬ fequences of the difeafe, muft be fubdued ; and a recurrence prevented by an open belly, reft, and re¬ cumbent pofture, and promoting a free difeharge of urine: means that ought to be perfifted in till the uterus rifes within the abdomen, when the patient will be fecured from future danger. Cojlivenefs in pregnancy—is inconvenient. It may proceed from the fame caufe with the preceding com¬ plaint ; it may depend of the ftomach ; the febrile heat, that in many women prevails, will alfo prove an occafional caufe. It may be obviated or prevented by a proper regulation of the regimen, and by fuch gentle laxative medicines as are beft fuited to the ftate of the woman ; the chief of which are ripe fruit, magnefia, lenitive eledtuary, cream of tartar, ful- phureous and aloetic medicines, oleum ricini, emollient glyfters. The piles—frequently arife in confequence ofcoftive- nefs, or from preflure of the gravid uterus on the haemorrhoidal veins. Thefe are alfo to be removed or palliated by the fame means employed on other occa- fions; regard being had to this diftindlion, which may be applied univerfally to the gravid ftate, that all violent remedies are to be avoided : sa light diet fhould be enjoined; the belly fhould be kept moderately open; and topical liniments or cataplafms fliould be applied, fuch as Balf. fulphur. Balf. traumaticum, Liniment, ex ol. palmas, Ung. fambucin. cum laud, li¬ quid. Poultices of bread and milk with opium, &c. according to the various circumftances of the cafe. Oedematous fi’jjellings of the legs and labia,—are occafioned by the languid ftate of the circulation, by the interruption of the refluent blood from the pref¬ fure of the diftended uterus on the vena cava, &c. Thefe, though very troublefome and inconvenient, are feldom however of dangerous confequence, except where the habit is otherwife difeafed; and feldom re¬ quire pundture, as the fwelling generally fubfides very quickly after delivery. They can only, there¬ fore, at this time, admit of palliation ; for which purpofe, along with a proper diet and moderate exercife, a frequent recumbent pofture, open belly, and dry fri&ions applied to the legs evening and morning, will prove the moft effedtual means. Faricous fiwellings in the legs and thighs—from the interruption of the venal blood in thefe parts, oc- cafioned by the preffure of the gravid uterus, are to be treated in the fame manner with the preceding complaint. Pains in the hack, loins, cholic-pains, cramp,—oc¬ cafioned by the ftretching of the uterus and appen¬ dages, and from the preffure of the uterus on the neighbouring parts, fymptoms that are moft trouble- fome in a firft pregnancy, are to be palliated by ve- nefedtion, an open belly, and light fpare diet. If the patient be of a full habit, and pre-difpofed to in¬ flammatory complaints, where the preffure is very great in the advanced months, or in twins, &c. if progep MIDWIFERY. Chap. VI. Kl I D V/ Difeafes proper remedies are negle&ed, inflammation of the ' of uterus and adjacent vifcera, or dreadful epileptic fits, regnancy. may qyjc^jy enflie; the event whereof is generally fatah Crampifh fpafms in the belly and legs require the fame palliative treatment; to which maybe added fri&ion, and the application of aether, ol. volatil. balf. anodyn. or the like, to the parts affeded. Cough, dyfpnxa, vomitings, difficulty or incontinency of urine, occafioned by the preflure of the bulky uterus on the ftomach, liver, diaphragm, &c.—Com¬ plaints that can only be alleviated by frequent fmall bleedings, a light fpare diet, and open belly. The patient fliould be placed in an eafy pofture, fomething between fitting and lying ; and when the uterus rifes high, a moderate degree of preflure from the fuperior part downwards, may in in fome cafes prove ufeful. But this muft be ufed with great caution ; for dread¬ ful are the effe&s of violent preflure, or tight lacing, during pregnancy. It frequently kills both mother and child, and ought to be guarded from the earliett months. Epileptic fits,—are a very dreadful and alarming ap¬ pearance. They generally depend on the fame caufe with the above complaints : they may alfo arife from irritation, excited by the motion and ftirring of the foetus; and from various other caufes. Such as have had convulfions when young, are moll liable to have them during pregnancy : they happen moll frequently in firft pregnancies, or where the foetus is very large, or in twins, triplets, &c. In fuch cafes, the diften- tion of the uterine fibres is fo great, that adlual lacera¬ tion is fometimes the confequence. At whatever period of pregnancy they feize, the utmoft danger may be dreaded. This, however, will be in proportion to the feverity, duration, and recur¬ rence of the paroxyfm, to the term of gravidation, to the conftitution of the patient, and her condition du¬ ring the remiflion. The danger is greater towards the latter end of pregnancy than in the earlier months or in time of labour. Such as arife from inanition, from exceflive and profufe haemorrhages, from violent blows, falls, &c. or from a ruptured uterus, are for the moll part fatal. Hyfteric or nervous fpafms muft be carefully di- ftinguilhed from true epileptic fits. The former are milder than the latter ; they are not attended with foamings ; they dd not affeft the pofture ; the pulfe is fmaller, feebler, and more frequent; the woman is pretty hearty after they are over ; they are followed with no bad confequences, and yield to the common treatment. Women of ftrong, robuft, vigorous con- ftitutions, are more generally the fubje&s of the one ; the delicate, the nervous, and the irritable, of the -ether. Epileptic fits generally come on very rapidly ; if any previous fymptoms occur, the fit is commonly an¬ nounced by an intenfe pain in the fcrobiculum cordis, or violent head-ach. In the pregnant ftate, thefe fits are for the moft part fymptomatic, and* will therefore only admit of a palliative cure. They may be diftinguifhed into three clafles ; thofe of the early months, thofe of the latter, and thofe that come on with labour-pains. With regard to the cure, the term of pregnancy, I F E R Y* 5009 as well as the conftitution of the patient, and particu- Difeafes cular caufe of the difeafe, muft carefully be confidered. p of 1. Convulfions at an early period of pregnancy -. 1 chiefly happen to young women of a plethoric fan- guine habit; and can therefore only be removed or palliated by a free and bold ufe of the lancet, by an open belly, cool regimen, and fpare diet. After plentiful evacuations, if the ftomach be loaded with acrid faburra or putrid bile, a gentle puke may be of ufe : but fuch remedies, on thofe occafions, muft be employed with great caution. Inftead of a plethoric, if the patient is of a nervous habit, a very neceflary and important diftin&ion, the intentions of cure will eflentially vary. For here opiates in large dofes and frequently repeated, emollient glyfters, ftupes applied to the legs, the femicupium, and every other means to foothe the nerves and remove fpafmodic ftri&ure, will prove the moft effedlual remedies. If infenfible or comatous, opium, mulk, and other antifpafmodics, fliould be exhibited by w-ay of glyfter, and the pa¬ tient ought to be roufed by epifpaftic and ftimulating cataplafms applied to the legs and hams. Convulfions fucceeding profufe evacuations, are generally mortal. The vis vitae, in fuch circumftances, muft be fupport- ed, by replenilhing the veflels with the utmoft fpeed ; this is to be done by pouring in nouriftiing fluids as fall as pofiible by the mouth, and by glyfter; warm applications ftiould alfo be made to the ftomach and feet, and nervous cordials given internally along with opium. The treatment of epileptic fits, depending on other caufes than thofe now mentioned, muft be regulated by a proper attention to the particular fymptoms with which they are attended. 2. In the advanced months, fuch complaints are more to be dreaded than in early geftation, as they generally proceed from the irritation occafioned by the diftention of the uterine fibres, or by the pref- fure of the uterus on the contiguous vifcera : hence the natural fundions of thefe parts will be interrupted, the circulation of their fluids will be impeded, and the blood, being thus prevented from defcending to the inferior parts, will be derived in greater proportion to the brain, and overcharge that organ. The cure muft, in this cafe, chiefly reft on copious and repeated bleedings, an open belly, and fpare diet. 3. Laftly, when fits come on with labour-pains, a fpeedy delivery, if it can be done with fafety, either by turning the child, or by extrading with the forceps when the head is within reach, will prove the moft dfedual cure When the bladder is diftended, the contents muft be evacuated : if a Hone flicks in the urethra, it muft be pulhed back or extraded. If the fits are the effeds of a ruptured uterus, immediate death is gene¬ rally the confequence. With regard to the treatment of fuch complaints, no other change is generally requifite, than what arifes from the fymptoms peculiar, to this fituation. In general, till after delivery, they will only admit of palliation. Chap. VII. Floodings. These, tho’confined to no particular term, may bap- 28 H 2 peq 5oiq M I D W Difeafes. pen at every period of grariclation. The one is a fre- qnent coufequence of the other; the event of both is often hazardous, as the earlier mifcirriages are gene¬ rally preceded by an effufion of blood from the uterus, which, in the advanced ftages of pregnancy, befides the iofs of the child, always endangers the life of the mother. The menorrhagia gravidarum—may be defined, an effufion of blood from the uterus, confined to no regu¬ lar or ftated periods, in quantity and duration various, and liable to recur on the flighted occafions. The immediate oaufe is, a feparation of fome por¬ tion ot the placenta or chorion from the internal fur- face of the uterus. Whatever occafions this fepara¬ tion may be cgnfidered as the remote caufe, which, though various, may be reduced to I. Thofe that affeft the general fyftem: as, 1. External accidents changing the ftate of the cir¬ culation. 2. Changes in the circulation from internal caufes. 3. Debility. 4. Plethora. II. Thofe that affe& the uterus and placenta: as, 1. Dire& affe&ions. 2. Stimuli communicated from an affedtion of other parts. With regard to the cure.—Though a flooding in fome conftitutions may happen, even in early geftatjon, and may remit and recur from time to time, and the woman go on to the end of her reckoning ; and tho’ it feldom or never happens, that this complaint proves mortal to the mother in the firft five months of preg¬ nancy; yet every appearance of this kind, even the flighted, is to be dreaded ; as in the early months it will often throw off the foetus, and, in the latter, al¬ ways threatens the utmod danger both to mother and child. Floodings of gravid women we cannot propofe radically to cure ; they will only admit of palliation. With this view, the indications are, I. To leffen the force and velocity of the blood in general. II. To promote the conftri&ion of the patulous mouths of the bleeding veffels, or the formation of coa-, gula in their orifices. 1. To anfwer the fird indication, red and a recum¬ bent podure, cool air, ttanquillity;of mind, a light diet, venefeftion, and opiates, are the chief means, 2. To redrain the violence of the haemorrhage, in¬ ternal adringent medicines^re recommended; but this is to be accompliflied chiefly by means of cold dyptic applications to the parts and their neighbourhood. But, as thefe floodings often arife from fo various and oppofite caufes, it is difficult to lay down particular indications, or to point out a method of cure fuited to every cafe that may occur. The intention of cure can only be regulated by a careful and judicious confide- ration of the caufe, and of thofe particular circum- llances with which the cafe may be attended. In early pregnancy, it may be redrained by keeping the patient quiet and cool, by giving internally cooling things and opiates; but, in the advanced dages, the deluge is fometimes fo profufe as to kill very fnddenly,. Under fuch circumdances, when the woman is near her time, emptying the uterus by delivery, if prafiicable, is the only fafe expedient both for prelerving the life of the I F E R Y. Chap. VIII. mother and of the child. Abortion. | If the haemorrhage can be redrained, a recurrence^ mud be guarded agafnd, by avoiding or counteradling the occafional or remote caufes. Chap. VIII. Abortion, or Mifcarriage, Mat be defined, the premature expulfion of the em¬ bryo or foetus. Some, however, make the following diftindlion: When a woman mifcarries in early geda- tion, this they confider as an abortion; but if in the latter months, that they term a prejnatare birth. The fymptoms that threaten abortion are: Flooding. Pain in the back and belly. Bearing down pains with regular intermiffions. The evacuation of the waters. The death of the child, which difcovers itfelf by the following fymptoms; though in general thefe are fo doubtful and fallacious, that none of them afford an infallible lign: 1. The fubfiding of the abdominal tumour. 2. Ceffation of motion in the foetus. 3. The fenfation of a heavy weight falling from fide to fide, as the woman turns herfelf in bed. 4. Sicknefs, faintings, rigors, cold fweats. 5. The breads turning flaccid. 6. Coldnefs of the abdomen, and putrid difcharge from the vagina. Abortions are feldom dangerous in the fird five months; but a frequent habit of mifcarriage debili¬ tates the fyflem, lhatters the conditution, and lays the foundation of chronic difeafes of the mod obdinate and dangerous nature. In the advanced months, the prognofis will be more or lefs favourable, according to the patient’s former date of health, the occafional cattfe, and fymptoms with which it is attended. The proximate caufe of abor¬ tion is the fame with that of true labour, viz. a con* trailing effort of the uterus and abdominal mufcles, affided by the other expulfive powers. The remote caufes cannot be explained with precifion; as many circumdances, with regard to the nature of impregna¬ tion, and connexion of the foetus with the placenta and uterus, are fubje&s dill involved in darknefs. They may in general, however, be reduced, I. To whatever interrupts the regular circulation between the uterus and placenta. II. To every caufe that excites the fpafmodic con¬ traction of the uterus, or other afliding powers. III. To whatever occafions the extiniiion of life in the foetus. Arnongd the- fird are: 1. Difeafes of the uterus. 2. Impervioufnefs or fpafmodic condri&ion of the extremities of the uterine blood-vefiels. 3. Partial or total feparation of the placenta or cho¬ rion from the uterus. 4. Determination to other parts.. To the fecond general head belong all caufes that produce a drong contraAion of the eladie fibres of the uterus, or cf the parts that can prefs upon it,, or that occalion a rupture of the membranes: fuch as, 1. Violent agitation of mind or body. 2. A difeafe of the membranes. 3. Too large a quantity of liquor amnii. 4. The Chap. IX. Abortion. 4. The crofs pofition of the foetus. “ 5. Its motion and kicking. - The laft head includes the numerous caufes of the death' of the child, which, befides thofe referred to in the preceding claffes, may be occafioned by, 1. Difeafes peculiar to itfelf. 2. Difeafes communicated by the parents. 3. Externa] accidents happening to the mother: or, 4. Accidents incident to the foetus in utero. 5. Difeafes of placenta or funis. 6. Knots-ana circumvolutions of the chord. 7. Too weak an adhefion of placenta or chorion to the uterus: and, 8. Every force that tends to weaken or deftroy this attachment. -With regard to the treatment. This mud be varied according to the. particular circumftances of the cafe: nor is it poffible to point out particular indications, or propofe any regular plan to be purfued for this pur- pofe. Abortion, is often preceded by no apparent fymptom, till the rupture of the membranes, and eva¬ cuation of the waters, announce the approaching ex- puliion of the foetus. Either to remove threatening fymptoms, or. to prevent mifcarriage when there isrea- fon to apprehend it, often baffles our.utmoft ildll; be- caufe it generally happens, that there is a ceflation of growth in the ovum; or, in other words, an exlihftion of life in the foetus, fame time previous to any appear¬ ance of abortion. For inftance, in early geltation, a woman commonly mifcarries about the 1 ith or 12th week ; but the age of the foetus at this time is gene¬ rally no more than eight weeks. At other times, when by accident the foetus perifhes, perhaps about the fifth or fixth month, it will ftill be retained in uterb, and the expulfion will not happen till near the completion of full time. As women who have once aborted are fo liable to a recurrence from a like caufe, at the fame particular period, fuch an accident, in future pregnancies, fbould therefore be guarded againft with the utmoft caution. On the firft appearance.of threatening fymptonis, the patient fliould be confined to a horizontal pofture; her diet, fliould be light and cooling ; her mind fliould be kept as tranquil as poflible ; a little blood from the arm may be taken occafionally ; and opiates admini- flered according to circuniftances; but excepting fo far. as depends on thefe, and fuch like precautions, for the moft part, in the way of medicine, very little can be done. Manual affiftanceis feldom or never neceflary during the fir A five months of pregnancy: the exclufion of foetus and placenta ftiquld very generally be trufted to nature. The medical treatment of abortion -muft therefore be confidered with a view only to the prophyla&ic cure: and this again will chiefly cotifift in a proper Chap. IX. Regimen during Pregnancy. Women, when pregnant, fliould live a regular tem¬ perate, life; moderation in eatiilg and drinking fliould now be very carefully obferyed, and every thing that has any tendency to difagree with the ftomach fhould be avoided; otberwife the manner of life fliould be much as ufual. If complaints do occur, thefe (hould be treat¬ ed as-atothertimes; only guarding againibfueh things 5011 as, by violent operation, may endanger mifcarriage. Reg’mei'1- If the woman has formerly been fubjetfl to this acci- " dent, the caufe fliould be carefully confidered, and fuit- able remedies applied; if plethoric, for in'lance, fhe fliould be blooded, live fparingly, and keep quiet, till flie gets beyond the dangerous period. If file be weak, delicate, and nervous, bark, light aromatic bitters, mineral waters, and the cold bath (if able to bear it), will prove the belt prophyla&ie remedies. The cold bath has, in many cafes, cured the moft obftinate fltior albus, and fometimes even fterility itfeif; and, in re¬ laxed habits difpofed to mifcarriage, when every other means has failed, the cold bath has. done confiderable fervice: the praftice may fafely be continued for fome months after conception, when it has been early be¬ gun, or when the patient has been accuftomed to it. Such a fliock will, however, a£! very differently on dif¬ ferent fyftems: hence, it is an expedient by no means to be indifcriminately ufed in the pregnant ftate. Abortions that happen in early geitation, and that come on fuddenly without any prefaging fign, if ever they are to be prevented, it can only be done by a- voiding all occafional caufes, by counteracting morbi¬ fic difpofition, and by confinement to a horizontal po- fture, for fome time before, and till the critical period be over. When a venerea] taint in the parents is fufpefted to be the caufe either of abortion or the death of the foe¬ tus, the like accident can only be prevented by put¬ ting both parties on a mercurial courfe. Pregnant women require a free pure air; their amufe- ment fhould often be varied;: their company fhould be agreeable and cheerful; their exercife fhould be mode¬ rate, and fuited to their inclination, conftitution, and the feafon ; they fhould avoid crowds, confinement travelling over rough roads in a carriage, or being ex- pofed to fea-voyages. Riding a-hotfeback fhould alfo be praClifed with great caution, that difagreeable ob¬ jects may be fhunned, and fhocks of every kind pre¬ vented. For this reafon, when riding is judged proper, the woman fhould be a courageous rider; fhe fhonld never ride without fomebody being in company; the. horfe fhould betame and well trained; the road fhould be fmooth as well as private; and the exercife fliould be gentle and eafy, and never carried the length of fatigue. Women fhould^with the utmoft care, guard againft confining the breafts or belly; early recourfe fhould be had to jumps, and they fhould keep them- felves as loofe and eaiy as pofiible through the whole term of utero-geftation. An open belly is neceffary and important in the pregnant ftate; it keeps the fto¬ mach in good condition, prevents cholies and other complaints that may terminate in mifearriage. When the abdomen is pendulous towards the latter months, a gentle fupport by proper bandage will prove ufeful;, and the woman, when fatigued, fhould occafionally, through the day, indulge in reft on a bed or-couch. LABOUR S. Labours are divided into three oiaffes: natural, la* lor mis, and preternatural. In whatever manner the head of the child prefenis,. where the delivery at full time is performed by nature, the labour, is with great propriety called natural} when ttlS: MIDWIFERY. 5°I2 Natural l.abour. M I D W I the birth is protradled beyond the ufual time, or can¬ not be accomplifhed without extraordinary afiiftance, it is deemed laborious; and preternatural, when any ether part but the head prefents. Chap. X. Natural Labour. By whatever power the uterus is enlarged, when any further increafe is prevented, a (timulus to contrac¬ tion muft enfue ; by this means an uneafy fenfation is excited, which muft, in the woman, produce an effort to procure relief: and thus arife the true labour-pains, which at firft are flight and of (hort duration, a con- liderable remiflton intervening: the periods of recur¬ rence foon become more frequent; the pains acquire an increafed force, producing more and more change on the os uteri; which, yielding to the impelling caufe, gradually opens and expands; till at length it becomes completely dilated, the membranes protruded and rup¬ tured, and the child, by the expulfive force of the ute¬ rus, aflifted by that of the diaphragm and abdominal mufcles, is thus pufhed along and delivered. The fymptoms of approaching labour are, Thd fub- fiding of the abdominal tumour: hence a difcharge of mucus from the vagina, fometimes tinged with blood; incontincncy, or fuppreffion of urine; tenefmus; pains of the belly, loins, and about the region of the pubes; reftlefnefs, hot and cold fits, &c. Spurious pains are to be carefully diftinguiflied from thofe of genuine labour. The former arife from the ftretching of the uterus and its preffure on the neigh¬ bouring parts, or from coftivenefs; and are to be di- ftinguifhed from the latter by the following fymptoms: They are moft troublefome towards the evening, in¬ crease in the night, and abate through the day; they are more trifling and irregular than true uterine pains; the uterine orifice is not affefted ; and there is no in¬ creafed flow of mucus from the parts. True pains begin about the region of the kidneys, ftrike forward towards the pubes, and down the thighs: they return at regular periods: there is a copious dif¬ charge of mucus from the vagina; the os uteri gradu¬ ally opens, and can be felt to dilate in time of a pain; While the membranous bag, in a tehfe ttate, forcibly pUlhes againft the finger. The event of labours is fo precarious, that no cer¬ tain judgment can be formed from almoft any fymp¬ toms, till‘the labour itfelf be confiderably advanced. A prognofis in general is chiefly to be formed from the age, ftate of health, and temperament of the patient; from the force, duration, and recurrence of the pains; and from their effedff on the uterine orifice; from the time of the rupture of the membranes; from the gene¬ ral make and form of the woman, but, in particular, of that of the pelvis; from the bulk and pofition of the child, &c. With regard to the method of delivery, and pofition of the woman, this has been different at different ages, and in different countries: the chief thing, however, is to guard agaiuft cold and fatigue, obferving that the woman be placed in the moft favourable pofture for fupporting the back, for the aftion of the abdo¬ minal mufcles, &c. and moft convenient for the necef- fary affiftants: till the labour is confiderably advanced, Ihe may ,be indulged in whatever pofture is moft agree- F E R Y. Chap. X. able ; after which the bed or couch is the moft proper. Natural With regard to afliftance in natural parturition, the Labour- accoucheur for the moft part has little to do, till the membranes are ruptured, and the head in perinseo. In time of labour, the woman fhould be kept very cool, and every means of being overheated fliould be avoid¬ ed. She (hould be put to bed in proper time, placed on her fide or back, with her head and (houlders a little raifed, a cloth tied to the bed-poft, or held by an af- fiftant, to fupport her hands in time of pain, and her feet retting againft a foot-board; her knees fliould be drawn up towards the belly, and a folded pillow put between them. All efforts to prefs or drain, except what nature excites, are improper, hurtful, and (hould be avoided: the membranes, if pofiible, ought not to be ruptured till they almoft protrude at the os exter¬ num : the perinasum muft be lubricated when formed into a tumour, and carefully fupported while over- ftretched ; for this purpofe, a cloth fmoothly folded (hould be applied over the part, to enable the accou¬ cheur to have a firmer hold: This is an important part of his office; and muft be attended to with the ftridteft care. From the time this protrufion begins to form till the head of the child be completely delivered, the perinasum muft be carefully preferved by the palm of the hand firmly applied againft it, which (hould be car¬ ried backwards in a diredtion towards the anus, and kept fo during every pain. Thus the miferable con- fequences will be prevented to which the negledt of this preffure expofes : for by this fupport the over- ftretching of the perinaeum will be greatly leffened, the parts will dilate gently and gradually, the vertex will eafily flip from under the pubes, and the fore-head will rife from under the perinaeum in a fafe, flow, and gentle manner. The perinaeum muft now be releafed, by cau- tioufly Aiding it ovef the face and chin of the child ; and this ought to be made further fure of, by palling a finger under it round and round. After the head has thus mechanically advanced through the pelvis and va¬ gina, a pain or two muft be waited for, when in like manner the body will follow; nothing more being ne- ceffary than to fupport the child while it is gradu¬ ally pufhed forwards by the expulfive force of the na¬ tural pains. When the child has cried, and the change in the circulation freely taken place, the funis umbilicalis muft be tied and divided, the infant muft be wrapped in a warm receiver, and given to the nurfe to be waffl¬ ed and dreffed. The parts of the woman muft now be gently wiped, a warm foft cloth muft be applied, and a proper time waited for the feparation of the placenta. This is alfo the work of nature, and fcldom requires more force to bring it along than if it lay entirely loofe within the cavity of the uterus. Thus, in pulling, no greater force (hould be employed than is juft fuffi- cient to put the funis on the ftretch : for if it is al¬ ready feparated, no violence is neceffary to extraft it; and if the adhefion is very firm, all violent efforts are improper, and often followed with moft dangerous con- fequenccs. Its advancing is known by the contrac¬ tion of the uterus, and (hifting of the abdominal tu¬ mour, and by the lengthening of the cord. By the fpontaneous contradlion of the uterus, this feparation is effefted; the expulfion will be flower or more expe¬ ditious, Chap. X. M I D W Natural ditious, according to the ftate and condition of the wo- Labour. according to the number of children (he has born, and according to the duration or violence of the la¬ bour; it is ealier and fooner feparated in a firft birth, when the woman is in good health, and when the labour has been properly managed. In moft cafes, this repara¬ tion is accomplilhed within half an hour after the de¬ livery of the child. It adheres moft firmly after pre¬ mature births, when the woman has been fickly during pregnancy, where the labour has been tedious and dif¬ ficult, or when hafty attempts have been made to ex- tra£ it. A finger, or finger and thumb, guided by the funis, and introduced within the vagina, to bring down the edge, will remove any difficulty occafioned by the centre or bulky part paffing the uterine or va¬ ginal orifice. When it becomes neceffary to employ force in ex¬ tracting the placenta, which is never requifite but in cafes of flooding, when the woman has been in bad health during pregnancy, when Are has fuffered much in time of labour, or when the firing has been torn from it, (though the firft of thefe cafes is perhaps the only one wherein the pradtice is abfolutely proper), the method of doing it is as follows : In ordinary cafes, the woman fhould be laid on her back or fide ; but when the belly is pendulous, or when the placenta is attached to the fundus uteri, fhe muft be placed on her knees, which is the moft convenient pqfture. The acoucheur, though with a certain degree of courage, yet with the utmoft poffible tendernefs, muft then pafs his band well lubricated through the vagina into the uterus, and feel for the convex body of the after-birth ; if the chord be entire, this will diredt him ; if not, he muft feel for the loofe membranes at the edge of the cake; and muft not be deceived by coagula of blood that lie in the way : if the uterus be conftridled in the middle like a fand-glafs, a circum- ftance that fometimes, though rarely, occurs, this muft be overcome by a gradual dilatation with one finger after another, till the whole hand in a conical manner - can fafely be pafied. He muft not content himfelf with feeling a part ; he fhould be able to move his fingers round the whole body of the cake ; the adhe- fion muft be feparated very gradually, in a diredlion from the fides round and round. The placenta is diftin- guiftied from the uterus, as well by its foftnefs as by its convex puckered feel. This convexity increafes in the fame proportion as the uterus contradts: hence the middle part or centre of the placenta is firft de¬ tached; and if the edges are carefully feparated, by gently paffing the fingers behind, the whqle body be¬ comes loofe and difengaged, which muft now be brought along with great caution, that no part be left behind, and that no injury be done to the woman in making the extradiion. Though bad confequences fometimes follow from the retention of the placenta, yet it is much to be queftioned, if thefe are not lefs to be dreaded than the dangerous floodings, convulfions, deliquia, inflamma¬ tion of the uterus, fever, &c. that maybe induced from the prepofterous pradice of paffing the hand to make the extradion : and would it not in general be better to confine the pradice of introducing the hand, to cafes of uterine haemorrhages only ? Where the ad- hefion is fo firm as to require force, or where its place I F E R Y. of attachment is out*'of the reach of the finger, by which, for the moft part, the edge may be brought down, is it not by far the fafeft and the moft rational pradice univerfally to truft to nature ? Should the mouth or body of the uterus become conftrided be¬ fore the reparation is effeded, no matter ; little is to be dreaded : it will afterwards kindly dilate ; and the feparation and expullion will fpontaneoufly be accom-^ pliftied with as much fafety as in other animals, where no force is ever ufed. Let every candid praditioner acknowledge, that for one inftance where the reten¬ tion of the placenta has been attended with dangerous confequences, a precipitate or forcible extradion has proved fatal to hundreds. After the delivery of child and placenta, the wo¬ man muft reft a few minutes ; her ftrength and fpirits maybe recruited by fome Hght nourifhing cordial; the wet cloths, &c. muft then be removed ; the bed muft be properly fhifted and adjufted; and a gentle com- preffion muft be made on the abdomen. During lying-in, the woman fliould avoid company and noife ; her drefs and bed-linens fhould be often changed; fhe fhould avoid every means of being overheated ; and with regard to her diet, it fhould, for the firft week at leaft, be very light and of eafy di- geftion. Chap. XI. Laborious or difficult labour. When the birth is jsrotra&ed beyond the ordinary time, br when the child’s head, though naturally prefenting, cannot be brought forwards without af- fiftance, the labour is accounted difficult or laborious. Though the caufes of laborious births are various and complicated, they may in general be confidered as de¬ pending, I. On the mother. II. On the child- . III. On the fecundines. I. The birth may be protra&ed, or the labour-pains interrupted, by, (i.) Debility in the mother, arifing, a From difeafe, viz. 1. Flooding. 2. Epileptic fits. , 3. Crampifh fpafms. 4. Lownefs and faintifhnefs. 5. Inflammatory diathefis. ' 6. Colic. 7. Naufeating ficknefs and vomiting. 8. Heiftic or confumptive habit. b From paffions of the mind. c From mifmanagement in time of labour. (2.) Local complaints in the parts, or their neigh¬ bourhood, viz. a In the bones, occafioning narrownefs and di- ftortion. b In the foft parts, viz. 1. Drynefs and conftri£ion of the vagina. 2. Thicknefs and rigidity of the os tincse. 3. Scirrhous or polypous tumours about thefe parts- 4. Accumulated feces in the inteftines. 5. Stone in the urethra. 6. Prolapfus of the uterus, vagina, and rec¬ tum- 7. Ob~ 5OI3 Difluult Labour. 5014 Natural Labour. M I D W 7. Obliquity of tbe uterus. II. Difficulties alfo arife on the part of the child, r. From the bulk and offification of the head. 2. The Stuation in which the head prefents. 3. Large broad fhoulders, or their tranfverfe de- fcent through the pelvis. III. The fecundities, viz. 1. The rigidity of the membranes, and the con¬ trary. 2. Too great a quantity of water. 3. Tbe funis umbilicalis too long, or too (hort. 4. The prolapfus of the funis before the child’s head: and, 5. The attachment of the placenta towards the cer¬ vix or os uteri. The treatment of laborious births requires a very pice and careful attention to the condition of the pa¬ tient and other circutnftances, from whence only we .can judge when affillance becomes requifite, and how it may be applied to the beft advantage. That pain and mifery is the unavoidable and infeparable attendant of child-bearing, though dealt out in different pro¬ portions to different fubjefts, the teftimony of all na¬ tions, and all ages, as well as daily experience, bear witnefs: nor is the eafieft labour altogether exempted from pain, even under the moft favourable circumltan- ces. The delivery, however, promifes to be fafe and eafy, when the woman is of proper age, in good health, the child prefenting right, and the pelvis well proportioned: but the force of the natural pains may be interrupted, and of confequence labour be retarded, from, I. Debility in the mother, arifing from a Difeafe. This may appear under various forms; as, 1 ft, A flooding. Which is very alarming, even along with labour-pains: though lefs fo in this cafe than when at a diftance from full time ; becaufe as the la¬ bour-pains increafe, the hasmorrhage very generally abates; or if not, breaking the membranes when the, aperture of the os uteri is fufficient to admit the hand, feldom fails to produce that effe&. The woman in this cafe muft be kept cool. Opiates muft be admini- iteml; (he muft be comforted with the beft aflurances of a happy delivery * and the natural pains muft be waited for. But if the haemorrhage proceeds from a feparation of the placenta, attached towards the cervix or orifi- cium uteri; in this unhappy cafe, the whole body of the cake may be completely feparated before the aper¬ ture of the uterus be fufficient for allowing the head to pais; and the deluge may be fo hidden and impetuous, that the woman will fmk immediately under it. Break¬ ing the membranes, and making the'delivery, either by turning the child, or extracting with the forceps or crotchet, according to circumftances, with as much expedition as is confiftent with the mother’s fafety, is the only expedient by which the threatening enta¬ il rophe may be prevented. 2cly, Epileptic fits may in like manner retard la¬ bour, and endanger the life of the mother. If the child is not thrown off by a few fits, which is often the cafe, the delivery fhould be effe&td as foon as poifible* I F E R Y. Chap. X. 3dly, Crampiih fpafms in the thighs, legs, rarely in Natural tbe belly, are very troublefome. They depend on the ^abour- preffure of the head on the nerves as it paffes through ~T the pelvis, and can only be removed by delivery, which, as thefe pains are feldom, if ever, attended with danger, is not to be forced on this account. Breaking the mem¬ branes will fometimes remove them. qthly, Lownefs and faintiftinefs often occur, and frequently prove the caufe of protrafted labour. No general rules with regard to the management of flow labour can be recommended. The mode of treat¬ ment, where fo many circumftances may occur, muft be fuited to the condition of the patient, as every particular cafe will in fome meafure require a different management. Much depends on the prudence ami judgment of the attentive practitioner. For inftance, when the woman is nervous, low-fpirited, or weakly, from whatever caufe, in general her ftrength muft be fupported : (he muft not be put on labour too early : (he muft avoid heat, fatigue, and every means of ex- hauiiing her ftrength or fpirits. When fee is reftlefs, or the pains trifling and unprofitable, opiates are par¬ ticularly indicated ; they remove fpurious or grinding pains, recruit thefpirits, procure reft, and amufetime. Little elfe for the moft part is to be done. If the ute¬ rus once begins to dilate, though the dilatation goes on (lowly, it is by much the beft and fafeft praftice to do nothing but regulate the management as above. The pains at laft will become ftrong and forcing; and the delivery, even where the patient has been very weakly, will often have a fafe and happy termination. In thefe tedious labours, if the ftrength of the woman be properly fupported, every thing almoft is to beex- pedted from nature. Forcible means fhould be the laft refource. 5thly, Inflammatory diathefis, in young fubjefts of ftrong rigid fibres and plethoric habits, muft be ob¬ viated by venefedlion, an open belly, and cooling re¬ gimen. 6thly, Colic Many women have fevere attacks of this difeafe immediately before the labour-pains come on ; the reafon of which is fufficiently obvious: the belly, which formerly rofe fo high, that the fun¬ dus of the womb preffed againlt the pit of the ftomacb, afterwards fubfiding, by the child’s finking to the lower part of the womb, and the oval of the head be- ing applied to the oval of the bafin, the contents of the inteftines will be forced lower a.id lower, and the ftrait gut will be diftended. Hence colic-pains, irritation, and uneaflnefs, a frequent defire to go ta ftool, or fre¬ quent loofe ftools, generally enfue. The beft palliative remedy is to injedl emollient glyfters repeatedly till the bowels be entirely emptied. Although fome degree of purging fhould attend ihe tenefmus, it will be ne- ceffary to wafh the ftrait gut, by the ufe of one or more glyfters. The irritating caufe being in this way re¬ moved, an opiate, if no inflammatory heat or fe¬ ver prevents, may be afterwards given with advan¬ tage. ythly, Nanfeating ficknefs, with vomiting.—When thefe fymptoms occur, warm water or chamomile-tea muft be drunk freely. Sieknefs and vomiting happen in fome degree in the eafieft labours. Sometimes they proceed from a difordered ftate of the ftomach ; but in general are to be accounted for from the well- known M I 0 W I F E E. Y, Chap. XI. Difficult known fympatky of the womb with the ftomach ; Labour. ancj accompany the ftretehing of the os uteri only. Stilly, Hedf'ic oroonfumptive habit.—It is a melan¬ choly thing to attend a labouring woman in this ftate. The pains are weak and trifling; fhe cannot force much down; and (he is feeble, and liable to faint when the pain goes off. But however apparently exhaufted, the progrefs of labour goes on, in moft cafes, much better than could be well expe&ed. The orifice of the womb gives little rellllance to the force of the pains, weak and trifling as they are ; the parts are foft and lax, and foon ftretch in fuch a manner, that, if there be no fault in the pelvis, the child readily obtains a pafiage. Here little is to be done, but fupplying the patient, from time to time, with light nouriftiment; with cor¬ dials that do not heat ; and keeping up a free circula¬ tion of cool air all around her: for this purpofe the curtains fliould be quite drawn afide, doors and win¬ dows widely opened; and (he fhould be placed in a pofition with her head and breaft well raifed, that an eafy refpiration may be promoted. Hedtic women un¬ der proper management rarely fink immediately after delivery; they generally furvive a week, or longer, tho’ they feldom outlive the month. b. Paffions of the mind. Any piece of news in which the patient, her family or relations, are inte- refted, (hould be carefully concealed, as well as every thing that tends in general to affeft the p^ffibns ; as labour may not only be interrupted from this caufe, but the moft dangerous fymptoms, as floodings, con- vulfions, defiquia, and fatal fyncope, may be induced. C. From mifmanagement in time of labour often a- rifes debility ; fo that the patient’s ftrength is exhauft¬ ed, the pains at length entirely ceafe, and the head of the child remains locked in the pelvis, merely from want of force of pain to pufh it forwards. In all cafes where the labour has the appearance of being tedious, the woman’s patience muft, as much as pofiible, be fupported. During the grinding pains, (he muft be kept cool and quiet; opiates may be exhibited to pafs the time, till the forcing throes enfue, when (he will acquire refolution, the parts will dilate kindly, and the labour end happily ; whereas, if (he confiders herfelf in labour from the earlieft appearance of grinding pains, Iheis frightened at the length of time, and her patience runs out. Slow lingering labours happen chiefly to el¬ derly women having a rigidity in the parts, to nervous fubjeiSs, and to fuch as have been weakly during preg¬ nancy. It is of great confequence, and the advice cannot be too much inculcated, to avoid exhaufting the'woman’s ftrength too much at firft. 2. Local complaints in }he parts, or their neighbour¬ hood. a. Narrownefs or diftortion of the bones of the pel¬ vis. Where there is any material defeft in this cavity, a fuperficial knowledge of the form and ftruflture of the parts will enable us to judge. If, from the figure of the woman’s body, these is reafon to fufpeft a faulty pelvis; if the fpine is twifted, the legs crooked, the breaft-bone raifed, or the cheft narrow; whether the pelvis be affe&ed or not, (he will require a particular management ; for the conftitution of fuch women is weak and feeble, and they cannot be much confined to bed on acpount of their breathing. We can never be Vot. VII. i abfolutely certain of a diftortion of the pelvis, (except •when the diftortion is confined to the inferior aper¬ ture), till the uterine orifice is confiderably dilated. Af¬ ter this time, if the pains are ftx-ong and forcible, and the head of the child makes no advance, a narrow pel* vis or large head is to be fufpe&ed. The pelvis may be faulty at the brim, bottom, or in the cavity or ca¬ pacity. The firft of thefe, which moft frequently oc¬ curs, is the moft difficult to be difcovered. The fe- cond can be readily perceived by the touch: for we can feel the defe&s in the fhape of the os facrum and coccyx, in the pofition of the ifchia, and in the bend¬ ing of the pubes ; and where the diftortion is fo ge¬ neral, that the whole cavity of the pelvis is affeded, the fhape of the woman’s body, the flow progrefs of the labour, and the ftate of the parts to the touch, will afford fufficient information. In the firft cafe, we can only know the diftortion by the fymptoms ; for we fhould not attempt to introduce the hand till the mouth of the womb be dilated : it is afterwards unneceffary ; for we know that the pelvis is too fmall, or the head too large, by its not advancing in proportion to the pains, and by feeling a fharp ridge like a fow’s back on, the top of the child’s head, which is occafioned by tb6 bones rifing over each other in confequence of thepreffure. How long nature, in fuch circumftances, can fup- port the conflidt, it is difficult to fay. , It is fufficient to obferve, that when things are properly prepared for the advance of the child, when the nrft ftage of the labour is accompliftied, but its progrefs is then fuf- pended, it is of little confequence to the midwife whe¬ ther the obftacle is to be referred to the child, or to the motherland a man-midwife ought to be immediate¬ ly called in. If the patient’s ftrength declines; if the head, from being locked in the bones of the pelvis, begins to fwell, and the parts of the woman to be affedled with tumefadtion and inflammation; nature, in this cafe, feems infufficient, and it will be dangerous longer to delay the proper means of making the delivery; as mother, or child, or both, may fall a vidtim to our negledt. We muft not, however, allow ourfelves to be impofed on, either by the impatience of the di- ftreffed mother, or by the clamours of the officious impertinents about her. In affording that affiftance we are able to give, we are only to be diredled by the fymptoms of the cafe : we muft remember that the gentieft affiftance our hands or inftruments in laborious births can afford, is always attended with hazard and rifle ; that if inftruments be applied too early, nature will be thus interrupted in her work, and the moft fatal confequences may enfue; and that if affiftanCe be delayed too long, the mothermay die Undelivered: we ought, how¬ ever, to be informed, that the former pradtice of having too early recourfe to forcible means, where, in time, na¬ ture unaffifted might do her bufinefs, has proved by far more fatal than the latter. We ought tfierefore care¬ fully to conjider the general hiftory of the patient, and particular circumftances of the cafe, that we may hit the proper time of making the delivery ; which, in thefe laborious labours, is exceedingly difficult to determine; yet is a matter of the utmoft importance, as there is always one, often two or more lives at flake, and the accoucheur is accountable for the confequences of his 28 I mif- 501,- 50! 6 Difficult Eabour. MIDWIFERY. mlfoonduft or negleft. b. The fault may be in the foft parts : as, r. Drynefs and conftriSion of the vagina. Here all ftretching and fcooping is to be avoided. The na¬ tural moifture is to be fupplied by lubricating with po¬ matum or butter, or by throwing up inje&ions of warm oil; the parts are likewife to be relaxed by the application of warm dupes* or by warm Iteams di¬ rected to them. 2. Thicknefs and rigidity of the os tincae. This happens chiefly in women well advanced in life, where the parts open more flowly, and the labour generally proves more tedious. Here alfo little is to be done but waiting on with patience, comforting the woman as well as poffible, and giving an opiate from time to time. The parts may be relaxed with butter or po¬ matum, by throwing into the vagina injeflions of warm oil, or by the application of warm dupes to the os externum. Every forcible attempt to open or dretch the uterus, as fome authors prefume to advife, is apt to induce inflammation and its confequences, and to interrupt the natural pains: it is therefore univerfal- ly the fafed pra&ice to trud in every cafe to thefe ; tho’ tedious, or even violent, the labour for the mod art will end more happily, and the woman recover etter, than if force had been employed. 3. Polypous tumours, &c.—There is feldom occa- fion, in cafe of cicatrices in the vagina, to dilate with the fcalpel, to remove polypous tumors by excifion, or to cut upon and extraft a done from the urethra in time of labour. But, if circurodances are urgent, fuch expedients are fafe and practicable, and warranted by many precedents. 4. Accumulated faeces in the intedines, ought al¬ ways to be removed by repeated emollient glyders, on the fird appearance of approaching labour. 5. A done in the urethra, if it cannot be puflied back, mud be cut upon and extrafled, as already advifed. 6. Prolapfua of the uterus may happen even at full time, in a pelvis too wide in all its dimenfions; for which, however, nothing can be done, but to fupport the uterus in time of a pain, that the dretching of the parts may be gradual. Prolapfi of the vagina and re&um mud be reduced at the remiffion of the pain, and a return by gentle preffure mud be prevented. 7. Obliquity of the uterus, though a favourite theo¬ ry of fome authors, never happens in fuch a degree as to influence delivery, except in the cafe of a pendulous abdomen, or where it depends on the make or diflor- tion of the pelvis. The fird of thefe, tho’ it may, by throwing the child’s head over the pubes, occafion perhaps fome little delay, will feldom prove any mate¬ rial obdacle to the progrefs of the labour. II. The protra&ion of labour may depend on the child, and may arife from, id, The bulk or ofiification of the head. There may be either a natural difproportion be¬ tween the head and body, or the fwelling may be oc- cafioned by a putrid emphyfema in confequence of the child’s death, or the enlargement may proceed from a hydrocephalus. The fird of thefe cafes can only be difcovered by the flow progrefs of the labour, when the pains are flrong and frequent, the foft parts fuffi- ciently dilated, the woman in good health, and no Chap.'XI. other apparent caufe to account for the remora. The Difficult fecond is difcovered from the hidory of the cafe, from Labour‘ the common fymptoms of a dead child, viz. the puffy emphyfematous feel of the prefenting part of the head, and from the feparation of the cuticle when touched. Lahly, the hydrocephalus is difcovered by the head falling down in the pelvis in a large bulky form, by the bones of the head being fepavated at confiderable didances, and by a fluftuation evident to the. touch. On the whole, however, it may here be obferved, that the mod probable or fufpicious fymptoms of the child’s death are often deceitful. From whatever caufe the head is enlarged, if the difficulty arifes from this caufe, and the force of the pains prove infufficient to pufh the head forwards, re- courfe mud be had to indruments; and, if the bulk of the head is too large to pafs the diameter of the pelvis, the cranium mud be opened to diminifh its fize, and the brain evacuated previous to the extratlion. zdly, The pofition of the head, which may be fqueezed into the pelvis in fuch a manner as not to ad¬ mit of that compreffion neceflary for its palling. Such a caufe of difficulty, however, more feldom occurs than many authors have imagined. The ralh and pre- poderous application of indruments has, in fuch cafes, proved the bane of thoufands. Here though the la¬ bour will prove more painful and more tedious, yet nature in general, unaffided, will accomplifti her own v’ork with more fafety to mother and child, than by the intrufion of officious hands. Turning here is always difficult, often dangerous. The fame obferva- tion will hold of indruments, which Ihould never be employed but when alarming fymptoms occur : the aflertion perhaps is not more bold than true, that, in general, the mod difadvantageous pofition in which, the head can offer is not fufficient, without fome other caufe'concurring, either to prevent delivery, or to en¬ danger the life of mother or child fo much as would be done by the movement of the gentled hands. Yet, in fome cafes, where the woman is weak and exhauded, and the pains trifling; if the head of the childTe large, the bones firm, and the futures clofely connec¬ ted ; or if there by any degree of narrownefs in the pelvis, a difficult labour is to be expedled ; and the life of both mother and child wall depend on a well- timed and fkilful application of the furgeon’s hands. The unfavourable pofition of the head may be re¬ ferred to two kinds, which include a confiderable va¬ riety. 1. When the fontanella, or open of the head, prefents indead of the vertex., 2. Face-cafes.- If no other obdacle appears but the prefenting of the fontanella, the labour will, by proper management, generally end well; and much injury may be done by the intrufion of officious hands. Face-cafes are the mod difficult and laborious of all kinds of births; and our fuccefs in thefe will chiefly depend upon a prudent management, by carefully fup- porting the drengih of the woman. The varieties of face-cafes are known by the dire&ion of the chin; for the face may prefent, 1. With the chin to the.pubes. 2. To the facrum. 3. To either fide. The rule in all thefe cafes is to allow the labour to go on till the face be protruded as far down as poffible. It is often as difficult and hazardous to pufh back the child, and to bring down the crown or vertex, as to turn the child. Chap. Xl M I D W Difficult child, and deliver it by the feet. Sometimes a fltilful ^Lat)0ur, artilt may fucceed in his attempt to alter the pofition, when he has the management of the delivery from the beginning ; or, in thofe cafes where the face is confi- derably advanced iti the pelvis, may be able to give afiiftance by palling a finger or two in the child’s mopth, and pulling down the jaw ; which lefiens the bulk of the head; or, by preffing on the chin, to bring it under the arch of the pubes ; when the crown getting into the hollow of the os facrum, the head will afterwards pafs eafily. 3dly, The breadth of the (boulders, or their tranf- •verfe defcent through the pelvis, rarely proves the caufe of protradled labour. The head is always pret¬ ty far advanced before any obfttu£tion can arife from this caufe; and if the head has already paffed, in a pain or two the (boulders will follow. The fame rea- foning will alfo apply with regard to the aperture of the uterus itfelf: if the head pafles freely, in like manner will the (boulders; the os uteri rarely, if ever, fs capable of contra&ing upon the neck of the child, and thus preventing the advance of the (boulders; and, Ihould this prove the cKfe, what can we do but wait with patience? After the delivery of the head, if the woman falls into deliquia, or if, after feveral pains, the (boulders do not follow, and the child’s life be in danger from delay, we fhould naturally be induced to help it forward in the gentled manner we are able, by paffing a finger on each fide as far as the axilla, and thus gradually pulling along. III. Lattly, From the fecundines, difficulty and dan¬ ger fometimes arife. id, The rigidity of the membranes, and the con¬ trary. From the fird of thefe caufes, the birth is fometimes rendered tedious ; but as the fame effeft is much oftener produced by the oppofite caufe, and the confequences of the latter are more troublefome and dangerous than the former, we fhould always be ex¬ ceedingly cautious of having recourfe to the common elpedient of breaking the membranes, which ought never to be done, till we be certain the difficulty de¬ pends upon this caufe; and, even then, the head of the child (hould be well advanced, and the membranes protruded almod as far as the os externum. Many in- conveniencieS arife from a premature evacuation of the wafers; for thus the parts become dry and rigid, a condricfion of the os uteri for a time enfues, the pains often either remit or become lefs drong and forcing, though not lefs painful and fatiguing ; the dilatation goes ony fo (low, and the labour becomes fo fevere, that the woman’s drerigth and fpirits, by tha unpro¬ fitable labour, are quite overcome and exhaudsd ; fo that the head remains confined in the paffage, merely from want of force of pain to pufh it forwards. The woman in the beginning of labour fliould therefore be treated with the utmod delicacy and gentlenefs. The work of nature is too often fpoiled by officious hands. She Ihould be fcldom touched while the membranes are whole, led they (hould, be ruptured ; and, even wdien touching is neceffary, this (hould only be done when the pains begin to remit, and the tenfe membranous bag to relax. 2dly, Too great a quantity of water may prevent the uterus from contra<3dng, and thus weaken the force of the pains. Though this may, however, occafion a I F E R Y. delay, it will never be attended with more dangerous confequences ; and the fame advice already given will hold equally good in this cafe, that the membranes’ (hould never be broken till the foft parts be complete¬ ly dilated; and we are affured that the difficulty or de¬ lay proceeds only from this caufe. 3dly, The funis umbilical is too long. The funis may be faulty from its too great length, or the con¬ trary: thus the extraordinary length, by forming cir¬ cumvolutions round the child’s neck or body, fome¬ times proves the caufe of protrafting the labour. But as this can only happen when the chord is of an un¬ common length, there Is generally enough left to ad¬ mit of the exit of the child with fafety ; and it is time enough, in general, after the child is born, to (lip the noofe over the (houlders or head : there is feldom oc¬ cafion to divide the chord iu the birth, a pra&icethat may be attended with trouble and hazard. The pradlice of introducing a finger in ano, topirdfi back the coccyx, or to prevent the head, when it ad¬ vances, from being retraded by circumvolutions of the chord, is now entirely laid afide ; an expedient that can anfwer no end, but that of fretting and bruifing the parts of the mother, and injuring thofe of the child. Funis toofhort. The funis is fometimes thick and knotty, or preternaturally thickened by difeafe. In this cafe, part of the placenta may be feparated as the child advances through the pelvis, and thus a flooding will enfue; or the funis may be adually ruptured and occafion the death of the child, if the birth does not quickly follow. Such cafes, however, rarely happen. An inconvenience, at lead fully as bad as the for¬ mer, may arife from the too great length of the fu¬ nis, though it may depend on other circumftances.: 4thly, The prolapfus of the funis before the head. In this cafe, the funis, if pofiible, (hould be pulhed up above the prefenting-part; for, if the labour pains are flow, and the chord becomes cold-, or the pulfation in it begins to grow languid, the circulation will thus be interrupted, and the life of the child deftroyed. If the head is far advanced in the pelvis, and the child’s life in danger, the delivery may be performed with the forceps. But to pu(h up the head, and turn the child with a view to preferve its life, as many authors re¬ commend, is a pra&ice by no means advifeable : we (hobld feldom, in this pofition, be enabled to (ave the child ; and turning under fuch circumftances can never be done, but at the immediate hazard of lofing the mother. jthly, Placenta attached towards the cervix or os uteri. This cafe is truly melancholy ; for, if the de¬ livery is not fpeedily accompliflied, the effulion from the uterine veifels will be fo copious and profufe, that the unfortunate woman mud, in a very (hort time, perifli. On this occafion the delivery muft be con¬ duced in the bed manner the judgment and (kill of the operator can ffireC, and with as much expedition as the fafety of the mother will admit. Thus, in mo(t laborious cafes, provided the wo¬ man’s drength be fupported, the management proper¬ ly regulated, the natural moidure of the parts when deficient fupplied, manual affidance very feldom be- 28 I 2 cotnes 501/ Difficuft 5018 M I D \Y Difficult comes requifTte: but as cafes do occur, wherein na- Labour. ture^ w;tf1 a]j advantages, will fail, and the common methods of relief prove unfuccefsful, recourfe mult be had to more pov/erful means, while the woman is able to fuport the conflict. In all fuch cafes, the condition of the patient, the ftru&ure and Hate of the parts, and pofition of the prefenting part of the child, mutt very carefully be confidered. Method of Delivery hy Inftruments. When the powers of nature are infufScient to expel the child, extraordinary affiftance mult be had re¬ courfe to. In laborious births, this is chiefly of two kinds. I. The head is either extracted as it prefents: or, II. Its diameter is diminilhed previous to the ex- traflion. The head may be detained from advancing thro’ the pelvis by all the caufes formerly enumerated. Thefe are chiefly included in four general ones, 1. Weaknefs in the mother. 2. Narrownefs of the pelvis. 3. The bulk of the head of the child : or, 4. Its difadvantageous pofition. Whatever is the caufe, when the natural pains begin to remit, and the parts of the woman begin to fwell; when her ftrength declines, her pulfe grows feeble, and there is no profpedt of advantage to be gained by delay ; meafures muft be taken for affifting the deli¬ very, otherwife both mother and child may perilh from negleff. As inftruments are never to be employed but in the moft urgent and neceffitous cafes, and exprefsly with a view to preferve the life of mother or child, or both ; thofe of a fafe and harmlefs kind (hould always be made trial of^ in preference to thofe of a deltruc- tive nature. Vfe of the Forceps. The forceps, is an inftrument intended to lay hold of the head of the child in laborious births, and to ex¬ tract it as it prefents. This inftrument, as now im¬ proved, in the hands of a prudent and cautious opera¬ tor, may be employed without doing the lead injury either to mother or child. In every obftetrical cafe, wherein manual affiftance becomes necefiary, the contents of reflum and bladder fhould, if poffible, be previoufly emptied. The membranes alfo fhould be broken, the foft parts completely dilated, and the head of the child as far as poffible advanced, previous to the ufe of any inftru¬ ment. The form and ftru&ure of the parts of the woman, the fituation and progrefs of the prefenting part of the child, muft at this time be carefully confidered. The concavity of the facrum, for inftance, will determine the progrefs of the labour. The touch of the vertex, fontanella, lambdoidal, or fagittal future, the fore or back part of the ear, or fome part of the face, will af^ certain the true prefentation of the child. The lower the head is advanced in the pelvis, our fuccefs with the forceps is the more to be depended on. For when it has proceeded as far as the inferior aperture, by means of this inftrument, it may be readi¬ ly relieved: but when the head of the child fs con- I F E R Y. Ghap. XI. fined at the brim, both the application of Inftruments, difficult and the extraction by rhis means, are exceedingly dif- Labour, ficult and dangerous. The head may be fo firmly W’edged in the pelvis, that the forceps can neither be introduced nor fixed without bruifing or tearing the parts of the woman : wherever, therefore, infurmountable difficulties occur, either in applying or extrading with the forceps, the life of the mother muft not be endangered by fruit- lefs efforts ; the head of the child muft immediately be opened, and the delivery accomplilhed without further delay. In laborious births, the proper forceps cafes may be reduced to two, which include, however, a conlider- able variety. Thefe are, I. The fmooth part of the cranium, II. The face, prefenting. The head may prefent, 1 ft, Naturally, when low advanced in the pelvis, with the vertex to the pubes, and the forehead or face in the hollow of the facrum. Or, zdly, When higher in the pelvis, the vertex may prefent with the face laterally, the ears to the pubes and facrum. Or, jdly, The fontanel may prefent with the face to the pubes, and vertex to the facrum ; or with the vertex to the pubes, and face to the facrum. t. When the head prefents naturally. The woman in this cafe muft be placed on her back a-crofs the bed, properly fupported ; the accoucheur, feated be¬ fore or in a kneeling pollure, after gradually lubri¬ cating the perinseum and vagina, muft proceed gently to ftretch the parts, by paffing the hand in a conical manner through the os externum vaginas, pufhing it forwards by the fide of the child’s head, till it ad¬ vances as far as an ear, if poffible ; along this hand he is to guide a blade of the forceps, which with the other hand he introduces in the dire&ion of the line of the pelvis, holding the handle backwards towards the perinasum, and keeping the clam clofely applied to the child’s head. This muft be infinuated very gradually by a kind of wriggling motion, pufhing it on till the blade is applied along the fide of the head over the ear : he muft; then gently withdraw thefirft hand from the pelvis, with which he muft; fecure the handle of: the blade of the forceps already inttoduced, till the other blade be paffed along the other hand, in the fame flow cautious manner : the handles muft; then be brought oppofite to each other, carefully locked, andv left they flip in extrafting, properly fecured by tying a fillet or garter round them ; but this muft be loofed during the remiffion of pulling, to prevent the brain from being injured by the preffure. The extraction muft be made by very flow and gentle degrees, and with one hand only, while the other is employed to guard the perinseum: the motion in pulling, fhould be from blade to blade; the accoucheur muft reft from time to time, and, if the pains are not gone, fhould always in his efforts only co-operate with thofe of nature. The child and mother will fuffer lefs by going on in this gradual manner than by precipi¬ tating the birth, which can never be done but at the rifle of deftroying both. If, in making the extra&ipn, the forceps flip, they muft. be cautioufly withdrawn blade by blade, and again introduced in the fame manner. Chap. Pifficult Labour. . XI. M I D W manner. When the tumour of the perinaeum forms, and the vertex begins to protrude at the os externum, the accoucheur muft rife from his feat, raife the handle gently upwards, and, by a half-round turn, bring the hind-head from under the fymphylis or arch of the pubes; remembering carefully to guard the pe- rinteum from laceration and its confequences, to which it is now fo greatly expofed. In attempting the introdudfion of either blade, if it meets with any interruption, it muft be as often withdrawn, and puihed up again in a proper diredtion, till every difficulty be furmounted ; and if, from the fmallnefs or conftridtion of the parts, the introdudlion of the fecond blade ftiall feem impradticable, the for¬ mer one muft be withdrawn, and the latter muft be firft introduced. 2. The vertex may prefent with the face laterally in the pelvis.' It is always difficult to apply the for¬ ceps till the bulky part of the head has palfed the brim; and here it is not only difficult to the operator, but extremely hazardous to the patient, to introduce this inftrument till the ear of the child has got under the pubes. When the ears thus prefent to pubes and facrum, the woman fhould be placed on her fide or knees; the molt difficult blade of the forceps Ihould be firft applied, which is the one under the pubes ; when both are paffed, and properly fecured, the pa¬ tient Ihould again be turned to her back, before the operator attempts to extradt, and the head in this cafe (as the quarter-turn can feldom be made with fafety) Ihould be delivered in the manner wherein it prefents ; becaufe, when confined any time in the paffage, its figure is altered by the overlapping of the bones, in fuch a manner that it paffes along, in gene¬ ral, with far lefs difficulty than to attempt to pufh up and make the mechanical turns; a work often alto¬ gether impracticable, by which contufion or lacera¬ tion of the parts of the woman, and the moft fatal confequences, may be occafioned. The handles of the forceps muft here particularly be well prefted back¬ wards towards tlie perinteum, that the clams may humour the curvature and intrufion of the facrum, and accommodate themfelves tothe form of the child’s head. This is a cafe wherein the forceps often fail ; if fo, they will fometimes fucceed by varying the mode of application, and fixing them over the forehead and occiput; if this method fails alfo, the fize of the head muft be diminifhed, and the extraction made with the blunt hook or crotchet. 3. The fontanella may prefent with the face to the pubes. This is the moft common of the fontanel cafes ; though fometimes the face is lateral in the pel¬ vis, fometimes diagonal, and fometiines it is turned to the facrum. The true pofition is afcertained by the direction of the fontanel, and that of the ear. Here, as in other laborious births, nature fhould be intruded as long as we dare. The head does not always de- fcend mechanically through the capacity of the pel¬ vis, as fome pradtitioners have fuppofed;, nor will the deviation from its ordinary mode of defcent al¬ ways of itfelf influence the. delivery, at leaft very rarely in fuch a manner as to require extraordinary affiftance. In whatever manner -the head prefents, when it is fituated high in the pelvis, the delivery 1 F E R Y. cannot be effected without difficulty and hazard : in fuch circumftances, the application of the forceps will frequently baffle the utmoft efforts of the ac¬ coucheur, and the confequences of fuch attempts may prove fatal to mother and child. When extreme weaknefs in the mother, floodings, convulfions, or other urgent fymptoms, render it ne- ceffary to force the delivery, whether the face be to pubes or facrum, the forceps may be applied along the ears, in the fame manner as direfted in a natural labour ; and the head, for the reafons alrea'dy given, fhould be brought along in the manner it prefents ; the extraction fhould be made with great deliberation, that the parts of the woman may have time to ftretch; the perinteum muft be carefully fupported ; the forceps muft be gently releafed, when the head is delivered; and the reft of the delivery conducted as in a natural labour. In this cafe, when fituated high in the pelvis, the fontanel prefenting, and the face either to pubes or facrum, the long axis of the head interfeCis the fhorc diameter of the pelvis, and very often, though the forceps be applied, and a firm hold of the head be obtained, it is not poffible to bring it along with all the force we dare exert. If this method therefore fails, the common forceps fhould be cautioufly with¬ drawn, and the long ones applied, if poffible, over the fore-head and occiput, when, the fize of the head, by the compreffion it fuffers in palling along, being perhaps fomewhat diminifhed, the extraftion will be fuccefsfully performed. This method alfo failing, previous to the operation of embryotomy, Dr Leak’s forceps, with the third blade, may be had recourfe to. But of this little can be faid with confidence, till the inftrument has been more generally employed.. From the difficulty of fucceeding in the application of the common forceps, it may, a priori,,bs concluded, that the introdudion of a third blade, even in the hands of an expert pra&itioner, however ingenious the in¬ vention, is an expedient not eafily to be put in prac¬ tice. Neither is Roonhuyfe’s lever, or a. blade of the forceps paffed up between the pubes and fore-head or hind-head of the child, in order to procure the de¬ livery of the head, to he recommended in fuch cafes : however fome have boafted of its fuccefs, it is an in¬ ftrument that may do much mifchief; and few prac¬ titioners can ufe it with fafety. IL Face prefenting.—Of laborious births, face-cafes,: as we have already obferved, are the moft difficult and the moft dangerous. From its length, roughnefs, and inequality, the face muft occafion greater pain ; and from the folidity of the bones, it muft yield to the propelling force with much more difficulty, than the fmooth moveable body of the cranium. Face- cafes are the moft troublefome that occur in the prac¬ tice of midwifery, and In which the moft expert: pra&itioners may be,foiled in their attempts; and thefe attempts, if too early exerted, will be followed in many inltances with fatal confequences. What¬ ever way the face prefents, it Ihould be allowed to advance as low as*poffible in the pelvis; by which means, the accefs will be more eafy, and the pofition,. for the application of inftruments, more favourable.. In this aukward fituatibn, much mifchief may be done by raflinefs; whereas, if time be allowed, and 5OI9 Difficult Labour. 5020 Difficult M I D W the patient be properly fupportad, the delivery will generally end well. The face may preCent with, 1. The chin to the pubes. 2. to the facrum. 3. laterally. From the difficulty of applying inftruments in thefe cafes, fome authors recommend, as an univerfal prac¬ tice, to turn the child, and deliver by the feet. But this in general is a dangerous practice, and f Idom or never advifeable, except when the membranes remain entire, till the os uteri is completely dilated, and the head continues loofe above the brim of the pelvis: and even then the propriety of the practice is doubt¬ ful ; becaufe, if the head is fmall, or the pelvis be well proportioned, the face will defcend without much difficulty; and if otherwife, befides the rifle in at¬ tempting to turn, the child may be loft from the pref- fure of the chord, or the difficulty of extrading the head after the delivery of the body. When affiftance becomes neceffary, the beft prac¬ tice in face-cafes is the following: Having placed the patient in a convenient pofture, let the accoucheur in the gentleft manner pafs his hand within the pelvis; and, during the remiffion of pain only, endeavour to raife the head of the child, fo that he may pu(h up the ffioulders entirely above the brim of the pelvis, and thus change the pofiticn of the face : by this means, if fuccefsful, he will be able to reduce the firft of thefe cafes, fo as to make the fontanel prefent with the face to the pubes; he will reduce the fecond fo as to bring .down the vertex, with the face to the facruro ; and the third, he will reduce to a vertex cafe, with the face lateral. The delivery may be afterwards trufted to nature; which failing, there is eafier accefs for the ap¬ plication of inftruments to make the extradion, as al¬ ready direded. The fuccefs, however, of the ac¬ coucheur, in altering the pofition of the head, by pufh- ing it up, will entirely depend on the time he is call¬ ed ; for, fhould the head be firmly wedged in the pel¬ vis, no force be dares employ will be fufficient to alter the pofture. If therefore every attempt to reduce the face, and •make the vertex or fontanel prefent, fhall prove unfuc- jcefsful, and fymptoms are urgent, the forceps muft be applied over the ears of the child, and the extradion performed in the beft manner the operator is ab,le. And, failing thefe, immediate recourfe muft be had to the crotchet. t. In the firft cafe, previous to the introdudioa of the forceps, the chin, if poffible, fliould be advanced below the pubes. 2. In the fecond, the chin fhould be advanced to the inferior part of the facrum. And, 3. In the third, the chin fhould be as low as the under-part of the tuber ifehii: and although in gene¬ ral the head is to be extraded as it prefents, if the operator meets with confiderable refiftance, it mnft be gently pufhed up and turned with the chin, either la¬ terally, below the pubes, or into the hollow of the facrum, according to the particular circumftances of ti;e cafe, and in a diredion beft accommodated to the form and diameter of the Jtielvis. I F E R Y. Chap. XI Ufe of the Scijjars) Crotthitt and Blunt Hook. When the head of the child, from its fize, unfa¬ vourable pofition, or from a fault in the pelvis, cannot be protruded by the force of natural pains, nor extrac¬ ted by the forceps, recourfe muft be had to more vio¬ lent means, and the life of the child muft be deftroyed m order to preferve that of the mother. This opera¬ tion was by the ancients called embryotomy. When the head, from its extraordinary bulk, is de¬ tained at the brim of the pelvis ; on evacuating the contents, the bones pf the cranium immediately col- lapfe, and the head is afterwards propelled by the force of the labour-pains ; failing which only, the extrac¬ tion muft be made with the blunt-hook or crotchet. The unfavourable pofition of the head is of itfelf a caufe infufficient to juftify the ufe of deftru&ive inftru- ments, which ought never to be employed but in ex¬ treme cafes, after every milder method has failed. From the difficult accefs to the cranium in order to make a perforation and evacuate the brain, a face-cafe makes a very troublefome and dangerous crotchet one. Very luckily, in narrow pelvifes, the face rarely prefents, and very feldom advances far in that diredion; at other times, the pofition may be fo altered, that the crown, the back of the ear, or fome other part of the cranium, can be reached ; otherwife the crotchet rouft be fixed in the mouth, orbit of the eye, &c. and the head brought along in that diredion, till the feiffars can be employed to open the fkull. But the grand caufe of difficult labour is, the nar- rownefs or diftortion of the pelfis. For when, at the brim, inftead of four inches and a quarter from pubes to facrum, it meafures no more than one and a half, one and three-fourths, two, or two inches and one- fourth, the ufe of inftruments becomes abfolutely re- quifite, and very frequently in thofe of two inches and one-half, and three inches; or when the diameters through the capacity, or at the inferior aperture, are retrenched in the fame proportion, difficulties will in like manner arife, and the delivery, except the labour be premature, or the child of a fmall fize, cannot be accomplifhed without the affiftance of deftrudive in¬ ftruments. We judge of the form and fize of the pelvis by the external make and form of the woman ; by the pro- grefs of the labour; by the touch. When the fault is at the inferior aperture, the touch is pretty deeifiye; e. g. if a bump is felt in the os facrum inilead of a con¬ cavity ; if the coccyx is angulated ; if the fymphyfis pubis projeds inwards in form of an acute angle ; if the tuberofities of the ifehia approach too near each other; or the one tuber be higher than the other; fucli appearances are infallible marks of a diftorted pelvis. But when the narrownefs is confined to thd brim, this is only to be difeovered by the introdudion of the hand within the pelvis: the projedion of the lumbar ver¬ tebrae over the facrum, is a fpecies of narrow pelvis, that moft frequently occurs in practice. In this cafe, the child’s head, by the preffure it fuftains between pubes and facrum, is moulded into a conical or fugar- loaf form, the parietal bones are fqueezed together, over-lapping one another, and will be felt to the touch when the labour is advanced, like an acute ridge, fome- thing in the form of a fow’s back. Chap. XI. M I D \V Difficult Inftead of the complicated inftrumental apparatus ValJOUr^ invented by the ancients, fuch as fcrews, hooks, See. for fixing in, laying hold of, and extrafling the head, as it prefented, an operation in many cafes difficult and dangerous, when the head-was bulky or the pelvis nar¬ row, as the woman frequently loft her life in the at¬ tempt ; the praflice of diminifhing the fize of the head, by opening the cranium and evacuating the brain, pre¬ vious to the extraflion, is a modern improvement, and an important one : the inftruments for this purpofe confift fimply of a pair of long feiffars, a fharp curved crotchet, and a blunt hook: thefe are preferable to every other, whether of ancient or modern conftruc- tion. When the accoucheur is under the difagreeable ne- celfity of deftroying the child to preferye the mother, (he muft be laid in the fame pofition as already advi- fed for the application of the forceps; and the fame rules, recommended for the one operation, will in ge¬ neral apply to the other. Thus, in the narroweft pelvis that occurs, previous to opening the cranium, the foft parts fhould be com¬ pletely dilated, and the head of the child fhould be fixed fteadily in the pelvis and advanced as far as poffible; For while the head is high and loofe above the brim, the application of inflruments is very difficult as well as hazardous. The long fctfTars muft be cautioufly introdueed into the vagina, direfled by the hand of the accoucheur ; the points muft be carefully guarded, till they prefs againft the cranium of the child, which they muft be made to perforate with a boring kind of motion, till they are pufhed on as far as the refts; they muft then be opened fully,, carefully re-fhut,, half turned, and again widely opened, fo as to make a crucial hole in the fkull. They muft afterwards be pufhed beyond the refts, opened diagonally again and again, in fuch a manner as to tear and breat to pieces the bones of the wanium; they muft then be fliut with great care, and withdrawn along the handj in the fame cautious man¬ ner as they were introduced, left they fhould bruife or tear the uterus, vagina, or any other part of the wo¬ man. After a free opening in the cranium' has thus been made, the brain mult be fcooped out with the fingers or blunt-hook, and the loofe fharp pieces of bone muft be carefully feparated and removed, that no part of the woman be tore while the head is extrafl¬ ing. The*teguments of the fcalp fhould now be brought over the ragged bones of the cranium, and the woman fhould be allowed to reft an hour or two, according to her ftrength and other circumftances: the bones of the cranium will nowcollapfe; and if the woman has as much ftrength remaining, or the pelvis be not much diftorted, the head being thus diminiffied, will be pro¬ truded by the force of natural pains; otberwife it muft be extrafled, either by means of two fingers introdu¬ ced within the cavity of the cranium, by the blunt- hook introduced in the fame manner, guarding the point on the oppofite fide while making the extrac¬ tion; or, failing th,efe,,by the crotchet, which, though dangerous in the hands of an ignorant rafh operator, may be employed by the prudent praflitioner vvith as much fafety as the blunteft inftrument. The method of introdgftion is the fame with a blade at the forceps. The chief thing to be attended tq is; l F E R Y. to guard the point till it be applied agatnft the head, and firmly fixed in its hold, which fhould always be fomewhere on the outfide of the cranium ; provided a" firm hold is obtained, no matter where, behind the ears, about the os petrofum, orbits of the eyes, maxilla inferior, &c. according to the prefentation of the head. The woman being properly fecured, and the handle of the inftrument covered with a cloth, the operator muft then pull, at firft gently, afterwards more forcibly, refting from time to time, and endeavouring to make the extrattion in therbeft manner the circumftances of the cafe will admit of. If the pelvis be much diftort¬ ed, fo that, by means of the utmoft ftrength the accou¬ cheur can exert, little purchafe is made, he may apply to the oppofite fide a blade of the forceps, which are now fo conftrufted as to lock with the crotchet; let him then bring the handles together, fecure properly,, and thus endeavour to make the extraflion. Should this expedient alfo fail, the blade of the forceps mu ft" be withdrawn, the other blade of the crotchet muft be applied, the handles brought together and fecured, and the extraflian made, moving from blade to blade. Should the head prefent in fuch a manner, that, in attempting to extraft it, the crotchet divides the ver¬ tebrae of the neck, and the head is thus fevered from; the body, an accident that can only happen in the hands of an ignorant blundering praflitioner; the head- muft be pulhed up above the brim of the pelvis, the- crotchet or blunt hook muft be fixed-under the axilla, the arms muft be brought down, and the body extrac¬ ted, by fixing the crotchet below the fcapula on the fternum, or among the ribs; the head muft afterwards be extrafled in the manner already advifed: or ffiould’ the head in extrafling be pulled from the body, as may happen when the child has been long, dead, or when it is putrid, the delivery of the body muft ba effefted by means of the crotchet as now direfled ; a method preferable to that of turning, as fome advife. If the head, inftead of yielding to the force of pull¬ ing, be at laft cut and broken in pieces, the operator muft endeavour to bring down an arm of the child, to fix the crotchet about the jaw or neck, pull at both holds, and thus attempt to make the extraflion ; this alfo failing, he muft bring down the other arm, fix the crotchet in the thorax, and, in a word, muft tear the child in pieces, that the delivery may be accomplilhed by any means. In face-cafes, where it is impraflicable to alter the pofition, and when the pelvis is much diftorted, the double crotchet is fometimes requifite; the handles muft be well fecured, kept well backwards towards the pe- rinteum, and the motion always from blade to blade. It veryTeldom, however, happens, that there is occa- fion for the double crotshet: by this means the head is flattened in pulling; whereas if one blade only can be employed, the head is lengthened, and, in pulling, , can better accommodate itfelf to the fiiape of the pel¬ vis as it paffes along. Chap. XII. Preternatural Labour. In whatever manner the child prefents when the*: body is delivered before the head, the birth is account¬ ed preternatural. Preternatural labours may be referred to one of the four following defies, I. When, 5021 Difficult Labour. $022 M I D W Preterna- I. When one or both feet, knees, or the breech, tiual prefent. - a our' . II. When the child lies acrofs in a rounded or oval form, with the arm, ihoulder, fide, back, or belly, prefenting. III. When one or both of the upper extremities prefent, the child lying in the form of a iheath, the feet towards the fundus uteri, the waters evacuated, and the uterus ftrongly contra&ed round the body of the child. IV. Laftly, Premature or flooding cafes, or others in which it may be neceflary to force the delivery, ei¬ ther previous to the rupture of the membranes, or quickly after it. The caufes of crofs labours moll; commonly afligned by authors, are, The obliquity of the uterus * circum¬ volutions of the funis umbilicalis round the child’s body; the fhortnefs of the funis, or attachment of the pla¬ centa towards the fundus uteri; fhocks affefting the mother when pregnant, &c. The pofition of the foetus may alfo be influenced by its own motion and ftir- riugs, by the particular form and bulk of its body, by the manner of ftretchirrg of the uterus, by the quan¬ tity of liquor amnii, and by many other circumftances. The fymgtoms that indicate an unfavourable pofi¬ tion of the child, before it can be difcovered by the touch, are very uncertain and fallacious: a crofs birth may, however, be fufpeded, i/?, If the pains be more flack and trifling than or¬ dinary. 2d/y, If the membranes be protruded in a long form like a gut, or the finger of a glove. 3^, If no part of the child can be difcovered when the uterine orifice is confiderably opened. 4/^/y, If the prefenting part through the membranes be fmaller, feels lighter, and gives lefs refiftance than the bulky ponderous head. Laftly, after the rupture of the membranes, if the meconium of the child be palled along with the waters, it is a fign that the breech prefents, or that the child is dead. Preternatural labours are difficult or hazardous, ac¬ cording to, 1. The form of the pelvis, and general health and conftitution of the woman. 2. The bnlk of the child, and its manner of prefeht- ing. 3. The time the waters have been evacuated, and the uterus contrafted round the body of the child. 4. When complicated with plurality of children ; the prolapfus of the funis umbilicalis; the limbs of the child intangled with the chord ; profufe and violent floodings from the attachment of the placenta towards the cervix uteri, &c. Turning is often laborious, and always dangerous in proportion to the force nfed in fearching for and bring¬ ing down the feet; though, in general, the difficulty and hazard are not fo great, as in many cafes Itriftly called laborious, when the head prefems; the treat¬ ment of preternatural labours being better known, and for the moft part eafier put in pradlice. Each clafs of the general divifion of crofs labours includes a variety of different cafes. By confidering a few of every clafs, a general idea of the whole will be formed. I F E R Y. Chap. XII. CLASS I. Case t. The fimpleft and eafieft cafe is the Agrip- La,)(,nr- pan pofture, when the child prefents with the feet. The foot is to be diftinguiffted from the hand, firft, by the weight and refiftance it gives to the touch; fe- condly, by the ihortnefs of the toes; thirdly, by the projecting heel. When the feet prefent in the paflage, the labour fhoyld be allowed to go on as if natural. If the child be of an ordinary fize, the woman in health, the parts well proportioned, in the way of affiftance nothing fur¬ ther feems neceffary but tiie application of a warm cloth round the body of the child, which mull be pro¬ perly fupported till it advances as far as the pains arc able to force it. If the fize be ordinary, or rather fmall, it will fometimes make the mechanical turns, and be entirely pufhed along by the force of the natu¬ ral pains; but it generally itops at the (boulders, after the breech protrudes without the os externum, where the refiftance is fo great, that the accoucheur’s affift¬ ance becomes requifite. In this cafe, the patient muft be placed on her back, properly fupported ; the hand of the accoucheur muft be cautioufly introduced; the parts of the woman muft be gently ftretched; the feet of the child muft be laid hold of, and brought as low in the vagina as poffible; a foft warm cloth muft be wrapped round them, and the extra&ion muft be performed in a flow, cautious manner, making large motions in a circular or lateral dire&ion, refting from time to time, if the pains are gone; and if not, always waiting for the natural ef¬ forts. When advanced as far as the breech, the body, if not already in a proper dire&ion, muft be pufhed up, and gently turned with the face towards the mo¬ ther’s back; and to make fure that the face turns with the body, or to prevent the chin, vertex, or {boulders from catching on the pubes, or angle of the facrum, an extraordinary quarter-turn moremuft be made: this muft be reverfed "previous to the extra&ion; and the difficulty arifing from the obftrudlion of the (boulders muft be removed in the following manner. While the breaft and legs of the child are fupported over the palm and forearm of the one hand of the accoucheur, which he draws towards one fide, he muft introduce two fingers of the other hand at the oppofite fide into the vagina, over the back-part of the ihoulder, as far as the elbow, ande ndeavour in the moft gentle manner to bring down the arm, always remembering, in his movements, to humour the natural motions of the joint: he muft then (hift hands, when the other arm is to be relieved in the fame manner: both arms being brought down, the woman muft now reft a little, when a pain or two ge¬ nerally follows, and the head is alfo forced along. But (hotild the woman be much exhaufted, and if the head does not quickly advance, the child may be loft from delay. The extra&ion of the head in preternatural la¬ bours, is often the moft difficult and the moft danger¬ ous part of the delivery; the caufe of refiftance, when it does not advance, is chiefly owing to its confinement between the angle of the facrum and pubes, when the bulky part of the head is detained at the brim; whe¬ ther the refiftance be here or towards the inferior aper¬ ture of the pelvis, if the head does not advance in a pain or two, the extra&ion muft be made in this man? Chap. XII. MIDWIFERY. Pretema- ner: While the right hand of the accoucheur fupports tui-al body of the child below, with two fingers preffing 'a 0UI'‘ ou either fiioulder, the left hand and fingers mud in the fame manner be placed over the back of the neck, and pulling gently in the direction from pubes to fa- crum, he muft thus endeavour to bring it along: but, fhould the pelvis be narrow, or the child’s head of a large fize, or the face be laterally or anteriorly placed in the pelvis, or, what rarely happens, the os uteri contracted round the neck of the child ; in either of thefe cafes, the accoucheur will fometimes meet with the utmoft difficulty. When the above method there¬ fore fails, he muft introduce two fingers of the right- hand into the child’s mouth, while thofe of 6he left- hand are expanded over the fhoulders, as already direc¬ ted ; and in this way he muft endeavour to relieve it, pulling from pubes to facrum, alternately raifing and depreffing the head till it advances low down, fo that the face defcends from the hollow of the facrum, when the accoucheur muft rife from his feat, aaid bring the hind-head from under the pubes with a half-round turn, imitating that of a natural labour. If the pofition be unfavourable, the face, if pofiible, (hould be turned to the facrum, by pufhing up the head, or by pufhing back the chin: If the contrac¬ tion of the uterus is the caufe of refiftance, which rarely occurs, it muft be gently ftretched with the fingers. Or if the difficulty arifes from circumvolu¬ tions of the chord round the legs, thighs, body, or neck of the child, thefe muft be difengaged in the eafieft manner poffible; it is rarely neceffary to divide the funis on this account. Should every method fail in bringing down the head, the delivery muft be effe&ed by means of the forceps cautioufly paffed over the ears, with the handles under the child’s body, in a direction down¬ wards towards the perinseum. If the pelvis be very narrow, or the head ,of a large fize, it muft be opened by pufhing the fciffars through the occipital bone, fo that the contents of the cranium may be evacuated, and the extra&ion made by means of the forceps, blunt-book, or crotchet. But if the head, by the •efforts to extraft it, be afitually fevered from the body, and left behind in the uterus, an accident which fome¬ times occurs, it muft be delivered by inclofing it in the forceps, while fecured from rolling by preffing externally on the abdomen. If the forceps cannot be applied, the cranium muft be opened, the texture of the brain deftroyed, and the extraftion performed by the fingers of the accoucheur, by the bkint-hook, or by the crotchet. If the under-jaw remains,, the head may be effeAually fecured till locked in the for¬ ceps, or till its bulk be diminifhed, by introducing a finger into the mouth, thrufting it through the jaw under the chin, drawing it down, and palling a liga¬ ture through the perforation. In cafes where the child has been long dead, fhould the belly or thorax be diftended with air or water, and prove the caufe of obftrudlion, the con¬ tents muft be evacuated by opening with the fciffars, or tearing with the crotchet; and in general., where difficulties occur, the delivery muft be -accotnplifhed in that manner the circumftances of the cafe will beft admit of. Cafe 2. When inftead of two, one foot only falls Vol. VII. . 2 into the vagina, the other is fometimes detained by Pietema- catching on the pubes, and, if eafily come at, fhould be brought down, always remembering to humour—— — the natural motion of the joint; but, ihould the leg be folded up along the child’s body, the attempt is fometimes both difficult and dangerous, and ought not to be perfifted in, as the breech will either be forced down by the affiitance of natural pains, or by gently pulling by one leg only. Cafe 3. When one or both knees prefent, the deli¬ very muft be conducted in the fame manner with that of the feet. Cafe 4. When the feet offer along with the breech, this laft muft be pufhed up, while the former are fe¬ cured and brought down, till it be reduced to a foot¬ ling cafe, and otherwife managed as above. Cafe 5. The breech may prefent with the fore-parts to the mother, \Jly Anteriorly. idly. Laterally. Or, ^dly, Pofteriorly. Sometimes the breech may be difcovered,, previous to the rupture of the membranes; but afterwards with more certainty, by the me-conium of the child paffed with the waters, and by the touch. In whatever manner the breech prefents, the deli¬ very fhould be fubmitted to nature, till the child be advanced as far as the thorax, when the fret are to be brought down and laid hold of, the child, if neceffary, pufhed up, the mechanical turns effe&ed, and the de¬ livery otherwife conduced as in a footling cafe. There is much lefs hazard in general, agreeable to an old obfervation of Mauriceau, in allowing the child to advance double, than in precipitating the extraftion by pufhing up to bring down the feet before the parts have been fufficiently dilated^ a pra&ice diffi¬ cult and troublefome to the operator; painful, and fometimes dangerous, to the mother; and by which the child is expofed to the rifle of ftrangulation, from the retention of the head after the delivery of the body. If the child be final], though doubled, it will eafily pafs in that direction; if large, though the la¬ bour be painful, the natural throes are lefs violent and lefs dangerous than the prepofterous help of the accoucheur : If the child thus advances naturally, it will be lefs expofed to fufti*r; if it does not advance, the parts of the mother will be prepared for the ac¬ coucheur to pafs his hand into the pelvis, to raife up the breech, to bring down one or both feet, and de¬ liver as above. Weaknefs in the mother, floodings and convulfions, a very large child, or narrow pelvis, the prolapfus of the funis, or its compreffion between the thighs of the child, or between the child and pelvis, by which its life is endangered, if the chord cannot be reduced above the prefenting part, are the only exceptions to the general rule of treating the bre.ech as a natural labour. The pradlice of helping forward the breech, by paffing the blunt-hook under the ham, is now entirely laid afide: this can never be done with fafety, till the breech be fo low advanced, that the hand of the accoucheur can be ufed, which may be employed with more .advantage as well as fafety. .28 K CLASS 50^4 Preterna¬ tural Labour.^ ^ former cjafs 0f preternatural labours, it is advifeable to truft to nature in many cafes, as the birth will often be accomplifhed without manual af- fiftance: but when the child lies a-crofs, no force of pain can make it advance in that pofition; and, with¬ out proper affiftance, both the mother and child would perifh. If the accoucheur has the management of the la¬ bour from the beginning, the child may be turned, in the worft pofition, without difficulty; but when the waters have been for fomg time evacuated, and the uterus ftxongiy contrafted, turning is laborious to the operator, painful and dangerous to the mother. In fuch cafes, the ancients endeavoured to make the head prefent; but, from its bulk, they often failed, and the attempt was often attended with fatal confe- quences. The method of delivering by the feet is the moil important modern improvement in the praftice of midwifery; an improvement to which many thou- fands owe their lives. When the child lies in a tranfverfe pofition, the accoucheur muft infinuate his hand through the vagina into the uterus in the gentleft manner, fearch for the feet, bring them down with the utmoft caution, and finifh the delivery as in footling-cafes. To effedt this, the following rules fhould be obferved. x. The patient muft be placed in a convenient pofture, that the operator may be able to employ either hand, as the various circumftances of the cafe may require. 2. ~Though the beft pofture, in general, is laying the woman on her back, it will be fometimes neceflary to turn her to her fide; and, in thefe cafes, where the abdomen is pendulous, where it is difficult to reach the feet, or where they lie towards the fundus uteri, the woman fhould be placed on her knees and el¬ bows. 3. An exaft knowledge of the true pofition of the child, and of the ftrufture and ftate of the parts, fhould be acquired, before attempting to make the delivery. 4. The orifice of the uterus fhould be enlarged, £0 as freely to admit the hand; and the ftrong pains fhould be abated, before any attempt be made to de¬ liver. 5. Should the waters be drained off, the parts dry and rigid, and the uterus contra&ed round the child, warm oil muft be injected into the uterus, otherwife its rupture may be endangered. 6. In paffing the hand into the uterus, this muft be done in the gentleft manner; the parts muft be well lubricated with butter or pomatum ; the line of the pelvis muft be attended to; the efforts of the ope¬ rator muft be flow and gradual; and thus the ut¬ moft rigidity in the foft parts will, in time, be over¬ come. 7. The hand muft be introduced only during the remiflion of pain ; when pain comes, the accoucheur muft always reft; otherwife he may pufh his hand, or the foetus, through the body of the uterus. 8. In puffing up, to come at the feet, this muft never be done with the points of the fingers, nor with the hand clenched, but with the palm of the hand, or Chap. XII- the broad expanded fingers, and always during the Pretema- remiffion of pain, and the latter ffould alfo be ob- ferved in bringing down the legs; but, in making the—.1---—. extraction of the body, the efforts of the operator ftould always co-operate with thofe of nature, 9. The hand ffould, if poffible, be introduced along the anteiior parts of the child; and both feet, if eafily come at, ffould be laid hold of. to. In turning, the accoucheur ffould never con- fider the child as dead, nor allow himfelf to be de¬ ceived by fymptoms doubtful and fallacious; the child is fometimes born alive when he would leaft of all ex- ped it; therefore, in puffing up, bringing down the legs, or extrading the body, it ffould be handled with the greateft delicacy. 11. When the hand is within the pelvis, it ffould not always be moved in the line of the umbilicus, but rather towards one fide of the fpine, by which more room is gained, and the prominent angle of the facrum avoided. 1 2. The hand ffould be paffed as far as the middle of the child’s body, before attempting to fearch for the feet; or before attempting to break the mem¬ branes, ffould thefe remain entire, till the aperture of the uterus will admit of the hand. 13. If the hand cannot pafs the prefenting part of the child to come at the feet, inftead of violently puffing back, the part ffould be as it were lifted »p in the pelvis, and moved towards a fide; by which means difficulties may be furmounted, and great danger often prevented. By attending carefully to the above rules, lacera¬ tion of the uterus, floodings, convulfions, inflamma¬ tions, and their confequences, may be prevented; ac¬ cidents that frequently happen in the hands of ignorant raff operators. Cafe 1.—The artn prefenting. The right is to be diftinguiffed from the left by laying hold of the child’s hand, in the fame manner as in (baking hands; and thus the general pofition of the child may be judged of. When the accoucheur is called in early, the reduc¬ tion is generally praCficable : but if the arm pro¬ trudes through the vagina, and the ffoulder be locked in the pelvis, it is neediefs, by fruitlefs efforts, for the accoucheur to fatigue himfelf, and diftrefs his patient, to attain a point by which he will gain no very ma¬ terial advantage ; as the hand can be paffed into the uterus by the fide of the child’s arm, which will, of courfe, return into the uterus when the feet are brought down into the vagina. In order to make the delivery, the hand of the ac¬ coucheur, well lubricated, muft be conduced into the uterus by the fide of the child’s arm, along the tho¬ rax, at the oppofite fide of the pelvis where the head lies; if any difficulty occurs in coming at the feet, this hand muft be withdrawn, and the other intro¬ duced in its ftead; and if ftill the hand cannot eafily pafs beyond the child’s head or ffoulder, the prefenting part muft be raifed up, or gently puflied to a fide,, that one or both feet may be laid hold of, which muft be brought as low as poffible, puffing up the head and (boulders, and pulling down the feet alternately, till they advance into the vagina, or fo low that a noofe.or fillet can be applied; and thus by pulling with MIDWIFERY. CLASS II. Chap. xir. Preterna- with the one hand by means of the noofe, and pnfliing tmal with the other, the feet can be brought down and the Labour, finjfhed, however difficult. Tiie method of forming the noofe is by paffing the two ends of a tape or garter through the middle when doubled; or ffiould the garter be thick, by making an eye on one extremity, and paffing the other end through it: this, mounted on the points of the fingers and thumb of the accoucheur’s hand, muft be con¬ veyed into the uterus, paffed over one or both feet and ankles, and fecured by pulling at the other ex¬ tremity. Cafe 2.—The fide. This is difcovered by feeling the ribs. Cafe 3.—The hack. This is difcovered by feeling the fpine. Cafe 4.—The belly. This is known by the funis. Thefe cafes occur rarely, as the uterus muft with difficulty admit of fuch pofitions. When any of thefe 7 parts do prcfent, the child feldom paffes any part of the brim of the pelvis, and is, in general, more eafily turned than in feveral pofiures in which it may offer. The belly, from the difficulty with which the legs can be bended backwards, except the child be flaccid, putrid, or before the time, will very feldom dire&ly prefent; if fo, it will be early and readily difcovered by the prolapfus of the funis, and there will be no great difficulty to come at the feet, and deliver. The rule in all thefe cafes is, to pafs the hand into the womb in the gentleft manner poffible, and to fearch for the feet and bring them down. CLASS III. When the child lies longitudinally in the uterus, with the arm or flioulder prefenting, and the head more or lefs over the pubes, or laterally in the pelvis, the feet towards the fundus uteri, the waters evacu¬ ated, and uterus contrafted round the child’s body; thefe are the moft difficult and laborious of all the cafes of preternatural labours. Here the protruding arm ought, if poffible, to be reduced, and the head brought into the pelvis; for unlefs the child be very fmall, it is impoffible for the head and arm to pafs along together. In order to effeft the redudion of the arm, different inftruments have been invented; but the hand of the accoucheur is preferable to every thing of this kind, whether of ancient or modern invention. This, con- du&ed by the arm that protrudes, muft be infinuated through the vagina into the uterus, as far as the fhoulder of the child, which, if the accoucheur can raife up, he will generally fucceed in reducing the arm. Should this method fail, he muft attempt to pufh up the fore-arm at the elbow; but, in bending it, muft be very cautious, to avoid overftraining or diflocating the joint. In whatever manner the re- du&ion is accompliftied, if any method proves fuc- cefsful, the arm muft be retained till the head, by the force of natural pain, enters the pelvis, and prevents its return; otherwife the arm will defcend, ^s often as it is reduced. But if the attempts for redudion prove impradi- cable, the woman muft be placed on her knees and elbows, and the accoucheur, with great deliberation, muft endeavour gently to Aide up his hand between 5°i5 the uterus and child as far in the uterus as poffible, to Preterna- lift up the head and flioulders, and fearch for and tural bring down one or both feet, in the belt manner the Labour. various circumftances of the cafe will admit of. As foon as they can be laid hold of, they muft be gra-* dually brought down into the vagina, fo low that the noofe can be applied over them, which muft be fixed and pulled with the one hand, while the head and upper parts of the body are raifed and gently puftied up with the other. Should the arm have been long protruded without the os externum, much fwelled, and cold; the waters drained off; the uterus ftrongly contrafted; and the pofuion of the child fuch as to render it impradticable, either to reduce the protruded limb, or to fearch for and bring down the feet; the head, if eafily come at, muft be opened and extra&ed with the blunt-hook or crotchet; or a crotchet muft be fixed amongft the ribs, and the breech or feet thus pulled down. Should the pelvis be very narrow, and unfurmount- able difficulties occur, the arm muft be twifted off at the elbow, though this expedient is rarely neceffary; aud the delivery muft in general be accompliflied as the prudence and judgment of the operator can bed direft; always remembering, when one life muft fall a facrifice, that the tree muft be preferved at the ex¬ pence of the fruit. In this, as in other cafes, the fwelling and coldnefs of the arm, and even want of pulfation in the artery, are not infallible figns of the child’s death; and fhould this even be fo, it makes little difference in the mode of delivery, unlefs that it will lead us to pay all our attention to the mother: For a living child gives no more affiftance in the birth than a dead one, what¬ ever authors have faid to the contrary. When both arms prefent, the delivery muft be conduced in the fame manner as when one only pre- fents. The former cafe is lefs difficult than the latter, as the head feldom advances far when both arms fall into the paffage, fo that they can either be reduced, or there is eafy accefs to come at the feet to bring them down and deliver. CLASS IV. When the membranes remain entire, till the foft parts are fo much dilated, that the hand will readily find admittance; or when the hand can be paffed with¬ in the cavity of the uterus, immediately after the rup¬ ture of the membranes, fo that part of the water may be retained ; the delivery may be accompliftied, in the moft troublefome preternatural cafes, with the greateft ' fafety and expedition. But when the waters have been long evacuated, and the uterus clofely contrac¬ ted round the body of the child, the cafe will prove laborious to the operator, painful and dangerous to the mother and child. When there is reafon to fufpeft that the child lies acrofs, which can often be afcertained, either by feel¬ ing the prefenting part through the membranes, or by fame of the figns of preternatural labours already men¬ tioned ; the woman fhould be managed in fuch a man¬ ner, that the membranes may be preferved entire as long as poffible; for this purpofe fhe fhould keep ’ quiet in bed, and her pofture fhould be fuch as isleafl favourable for ftraining, or exerting force during the 28 K 2 pain: MIDWIFERY. ^oz6 MID W Preierna- pain : (lie Hiould be touched as feldom as poffible, till '■l,rul the os internum be fuffifiently dilated. The accoucheur a )OU’'* ftould then introduce his hand iti a conical form, well lubricated, into the vagina, and through the aperture of the internal orifice, infinuating it between the ute¬ rus and the membranes, til! it advances almoft as high as the fundus uteri, when he mud break the mem¬ branes, by pinching fome part of them between a fin¬ ger and thumb, or by forcibly pufhing a finger thro’ them ; he muft then fearch for, and endeavour to lay hold of, one or both feet, and deliver. Should the membranes be ruptured in the attempt, he muft be ready to run up his hand as quickly as can be done with fafety, when, part of the waters by his arm being retained, the operation of turning will be facilitated. Should the placenta adhere on that fide of the uterus where the hand is paffed, it muft again be withdrawn, and the other hand be introduced in the oppofite fide. Floodings. It has been already obferved, that a flooding feldom proves fatal to the mother before the •feventh month of pregnancy ; after which period, from its duration or excefs, the life of both the mother and child may fuffer. Should therefore a flooding at¬ tack a woman in the two laft months of pregnancy, from whatever caufe it may arife, and whether attend¬ ed with labour-pains or not, if the hsemorrhage be fo confiderable that (he is ready to fink under it, and that cold applications and other means of checking the evacuation fhall fail, the woman muft be placed in a proper pofture, her friends prudently apprifed of her danger, and the delivery muft be immediately perform¬ ed, by ftretching the vagina and os uteri', till the hand of the operator can eafily gain admittance to break the membranes, catch hold of the feet, and ex¬ tract the child. If it can poffibly be prevented, the membranes in flooding cafes (hould never be broken till the aperture of the uterine orifice will freely admit the hand to pafs, that, after the evacuation of the waters, the ac¬ coucheur may have it in his power either to make the delivery or not, according as the effufion continues or abates. Soon after attempting to ftretch the parts, fhould the labour-pains come on, the waters begin to be col- le&ed, and the uterine haemorrhage diminifti, the ac¬ coucheur muft then withdraw his hand, and manage the delivery according to circumftances. And if, for inftance, the child prefents naturally, the delivery muft be trufted to nature^ otherwife, if the flooding conti¬ nues, or the child prefents acrofs, the accoucheur muft perfift in his work, going on flowly, and with the ut- moft delicacy, till he he able to reach the feet, to bring them down, and deliver ; always remembering, during this procefs, that the ftrength of the woman, by proper nouriftiment, be fupported. But fhould the placenta adhere to the cervix, or up¬ on the os uteri, the greateft danger is to be dreaded for thus the flooding will commence fronr the moment the os uteri begins to ftretch, and will increafe fo ra¬ pidly, that the woman, if not fpeedily delivered,muft inevitably fink under it. The whole body of the pla¬ centa, in fuch. cafes, is fometimes feparated when the labour has made but little progrefs; fa that the'wo¬ man will often perifh, whether delivery be attempted I F E R Y. Chap. XIII. or not. As this, however, iS the only expedient by Preterna- which her life, and that of the child, can be faved ; tural in every cafe where the placenta prefents, which the Laboul accoucheur will readily difeover by the touch of the foft pappy fubftance of that body, he muft immediate¬ ly place the woman in a proper poflure, infinuate his hand gently by the fide of the protruding placenta, break the membranes, fearch for the feet of the child, and bring them down, fo that the delivery may be fi- nifhed with all pofiible expedition; for, in this un¬ happy cafe, a few minutes delay may prove fatal. The after-birth ought never to be extracted before the child, if it can poffibly be avoided. After delivery, time fhould be given for the uterus to contradf, that nature may thus throw off the pla¬ centa, which never ought to be hurried away, unlefs the continuance or a recurrence of the haemorrhage render it neceffary. Prolapfus of the funis. Difficulties arifing from the funis falling down into the vagina, and prefenting along with fome part of the child, may, in this clafs of the divifion of preternatural labours, be included. A preffure on the chord, in fuch a degree as to in¬ terrupt the circulation, muft infallibly deftroy the life of the child : hence a coldnefs and want of pulia¬ tion in the chord is the trueft criterion of the death of the child ; and hence, in every cafe where the chord is prolapfed before any bulky part of the child, if the delivery be not accomplifhed with expedition, the child will perifh. This is only to be prevented by replacing the chord, and retaining it above the prefenting part, till this laft, by the force of labour-pains, be fo far advanced as to prevent the return of the former; or the child muft be turned and brought by the feet, pro¬ vided this can be done with fafety to the mother. But it is often difficult to fucceed in the attempt of the one or other; and, if the woman has ftrong pains, fuch attempts are not to be hazarded, as the confequences may prove fatal. When the-accoucheur is thus fituated between two puzzling difficulties, the preference muft always be gi¬ ven to the mother. If the child be fmall, and the pelvis well formed, which may be known by the hi- ftory of former deliveries, and if the labour goes on quickly, the child will generally be born alive ^ but if, oa the contrary, the child be above the ordinary fize, and the pelvis rather narrow, turning will prove a dangerous operation to the mother, and there is little profpeft of faving the infant by this means. Befides our former divifion of labours, plurality of children, monjlers, extra-uterine foetufes, and the C however, was delivered at the end of her time, in the ordinary way. La Mott relates the hi- ftory of a woman in a preternatural labour, whofe ute¬ rus and child hung down pendulous to the middle of her thigh, but whom, notwithftanding, he fafely deli¬ vered : and Ruyfch gives a cafa where the midwife re¬ duced the hernia before delivery; although it was pro- lapfed as far as the knee, the delivery was fafely per¬ formed, and the woman had a good recovery. Laftly, The pofition or bulk, of the child. Since the pra&ice of turning the child and deliver¬ ing by the feet, and the late improvement of obftetri- cal inftruments, this operation is never to be performed on account of pofition, monftxofity, or any other ob- ftacle on the part of the child. Upon the whole, when the pelvis is faulty to fuch a degree, that no inftrument can be conduced to tear and extraft the child, this perhaps is the only cafe wherein this operation Ihould be performed on the li¬ ving fubjeft. Incifions through the teguments of the abdomen to extrafl extra-uterine fcetufes, or bones of foetufes, do not properly fall under the name of Ctefa- "rean^feftion, as that name implies incifion of the uterus alfo. When a woman advanced in pregnancy dies fudden- ly, either by accident or by natural difeafe, the Casfa- rean feftion is recommended as an expedient to pre- ferve the life of the child. This is a very proper mea- fure, provided the death of the mother be afcertained; but fometimes it is a very nice and difficult point to diftinguiffi between a deliquium and death; and there¬ fore the accoucheur, on fuch an occafion, mull adl with the utmoll circumfpe&ion. If the operation be de¬ layed but a very ffiort while after the mother expires, it will probably be in vain to make the attempt; for, whatever fabulous (lories .may be related to the con¬ trary, there are few authentic cafes of the foetus of any animal furviving the mother, perhaps an hour ; arid therefore every thing Ihould be in readinefs to extraft the child with all poffible expedition, after the event of the mother’s death. But, in fuch cafes, the ago¬ nies of death often perform the part of labour, and the child is fometimes thrown off in articulo mortis; or the os uteri is fo much dilated, that there is eafjr ac- cefs to pafs the hand, turn the child, and deliver. Thus one fhould be very cautious in having recourfe to this operation, even in the above circumllances j which fhould never be done, 1. Till the death of the mother be afcertained be¬ yond doubt; 2. Till the (late of the os uteri be examined ; 3. Till the confent of the relations be obtained ; And, Laflly, It need not be undertaken, except where the mother dies fuddenly, between the 7th and 9th month. It is unneceffary where the,difeafe has been linger¬ ing ; in fuch cafes the child commonly dies before the mother. When it is doubtful whether the child be alive or not, it maybe determined by applying, the hand on the abdomen of the mother about the time of, and for a little while after, her death, when the life of the child will be difcovered by its motions and ftrug- Vol. VII. 3 I F E R Y. 5031 gling. Csefareau Thus having pointed out the different caufes that 0Peration- determine this operation, it may be obferved, that it is a frightful and hazardous one ; and although per¬ formed fuccefsfully in a number of cafes, yet, in many others, it has failed, and the woman has died either immediately or foon after. It ffiould never, therefore, be undertaken but on extraordinary and defperate occafions ; and then it is not only advifeablc, but incumbent on every pradlitioner to whom fuch cafes occur. To conclude, it may not be improper to give a few direftions with regard to the method of performing the operation on the living fubjeifl. Having emptied the bladder, and evacuated the contents of the intellines with repeated emollient gly- fters; the patient being encouraged, with proper cor¬ dials, and every other requiiite in readinefs, (he mutt be placed on 3 table or bed, with her left fide gently raifed with pillows or bolllers, and properly fecured by affillants. An incifion mud be made with a com¬ mon convex fcalpel, beginning rather below the navel at the middle fpace between it and the fpine of the os ilium, carrying it obliquely forwards towards this bone, fo that the wound in length may exceed fix inches. This external wound is to be carried through the common teguments of the abdomen till the pe¬ ritonaeum is expofed, when the operator fhould reft a little, till the haemorrhage be entirely abated. He mull then, with great caution, make a fmall opening through this membrane, introduce his finger, and up¬ on this a fealpel (which is preferable to feiffars), and with great expedition make a complete dilatation ; he mull now wipe away the blood with a fpunge, prefs the omentum or intellines gently to a fide, if in the way, and endeavour to difeover to what part of the uterus the placenta adheres, that it may be avoided in making the incifion. This may eafily be known by a thicknefs and folidity in the part, which diftin- guilh it from the reft; of the uterus; it is Hill more eafily difcovered when the membranes are entire. The blood-veffels are lefs in number, and fmaliell in the middle and interior part of the uterus, which therefore, if the placenta does not interfere, is the proper place for making the incifion, which mull be performed with the utmoll attention left the child Ihould be wounded : if the membranes are entire, more freedom may be ufed, and vice verfa. The dire&ion and length of the wound of the uterus mud be the fame .with the external one. The child mull now be quickly extracted, and the placenta carefully fepa- rated : thefe mull be given to an affiftant, who will divide, the chord, and take care of the child, as the operator’s attention mud be wholly bellowed on the mother. The'coagulated blood, &c. being removed by a fpunge wrung out of warm water, (left the ute¬ rus or intellines be protruded, which are very troubie- fome to reduce), the lips of the external wound muff be quickly brought together, and .retained by an affiftant till fecured by a few Hitches ; generally three will be fufficient; as many needles Ihould be- ready threeded with pretty large broad ligatures ; the mid¬ dle Hitch ought to be made firll; the needle Ihould be introduced at a proper diftance, i. e. about an inch and one-fourth from the fide of the wound, carrying 28 L it $032 M I D W Cafarean jt firft from without inwards, and then from within Operation. 0lltWards, fecuring with a double flip a knot, to be ’ ready to untie, left violent Jenfion^ or inflammation fhould enfue; under the knot a foft comprefs of lint, fharpee, or rolled plafler, fhould be applied, and the whole drefilngs mull be fecured by a proper comprefs and bandage. The patient mud be afterwards treat¬ ed in the fame manner as after lithotomy, or any other capital operation. ghneritur. To what caufe is the unfuccefsful event of this operation to be imputed ? When the operation proves fatal, to what immediate caufe are jpe to afcribe the death of the patient ? Is it nervous, or uterine irritation, from cutting, that kills? Is it in¬ ternal haemorrhage, or the extravafation of fluids into the cavity of the abdomen ? Or are not the fatal con- fequences rather to be imputed to the accefs of the air on the irritable vifcera ? This can only therefore be prevented by expofing thefe parts for as fhcwt a fpace of time as poffible. Dr Monro, the prefent anatomical profeflbr at Edinburgh, in making experiments on young fmall animals, fuch as bitches, cats, frogs, &c. by opening the cavity of the abdomen, and tying the biliary dudds, remarks, that though a large opening into the abdomen be made by incifion, if the wound be quickly clofed and ditched, the animal will recover, and no bad confequences follow; bin if expofed a few minutes to the air, dreadful pain foon comes on, which the creature exprefies by the fevered agonies ; eonvulfions at laft enfue, and death within four or fix hours after the operation. On opening the abdomen after death, the whole vifcera are found to be in an inflamed {late, and univerfally adhering to one ano¬ ther. He has often repeated the experiment, and the fame appearances as often take place. May not the analogy here juflly apply to the human fubjedl ? And, in performing the Casfarean operation, fhould we not be very careful that the vifcera ,be expofedas little as pofiible, and that the Wound be covered with the utmoft poffible expedition? The ill fuccefs which generally attends the Csefarean operation fome years ago, induced fome French prac¬ titioners to try a new method of extradling the child when, through the narrownefs of the pelvis, or any other caufe, it is impoffible to deliver the woman either naturally or by means of indrurtients. This was by cutting the fymphyfis of the- os pubis; by which operation it was thought that the bones wmiild feparate to a fufficient degree to make room for the paffage of the child. This operation is found not to be'fo fatal in itfelf as the Casfarean feAion ; but un* happily it doth not promife with any certainty to afford the neceffary relief to the woman. Dr Vrighan temarks, i. That it is extremely difficult to execute it with a thick knife, however {harp in the edge. The ligamentous and griftly fubflance between the bones is fo incompreffible that it will hardly make Voom for the thicker part of the knife to follow its tedge ; but a thin knife goes through it with great feafe. 2. Whoever has had a little pra&ice, will find, that it may be executed without any danger of wound¬ ing the bladder or urethra ; becaufe, in cutting cau- tioufly with a thin knife, from above downwards and inwards, the inftant that the whole is cut through, I F E R Y. Chap. XV. there is both a particular found, which informs us that Caefareaa the bufinefs is done, and the two bones fly afunder to 0Peratlon- a fenfible diftance. 3. When the fymphyfis is completely divided, the offa pubis-feparate fo little a way, that fome force is neceffary to produce an interval of half an inch ; and upon increaiing the force till the fpace of interval comes to two inches and an half, there is a continued crafn, from the tearing of the ligamentous fibres at the pofterior joints, viz at the fides of the facrum. This, though requiring great force, is eafily affe6led, by bringing the thighs to right angles with the trunk of the body, and preffing the knees gradually out¬ wards and backwards. In that way, a finall force has a great effctl, becaufe it has the advantage of a long lever, and is affifled by almoft the whole weight of the lower extremities. 4. When fuch a violent feparation of the ofla pubis has been produced, the faerum and offa innominata remain in contadl only at their pofterior parts ; the ligaments that connedl them at the fore part being all, more or lefs, torn afunder. 5. The mifchief that may enfue upon cutting one joint of the pelvis, and tearing the other two afunder, can be afcertained by experience only. It is propofed, that the inciiion at the pubes {ball not penetrate into the cavity of the abdomen. If, by accident, that (hould happen, the operation would .of courfe be very dangerous. Lacerations of tendons, ligaments, and fleftiy parts, when not complicated with an external wound, generally heal up in a kindly manner, as we fee in caies of the ruptured tendo achillis, diflocations, and fra&ures. But, on the other hand, at the time of parturition, the body is remarkably difpofed to an inflammatory fever, which is alway very dangerous when it rifes to any height; and therefore, whatever expofes the body to confiderable inflammation at that time, we may prefume, muft be attended with fome danger. And it muft likewife be remembered, that women who are exceedingly crooked, are commonly fo weak that they eafily fink under any great difeafe. At the fame time our author allows, that the Casfarean fe&ion, though it may fave the child, yet will almoft always be fatal to the mother. The cutting of the fymphyfis, on the other hand, hath no proba¬ bility of faving the child, and the effe6l on the mother muft be doubtful. He indeed gives no inflance of the bad fuccefs of the cutting the fymphyfis, though he gives an additional one of the fatality of the Crnfarean operation. As a decifive proof of the ineffi¬ cacy of the cutting the fymphyfis to fave the child, he gives the figures of thediftovted pelvis of two womens by which it appears, that the utmoft dilatation ufed by this means could have amounted to no more than to enlarge the paffage to a circle of two inches and a quarter, which is not at all fufficient to afford an exit to a living child. In all cafes therefore, when the mother cannot be delivered without deftroying the child, he gives the preference to the crotchet; after the ufe of which, he fays, if the operation is flowly performed, by allowing intervals of cafe, as in the natural labour, women recover almoft as foon as in other cafes. Yet, notwhhftanding all that can be argued againft this operation, it is plain, that as it Chap, Manage roent after Delivery. XVI. MIDWIFERY. gives a probable chance of faring the mother’s life, though at the expence of the child, it ought always to be preferred to the Casfarean fe&ion, which faves the child, but deftroys the mother. Neverthelefs, it would be (hocking to think of performing even this operation where there was a poffibility of accomplifti- ing the delivery by any other means. Chap. XVI. Of the Management of Women after delivery. The woman being delivered of the child and pla¬ centa, let a foft linen-cloth, warmed, be applied to the external parts ; and if (he complains much of a fmarting forentffs, feme pomatum maybe fpread upon it. The linen that was laid below her, to fpunge up the difeharges, mud be removed, and replaced with others that are clean, dry, and warm. Let her lie on her back, with her legs extended clofe to each other; or upon her fide, if (lie thinks (he can lie caCer in that pofition, until (he recovers from the fatigue : if (be is (pent and exhaufted, let her take a little warm wine or caudle, or, according to the common cuftom, fome nutmeg and fugar grated together in a fpoon : the principal defign of adminiftering this powder, which among the good women is feldom negledted, is to fup- ply the want of fome cordial draught, when the pa¬ tient is too w'eak to be raifed, or fuppofed to be in danger of retchings from her domach’s being over¬ loaded. When (he hath in fome meafure recovered her drength and^ fpirits, let the cloths be removed from the parts, and others applied in their room ; and, if there is a large difeharge from the uterus, let the wet linen below her be alfo (hifted, that (he may not run the ri(k of catching cold. When the patient is either weak or faintidi, (he ought not to be taken out of bed, or even raifed up to have her head and body (hifted, until (lie is a little re¬ cruited ; otherwife (he will be in danger of repeated faintings, attended with convulfions, which fometimes end in death. To prevent thefe bad cohfequences, her fkirt and petticoats ought to be loofened and pulled down over the legs, and replaced by another well warmed, with a broad head-band to be dipt in below, and brought up over her thighs and hips: a warm double cloth mutt be laid on the belly, which is to be furrounded by the head-band of the (kirt pinned mo¬ derately tight over the cloth, in order to comprefs the vifeera and the relaxed parietes of the abdomen, more or lefs, as the woman can eafily bear it; by which means the uterus is kept firm in the lower part of the abdomen, and prevented from rolling from fide to fide when the patient is turned : but the principal end of this compreifion is to hinder too great a quan¬ tity of blood from ruflung into the relaxed veffels of the abdominal contents, efpecially when the uterus is emptied all of a fudden by a quick delivery. The preflure being thus fuddenly removed, the head is all at once robbed of its proportion of blood, and the immediate revulfion precipitates the patient into dan¬ gerous lypothymia. For this rtafon the belly ought to be firmly com- prefied by the hands of an afiiftant, until the bandage is applied ; or, in lieu of it, a long towel, (heet, or roller, to make a fuitable comprefiion : but for this 2 purpofe different methods are ufed in different coun¬ tries, or according to the different circumftances of the patients. The head-cloaths and (hift ought alfo to be changed, becaufe with fweating in time of la¬ bour they are rendered wet and difagreeable. Several other applications are neceffary, when the external or internal parts are rent or inflamed, misfortunes that fometimes happen in laborious and preternatural cafes.—We (hail conclude this chapter with' giving fome neceffary dire&ions with regard to air, diet, &c. Although we cannot remove the patient immedi¬ ately after delivery into another climate, we can qua¬ lify the air fo as to keep it in a moderate and fain- tary temper, by rendering it warm or cold, moift or dry, ■ according to the circumftances of the occafion. With regard to diet, women, in time of labour, and even till the ninth day after delivery, ought to eat little folid food, and none at all during the firft five or feven : let them drink plentifully of warm diluting fluids, fuch as barley-water, gruel, chicken-water, and teas ; caudles are alfo commonly ufed, compofed of water-gruel boiled up with mace and cinnamon, to which, when drained, is added a third or fourth part of wdiite wine, or lefs, if the patient drinks plentifully, fweetened with fugar to their tafte : this compofition is termed 'whitecaudle ; whereas, if ale is ufed infiead of wine, it goes under the name of hro’wn caudle. In fome countries, eggs are added to both kinds; but, in that cafe, the woman is not permitted to eat meat or broths till after the fifth or feventh day : in this country, however, as eggs are no part of the ingre¬ dients, the patient is indulged with weak broth fooner, and fometimes allowed to eat a little boiled chicken. But all thefe differeht preparations are to be preferibed weaker or ftronger, with regard to the fpices, wine, or ale, according to the different conftitutions and fituations of different patients: for example, if (he is low and weak, in confequence of an extraordinary difeharge of any kind, either before or after de¬ livery, or if the weather is cold, the caudles and broths may be made the ftronger ; but if (lie is of a full habit of body, and has the leaft tendency to a fever, or if the feafon is exceffively hot, thefe drinks ought to be of a very weak confidence, or the patient reflri&ed to gruel, tea, barley and chicken water, and thefe varied ac¬ cording to the emergency of the cafe. Her food mutt be light and eafy of digeftion, fuch as panada, bifeuit, and fago; about the fifth or feventh day (he may eat a little boiled chicken, or the lighteft kind of young meat ; but thefe laft may be given fooner or later, according to the circumftances of the cafe and the appetite of the patient. In the regi¬ men as to the eating and drinking, we (hould rather err on the abftemious fide than indulge the woman with meat and ftrong fermented liquors, even if thefe laft {hould be mod agreeable to her palate: for we find by experience, that they are apt to increafe or bring on fevers, and that the moft nourifliing arfd fa- lutary diet is that which we have above preferibed. Every thing that is difficult of digeftion, or quickens the circulating fluids, muft of neceffity promote a fever; by which the neceffary difeharges are obltrudted, and the patient’s life endangered. 28 L 2 As 5033 Manafl*. ment after Deliver)'. 5°34 M I D W As to the article of fleeping and watching, the pa¬ tient-mutt be kept as free from noife as poflible, by covering the floors and flairs with carpets and cloths, oiling the hinges of the doors, filencing the bells, ty¬ ing up the knockers, and in noify ftreets ftrovvirjg the pavement with ftraw; if, notwithftanding thefe pre¬ cautions, fhe is difturbed, her ears muft be fluffed with cotton, and opiates adminiflered to procure fleep ; be- caufe watching makes her reftlefs, prevents perfpira- tion, and promotes a fever. Motion and reft are another part of the nonnatu¬ rals to which we ought to pay particular regard. By toffing about, getting out of bed, or fitting up too long, the perfpiration is difcouraged and interrupted ; and in this laft attitude the uterus, not yet fully con- traded, hangs down, ftretching the ligaments, occa- fioning pain, cold (hiverings, and a fever : for the pre¬ vention of thefe bad fymptoms, the patient muft be kept quiet in bed till after the fourth or fifth day, and then be gently lifted up in the bed-cloaths, in a lying pofture, until the bed can be adjufted, into which (he muft be immediately reconveyed, there to continue, for the moff part, till the ninth day, after which pe¬ riod women are not fo fubjed to fevers as immediate¬ ly after delivery. Some there are who, from the na¬ ture of their conftitutions, or other accidents, recover more flowly ; and fuch are to be treated with the fame caution after as before the ninth day, as the cafe feems to indicate : others get up, walk about, and re¬ cover, in a much fhorter time; but thefe may fome time or other pay dearly for their foolhardinefs, by encouraging dangerous fevers : fo that we ought ra¬ ther to err on the fafe fide than run any rilk what- foever. What next comes under confideration is the cir- cumftance of retention and excretion. We have for¬ merly obferved, that, in time of labour, before the head of the child is locked into the pelvis, if the wo¬ man has not had an eafy paffage in her belly that fame day, the re&um and colon ought to be emptied by a glyfter, which will affift the labour, prevent the difa- greeable excretion of the foeces before the child’s head, and enable the patient to remain two or three days af¬ ter, without the neceffity of going to ftool. How¬ ever, ftiould this precaution be negledled, and the pa¬ tient very coftive after delivery, we muft beware of throwing up ftimulatingglyfters, or adminifteringftrong oathartics, left they fttould bring on too many loofe ftools, which, iPthey cannot be ftopt, fometimes pro¬ duce fatal confequences, by obftrufting the perfpira¬ tion and lochia, and exhauftingthe woman, fo as that ihe will die all of a fudden ; a cataftrophe which hath frequently happened from this pra&ice. Wherefore, if it be neceffary to empty the inteftines, we ought to prefcribe nothing but emollient glyfters, or fome very gentle opener, fuch as manna, or elstt. hniiivum. But no excretion is of more: confequence to the patient’s re¬ covery than a free perfpiration ; which is fo abfolute- ly neceftary, that unlefs file has a moifture continually on the furface' of her body, for fome days after the inrtb, Ihe feldom recovers to advantage : her health, therefore, in a great meafure, depends upon her ehjoy- ing undifturbed repofe, and a conftant breathing fweat, which prevents a fever, by carrying off the tenfion, and afiifts the equal difcharge of the lochia : and when I F E R Y. Chap. XVII. thefe are obftru&ed, and a fever enfues with pain and Floodings, reftleflhefs, nothing relieves the patient fo effefluxlly “ as reft and profufe fweating, procured by opiates and fudorifics at the beginning of the complaints; yet thefe laft muft be more cautioully prefcribed in exceffive hot than in cool weather. The laft of the. nocnaturals to he confidered are the paffionsof the mind, which alfo require particular atten¬ tion. The patient’s imagination muft not be difturbed by the news of any extraordinary accident which may have happened to her family or friends : for fuch in¬ formation hath been known to carry off the labour- pains entirely, after they were begun, and the-woman has funk under her dejeftion of fpirits : and, even after delivery, thefe unfeafonable communications have pro¬ duced fuch anxiety as obftrufled all the neceflary excre¬ tions, and brought on a violent fever and convulfions, that ended in death. Chap. XVII. Of violent Floodings. All women, when the placenta feparates, and af¬ ter it is delivered, lofe more or lefs red blood, from the quantity of half a pound to that of one pound, or even two; but fhould it exceed this proportion, and continue to flow without diminution, the patient is in great danger of her life : this hazardous haemorrhage is known by the violence of the difcharge, wetting frefh cloaths as faft as they can be applied; from the pulfe becoming low and weak, and the countenance turning pale ; then the extremities grow cold, ftie finks into faintings, and, if the difcharge is not fpeedily flopped or diminifhed, is feized with convulfions, which often terminate in death. This dangerous efflux is occafioned by every thing that hinders the emptied uterus from contradting, fuch as great weaknefs and lafiitude, in confequence of re¬ peated floodings before delivery ; the hidden evacua¬ tion of the uterus; fometimes, though feldom, it proceeds from part of the placenta’s being left in the womb; it may happen when there is another child, or more, Hill undelivered; when the womb is kept diftended with a large quantity of coagulated blood; or when it is inverted by pulling too forcibly at the placenta. In this cafe, as there is no time to be loft, and in¬ ternal medicines cannot a& fo fuddenly as to anfwer the purpofe, we muff have immediate recourfe to ex¬ ternal application. If the diforder be owing to weak¬ nefs, by which the uterus is difabled from contradfing itfelf, fo that the mouths of the veffels are left open ; or, though contradfed a little, yet not enough to re- ftrain the haemorrhage of the thin blood ; or if, in fe- parating the placenta, fhe accoucheur has fcratched or tore the inner furface or membrane of the womb ; in thefe cafes, fuch things muft be ufed as will afiift the contradfile power of the uterus, and hinder the blood from flowing fo faft into it and the neighbouring vef¬ fels ; for this purpofe, cloths dipped in any cold a- ftringent fluid, fuch as oxycrate, or red tart wine, may be applied to the back and belly. Some prefcribe venefedtion in the arm, to the amount of five or fix ounces, with a view of making revulfion : if the pulfe is ftrong, this may be proper; otherwife, it will do more harm than good. Others order ligatures, for compreffing the returning veins at the hams, arms, Chap. XVIII. M I D W After-pains and neck, to retain as much blood as poffible in • the extremities and head. Befides thefe applica¬ tions, the vagina may be filled with tow or linen- rags, dipped in the abovementioned liquids, in which a little' alum, or fachar-faturni hath been diffolved : nay, fome praftitioners injeft proof-fpirits warmed, or, foaking them up in a rag or fpunge, introduce and fqueeze them into the uterus, in order to conlhinge the veffcls. If the flooding proceeds from another child, the re¬ tention of the placenta, or coagulated blood, thefe ought immediately to be extracted ; and if there is an inverfion of the uterus, it muft be fpeedily reduced. Should the haemorrhage, by thefe methods, abate a little, but ftill continue to flow, though not in fuch a quantity as to bring on fudden death, fome red wine and jelly ought to be prefcribed for the patient, who Ihould take it frequently, and a little at a time ; but above all things chicken or mutton broths, admini- ftered in the fame manner, for fear of overloading the weakened ftomach, and occafioning retchings: thefe repeated in fmall quantities, will gradually fill the ex- haufted vefl'els, and keep up the circulation. If the pulfe continues ftrong, it will be proper to order re¬ peated draughts of barley-water, acidulated with elixir vitriol : but if the circulation be weak and languid, extract of the bark, diflblved in aq. cinnamomi tenuis, and given in fmall draughts, or exhibited in any other form, will be fervieeable ; at the fame time, lulling the patient to reft with opiates. Thefe, indeed, when the firft violence of the flood is abated, if properly and cautioufly ufed, are generally more effedual than any other medicine. Chap. XVIII. Of the After-pains. After-pains commonly happen when the fibrous part of the blood is retained in the uterus or vagina, and formed into large clots, which are detained by the fudden contra&ion of the os internum and exter¬ num, after the placenta is delivered : or, if thefe ftiould be extra&ed, others will fometimes be formed, tho’ not fo large as the firft, becaufe the cavity of the womb is continually diminilhing after the birth. The uterus, in contrafting, prefles down thefe coagulums to the os internum ; which being again gradually ftretched, produces a degree of labour-pains, owing to the irritation of its nerves : in confequence of this uneafinefs, the woman fqueezes the womb as in real labour; the force being increafed, the clots are pulhed along,' and when they are delivered Ihe grows eafy. The larger the quantity is of the coagulated blood, the feverer are the pains, and the longer they continue. Women in the firft child feldom have after-pains ; becaufe, after delivery, the womb is fuppofed to con- trafl; and pufh off the clots with greater force in the firft than in the following labours : after-pains may alfo proceed from obftruftions in the veffels, and irri¬ tations at the os internum. In order to prevent or re¬ move thefe pains, as foon as the placenta is feparated and delivered, the hand being introduced into the ute¬ rus, may clear it of all the coagula. .When the womb is felt through the parietes of the abdomen larger than ufual, it may be taken for granted that there is either another child, or a large quantity of this clot¬ ted blood; and, which foever it may be, there is a IFERY. ,-o.b’ necreffity for its being extra&ed. If the placenta comes Loehw. away of itfelf, and the after pains are violent, they may be alleviated and carried off by an opiate: fur, by lleeping and fweating plentifully, the irritation is removed, the evacuations are increafed, the os uteri is infenfibly relaxed, and the coagula Hide eafily along. When the difcharge of the lochia is final!, the’ after- ' pains, if moderate, ought not to be reftraintd ; be¬ caufe the fqueezing which-they occafion promotes the other evacuation, which is neceffary for the reco¬ very of the patient. After-pains may alfo proceed from an obftru&ion in fome of the veffels, occafioning a fmall inflammation of the os internum and liga¬ ments ; and the fqueezing thereby occafioned may not only help to propel the obftru&ing fluid, but al¬ fo (if not too violent) contribute to the natural dif- charges. Chap. XIX. Of the Lochia. We have already observed, that the delivery of the child and placenta is followed by an efflux of more or lefs blood, difcharged from the uterus, which, by the immediate evacuation of the large veffels, is allowed to contradl itfelf the more freely, without the danger of an inflammation, which would probably happen in the contraftion, if the great veffels were not emptied at the fame time : but as the fluids in the ftpaller veffels can¬ not be fo foon evacuated, or returned into the vena ca¬ va, it is neceffary that, after the great difcharge is abated, a flow and gradual evacuation ftiould conti¬ nue, until the womb (hall be contra&ed to near the fame fize which it had before pregnancy ; and to this it attains about the 18th or 20th day after deli¬ very, though the period is different in different wo- When the large veffels are emptied immediately af¬ ter delivery, the difcharge frequently ceafes for feverab hours, until the fluids in the fmaller veffels are propel-, led into the larger, and then begins to flow again, of a paler colour. The red colour of the lochia commonly continues till the fifth day, though it is always turning more and more ferous from the beginning: but, about the fifth day, it flows off a clear, or fometimes (though feldom) of a greenifh tint; for, the mouths of the' veffels growing gradaally narrower by the contrac¬ tion of the uterus, at laft allow the ferous part only to pafs: as for the greenifh hue, it is fuppofed to pro¬ ceed from a diffolution of the cellular or cribriform membrane or mucus, that furrounded the furface of the placenta and chorion; part of which, being left in the uterus, becomes livid, decays, and, diffolving^ mixes with and tinftures the difcharge as it paffes along. Though the lochia, as we have already obferved, commonly continue till the 18th or 20th day, they are every day diminiftiing in quantity, and fooneft ceafe in thofe women who fuckle their children, or have had an extraordinary difcharge at firft; but the colour, quantity, and duration, differ in different wo¬ men : in fome patients, the red colour difappears on the firft; or fecond day; and in others, though rarely, it continues more or lefs to the end of the month: the evacuation in fome is very fmall, in others exceffive; in one woman it ceafee very foon, in another flows during^ 5036 Milk fever, daring the whole month: yet all of thefe patients 1 (hall do well. Some allege, that this difcharge from the uterus is the fame with that from a wound of a large furface; but it is more reafonable to fuppofe, that the change of colour and diminution of quantity proceed from - the flow contraftion of the veffels; becaufe, previous to pus, there mull have been lacerations and'im- pofthumes, and, in women who have fuddenly died after delivery, no wound or excoriation hath appeared upon the inner furface of the womb, which is fome- times found altogether fmooth, and at other times rough and unequal, on that part to which the pla¬ centa adhered. The fpace that is occupied before the delivery, from being fix inches in diameter, or l§ inches in circumference, will, foon after the birth, be contracted to one third or fourth of thefe dimen- fions. Chap. XX. Of the Milk-fever. About the fourth day, the breafts generally begin to grow turgid and painful. We have formerly ob- ferved, that, during the time of uterine geftation, the breafts in moft women gradually increafe till the de¬ livery, growing fofter as they are enlarged by the veffels being more and more filled with fluids; and by this gradual diflenfion they are prepared for fecreting the milk from the blood after delivery. During the two or three firft days after parturition, efpe- cially when the woman has undergone a large dif¬ charge, the breafts have been fometimes obferved to fubfide and grow flaccid ; and about the 3c) or 4th day, when the lochia begin to decreafe, the breafts fwell again to their former fize, and ftretcb more and more, until the milk, being fecreted, is either fucked by the child, or frequently of itfelf runs out at the nipples. Moft of the complaints incident to women after delivery, proceed either from the obftrudion of the lochia in the uterus, or of the milk in the breafts, oc- caftoned by any thing that will produce a fever; fuch .as catching cold, long and fevere labour, eating food that is hard of digcftion, and drinking fluids that .quicken the circulation of the blood in the large •veflels; by which means the fmaller, with all the fe- cretory and excretory du£hs, are obftrutted. The difcharge of the lochia being fo different in women of different conftitutions, and befides in fome meafure depending upon the method of management, and the way of life peculiar to the patient, we are not to judge of her fituation from the colour, quantity, and duration of them, but from the other fymptoms that attend the difcharge ; and if the woman feems hearty, and in a fair way of recovery, nothing ought to be done with a view to augment or diminifh the evacoation. If the difcharge be greater than fhe can bear, it will be attended with all the fymptoms of inanition; but as the lochia feidom flow fo violently as to deftroy the patient of a fudden, flie may be fup- ported by a proper nourifhing diet, affifted with cor¬ dial and reftorative medicines. Let her, for example, ufe broths, jellies, and affes milk; if the pulfe is lan¬ guid and funk, fhe may take repeated dofes of the confed. cardiac, with mixtures compofed of the cordial waters and volatile fpiiits: fubaftringents and opiates Chap. XX. frequently adminiftered, with the ccrt. Peruvian, in Milk-fever- different forms, and auftere wines, are of great fervice. ‘ On the other hand, when the difcharge is too fmall, or hath ceafed altogether, the fymptoms are more dangerous, and require the contrary method of cure: for now the bufmefs is to remove a too great pleni¬ tude of the veffels in and about the uterus, occafioning tenfion, pain, and labour, in the circulating fluids ; from whence proceed great heat in the part, refllefs- nefs, fever, a full, hard, quick pulfe, pains in the head and back, naufea, and difficulty in breathing. Thefe complaints, if not at firft prevented, or removed by reft and plentiful fwesting, muft be treated with venefeclion and the antiphlogiftic method. When the obftruftion is recent, let the patient lie quiet, and encourage a plentiful diapherefis, by drink¬ ing frequently of warm, weak, diluting fluids, fuch as water-gruel, barley-water, tea, or weak chicken- broth. Should thefe methods be ufed without fuccefs, and the patient, far from being relieved byr reft, plentiful fwcating, or a fufficient difcharge of the obftru&ed lochia, labour under an hot, dry fkin, anxiety, and a quick, hard, and full pulfe, the warm diaphoretics muft-be laid afide; becaufe, if they fail of having the defired effefr, they muft neceflarily increafe the fever and obftruftioo, and recourfe be had to bleeding at the arm or ankle to more or lefs quantity, according to the degree of fever and obftrudtion; and this eva¬ cuation muft be repeated as there is occafion. When the obftru&ion is not total, it is fuppofed more pro¬ per to bleed at the ankle than at the arm; and at this laft, when the difcharge is altogether flopped, f her ordinary drink ought to be impregnated with nitre. If flie is coftive, emollient and gently opening glyfters may be occafionally injedfed; and her breafts muft be fomented and fucked, either by the mouth or pipe-glafles. If by thefe means the fever is abated^ and the neceflary difeharges return, the ^ .tient com¬ monly recovers; hnt if the complaints continue, the antiphlogiftic method muft ftill be purfued. If, not- withftanding thefe efforts, the fever is not diminbhed or removed by a plentiful difcharge of the lochia from the uterus, the milk from the breafts, or by a critical evacuation by fweat, urine, or ftool, and the woman is every now and then attacked with Cold fhiverings;' tin abfeefs or abfeeffes will probably be formed in the uterus or neighbouring parts, or in the breafts; and fometimes the matter will be tranflated to other fitua- lions, and the feat of it foretold from the part’s being afi'edled with violent pains: thefe abfeeffes are more or lefs dangerous, according to the place in which they happen, the largenefs of the fuppuration, and the good or bad conllitution of the patient. If, when the pains in the epigaftric region is violent, and the fever i.ncreafed to a very high degree, the pa¬ tient fticuld all of a fudden enjoy a ceffation from pain, without any previous difcharge or critical eruption, the phyfician may pronounce that a mortification is be¬ gun ; efpecially if, at the fame time, the pulfe becomes low, quick, wavering, and intermitting : if the wo¬ man’s countenance, from being florid, turns dufky and pale, while (he herfelf, and all the attendants, conceive her much mended; in that cafe, (he will grow deli¬ rious, MIDWIFERY. Chap. XX. M I D W Milk-fever, riotis, and die in a very fhort time. What we have faid on this fubjeft regards that fe¬ ver which proceeds from the obftru&ed lochia, and in which the breafts may likewife be affe&ed : but the milk-fever is that in which the breafts are originally concerned, and which may happen tho’ the lochia con¬ tinue to flow in fufficient quantity ; neverthelefs, they mutually promote each other, and both are to be treat¬ ed in the manner already explained ; namely, by o- piates, diluents, and diaphoretics, in the beginning ; and, thefe prefcriptions'failing, the obftru&ions muft be refolved by the antiphlogiftic method defcribed a- bove. The milk-fever alone, when the uterus is not concerned, is not fo dangerous, and much more eaflly relieved. Women of an healthy conftitution, who fuckle their own children, have good nipples, and wdiofe milk comes freely, are feldom or never fubjeft to this diforder, which is more intident to thofe who do not give fuck, and neglect to prevent the fecretion in time $ or, when the milk is fecreted, take no raea- fures for emptying their breads. This fever likewife happens to w’omen who try too foon to fuckle, and con¬ tinue their efforts too long at one time ; by which means the nipples, and confequently the breafts, are often inflamed, fwelled, and obftrudled. In order to prevent a too great turgency in the vef- fels of the breafts, and the fecretion of milk, in thofe women who do not choofe to fuckle, it will be proper to make external application of thofe things which, by their preffure and repercuflive force, will hinder the blood from flowing in too great quantity to this part, wdiich is now more yielding than at any other time : for this purpofe, let the hreafts be covered with emp. de 7’iinia, diapalma, or emp. Jimp, fpread upon linen, or cloths dipped in camphorated fpirits, be frequent¬ ly applied to thefe parts and the arm-pits ; while the patknt’s diet and drink is of the lighted kind, and given in fmall quantities. Notwithftanding thefe pre¬ camions, a turgency commonly begins about the third day ; but by reft, moderate fweating, and the ufe of thefe applications, the tendon and pain will fubfide about the fifth or fixth day, efpecially if the milk runs out at the nipples : but if the woman catches cold, or is of a full habit of body, and not very abftemi- Ous, the tenfion and pain increafing, will bring on a cold shivering fuCceeded by a fever ; which may ob- ftrutf the other excretions, as well as thofe of the bread. In this cafe, the fudorifics above recommended muft be prefcribed ; and if a plentiful fweat enfues, the pa¬ tient will be relieved ; at the fame time the milk rnuft be extra&ed from her breafts, by fucking with the mouth or glafles: Ihould thefe methods fail, and the fever increafe, fire ought to be blooded in the arm ; and inftead of the external applications hitherto ufed, emollient liniments and cataplafms muft be fubftituted, in order to foften and relax. If, in fpite of thefe en¬ deavours, the fever proceeds for fome days, the pa¬ tient is frequently relieved by critical fweats, a large difchargc from the uterus, miliary eruptions, or loofe ftools mixed with milk, which is curdled in the inte- ftioesj but Ihould none of thefe evacuations happen, and the inflammation continue with increafing violence, there is danger of an impofthume, which is to be brought to maturity, and managed like other inflam- I F E R Y. 5037 matory tumours ; and no aftringents ought to be ap- Eyacua- plied, left they Ihould produce fchirrhous fwellings in tlons• the glands. As the crifis of this fever, as well as of that laft de¬ fcribed, often confifts in miliary eruptions over the whole furface of the body, but particularly on the neck and breaft, by which the fever is carried off, nothing ought to be given which will either greatly increafe or diminifh the circulating force, but fuch only as will keep out the eruptions. But if, notwithftanding thefe eruptions, the fever, inftead of abating, is augment¬ ed, it will be neceffary to diminilh its force, and pre¬ vent its increafe, by thofe evacuations we have men¬ tioned above. On the contrary, fhould the pulfe fink, the eruptions begin to retreat inwardly, and the mor¬ bific matter be in danger of falling upon the vifeera, we muft endeavour to keep them out by opiates and fudorific medicines; and here blifters may be applied- with fuccefs. Chap. XXL Of the Evacuations necejfary at the end of the Month after Delivery. Those who have had a fufficient difeharge of the lochia, plenty of milk, and fuckle their own children, commonly recover with eafe, and, as the fuperfluous fluids of the body are drained off at the nipples, fel¬ dom require evacuations at the end of the month; but if there are any complaints from fullnefs, fuch as pa|ns and ftitches, after the 2pth day, fome blood ought to be taken from the arm, and the belly gently opened by frequent glyfters, or repeated dofes of laxative medi¬ cines. If the patient has tolerably recovered, the milk ha¬ ving been at firft fucked or difebarged from the nipples, and afterwards di feu fled, no evacuations are neceffary before the third or fourth week; and fometimes not till after the firft flowing of the menfes, which com¬ monly happens about the fifth week ; if they do not appear within that time, gentle evacuations muft be prefcribed, to carry off the plethora, and bring down the catamenia. EXPLANATION of the PLATES. Fig. 1. gives a front-view of the uterus in fitu p]ate fufpended in the vagina; the anterior parts of offaCLXXVUS- ifehium, with the offa pubis; pudenda, pertnseum, and anus,, being removed in order to ftew the internal parts. A, the laft vertebra of the loins. BB, the offa ilium. CC, the acetabula. DD, the inferior and pofterior parts of the offa if- chium. E, the part covering the extremity of the coccyx. F, the inferior part of the reft urn. GG, the vagina citt open longitudinally,and ftretch- ed on each fide of the collum uteri, to ffiew in what manner the uterus is fufpended in the fame. HH, part of the vefica urinaria ftretched on each fide of the vagina, and inferior part of the fundus ti- teri. I, the collum uteri. K, the fundus uteri. LL, the tubi Fallopian! and fimbriae. MM, the jpvaria. NN, the M I D W NN, the ligamenta lata and rotunda. OO, the fuperior part of the reAum. Fig. 2. gives a front-view of the uterus in the be¬ ginning of the firft month of pregnancy; the anterior .part being removed that the embryo might appear through the amnios, the chorion being differed off.- A, the fundus uteri. B, the colium uteri, with a view of the rugous ca¬ nal that leads to the cavity of the fundus. C, the os uteri. Fig. 3. In the fame view and feftion of the parts as in fig. 1. Ihews the uterus as it appears in the fecond or third month of pregnancy. F, the anus. G, the vagina, with its plicae. HH, the pofterior and inferior part of the urinary bladder extended on each fide; the anterior and fupe¬ rior part being removed. ' II, the mouth and neck of the womb, as raifed up when examining the fame by the touch, with one of the fingers in the vagina. KK, the uterus as ftretched in the fecond or third month, containing the embryo, with the placenta ad¬ hering to the fundus. Fig. 4. In the fame view and fe&ion of the parts with the former figures, reprefents the uterus in the eighth or ninth month of pregriancy. A, the uterus as ftretched to near its full extent, with the waters, and containing the foetus entangled in the funis, the head prefenting at the upper part of the pelvis. BB, the fuperior part of the offa ilium. CC, the acetabula. DD, the remaining pofterior parts of the ofla if- chium. E, the coccyx. F, the inferior part of the reftum. GGG, the vagina ftretched on each fide. H, the os uteri, the neck being ftretched to its full extent or entirely obliterated. II, part of the vefica urinaria. KK, the placenta, at the fuperior and pofterior part of the uterus. LL, the membranes. M, the funis umbilicalis. Fig. 5. gives a front view of twins in utero in the beginning of labour. A, the uterus as ftretched, with the membranes and waters. BB, the fuperior parts of the offa ilium, CC, the acetabula. DD, the offa ifchium. E, the coccyx. F, the lower part of the redlum. GG, the vagina. H, the os internum ftretched open about a finger- breadth, with the membranes and waters in time of la¬ bour-pains. II, The inferior part of the uterus, ftretched with the waters which are below the head of the child that prefents. * KK, the two placentas adhering to the pofterior part of the uterus, the two foetufes lying before them, one with its head in a proper pofition at the inferior part of the uterus, ^nd the other fituated preternaturally I F E R Y. Chap. XXI. with the head to the fundus : the bodies of each are Explanat. here entangled in their proper funis, which frequently of happens in the natural as well as preternatural pofi- Piate;' tions. LLL, the membranes belonging to each placenta. Fig. 6. (hews, in a lateral view and longitudinal di- vifion of the parts, the gravid uterus when labour is fomewhat advanced. A, the loweft vertebra of the back; the diftance from which to the laft-mentioned vertebra is here ftrewn by dotted lines. CC, the ufual thicknefs and figure of the uterus when extended by the waters at the latter end of preg¬ nancy. D, the fame contra&ed and grown thicker after the waters are evacuated. EE, the figure of the' uterus when pendulous. FF, the figure of the uterus when ftretched higher than tifual, which generally occafions vomitings and difficulty of breathing. G, the os pubis of the left fide. HH, the os internum. I, the vagina. K, the left nympha. L, the labium pudendi of the fame fide. M, The remaining portion of the bladder. N, the anus. OP, the left hip and thigh. Fig. 7. ftiews the forehead of the foetus turned backwards to the 09 facrum, and the occiput below the pubes, by which means the narrow part of the head is to the narrow part of the pelvis, that is, between the inferior parts of the offa ifchium. A, the uterus contra&ed clofely to the foetus after the waters are evacuated'. BCD, the vertebrse of the loins, os faerum, and coccyx. E, the anus. F, the left hip. G, the perinaeum. H, the os externum beginning to dilate. I, the os pubis of the left fide. K, the remaining portion of the bladder. L, the pofterior part of the os uteri. Fig. 1. is principally intended to ftiew in what man- Plate ner the perinseum and external parts are ftretched by CLXXIX, the head of the foetus, in a full pregnancy, towards the end of the labour. A, the abdomen. B, the labia pudendi. C, the clitoris and its preputium. D, the hairy fcalp of the foetus, fwelled at the ver¬ tex, in a laborious cafe, and protruded to the os ex¬ ternum. E, F, the perinaeum and anus puftied out by the head of the foetus in form of a large tumour. GG, the parts that cover the tuberofnies of the offa ifchium. H, the part that covers the os coccygls. Fig. 2. ftiews in what manner the head of the foetus is helped along with the forceps, as artificial hands, when it is neceffary for the fafety of either mother or child. A ABC, the vertebra of the loins, os facrum, and coccyx. D,. the Tlate CJ.XXIX. /A-//. /■ i Chap. XX. MID W Explanat. D, the os pubis of the left fide, of E, the remaining part of the bladder. FF, the inteftinum refltum. GGG, the uterus. H, , the mons veneris. I, the clitoris, with the left nymph. X, the corpus cavernofum clitoridis. V, the meatus urinarius. K, the left labium pudendi. L, the anus. N, the perinteum. QP, the left hip and thigh. R, the Ikin and mufcular parts of the loins. Fig. 3. (hews the head of the foetus, by ftrong la¬ bour-pains, fqueezed into a longifii form, with a tu¬ mour on the vertex, from a long compreffion of the head in the pelvis. K, the tumour on the vertex. L, the forceps. M, the vefica urinaria much difiended with a large quantity of urine from the long preffure of the head againft the urethra. N, the under part of the uterus. 00, the os uteri. Fig. 4. (hews, in the lateral view, the face of the child prefenting and forced down into the lower part of the •pdvis, the chin being below the pubes, and the vertex in the concavity of the os facrum: the water being like- wife all difcharged, the uterus appears clofely joined to the body of the child. Fig. 5. (hews, in a lateral view, the head of the child in the fame pofition as in the former figure. AB, the vertebras of the loins, os facrum, and coc¬ cyx. C, the os pubis of the left fide. D, the inferior part of the re&um. E, the perinaeum. F, the left labium pudendi. GGG, the uterus. Fig. 6. gives a lateral internal view of a diftorted pdvis, divided longitudinally, with the head of a foetus of the feventh month pafling the fame. ABC, the os facrum and coccyx. D, the os pubis of the left fide. E, the tuberofity of the os ifchium of the fame fide. Fig. 7. gives a fide-view of a diftorted pelvis, divi¬ ded longitudinally, with the head of a full grown foe¬ tus fqUeezed into the brim, the parietal bones decuf- fating each other, and comprefled into a conical form. ABC, the os facrum and coccyx. D, the os pubis of the left fide. E, the tuberolity of the os ifchium. F, the procefius acutus. G, the foramen magnum. Plate Fig. 1. (hews, in a front view of the pelvis, the CLXXX. breech of the foetus prefenting, and dilating the os in¬ ternum, the membranes being too foon broke. Fig. 2. is the reverfe of fig. 1. the fore-parts of the child being to the fore-part of the Uterus. Fig. 3. repreTents, in a front-view of the pelvis, the foetus compreifed, by the contradfion of the uterus, in¬ fo a round form, the fore parts of the former being to¬ wards the infer:, r part of the latter, and one foot and hand fallen down into the vagina. In this figure, the anterior part of the pelvis is removed, by a longitudi- Vol. VII. 2 I F E R Y. nal fedlion through the middle of the foramen mag¬ num. AA, the fuperior parts of the offa ilium. BB, the uterus. C, the mouth of the womb ftretched and appear¬ ing in OOOO, the vagina. D, the inferior and pofterior part of the os exter¬ num. EEEE, the remaining parts of the ofla pubis and ifchium. FFFF, the membrana adipofa. Fig. 4. reprefents, in the fame view with fig. 3* the , foetus in the contrary pofition; the breech and fore¬ parts being towards the fundus uteri, the left arm in the vagina, and the fore-arm without the os exter¬ num, the fhoulder being likewife forced into the os uteri. Fig. 5. reprefents, in a lateral view of the pelvis, the method of extra&ing, by means of a curved crotchet, the head of the foetus, when left in the uterus, after the body is delivered and feparated from it; either by its being too large, or the pelvis too narrow. ABC, the os (acrum and coccyx. D, the os pubis of the left fide. EE, the uterus. F, the locking part of the crotchet. g,h,i, the point of the crotchet on the infide of the cranium. Fig. 6. reprefents the forceps and blunt-hook. A, the ftreight forceps, yi the exaft proportion as to the width between the blades, and length from the points to the locking-part; the flrft being two and the fecond fix inches, which, with three inches and a half, (the length of the handles), make in all eleven inches and a half. B reprefents the pofterior part of a fingle blade in order to drew the width and length of the open part of the fame, and the form and dimenfions of the whole. C, the blunt hook, which isufed for three purpofes: 1. To affift the extraction of the head, after the cra¬ nium is opened with the fcifiars, by introducing -the fmall end along the ear on the out fide of the head to above the under-jaw, where the point is to be fixed ; the other extremity of the hook being held with one hand, whilft two fingers of the other are to be intro¬ duced into the forefaid opening, by which holds the head is to be gradually extrafted. 2. The froall end is ufeful in abortions, in any of the firft four or five months, to hook down the fecundines, when lying loofe in the uterus, when they cannot be extracted by the fingers or labour-pains, and when the patient is much weakened by floodings. 3. The large hook at the other end is ufeful to affift the extraCtioy of the body, when the breech prefents ; but fliould be ufed with great caution, to avoid the diflocation or fraCture of the thigh. Fig. 7. A reprefents the whale-bone fillet, which may be fometimes ufeful in laborious cafes, when the operator is not provided with the forceps, in hidden and unexpe&ed exigencies. BB, two views of a peffary for the prolapfus uteri. After the uterus is reduced, the large end of the pef¬ fary is to be introduced into the vagina, and the os uteri retained in the concave part, where there are three 2S M holes 5039 Exp/anat. of Plates. 5040 Explanat. holes to prevent tlie ftagnation of any moifture. The Pl°tes en^ without the 03 externum has two tapes drawn a -s* through the two holes, which are tied to four other tapes, that hang down from a belt that furrounds the woman’s body, and by this means keep up the pelfary. This pelfary may be taken out by the patient when Ihe goes to bed, and introduced again the morning; but as this fometimes rubs the os externum, fo as to make its ufe uneafy, the round kind, marked C, are of more general ufe. They are made of wood, ivory, or cork, (the laft covered with cloth and dipped in wax:) the pelfary is to be lubricated with pomatum, the edge forced through the palfage into the vagina, and a fin¬ ger introduced in the, hole in the middle lays it acrofs within the os externum. They ought to be larger or fmaller, according to the widenefs or narrownefs of the paffage, to prevent their being forced out by any ex¬ traordinary draining. DD gives two views of a female catheter, to Ihew Chap. XX. its degree of curvature and different parts. Explanat, Fig. 8. «, reprefents a pair of curved crotchets lock- of ed together in the fame manner as the forceps. The^^^^fl. dotted lines along the infide of one of the blades re- prefent a Iheath contrived to guard the point till it is introduced high enough: the ligature at the handles marked with two dotted lines is then to be untied, the Iheath withdrawn, and the point being uncovered is fixed as in fig. 5. b, gives a view of the back part of one of the crotch¬ ets, which is 12 inches long. c, a front view of the point, to Ihowits proportional length and breadth. d, the fcilfars for perforating the cranium in very narrow and diftorted pelvifes. They ought to be made very tlfong, and at leaft nine inches in length, with flops or refts in the middle of the blades, by which a large dilatation is more eafily made. MIDWIFERY. MIG Mlgdol . 'I . Migration. MIGDOL, or Magdol, (anc. geog.), a place in the Lower Egypt, on this fide Pihahiroth, or between .it and the Red-Sea, towards its extremity. The term denotes a tower or fortrefs. It is probably the Mag- dolus of Herodotus; feeing the Septuagint render it by tire fame name. MIGNARD (Nicholas), a very ingenious French painter, born at Troyes in 1628; but, fettling at A- vignon, is generally dillinguillied from his brother Pe¬ ter by the appellation of Mignard of Avignon. He was afterwards employed at court and at Paris, where he became re&or of the royal academy of painting. There are a great number of his hiftorical pieces and portraits in the palace of the Tuilleries. He died in 1690. Mignard (Peter), the brother of Nicholas, was born at Troyes in 1610; and acquired fo much of the tafte of .the Italian fchool as to be known by the name of the Roman. He was generally allowed to have a fupe- rior genius to his brother Nicholas ; and had the ho¬ nour of painting the popes Alexander VII. and Ur¬ ban VIII. befides many of the nobility at Rome, and divers of the Italian princes: his patron, Lewis, fat ten times to him for his portrait, and refpe£ted his ta¬ lents fo much as to ennoble him, make him his prin¬ cipal painter after the death of Le Brun, and appoint him dire&or of the manufadtories. He died in 1695; and many of his pieces are to be feen at St Cloud. MIGNON (Abraham), a celebrated painter, born at Francfort, acquired a great reputation by his flcill in reprefi-nting flowers, fruits, infers, flies, birds, and fifhes. His colouring is admirable; and the dew fpread on the flowers is fo well imitated in his pi&ures, that ene is tempted to take hold of them. MIGRATION, the paflage or removal of a thing out of one place into another. Migration of Birds.—has been generally be¬ lieved that many different kinds of birds annually pafs from one country to another, and fpend the fummer or the winter where it is mod agreeable to them ; and that even the birds of our own ifland will feek the mod didant fouthern regions of Africa, when dire&ed by a peculiar indindt to leave their own country. It hath long been an opinion pretty generally received, that MIG fwallows refide during the winter-feafon in the warm Migration, fouthern regions ; and Mr Adanfon particularly re- ” lates his having feen them at Senegal when they were obliged to leave this country. But befides the fwal- low, Mr Pennant enumerates many other birds which migrate from Britain at different times of the year, and are then to be found in other countries; after which they again leave thefe countries, and return to Britain. The reafon of thefe migrations he fuppofes to be a deleft of food at certain feafons of the year, or the want of a fecure afylum from the perfecution of man during the time of courtfhip, incubation, and nutrition.—The following is his lid of the migrating fpecies. 1. Crows. Of this genus, the hooded crow migrates regularly with the woodcock. It inhabits North Bri¬ tain the whole year: a few are faid annually to breed on Dartmoor, in Devonfhire. It breeds alfo in Swe¬ den and Audria: in fome of the Swedifh provinces it only fhifts its quarters, in others it refides throughout the year. Our author is at a lofs for the fummer re¬ treat of thofe which vifit us in fuch numbers in winter, and quit our country in the fpring; a*.d for the rea¬ fon why a bird, wbofe Food is fuch that it maybe found at all feafons in this country, fftould leave us. 2. Cuckoo. Difappears early in autumn; the retreat of this and the following bird is quite unknown to us. 3. Wryneck. Is a bird that leaves us in the winter- If its diet be ants alone, as feveral aflert, the caufe of its migration is very evident. This bird difappears be¬ fore winter, and revifits us in the fpring a little earlier than the cuckoo. 4. Hoopoe. Comes to England but by accideat: Mr Pennant once indeed heard of a pair that attemp¬ ted to make their ned in a meadow at Selborne, Hamp- fliire, but were frighted away by the curiofity of peo¬ ple. It breeds in Germany. GrOus. The whole tribe, except the quail, lives here all the year round : that bird either leaves us, or elfe_ retires towards the fea-coads. 6. Pigeons. Some few of the ring-doves breed here; but the multitude that appears in the winter, is fo difproportioned to what continue here the whole year, as to make it certain that the greated part quit the MIG [ 5041 ] MIG Migration, the country In the fpring. It is mod probable they go to Sweden to breed, and return from thence in au¬ tumn ; as Mr Ekmark informs us they entirely quit that country before winter. Multitudes of the com¬ mon wild pigeons alfo make the northern retreat, and vifit us in winter; not but numbers breed in the high cliffs in all parts of this ifland. The turtle alfo pro¬ bably leaves us in the winter, at lead changes its place, removing to the fouthern counties. 7. Stare. Breeds here. Poffibly feveral remove to other countries for that purpofe, frnce the produce of thofe that continue here feems unequal to the clouds of them that appear in winter. It is not unlikely that many migrate into Sweden, where Mr Berger obferves they return in fpring. 8. Thrujheu The fieldfare and the redwing breed and pafs their fummers in Norway and other cold coun¬ tries ; their food is berries, which abounding in our kingdoms, tempts them here in the winter. Thefe two and the Royfton crow are the only land-birds that re¬ gularly and conftantly migrate into England, and do not breed here. The hawfinch and crofsbill come here at fuch uncertain times as not to deferve the name of birds of pajfage. 9. Chatterer. The chatterer appears annually a- bout Edinburgh in flocks during winter; and feeds on the berries of the mountain-afh. In South Britain it is an accidental vifitant. 10. Grojbeaks. The grofbeak and crofsbill come here but ieldom ; they breed in Auftria. The pine grofbeak probably breeds in the forefts of the High¬ lands of Scotland. 11. Buntings. All the genus inhabits England throughout the year; except the greater brambling, which is forced here from the north in very fevere fea- fons. 12. Finches. All continue in’fome parts of thefe kingdoms, except the fifkin, which is an irregular vi¬ fitant, faid to come from Rufiia. The linnets fhift their quarters, breeding in one part of this ifland, and remove with their young to others. All finches feed on the feeds of plants. 13. Larks, fly-catchers, ’wagtails, and ‘warblers. All of thefe feed on infe&s and worms; yet only part of them quit thefe kingdoms ; though the reafon of migration is the fame to all. The nightingale, black¬ cap, fly-catcher, willow-wren, wheat-ear, and white- throat, leave us before winter, while the fmall and de¬ licate golden-crefted wren braves our fevereft frofts. The migrants of this genus continue longed in Great Britain in the fouthern counties, the winter in thofe parts being later than in thofe of the north ; Mr Stillingfleet having obferved feveral wheat-ears in the ifle of Pur- beck on the 18th of November. As thefe birds are incapable of very didant flights, Spain, or the fouth of France, is probaby their winter-afylum. 14. S-walhms and goat-fucker. Every fpecies dis¬ appears at the approach of winter. Water-Fowl. Of the vad variety of water - fowl that frequent Great Britain, it is amazing to refleft how few are known to breed here: the cauft that principally urges them to leave this country, ftems to be not merely the want of food, but the defire of a fecure retreat. Our country is too populous for birds k> Ihy and timid as the bulk of thefe are: when great part of our illandMigralan. was a mere wade, a tra& of woods and fen; doubtlefs ■=——~~ many fpecies of birds (which at this time migrate.) remained in fecurity throughout the year. Egrets, a fpecies of heron, now fcarce known in this ifland, were in former times in prodigious plenty; and the crane, that has totally forfaken this country, bred familiarly in our marfhes : their place of incubation, as well as of all other cloven-footed water-fowl (the heron excep¬ ted) being on the ground, and expofed to every one : as rural oeconomy increafed in this country, thefe ani¬ mals were more and more didurbed ; at length, by a feries of alarms, they were neceflitated to feck, during the fummer, fome lonely fafe habitation. On the Contrary, thofe that build or lay in the al- mod inaccefiible rocks that impend over the Britifli feas, breed there dill in vad numbers, having little to fear from the approach of mankind: the only didurb- ance they meet with in general being from the defpe- rate attempts of fome few to get their eggs. Cloven-footed Water-Fowl. \ 5. Herons. The white heron is an uncommon bird, and vifits us at uncertain feafons; the common kind and the bittern never leave us. 16. Curlews. The curlew breeds fometimes on our mountains ; but, confidering the vad flights that ap¬ pear in winter, it is probable that the greater part re¬ tire to other countries : the whimbrel breeds on the Grampian hills, in the neighbourhood of Invercauld. 17. Snipes. The woodcock breeds in the moift woods of Sweden, and other cold countries. Some fnipes breed here, but the greated part retire elfe- where; as do every other fpecies of this genus. • 18. Sandpipers. The lapwing continues here the whole year; the ruff breeds here, but retires in win¬ ter; the redfhank and fandpiper breed in this country, and refide here. All the others abfent themfelves du¬ ring fummer. 19. Plovers and oyfler-catcher. _ The long-legged plover and fanderling vifit us only in winter; the dot¬ trel appears in fpring and in autumn ; yet, what is very Angular, we do not find it breeds in South Britain. The oyder-catcher lives with us the whole year. The Norfolk plover and fea-lark breed in England. The green plover breeds on the mountains of the north of England, and on the Grampian hills. We mud here remark, that every fpecies of the ge¬ nera of curlews, woodcocks, fandpipers, and plovers, that forfake us in the fpring, retire to Sweden, Po¬ land, Pruflia, Norway, and Lapland, to breed: as,foon as the young can fly, they return to us again, becaufe the frods which fet in early in thofe countries totally deprive them of the means of fubfiding ; as the dry- nefs and hardnefs of the ground, in general, during our fummer, prevent them from penetrating the earth with their bills, in fearch of worms, which are the na¬ tural food of thefe birds. Mr Ekmark fpeaks thus of the retreat of the whole tribe of cloven-footed water fowl out of his country (Sweden) at the approach of winter; and Mr Klein gives much the fame account of thofe of Poland and Pruffia. 20. Rails andgallinuks. Every fpecies of thefe two genera continue with us the whole year; the land-rail excepted, which is not feen here in winter. It likewile continues in Ireland only during the fummer-months, 28 M 2 when MIG [ 5042 ] MIG Migration, when they are very numerous, as Mr Smith tells us in the Hijhry of Waterford^ p. 336. Great numbers ap¬ pear in Anglefea the latter end of May; it is fuppofed that they pafs over from Ireland, the paffage between the two iflands being but fmall. As we have inftances of thefe birds lighting on (hips in the channel and the Bay of Bifcay, we may conjedtufe their winter-quar¬ ters to be in Spain. Finned-footed Water-Birds. 21. Phalaropes. Vifit os but feldorn; their breed¬ ing place is Lapland, and other arftic regions. 22. Grebes. The great-crefted grebe, the black and white grebe, and little grebe, breed with us, and never migrate; the others vifit us accidentally, and breed in Lapland. Web-footed Birds. 23. Avofet. Breed near Fofsdike in Lincolnfhire; but quit their quarters in winter. They are then (hot in different parts of the kingdom, which they vifit, not regularly, but accidentally. 24. Auks and guillemots. The great auk or pinguin fometimes breeds in St Kilda. The auk, the guillemot, and puffin, inhabit mod of the maritime cliffs of Great Britain, in amazing numbers, during fummer. The black guillemot breeds in the Bafs Ifle, and in St Kili', and fometimes in Llandidno rocks. We are at a lofs for the breeding place of the other fpecies ; neither can we be very certain of the winter refidence of any of them, excepting of the leffer guillemot and black¬ billed auk, which, during winter, vifit in vaft flocks the Frith of Forth. 25. Divers. Thefe chiefly breed in the lakes of Sweden and Lapland, and fame in countries near the pol«; but fome of the red-throated divers, the northern and the imber, may breed in the north of Scotland and its ides. 26. Terns. Every fpecies breeds here; but leaves us in the winter. 27. Petrels. The fulmar breeds in the Ifle of St Kilda, and continues there the whole year, except Sep¬ tember and part of O&ober: the (hearwater vifits the Ifle of Man in April; breeds there; and, leaving it in Auguft or the beginning of September, difperfes over all parts of the Atlantic ocean. The ftormfinch is feen at all dillances from land on the fame vaft watery traft ; nor is ever found near the (hore except by fome very rare accident, unlefs in the breeding feafon. Mr Pennant found it on fome little rocky ides, off the north of Skie. It alfo breeds in St Kilda. He alfo fufpedls that it neftles on the Blafquet Ifles off Kerry, and that it is the gourder of Mr Smith. 28. Merganfers. This whole genus is mentioned among the birds that fill the Lapland lakes during fummer. Mr Pennant has feen the young of the red- breafted in the north of Scotland: a few of thefe, and perhaps of the goofanders, may breed there. 29. Ducks. Of the numerous fpecies that form this genus, we know of few that breed here. The fwan and goofe, the fhield-duck, the eider-duck, a few (hovelers, garganies, and teals, and a very fmall portion of the wild ducks. The reft contribute to form that amazing multi- tiude of water-fowl that annually repair from moft parts ©f Europe to the woods and lakes of Lapland and other ar&ic regions, there to perform the funttions of incubation and nutrition in full fecurity. They and Migration, their young quit their retreat in September, and dif- perfe themfelves over Europe. With us they make their appearance the beginning of O&ober; circulate firft round our (bores; and, when compelled by fevere froft, betake themfelves taour lakes and rivers. Of the web-footed fowl there are fome of hardier confti- tutions than others: thefe endure the ordinary winters of the more northern countries ; but when the cold reigns there with more than common rigour, repair for (belter to thefe kingdoms: this regulates the ap¬ pearance of fome of the diver kind, as alfo of the wild fwans, the fwallow-tailed (hield-duck, and the different forts of goofeanders which then vifit our coafts. Barentz found the barnacles with their nefts in great numbers in Nova Zembla. Collett. Voy. Dutch Eajl-India Com¬ pany, 8vo. 1703. p. 19. Clufius, in his Exot. 368. alfo obferves, that the Dutch difcovered them on the rocks of that country and in Waygate Straits. They, as well as the other fpecies of wild-geefe, go very far north to breed, as appears from the hiftories of Green¬ land and Spitzbergen, by Egede and Crantz. Thefe birds feem to make Iceland a refting place, as Horre- bow obferves: few continue there to breed, but only vifit that ifland in the fpring, and after a (hurt ftay retire dill further north. 30. Corvorants. The corvorant and (hag breed on moft of our high rocks : the gannet in fome of the Scotch ifles, and on the coaft of Kerry: the two firft continue on our (bores the whole year. The gannet difperfes itfelf all round the feas of Great Britain, in purfuit of the herring and pilchard, and even as far aa the Tagus to prey on the fardina. But of the numerous fpecies of fowl here enumera¬ ted, it may be obferved how very few entruft them¬ felves to us in the breeding feafon, and what a diftant flight they make to perform, the firft great dictate of nature. There feems to be fcarcely any but what we have traced to Lapland, a country of lakes, rivers, fwamps, and alps, covered with thick and gloomy forefts, that afford (belter during fummer to thefe fowls, which in winter difperfe over the greateft part of Europe. In thofe arftic regions, by reafon of the thicknefs of the woods, the ground remains moift and penetrable to the woodcocks, and other {lender-billed fowl: and for the web-footed birds, the waters afford larvae innumerable of the tormenting knat. -The days there are long ; and the beautiful meteorous nights indulge them with 'every opportunity of colle&ing fo minute a food: whilft mankind is very fparingly fcattered over that vaft nor¬ thern wafte. Why then (hould Linnaeus, the great explorer of thefe rude defarts, be amazed at the myriads of water- fowl that migrated with him out of Lapland ? which exceeded in multitude the army of Xerxes; covering, for eight whole days and nights^the furfaceofthe riv«r Calix. His partial obfervation as a botanift, would confine their food to the vegetable kingdom, almoft denied to the Lapland waters; inattentive to a more plenteous table of infeft-food, which the all-bountiful Creator had fpread for them in the wildemefs. It may be remarked, that the lakes of mountainous rocky countries in general are deftitute of plants: few or none are feen thofe of Swiuerland; and Linnaeus snakes MIC [ 5043 ] MIG Migration, makes the fame obfervation in refpeft to thofe of Lap- land; having, during his whole tour, difcovered only a fingle fpecimen of a lemna Irifulca, or “ ivy-leaved duck’s meat,” Lap. n° 470.; a few otihefcir- pus lacuflris, or “ bullrulh,” n° 18.; the alopecurusge- niculatus, or “ flote foxtail grafs,” n° 38.; and the ra¬ nunculus aquatilis, n° 234. ; which are all he enume¬ rates in his Prolegomena to that excellent performance. Under the article Hirundo, we have given the prin¬ cipal arguments for and againft the migration of fwal- Jows. Here we (hall give a fhort abtiraft of the ar¬ guments ufed by the Hon. Daines Barrington againft the migration of birds in general, from a paper pu- bliihed by him in the 62d volume of the Philofophical Tranfa&ions. This gentleman denies, that any well- attefted inftances can be produced of this fuppofed migration, which, if there were any fuch periodical flight, could not poflibly have efcaped the frequent obfervation of feamen. It has indeed been afferted that birds of paffage become invifible in their flight, becaufe they rife too high into the air to be perceived, and becaufe they choofe the night for their pafiage. The author, however, exprtfles his doubts “ whether any bird was ever feen to rife to a greater height than perhaps twice that of St Paul’s crofs and he further endeavours to fliew, that the extent of fome of thefe fuppofed migrations (from the northern parts of Eu¬ rope, for iniiance, to the line) is too great to be ac¬ counted for, by having recourfe to the argument foun¬ ded on a no&ural paflage. The author next recites, in a chronological order, all the inltances that he has been able to colledt, of birds having been actually feen by mariners when they were croffing a large extent of fea ; and he endeavours to (hew that no ftrefs can be laid on the few cafual obfervations of this kind that have been produced in fupport of the doftrine of a regular and periodical mi¬ gration. Mr Barrington afterwards proceeds to invalidate M. Adanfon’s celebrated obfervation with refpeft to the migration of the fwallow in particular, and which has been confidered by many as perfectly decifive of the prefent queflion. He endeavours to fhew that the four fwallows which that naturalift caught,, on their fettling upon his fhip, on the 6th of October at about the diflance of 50 leagues from the coaft of Senegal, and which he fuppofes to have been then proceeding from Europe to pafs the winter in Africa, could not be true European fwallotcs; or, if they were, could not have been on their return from Europe to Africa.. Elis objeftions are founded principally on fome proofs which he produces of M. Adanfon’s want of accuracy on this fubjedt, which has led him, in the prefent in- ftance, to miftake two African fpecies of the fwallow- tribe, deferibed and engraved by Briffon, for Eu¬ ropean fwallows, to which they bear a general refem- blance : or granting even that they were European fwallows, he contends, that tliey were flitting from the Gape de Verd Iflands to the coaft of Africa; “ to which fhort flight, however, they were unequal, and ac¬ cordingly fell into the failor’s hands.” After many obfervatioos and refledtiqns on the fub- jeft, the author endeavours to fupport the opinion that fwallows, and perhaps fome other fuppofed birds of paffage, remain with us during the winter in a torpid itate ; obferving that, hotwithftanding the great care M'gfiUkmr which they take to conceal themfelves, it is certain that they have been frequently found, during the period of their fuppofed abfence, lying hid in caverns, or hollow trees, and even under water. Befides other inftances, well known to thofe who have attended to this fubjeft, the author gives us the teftimony of Mr Stephens A. S. S. who afiured him that he had bim- felf picked up a duller of three or four fwallows (or martins) out of a pond of his father’s at Shrivenhanv iir Berkftiire, in the month of February ; that they were caked together in the mud ; and that, on carrying them into the kitchen, they foon flew about the room, in the prefence of his father, mother, and others. The fame fad was afterwards confirmed to the author by Dr Pye, who was then Mr Stephens’s fchool- fellow at Shrivenham, and by another gentleman who* now lives in that village. It may naturally be afked, why fwallows, in par¬ ticular, are not frequently thus found in their torpid fiate. In anfwer to this queftion the author obferves,. that the fame inftinft which prompts the bird thus to conceal itfelf, inftru&s it to choofe. fuch a place of fecurity, that common accidents will not difcqver it« that ponds are feldom cleaned in the winter, as it is fuch cold work for the labourers;—that fads of this fort are little attended to; and that the common la¬ bourers who have the beft chance of finding torpid birds, make no mention of the difeovery to others, as they confider it as a thing of courfe, and confe- quently not interefting to any one. He adds, that fwallows may be conftantly taken in the month of Odober, and even fo late as November, during the dark night, while they fit on the willows in the Thames; and that one may almoft inftantaneoufly fill a large fack with them, becaufe at this time they will not ftir from the twigs when you lay your hands upon them. This, fays the author, looks very much like their beginning to. be torpid, before they hide themfelves under the water. To this argument, however, the monthly reviewers oppofe the following, which appears to them decifive in favour of migration. The fwallow, it is fuppofed, like other birds, moults once a-year at leak : but during the whole time this bird is feen with us, it appears in full feather. The procefs of moulting, therefore, muft be performecj fomewhere : but as it is abfurd to fuppofe that this great change can be effeded in thefe birds while they are lying afleep,, or torpid in caverns and hollow trees, or immerfed in clullers in the mud at the bottom of ponds or rivers* they muft moult in fome diftant country,, to which they retire when they difappear in thefe parts. Migration See Clupea. St, MIGUEL, one of the Azore iflands, fityated in W. Long. 22. 45, N. Lat. 38. 10. This ifland appears to be entirely volcanic. The beft account we have of it hath been publifhed in the 68th volume of the Philofqphical Tranfadions by Mr Francis Maffon. Acording to him, the produdions differ greatly from thofe of Madeira, infomuch that none of the trees of the latter are found here, except the fiaya: it has a nearer affinity to Europe than Africa. The piountains are covered with the erica vulgaris, and an elegant MIG [ 5044 ] MIG Migration, elegant cver-green flirub ‘very like a pbillyrea, which Mlgue1, gives them a mod beautiful appearance. It is one of the principal and moft fertile of the Azorian iflands, lying nearly eaftand weft ; its length is about 18 or 20 leagues; its breadth unequal, not exceeding five leagues, and in fome places not more than two. It contains about 80000 inhabitants. Its capital, the city of Ponta del Guda, which con¬ tains about 12000 inhabitants, is fituatedon the fouth fide of the ifland, on a fine fertile, plain country, pretty regularly built; the ftreets ftraight, and of a good breadth. It is fupplied with good water, which is brought about the diftance of three leagues from the neighbouring mountains. The churches and other religious'edifices are elegant and well built for fuch an ifland. There is a large convent of TYancifcan friars and one of the order of St Auguftin, four convents for profefied nuns, and three Recolhimentos for young women and widows who are not profefled. The veflels anchor in an open road ; but it is not dangerous, as no wind can prevent their going to fea in cafe of ftormy weather. The country round the city is plain for feveral miles, well cultivated, and laid out with good tafte into fpacious fields, whiclv are fown with wheat, barley, Indian corn, pulfe, &c. and commonly pro¬ duce annually two crops ; for as foon as one is taken off, another is immediately fown in its place. The foil is remarkably gentle and eafy to work, being for the moft part compofed of pulverized pumice- ftone. There are in the plains a number of pleafant country-feats, with orchards of orange trees, which are efteemed the bed in Europe. The fecond town is Ribeira Grande, fituated on the north fide of the ifland, containing about as many inhabitants as the city ; a large convent of Francifcan friars, and one of nuns. It gives title to a count, called , the Conde Ribeira Grande, who firft inftituted linen and woollen manufactories in the ifland. The third town is Villa Franca, on the fouth fide of the ifland, about fix leagues eaft of Ponta del Guda. It has a convent of Francifcan friars, and one of nuns, which contains about 300. Here, about half a mile from thefhore,lies a fmall ifland (Ilhao), which is hollow in the middle, and contains a fine bafon with only one entrance into it, fit to hold fifty fail of veflels fecure from all weather ; at prefent it wants cleaning out, as the winter’s rain walhes down great quantities of earth into it, which has greatly diminifhed its depth. But veflels frequently anchor between this ifland and the main. Befide thefe towns are feveral fmaller, viz. Alagoa, Agoa de Pao, Brelanha, Fanaes de Ajuda, and a number of hamlets, called lugars, or places. About four leagues north-eaft from Villa Franca, lies a place called the-Fa/wrf/, being a round deep valley in the middle of the eaft part of the ifland, furrounded with high mountains, which, though deep, may be eafily afcended on horfeback by two roads. The valley is about five or fix leagues in circuit. The face of the mountains, which are very fteep, is entirely covered with beautiful ever-greens, viz. myrtles, lau¬ rel?, a large fpecies of bilberry called uva de ferra, &c. and numberlefs rivulets of the pureft water run p down their Tides. The valley below is well cultivated, producing wheat, Indian corn, flax, &c. The fields Miguel, are planted round with a beautiful fort of poplars, ”‘T“ which grow into pyramidal forms, and by their care- lefs, irregular difpofition, together with the multitude of rivulets, which run in all directions through the valley, a number of boiling fountains throwing up clouds of fleam, a fine lake in the fouth-weft part about two leagues round, compofe a profpedt the fineft that can be imagined. In the bottom of the valley the roads are fmooth and eafy, there being no rocks but a fine pulverized pumice-ftone that the earth is compofed of. There are a number of hot fountains in different parts of the valley, and alfo on the fides of the moun¬ tains : but the moft remarkable is that called the chal- deira, fituated on the eaftern part of the valley, on a fmall eminence by the fide of a rive.r, on which is a bafon about 30 feet diameter, where the water conti¬ nually boils with prodigious fury. A few yards di- ftant from it is a cavern in the fide of the bank, in which the water boils in a dreadful manner, throwing out a thick, muddy, unftuous water feveral yards from its mouth with a hideous noife. In the middle of the river are feveral places where the water boils up fo hot, that a perfon cannot dip his finger into it without being fcalded ; alfo along its banks are feveral apertures, out of which the fleam rifes to a confiderable height, fo hot that there is no approaching it with one’s hand: in other places, a perfon would think that too fmiths bellows were blowing all together, and fulphureous fleams iffuing out in thoufands of places; fo that na- ' tive fulphur is found in every chink, and the ground covered with it like hoar-froft ; even the bufhes that happen to lie near thefe places are covered with pure brimftone, condenfing from the fleam that iffues out of the ground, which in many places is covered over with a fubttance like burnt alum. In thefe fmall ca¬ verns, where the fleam iffues out, the people often boil their yams. Near thefe boiling fountains are feveral mineral fprings; two in particular, whofe waters have a very ftrong mineral quality, of an acid tafte, and bitter to the tongue. About half a mileto the weftward, and clofe by the river fide, are feveral hot fprings, which are ufed by fick people with great fuccefs. Alfo, on the fide of a hill weft of St Ann’s church, are many others, with three bathing-houfes, which are moft commonly ufed. Thefe waters are very warm, altho’ not boiling hot* but at the fame place iffue feveral ftreams of cold mine¬ ral water, by which they are tempered, according to every one’s liking. About a mile fouth of this place, and over a low ridge of hills, lies a fine lake about two leagues in circumference, and very deep, the water thick, and of a greenifh colour. At the north end is a plain piece of ground, where the fulphureous fleams iflue out in many places, attended with a fuprifing blowing noife. Our author could obferve ftrong fprings in the lake, but could not determine whether they were hot or cold: this lake feems to have no vifible evacuation. The other fprings immediately form a confiderable river, called Ribeira §>uente, which runs a courfe about two or three leagues, thro’ a deep rent in the mountains, on each fide of which are feveral places where the fmoke iffues MIG [ 5045 ] MIL Miguel, ilTaea out. Itdifcharges itfclf into the fca on the fouth “ fidt, near which are fome places where the water boils up at fome diftance in the fea. This wonderful place had been taken little notice of until very lately : fo little curiofity had the gentle¬ men of the ifland, that fcarcely any of them had feen it, until of late fome perfons, afflicted with very viru¬ lent diforders, were perfuaded to try its waters, and found immediate relief from them. Since that time it has become more and more frequented ; feveral per¬ fons who had loft the ufe of their limbs by the dead palfy have been cured ; and alfo others who were troubled with eruptions on their bodies. A clergyman, who was greatly affli&ed with the gout, tried the faid waters, and was in a ftiort time perfe&ly cured, and has had no return of it fince. When Mr Maffofl was there, feveral old gentlemen, who were quite worn out with the faid diforder, were ufing the waters, and had received incredible benefit from them ; in particular, an old gentleman, about 60 years of age, who had been tormented with that dif¬ order more than 20 years, and often confined to his bed for fix months together : he had ufed thefe wa¬ ters about three weeks, had quite recovered the ufe of his limbs, and walked about in the greateft fpirits ima¬ ginable. A friar alfo who had been troubled with the laid diforder about 12 years, and reduced to a cripple, by ufing them a ftiort time was quite well, and went a-hunting every day, There are feveral other hot fprings in the iflattd, particularly at Ribeira Grande ; but they do not pof- fefs the fame virtues, at leaft not in fo great a de- gree- The eaft and weft part of the ifland rifes into high mountains ; but the middle is low, interfperfed with round conic hills, all of which have very recent marks of fire ; all the parts below the furface confifting of melted lava lying very hollow. Moft of the mountains to the weft ward have their tops hollowed out like a punch-bowl, and contain wa¬ ter. Near the weft end is an immenfe deep valley, like the Furnas called the Sets Cidades. This valley is furrounded with very abrupt mountains, about feven or eight leagues round ; in the bottom is a deep lake of water, about three leagues in circuit, furnifhed with great number of water-fowls. This water has no mineral quality ; neither are there any hot fprings in the valley. All thefe mountains are compofed of a white crumbly puraice-ftone, which is fo loofe, that, if a perfon thruft a ftick into the banks, whole wag¬ gon-loads of it will tumble down. The inhabitants of the ifland relate a ftory, that he who firft difcover-- ed it obferved an extraordinary high peak near the weft end; but the fecond time he vifited it, no fuch peak was to be feen, which he fuppofed muft have certainly funk £*but, however improbable, this ftory may be, at fonte period or another, it tnuft have certainly been the cafe. MILAN, or the duchy of the Milanefe^a country of Italy, bounded on the weft by Savoy, Piedmont, and Montferrat ; by Switzerland on the north ; by the territories of Venice, the duchies of Mantua, Parma, and Placentia, on the eaft ; and by the territories of Genoa on the fouth. Anciently this duchy, contain¬ ing the north part of the Old Liguria, was called /«- Jubria, from its inhabitants the InfuJbres; who were Milan, conquered by the Romans, as thefe were by the Goths; who in their turn were fubdued by the Lombards. Di- dier, thelaftkingof the Lombards, was taken prifoner by Charlemagne, who put an end to the Longobardie empire, and appointed governors of Milan. Thefe go¬ vernors, being at a diftance from their matters, foon began to affume an independency, which brought a dreadful calamity on the country; for, in 1152, the. capital itfelf was levelled with the ground by the em¬ peror Frederic Barbarofla, who committed great de¬ valuations otherwife throughout the duchy. Under this emperor lived one Galvian, a nobleman who was defeended from Otho a Milanefe. Galvian, along with ^JVilliam prince of Montferrat, ferved in the crufade, when Godfrey of Boulogne took Jerufalem : he killed in Angle combat the Saracen general, whom he ftripped of his helmet, which was adorned with the image of a ferpent fwallowing a youth 5 and this ever afterwards was the badge of that family.. His grandfon Galvian, having oppofed the emperor, was taken prifoner, and carried in irons into Ger¬ many, from whence he made his efcape, and return¬ ing to Milan, died in the fervice of his country. From him defeended amother Otho, at the time that O- tho IV. was emperor of Germany, and who foon di- ftinguifhed himfeif by the accompliftiments both of his mind and body. When he grew up, he was received into the family of cardinal Oftavian Ubaldmi at Rome. This prelate, who was himfeif afpiring at. the pope¬ dom, was in a ihort time greatly taken with the ad- drefs and accomplilhments of young Otho, and pre¬ dicted his future greatnefs. In the mean time, on© Torrefs, or Torriano, a Milanefe nobleman of un¬ bounded ambition, was attempting to make himfeif mafter of Milan. The popular faction had fome time before been caballing againft the nobility ; and at laft, Torriano, putting himfeif at their head, expelled the bifliop, and put to death or banifhed all the nobility : by which means the popular government was fully e- ftablifhed ; and Torriano, under this pretence, ruled every thing as he pleafed. He was, however, foon oppofed by one Francifco Sepri, who formed a great party, pretending to deliver the city from Terriano’s haughtinefs and cruelty*. But while, the two parties were colleding their forces againft each other, cardinal Ubaldini was proje&Lng the. deftrudlion of bpth, by means of his favourite Otho. This prelate had for fome time borne an implacable hatred to Torriano, be- caufe he had been by him prevented from carrying out of the treafury of St'Ambrofe’s church at Mi¬ lan, a carbuncle or jewel of great value, which he pretended to referve for adorning the papal tiara ; for which reafon he now determined to oppofe his am¬ bition. Ubaldini began with naming Otho archbiftiop of Milan ; which, as the pope’s legate, he had a right to do. This nomination was confirmed by Pope Ur¬ ban IV.; and the party of the nobility having now got a head from the pope bimfelf, began to gather ftrength. Otho in the mean time employed himfeif in collefting troops; and had no fooner procured a (hew of an army, than he advanced towards Lago Mag- gione, and took poffeffion of Arena, a ftrong poft near that lake : but Torriano, marching immediately .• . MIL [ 4046 ] MIL againft him with ail his troops, obliged him to aban¬ don the place, and leave his party to make the beft terms they could with the conqueror. This was fol¬ lowed by the deftru&ion of the caftles of Arona, Ang- hiari, and Brebia : foon after which Torriano died; and was fucceeded by his brother Philip, who had fuf- ficient intereft to get himfelf defied podefta, or prae¬ tor of Milan, for ten years. During his lifetime, how¬ ever, the party of the nobility increafed confiderabiy under Otho, notwithftanding the check they had re¬ ceived. Philip died in 1-265, having loft ground con¬ fiderabiy in the affedlions of the people, though he ob¬ tained a great reputation for his courage and conduct. His fucceffor Napi rendered himfelf terrible to the nobility, whom he profcribed, and put to death as of¬ ten as he could get them into h.is power. He pro- , ceeded fuch lengths, and a&ed with fuch fury againft that unfortunate party, that pope Clement IV. who had fucceeded Urban, at laft interdifled Milan, and ■excommunicated Napi and all his party. By this Napi began to lofe his popularity, and the public dif- affeflion towards him was much heightened by the natural cruelty of his temper. But in the mean time, the party of the nobility was in the utmoft diftrefs. Otho himfelf and his friends, having fpent all their fubftance, wandered about from place to place ; the pope not being in a capacity of giving them any af- fiftance. Otho, however, was not difcouraged by his bad fuccefs, but found means ftill to keep up the fpi- riisof his party, who now chofe for their general Squar- cini Burri, a man of great eminence and courage, whofe daughter was married to Matthew Vifconti, af¬ terwards called Matthew the Great. At the fame time they renewed their confederacy with the mar¬ quis of Mantferrat, who was fon-in law to the king of Spain. The marquis agreed to this confederacy chiefly with a view to become mafter of the Milanefe. The nobility now again began to make head ; and having colle&ed an army, which was joined by 600 Spaniih cavalry and a body of foot, gained fome ad¬ vantages. But in the mean time Napi, having gather¬ ed together a fuperior army, fuddenly attacked Otho and Burr?, and defeated them. After this difafter Otho applied to the pope ; from whom, however, he did not obtain the affiftance he deflred ; and in the mean time Napi Invited the emperor Rodolph into I- taly, with the promife of being crowned at Milan. This invitation was accepted of with great readinefs by Rodolph; -who conftituted Napi his governor and vicar-general in Lombardy, fending to him at the fame time a fine body of German horfe, the commajid of which was given to Caffoni, Napi’s nephew. On this Otho again applied to the pope, (Gregory X.): but he was fo far from granting him any aflillance, that he is faid to have entered into a fcheme of aflaflina- ting him privately ; but Othp efcaped the dan¬ ger, and in 1276 began to recover his affairs. The reafon of pope Gregory’s enmity to him was, that he and his party were thought to be Gibelines, and were oppofed by great numbers of the nobility themfelves ; but after that pope’s death, the Milanefe exiles being united under one head, foon became for¬ midable. They now chofe for their general Godfrey count of Langufio, a noble Pavian, and an inveterate enemy of the Torriano family. This nobleman being rich and powerful, enlifted many German and other Milan, mercenaries, at whofe head he marched towards the Lago Maggiore. All the towns in that country open¬ ed their gates to him through the intereft of the Vif¬ conti family, who refided in thefe parts. But this fuc¬ cefs foon met with a fevere check in an unfortunate engagement, wherein Godfrey was defeated and taken prifoner; after which he and 34 nobles had their heads ftrnck off, and fent from the field of battle piled up in a common waggon. This defeat greatly aft'edled Otho; but having in' a fhort time recovered himfelf, he again attacked his enemies, and defeated them ; but, fuffering his troops to grow remifs after their viftory, the fugitives rallied, and entirely defeated him. The next year, however, Otho had better fuccefs, and totally defeated and took prifoner Napi himfelf. After this viflory Caflbni was obliged to abandon Milan to his competitor, who kept poffeffion of it till his death, which happened in 1295, in the 87th year of his age. Otho was fucceeded by Matthew Vifconti above- mentioned ; and Milan continued in fubjedlion to that family without any rCry memorable occurrence, till the year 1378, when, by the death of Galeazzo II. hi« bro¬ ther Barnabo became fovereign of Milan. He was of a brave and active difpofition; but exceffively profufe in his expences, as his brother Galeazzo had alfo been; and, to procure money to fupply his extravagancies, was obliged to opprefs his fubjedts. Galeazzo had engaged in an enterprife againft Bologna, and the fiege of it was continued by Barnabo. It lafted for nine years, and during this time is faid to have coft 300 millions of gold, a prodigious fum in thofe days, near 40 millions fterling ; the loweft gold coin being in value fomewhat more than half-a-crovvn Englifli. Both the brothers were exeelfively fond of building. Barnabo eredled a bridge over the Adda, confifting of three ftories, the loweft for chariots and heavy car¬ riages, the middle for horfes; and the uppermoft for foot-pafiengers. He built alfo another bridge which was carried over houfes without touching them. To accomplith thefe, and many other expenfive fchemes, he became one of the greateft tyrants imaginable, and every day produced frdh inllances of his rapacity and cruelty. He inftituted a chamber of inquiry, for pu- nifhing all thofe who had for five years before been guilty of killing boars, or even of eating them at the table of another. They who could not redeem them¬ felves by money were hanged, and above 100 wretches perifhed in that manner. Thofe who had any thing to lofe were dripped of all their fubftance, and obliged to labour at the fortifications and other public works. He obliged his fubjedts to maintain a great many hunting-dogs, and each diftridl was taxed a certain number. The overfeers of his dogs were at the fame time the inftruments of his rapacity. When the dogs were poor and flender, the owners were always fined ; but when the dogs were fat, the owners were alfo fined, for Xuffering them to live without exercife. The extravagant behaviour of Barnabo foon ren¬ dered public affairs ready for a revolution, which was at laft accomplifticd by his nephew John Galeazzo. He affedted a folitary life, void of ambition, and even incling to devotion ; but at the fame time took care to have his uncle’s court filled with fpies, who gave - Milan. MIL [ 5047 ] MIL him information of all that paffed.' He reduced his table and manner of living, pretending that he took thefe fteps as preparatives to a retirement from the world, which was foon to take place, after he had paid a religious vow. In fliort, he a&ed his part fo well, that even Barnabo, though abundantly cau¬ tious, had no fufpicion of his having any defigns againft him ; and fo entirely did he conceal his ambi¬ tion, that he feveral times made application to his uncle for his intereft to procure him a quiet retreat as foen as his religious vows were performed. One of thefe was to pay a vifit to the church of the bldled Vir¬ gin upon mount Varezzio. This was to be done with lo much fecrecy that all kinds of eye-witneffes were to be excluded ; and it was with difficulty that Barnabo himfelf and two of his fons were allowed to accom¬ pany our devotee. But, in the mean time, the hypo¬ critical Galeazzo had foldiers advancing from all quar¬ ters, fo that Barnabo and his fons were immediately feized, and the houfes of thofe who tad fided with them given up to be plundered. The booty in plate, money, and all kinds of rich.furniture, was immenfe. The minifters of the late government were dragged from their hiding-places, and put to death ; and at lall the citadel itfelf fell into the hands of Galeazzo, who found in it an immenfe fum of money. Barnabo was carried prifoner to Tritici, a caftle of his own building, where he had the happinefs to find one per- fon ftill faithful to him. This w'as his miftrefs, named Doninia Porra; who, when he was abandoned by all the world, flint herfelf up a voluntary prifoner in his chamber, and remained with him as long as he lived, which was only feven months after his degra¬ dation. John Galeazzo was the firfl who took upon him the title of the duke of Milan, and was a prince of great policy and no lefs ambition. He made war with the Florentines, became mafter of Pifa and Bologna, and entirely defeated the emperor in 1401, fo that he en¬ tertained hopes of becoming mafter of all Lombardy, and cutting off all poffibility of invading it either from France or Germany ; -but his defigns were fruftrated by death, which happened in 1402, in the 55th jfyear of his age. After his deceafe the Milanele govern¬ ment fell into the moft violent diftra&ions, fo that it could not be fupported, even in time of peace, with¬ out an army of 20,000 foot and as many horfe. In the year 1421, however, Philip duke of Milan be¬ came mafter of Genoa ; but though he gained great advantages in all parts of Italy, the different ftates ftill found means to counterbalance his fucceffes, and pre¬ vent him from enflaving them : fo that Milan never became the capital of any extenfive empire ; and in 1437 Genoa revolted, and wras never afterwards re¬ duced. Philip died in 1448, and by his death the male line ' of the Vifconti family was at an end. The next lawful heir was Valentina his After, w'ho had married the duke of Orleans fon to Charles V. of France. By the con¬ tract, of that marriage, the lawful progeny of it was to fncceed to the duchy of Milan in failure of the he:rs-male of the Vifconti family; but this fucceffion was difputed by Sforza, who had married Philip’s natural daughter. It is certain, however, that the rightful fuccefiion was veiled in the houfe of Orleans and the kings of France; Vol. VII. z and therefore though the Sforza family got poffeffion of the duchy for the prefent, Lewis XII. afterwards put in his claim, as being grandfon to John Galeazzo. For fame time he was fuccefsful ; but the French be¬ haved in fuch an infolent manner, that they were dri¬ ven out of the Milanefe by the Swifs and Maximilian 'Sforza. The Swifs and Milanefe were in their turn expelled by Francis I. who obliged the Sforza family to relinquilh the government for a penfion of 30,000 ducats a-year. Francis Sforza, the Ion of Maximi¬ lian, however, being alfirted by the emperor and the pope, regained the poffeffion of the Milanefe about the ear 1521 ; and, eight years after, the French king, y the treaty of Cambray, gave up his claim on the duchy. Biit, in fa&, the emperors of Germany Teem to have had the faireft title to the Milanefe in right of their being for a long time fovereigns of Italy. On the death of Francis Sforza, therefore, in the year 1536, the emperor Charles V. declared the Milantfe to be an imperial fief, and granted the inveftiture of it to his fon Philip II. king of Spain. In his family it con¬ tinued till the year 1706, when the French and Spa¬ niards were driven out by the imptrialifts, and the em¬ peror again took poffeffion of it as a fief. It was con¬ firmed to his houfe by the treaty of Baden in 1714, by the quadruple alliance in 1718, and by the treaty of Aix la Chapelle in 1748. The duchy of Milan is one of the fineft provinces in Italy. It is bounded on the fouth by the Appe- ntne mountains, and the territory of Genoa; on the north by Switzerland; on the eaft by the Venetian territories, and the duchies of Mantua, Parrtia, and Placentia; and on the weft by Savoy, Piedmont, and Montferrat; extending from north to fouth about loo miles, and from eaft to weft about 108. It is well watered by the Teffino, the Sefia, the Adda, the Po, the Oglio, the Lojnbro, Serio, &c. and alfo by feveral canals and lakes. Of the latter the Lago Maggiore is between 30 and 40 miles in length, and in fome places fix hr feven miles broad. In it lie the Boromean ifands, as they are called, viz. Kola Bella and Ifola Madre, the beauty of which almoft exceeds imagination: art and nature feem to have vied with one another in embellifhing them. In each of them is a palace with delicious gardens, belonging' to the Boromean family. The wrater of the lake is clear and of a greenilh colour, and abounds with fifh. The hills with which it is furrounded prefent a tnoft charm¬ ing landfcape, being planted with vines and chefnut- trees, interfperfed with fummer-houfes. There is a canal running from it towards Switzerland, with which the city of Milan has a communication. It was an¬ ciently called Lacus Verlanus. The Lago de Como, which was called by the Latin poets Lacus Larius, but had its modern name from the city, near which it lies, extends itfelf about 30 miles northward from Como, but its greateft breadth is not above five miles. From the Lago Maggiore iffues the Teffino; and from that of Como the Adda. Of the other lakes, that of Lugano and Guarda are the chief : that of Guarda w'as anciently called Btnacus. The trade and manufactures of this duchy confift principally in fi'ks, fluffs, ftockings, gloves, and hand¬ kerchiefs, linen and woollen cloth, hardware, curious 28 N works Milan. MIL [ 5048 ] MIL Milan, works of cry dal, agate, hyacinths, and other gems; but a ftranger’s notice are thofe of St Alexander, St Je- Milan, their exports are ufually far fhort of their imports. rofn, St Giovanni di Cafarotti della Pafiione, that of As to the revenue of the duchy, it muft without the Jefuits, and of St Ambrofe, in which lie the bo- doubt be very confiderable, It is faid to have amounted dies of the faint, and of the kings Pepin and Bernard, to 2,000,000 of dollars while the duchy was in the In the Ambrofian college, founded by Frederic Bo- hands of the Spaniards, romaeo, 16 profeflbrs teach gratis. In the fame col- In the year 1767, the Aufirian government of lege is alfo an academy of painting, with a mufaeum, Milan publilhed a law, by which all the rights which and a library, contaifiing a vaft number of printed the pope or the bifhops had till then exercifed over books and manufcripts; among the laft of which is a ecclefiaftics, either with regard to their effefts or tranllation of Jofephus’s Hiftory of the Jews, done by perfons, is transferred to a council eftablifhed for that Rufinus about 1200 years ago, and written on the purpofe at Milan, By the fame edict, all ecclefiaftics bark of a tree; St Ambrofe’s works on vellum, finely were obliged to fell the eftates which they had be- illuminated; the orations of Gregory Nazianzen, and come pofleffed of fince the year 1722; and no fubjeft, the works of Virgil, in folio, with Petrarch’s notes, whether ecclefiaftic or fecular, was to go to Rome to In the mufasum are Leonardi da Vinci’s mathematical folicit any'favour, except letters of indulgence, without and mechanical drawings, in 12 large volumes. The the confent of the faid council. feminary for fciences, the college of the nobles, the Milan, the capital of the duchy of that name, in Helvetian college, and the mathematical academy, are Latin Mediolanum, is a very large city, and has a wall noble foundations, and (lately buildings. ; Of the and rampart round it, with a citadel; yet is thought hofpitals, the moft remarkable are the Lazaretto, and to be incapable of making any great refiftance. that called the great hofpital; the latter of which re- *The gardens within the city take up a great deal of ceives fick perfons, foundlings, and lunatics, and has ground. In the citadel is a foundery for cannon, and fix fmaller hofpitals depending on it, with a revenue an arfenal furniftted with arms for 12,000, men. The of 100,000 rixdollars. The number of the inhabi- governor of it is quite independent of the governor- tants of this city is faid to be about 250,000. It general of the Milanefe, who refides in the city, in a has been 40 times befieged, taken 20 times, and four large, but old and ill-contrived palace. The yearly times almoft entirely demoliftied; yet it hath always income of the governor of Milan is faid to be 200,000 recovered itfelf. It is faid that gunpowder is fold guilders. The council belonging to the city is com- here only by one perfon, and in one place. The court pofed of a prefident and 60 doftors of law, who are of inquilition is held in the Dominican convent, near all nobles, and independent of the governor-general, the church of Madonna della Gratia. The houfes of Milan hath experienced a great variety of fortune, entertainment, and the ordinaries here, are reprefented having been fubjeft fometimes to the French, fome- as very indifferent. Mr Keyfler fays, it is not un¬ times to the Spaniards, and fometimes to the Germans, ufual for young travellers, when they go to any of the A great number of perfons of rank and fortune live taverns in Milan, to be afked, “ whether they choofe in it, efpecially during the winter. The ladies in a letto for nit 0, or female bed-fellow,” who continues France are not allowed more liberty than thofe of this maflced till (he enters the bed-chamber. Deformed city: even the aufterities of the monadic life are fo dwarfs, and people with wens, fome of them of a pro- far mitigated here, that gentlemen have not only the digious fize, are very common in the ftreets of Milan, liberty of talking with the nuns, and of rallying and The wens are faid to be hereditary. The common laughing at the grate, but alfo of joining with them method of burying here is, to throw the corpfes into in concerts of mufic, and of fpending whole afternoons vaults, without coffins, to the amount of two or three in their company. The place where the beau monde hundred, which cannot fail to fill the air in thefe take the air, either in their coaches or on foot, is the places with noxious effluvia. Mr Keyfler tells us, rampart betwixt the Porta Orientale, and the Porta that when he was at Milan, goods of any kind might Tofa, where it is ftraight and broad, and extremely have been brought into the city without.fearch or in- pleafant, being planted with white mulberry-trees, and quiry, provided a fmall gratuity was given to the commanding a profpeA on one fide of the open country, officty. Milan is far fhort of Turin both in beauty and on the other of the gardens and vineyards between and conveniency, many of the ftreets being crooked the ramparts and the city. Milan, which is faid to and narrow, and paper-windows much more fre- have been built by the Gauls about 200 years after quent than in that city ; even in grand palaces, the the foundation of Rome, contains a great number of windows are often compofed promifeuoufly of glafs ftately edifices, as churches, convents, palaces, and and paper. It is not uncommon here for beggars, hofpitals. The cathedral is a vaft pile, all of marble; when they afk alms, to hold out to you a difh, in and though fomething has been doing for near 400 which is a human (kull. Two large canals extend years towards the outward or inward ornament thereof, from hence, the one to the Teffino, and the other to it is not yet finiftied. Of the great number of ftatues the Adda; the Teffino having a communication with about it, that of St Bartholomew, juft flead alive, the Lago Maggiore, and, by a canal, with the Sefia; with his (l What is life and all its pride, If love and pleafure be denied? Snatch, fnatch me hence, ye fates, whene’er The am’rous blifs I ceale to lhare. Oh let us crop each fragrant flow’r. While youth and vigour give us pow’r; For frozen age will foon deftroy The force to give or take a joy ; And then, a prey to pain and care, Detefted by the young and fair. The fun’s bleft beams will hateful grow, And only (hine on feenes of wo! MIMOSA, the sensitive plant; a genus of the moncecia order, belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants. This genus comprifes flrrubby and herbaceous plants, but moftly of the fhrub kind, fome trailing, others ereift, all natives of the Indies, &c. retained here in ftoves as great curiofities, particularly for the very lingular fenfibility of the leaves of fome forts, which on being touched, fuddenly recede, contrail, and fall down in a very wonderful manner ; all of them garnilhed with pinnated leaves, and monopetalous, funnel-lhaped, five-parted, polygamous flowers at the axillas and ends of the branches.in clufters and fpikes. The name mimofa of this genus, fignifies mimic, originating from the fenfibility of the leaves, which, by their motion, mimic or imitate, as it were, the mo¬ tions of animals. To this genus Linnaeus joins many of the acacias, and it comprifes upwards of 40 different fpecies ; tho’ not more than a quarter of them are common in the Englilh gardens, or poffefs any particular merit ei¬ ther for curiofity or ornament, and none for ufe. Of the forts cultivated here in our ftoves, &c. fome are of the Ihrub and tree kind, and two or three are herba¬ ceous perennials and annuals ; are moftly of the fenfi- tive kinds, except the acacia forts, which are motion- lefs, as expreffed under their proper heads, i. e. fenfi- tive and humble kinds, and fenfelefs kinds. The for¬ mer of which are exceedingly curious plants in the , very fingular circumftance of their leaves receding ra¬ pidly from the touch : the leaves are winged, each compofed of numerous fmall lobes, all of which on being touched, haftily run up clofe together; and in fome forts the footftalks and all are affefted, fo as inftantly to fall downward, as if faftened by hinges. Shrubby, Senfttive, and Humble Kinds. They have all winged leaves, each wing confifting of many fmall pinnse ; fome only contradl the lobes of the leaves and pinnas at the touch ; others not only contract every part of their leaves, But their footftalks alfo fuddenly drop downward; and for dt- ftinftion fake, the former are called fenjitive mimofas-, and the latter humble fenfitives; but the leaves of both forts foon recover their ufual pofitien. The moft re- markable fpecies are, I, Sett* m r m ■ r 5061 1 m 1 m Mlmofa. I. Senritiva,or tommon fenfitive humble plant. Rifes —with an underlhrubby prickly ftem, branching fix or eight feet high, armed with crooked fpines; conjuga¬ ted, pinnated leaves, with bijugated partial lobes, or wino-s, having the inner ones the leaft, each leaf on a long footftalk ; and at the fides and ends of the branches many purple flowers in roundiftt heads ; fuc- ceeded by broad, flat, jointed pods, in radiated clu¬ tters. This is fomewhat of the humble fenfitive kind; the leaves, footftalks and all, recede from the touch, though not with fuch facility as in fome of the fol¬ lowing forts. 2. The pudica, or bafhful humble plant. Rifes with an underfhri;bby, decimated, prickly ftem, branching two or three feet around, armed with hairy , fpines; pinnated, digitated leaves, each leaf being of five or more long folioles, attached by their bafe to a long footftalk, and fpread out above like the finger^ of a hand ; a’d at the Tides and ends of the branches roundifti heads of greenifh white flowers, fucceeded by fmall, jointed, prickly pods. This is truly of the humble fenfitive kind ; for by the leaft touch the leaves inftantly recede, contrafl clofe, and, together with the footftalk, quickly de¬ cline downward, as if alhamed at the approach of the hand. 3. The pernambucana, or p^rnambuca flothfal mi- mofa. Hath underfhrubby, procumbent, unarmed ftems, branching two or three feet around ; bipin- nated leaves, of three or four pair of fhort, winged fo- liola ; and at the axillas drooping fpikes of pentan- drous flowers, the lower ones caftrated. This fort recedes very flowly from the touch, only contra&ing its pinnie a little when fmartly touched; hence the name Jlothfietrnirhofa. 4. The afperata, or rough fenfitive mimofa, hath a fhrubby, upright, prickly, hairy,rough ftem, branching four or five feet high, armed with (hort, broad, whitifti fpines; bipinnated, prickly leaves, of five or fix pair of foliola, or wings, arranged oppofite, having two thorns between each pair; and at the upper axillas globular heads of purple flowers, fucceeded by fhort, flat, jointed pods, in clufters, fpreading each way like a radius. This is only moderately fenfitive in its foliola, but not in the footftalks. 5. The pun&ata, or pun&ated fenfitxve mimofa, rifes with a (hrubby, upright, taper, punftated, or fpotted, unarmed ftem, branching ereftly five or fix feet high ; bipinnated leaves, of four or five pair of long, winged folioles, having each about 20 pair of pinnse; and at the axillas and termination of the branches oblong fpikes of yellowilh riecandrous flow¬ ers, the inferior ones caftrated; fucceeded above by ob¬ long feed-pods. This fort, though naturally (hrubby and perennial in its native foil, yet in this country it fometimes decays in winter. Tt is only fenfitive in the foliola, but quick in the motion. Herbaceous Senfitive and Humble Kinds. Of thefe forts two are perennial of the trailing- kind ; and one is annual, of fomewhat erect growth; have all winged leaves, with the wings formed of many fmall pinnae. 6. The viva,-—perennial, or lively fenfitive mimofa, hath herbaceous, trailing, unarmed, repent ftems, very Mimof,!. branchy, fpreading widely around, rooting at the joints as they advance; conjugated pinnated leaves,nvith quadrijugated, roundifti, partial lobes, or wings; and at the axillas globular heads of yellowifti flowers; fuc- cetded by (hort, flat, jointed pods. This Ipecies is only fenfitive in the foliola; but is the moil lively of that kind, it being fq fufceptible that all the folliola recede rapidly from the leaft touch, where¬ by it has the diftindive appellation of vivacious, or lively mimofa. 7. The quadrivalvis ;—perennial, or quadrivalve humble mimofa, hath herbaceous (lender, quadrangu¬ lar, prickly ftems, branching and fpreading all a- round, armed with recurved fpines; bipinnated leaves of two or three pair of winged lobes, having each many pinr.se; and at the axillas globular heads of purple flowers, fucceeded by quadrivalvular pods. This is of the humble fenfitive kind, both leaves and footftalks recede from the touch. 8. The plena,—annual, or double-flowered fenfitive annual mimofa, rifes with an herbaceous, ere61, round, unarmed ftem, cloftly branching and fpreading every way, three or four feet high ; bipirmated leaves of four or fiye pair of winged lobes, of many pairs of pinnse ; and at the' axillas and termination of the * branches fpikes of yellow pentandrous flowers, the lower ones double; fucceeded by (hort broad pods. This annual is only fenfitive in the folljola, but ex¬ tremely fenfible of the touch or air. Shrubby Infenfsble Kinds. Thefe are of the acacia kind, formerly a diftindt genus, but now all fpecies of Mimofa; but their leaves are deftitute of motion or fenfibility at the touch: there are about three noted fpeeies in the Englifh gar- ' dens, all for the ftove. 9. The cornigera, or homed Mexican mimofa, com¬ monly called hath a (hrubby, up¬ right, deformed ftem, branching irregularly, armed with very large, horned-like white fpines, by pairs, connated at the bafe; bipinnated leaves thinly placed j and flowers growing in fpikes. , This fpecies is efteemed a curiofity for tlie oddi¬ ty of its large fpines, refembling the horns of animals, and which are often varioufly wreathed, twitted, and contorted. 10. The farnefiana, or farnefian fragrant acacia, hath a fhrubby ftem, branching many feet high, arm¬ ed with diftinit fpines; bipinnated leaves, having eight pair of partial lobes, or wings ; and globular* clofe-futing .fpikes of yellow fweet-fcented flowers. 11. The nilotica, or nilotic true Egyptian acacia, hath an upright tree-ftem, branching many feet high, armed with fpreading fpines; bipinnated leaves ; and globular fpikes of flowers, having footftalks. From the exfudation of the leaves of this fort is procured the drugs called fuevus acacia and gum-arabic. Propagation, &c. Thefe 11 fpecies of mimofa are the moft noted forts in the Englifh gardens ; all the (hrubby kinds are durable in root, ftem, and branches; thofe of the perennial herbaceous kinds are alfo often abiding; but the annual fort always perifh, root and branch, at the approach of winter. They are all na¬ tives of the Indies; and in this country require the eon- tinual (belter of a hot-houfe, or cf a hot-bed of fimi- lar M I ’ N [ 5062 ] MIN Mina lar ternperalure under frames and glares; though they H can hardly be fupported alive in winter unlefs placed M:ndanoa. jn a, and Gas, paffim. Air united fuperabundanily with fpirituous waters is the chief caufe of their lightnefs, piquancy, and fparkling. When the nature and quantities of the principles Contained in a mineral water are afeertained by fuitable experiments, we may imitate artificially this water, by adding to pure water the fame proportions of the fame fubftances, as Mr Venel has done in examining feve- ral waters, efpecially that of Sellers. We may eafily perceive the neceffity of ufing no vef- fels in thefe experiments, byt fuch as are perfectly clean and rinfed with diftilled water; of weighing the produdls of the experiments very exaftly; of making the experiments upon as large quantities of water as is poffihle, efpecially the evaporations,cryftallizations, and diftillations; and of repeating all experiments feveral times. We may further obferve, that the mixtures from which any precipitates might be expe&ed ought to be kept two or three days, becaufe many of thefe precipitates require that time, or more, to appear, or to be entirely depofited. A L O G Y, fome new and particular phenomena fhonld difeover themfelves in thofe things we are examining ; elfr the tedioufnefs of thofe proeeffes might difeourage fome from going farther, and take up much of the time of others that might be better employed. An eafier way may therefore b@ adopted, which even for the moft part is fyffieient, and wdiich though made in miniature, yet is as feientifical as the com¬ mon manner of proceeding in the laboratories, fince it imitates that, and is founded upon the fame prin¬ ciples. This confifts in making the experiments upon a piece of charcoal with the concentrated flame of a candle blowm through a blow-pipe. The heat occa- fioned by this is very intenfe; and the mineral bodies may here be burnt, calcined, melted, and feonfied, &c. as well as in any great works. A pocket-laboratory containing all things neceffary 3; for trying mineralogical experiments is rep refen ted, Plate CLXXXI. fig. 1. with the cafe, exaftly of the form, bignefs, and proportions as that made u!e of by Mr Cronftedt • what alterations there may be wanted, are eafily found out by praftice. e, h. Are the two parts of which the Blow-/5//.? confifts, and which are already deferibed under that article. a. A wax-candle, deftinedtobe made ufe of, parti¬ cularly in travelling,when no other candle i§ to be had. i, A Apparatus. MINER Method of b< A pair of nippers, to handle fo much the eafier »f>a^’BgEx'thefe things which are to be tried, becaufe they are : Pcnments- generally fmall particles: this ferves alfo to touch and turn the fubjefls during the experiments, when they are hot and could not be well handled with the fingers. dt :e,f Are three phials, to put the required fluxes in, viz. borax, the mineral alcali fal fodee), and fal fuiibile microcofinicum. g. A hammer, to break any part of a {tone, when it is to be tried : this ferves alfo to pound things with. i. A magnifying'glafs, neceflary when the objedts are too fmall to be feen by the naked eye. k. A fteel to ftrike fire, by which the hardnefs or foftnef* of the bodies is tried. l. A loadftone, to difcover the prefence of iron. m. A file, wherewith to diflinguifh natural gems, quartz-cryftals, and artificial or coloured glafies, from I * one another. ». A thin fquare plate made of imtempered fteelr fried flat on one fide, to pound things upon, and po- liflied on the other fide to hammer metals upon. Above this fteel plate w, and within the circle drawn round about it, is the place for a candleftick. This candleftick is (hewn in plan, fig. 2. and in profile, fig. 3. It confifts of a round brafs plate ; the point /r, and the ring b round ity is inftead of the foeket in another eandleftiek, which would here take up too much room. Fig. 4. is a thin iron ring, a fixth part of an inch high ; within this ring the pounding and grinding of the things upon the fteel plate, fig. 1. n, is performed, that they may not be loft. In packing up, this ring is to be put loofe upon the eandleftiek ; and,, as it is lower than the point of this, it does not take up much room in the cafe. The whole cafe thus made, with all the inftrumentfr in it, is no more than one and an eighth part of an inch high, and confequently not more troublefome to be carried in the pocket than a fmall book*, The pocket-laboratory here defcribed, and the box for the acids, to be afterwards mentioned have been improved after, the manner of Mr Cronftedt, by a gentleman particularly acquainted with Mr Enge- ftrom, from whom he. learned this method of ma¬ king mineralogical experiments. The bulk of the firft has been reduced nine and a half cubic inches; its length being diminiftied one fixteenth of an inch, the breadth five and the depth two ; notwithftand- ing which*,, there is alfo added a piece of charcoal for trying the experiments,, a ftint, a piece of agaric tinder, and fome matches for lighting the candle. The three phials » m v for the falts, are of different colours, to prevent any miftake. The candleftick has different concentric grooves for keeping the refults of the trial? feparate. The blow-pipe. ^ has a filver mouth-piece, and fcrews in the middle of the ball, in order to clean out the moifture with the greater cafe; and the fmall wire (Plate CLV. fig. 2. n° 1.) is more t conveniently detached than fixed round it.. The o- ther box for the acids is reduced to kfs than a fourth of its original bulk, being exadtly of the fame fize with the above. It contains two fmall matraffes (fig. 4.) for making folutions ; a trough (fig. 5.) for wafting the ore after its being pounded; and the three fmall A L O G Y. 5065 bottles with double ftoppers, for the nitrous, mu- Method of riatic, and vitriolic acids, have their refpe&ive initials ma!ur!8:Ex‘ 7 , * penm-ents. cut on each. Both thefe pocket-laboratories, made in the reateft manner by an ingenious artiil, may be had ready fur- nifted with the pureft adds, &c. at the General Office of Bufinefs, Arts, and Trade, N° 98. Wood-ftreet, Cheapfide. Whenever any thing is to be tried, one muft not begin immediately with the blow-pipe ; fome prelimi¬ nary experiments ought to go before, by which thofe in the fire may afterwards be directed. For inftance, a ftone is not always homogeneous, or of the fame kind throughout, although it may appear to the eye to be fo: the magnifying-glafs is therefore ncceffary, to difcover the heterogeneous particles, if theTe be any ; and thefe ought to be feparated, and every thing tried by itfelf, that the effefis of two different things,, tried together, may not be attributed to one alone. This might happen with fome of the finer micse, which are now and then found mixed with fmall particles of quartz, fcarcely to be perceived by the eye. The trapp (in German fchruartisfiem) is alfo fontctimes mixed with very fine particles of feltfpat {fpatum. fcintillam)-, or pfcalcareoua fpar, &c. After this ex¬ periment follows that to try the hardnefs of the ftone in queftion with the fteel. The flint and garnet kinds are, commonly known tq ftrike fire with the fteel; but there are alfo other ftones, though very feldom, found fo hard as to ftrike fire : a kind of trapp i§ found of that hardnefs in which no particles of feltfpat are tp be feen.. Coloured glaffes refemble. true gems ; but as they are very foft in comparifon to thefe, they are eafily difcovered by means of the file: the com¬ mon quartz-cryftal? are harder than coloured glaffes, but fofter than the gems. The loadftone difcovers the prefence of iron, when it is not mixed in top fmall a quantity in the ftone, and often before the ftone i§ roafted. Some kinds of haematites, and particularly the ceerulefoena, is very like fome other iron ores; but diftinguiftes itfelf from thefe by a red colour when pounded, and others giving a blackift powder, and fo forth. To manage the blow-pipe with cafe requires fome practice, A beginner blows generally too ftrongly, which forces him to take breath very often, and then he draws the flame at the fame time along into the blow-pipe : this is troublefome for himfeif, and tha experiment cools always a little at the fame time. But the more experienced can breathe in through the nofe, andyet.at the fame time blow,through the pipe, whereby a eonftant flame from the candle is kept up. The whole art confifts in eonftantly taking in air through tfie nofe, and with the tongue modera¬ ting its blowing out ; fo that the tongue perform# nearly the office of a fucker in a pump; or rather, the adlion of the nofe, lungs, and mouth, refembles here the adlion of bellows with double partitions. la¬ this manner there is no need of blowing violently; but only with a moderate and equal force;, and thus the breath can never fail the operator. The only in- conveniency attending it is, that the lips grow weak or tired, after having continued to blow for a while in- one ftrain ; but they foon recover their former ftrength* by ceafiog to blow for fome minutes.. 5o66 M I N E R Method of The candle ufed for this purpofe ought to be fnuff- makuigEx- 0ften> v,ut f0 that the top of the wick may retain penmans. £(jme pat jn ;tj becaufe the flame is not hot enough , 6 when the wick is almofl burnt to afhes; fo that only the top mull be fnuffed off, becaufe a low wick gives too fmall a flame. The blue flame is the hottell; this ought therefore to be forced out when a great heat is required, and only the point of the flame mull be diredled upon the fubje£t which is fo be effayed. 7 The piece of charcoal made ufe of in thefe experi¬ ments mull not be of a difpofition to crack. If this fhould happen, it mull gradually be heated until it does not crack any more, before any eflay is made upon it. If this be not obferved, but the effay made immediately with a ftrong flame, fmail pieces of it will fplit off in the face and eyes of the effayer, and often throw along with them the matter that was to be eflayed. Charcoal which is too much burnt con- fumes too quickly during the experiment, leaving fmall holes in it, wherein the matter to be tried may be loft: and charcoal that is burnt too little catches flame from the candle, burning by itfelf likea piece of wood, which likewife hinders the procefs. g Of thofe things that are to be effayed, only a fmall piece mull be broke off for that purpofe, not big¬ ger,than that the flame of the candle may be able to a£l upon it at once, if required; which is fome- times neceffary; for inllance, when the matter re¬ quires to be made red-hot throughout. A piece of about an eighth part of an inch fquare is reckoned of a moderate fize, and fittell for experiments; feldom more, but rather lefs. This proportion is only men¬ tioned as a diredlion in regard to the quantity, the figure being of no confequence at all, a piece broke off from a done feldom or never happening to be fquare. But here it is to be obferved, that the piece ought to be broke as thin as pofiible, at leaft the edges : the advantage thereof is eafily feen, the fire having then more influence upon the fubjeft, and the experiment being quicker made. This is particularly neceffary to be obferved when fuch {tones are to be effayed, which, although in fome refpedts fufible by themfelves, yet refill confiderably the aftion of the fire; becaufe they may by thefe means be brought into fufion, at leall at their edges, which elfe would have been very difficult if the piece had been thick. Some of the mineral bodies are very difficult to keep * Ready upon the charcoal during the experiment, be¬ fore they are made red-hot; becaufe, as foon as the flame begins to aft upon them, they fpiit afunder with violence, and difperfe. Such often are thofe which are of a foft confiltence, or a particular figure, and which preferve the fame figure in however minute particles they are broke; for inllance, the calcareous fpar, the fparry gypfum, fparry fluor, white fparry lead-ore, the potters ore, (galena teffellata), the teffellated mock- lead or blende, See. even all the common floors which have no determinate figure, and moll of the minera metallorum calciformes cryjlallifata; or fpatofa: all thefe are not fo compaft as common hard {tones; and there¬ fore, when the flame is immediately pufhed at them, the heat forces itfelf quickly through and into their clefts or pores, and caufes this violent expanfion and difperfion. Many of the clays are likewife apt to crack in the fire, which may be for the raoft part aferibed to A L O G Y. Apparatus. the humidity, of which they always retain a portion. Method of Belides thofe enumerated, there may be found now and makmgEx- then other mineral bodies of the fame quality. penments. The only way of preventing' this inconveniency, is to heat the body as flowly as poffible. It is beft firft of all to heat that place of the charcoal where the piece is intended to be put on, and afterwards lay it thereon ; a little crackling will then enfue, but com¬ monly of no great-confequence. After that, the flame is to be blown very flowly towards it, in the begin¬ ning not direftly upon, but fomewhat above it, and fo approaching nearer and nearer with the flame until it becomes red-hot. This will do for the moll part; but there are neverthelefs fome fubftances which, not- withftandingall thefe precautions, it is almoft impoffihle to keep on the charcoal. Thus the fluors are gene¬ rally the mod difficult; and as one of their principal charafters is difeovered by their effefts in the fire per fe, they ought neceffarily to be tried that way. To this purpofe it is beft to make a little bole in the charcoal to put the fluor in, and then to put another piece of charcoal as a covering upon this, leaving only a fmall opening for the flame to come in at, and to look at the proof. As this ftone will neverthelefs moftly fplit and fly about, a larger piece thereof than is before- mentioned muft be taken, in order to have at leaft fomething of it left. But if the experiment is to be made upon a ftone 19 whofe effefts one does not want to fee in the fire per fe> but rather with fluxes, then a piece of it ought to be forced down into melted borax, when always fome part of it will remain in the borax, notwithftanding the greateft part may fometimes fly away by cracking. As the {tones undergo great alterations when expo- fed to the fire by themfelves, whereby fome of their charafteriftics, and often the moll principal, are difeo¬ vered, they ought firft to be tried that way; obferving what has been faid before concerning the quantity of the matter, direftion of the fire, See. The following effefts are generally the refults of this experiment, viz. 1. Calcareous earth or ftone, when it is pure, does never melt by itfelf, but becomes white and friable, fo as to break freely between the fingers; and, if fuffer- ed to cool, and then mixed with water, it becomes hot, juft as common quick-lime. As in thefe experiments only very fmall pieces are ufed, this laft effeft is beft difeovered by putting the proof on the outlide of the hand, with a drop of water to it, when inftantly a very quick heat is felt on the {kin. When the calcareous fubftance is mixed with the vitriolic acid, as in the gypfum ; or with clay, as in the marie; it commonly melts by itfelf; yet more or lefs difficultly in propor¬ tion to the differences of the mixtures: the gypfum produces generally a white, and the marie a grey glafs or flag. When there is any iron in it, as in white iron ore, it becames dark, and fometimes quite black, Sec. 2. The filiceas never melt alone, but become gene- 13 rally more brittle after being burnt: fucb of them as are coloured become colourlefs, and the fooner when it does not arife from any contained metal; for in- ftance, the topazes, amethifts, &c. fome of the pre¬ cious ftones, however, excepted. And fuch as are mixed with a quantity of iron grow dark in the fire, as iooie of the jafpers, &c. 3- The Apparatus. MINER Method of 3. The garnet-kind melt always into a dark flag; makingEx-and fometimes fo eafiiy, that it may be brought into penments. a rouncj g]0bule upon the charcoal. 14. 4. The argii!acea», when pure, never melt, but be- jy come white and hard : the fame effects follow when they are mixed with phlogifton- for inftance, the foap- rock is eafiiy cut with the knife; but, being burnt, it cuts glafs, and would ftrike fire with the fteel, if as large a piece as is neceffary for that purpofe could be tried in this way. The foap rocks are fometimes found of a dark brown and nearly black colo.ur, but become white in the fire, as a piece of China ware: however, care mull be taken not to pufh the flame from the top of the wick, there being for the moll part a, footy fmoke, which commonly will darken all that it touches; and if this is not obferved, a miftake in the experiment might eafiiy happen : but if it is mixed with iron, as it is fometimes.found, it does not fo-eafiiy part with its dark colour. The argillacese, when mix¬ ed with lime, melt by themfelves, as above-mentioned. When mixed with iron, as in the boles, they grow dark or black ; and if the iron is not in too great a quan¬ tity, they melt alone into a dark flag: the fame hap¬ pens when they are mixed with iron and a little of the vitriolic acid, as in the common clay, &c. 15 5. The micaceae and albeftinae become fomewhat hard and brittle in the fire, and are more or lefs refrac¬ tory, though they give fome marks of fufibility. jy 6. The floors difcover one of their chief charafteri- ftics by giving a light, like phofphorus, in the dark, when they are flowly heated • but lofe this property, as well as their Colour, as foon as they are made red- hot : they commonly melt in the fire into a white opaque flag, though fome of them not very eafiiy. 18 7. Some forts of the zeolites,, a Hone lately difco- vered, melt eafiiy and foam in the fire, fometimes nearly as much as borax, and become a frothy flag, &c. Ig 8. A great manyof thofe mineral bodies which are impregnated with iron, as the boles, and fome of the white iron ores, &c. as well as fome of the other iron ores, viz. the bloodftone, are not attrafted by the loadftone before they have been thoroughly roafted, &c. 20 After the mineral bodies have been tried in the fire by themfelves, they ought to be melted with fluxes, to find out if they can be difiblved or not, and fome other phenomena attending this operation. To this purpofe three different kinds of falts are ufed as fluxes, viz. fal Joda, lor ax, and falfujilile tnicrocofmicum. 31 The fal fodse is not much ufed in thefe fmall expe¬ riments, its effe&s upon the charcoal rendering it for the moft part improper; becaufe, as foon as the flame begins to aft upon it, it melts inftantly, and is almoft wholly attradled by the charcoal. When this fait is employed to make any experiment, but a very little quantity thereof is wanted at once, viz. about the cu¬ bical contents of an eighth part of an inch, more or lefs: this is laid upon the charcoal, and the flame blown on it with the blow-pipe ; but as this fait commonly is in form of a powder, it is neceflary to go on very foft- ly, that the force of the flame may not difperfe the minute particles of the fait. As foon as it begins to melt, it runs along on the charcoal almoft as melted tallow; and when cold, it is a glafly matter of an o- paque dull colour fpread on the coal. The moment it is melted, the matter which is to be tried ought to be A L O G Y. ^067 put into it, becaufe otherwife the greateft part of the Method of fait will be foaked into the charcoal, and too little 0f makingEx- it left for the intended purpofe: the flame ought thenpen e*s~ to be dircdfed on the matter itfelf, and if the fait fpreads too much about, leaving the proof almqft alone, it may be brought to it again by blowing the flame on its extremities, and dire&ing it towards the fubjedl of the experiment. In the eflays made with this fait, it is true, we may find if the mineral bodies which are- melted with it have been diflbved by it or not; but we _ cannot tell with any certainty whether this is done ha- ftily and with force, or gently and flowly;; whether only a lefs or 3 greater part of the matter has been dif- folved ; nor can it be well didinguiflied if the matter has imparted any weak tincture to the flag ; becaufe this fait always bubbles upon the charcoal during the experiment, nor is it clear when cool ; fo that fcarce any colour, except it be a very deep one, can be dif* covered, although it may fometimes be coloured by the matter that has been tried. The two other falts, viz. the borax, and the fal fu* 32.. Jibile_microcofmicujn, are very well adapted to thefe ex¬ periments, beeaufe they may by the flame be brought to a clear uncoloured and tranfparent glafs y. and as they have no attraftion to the charcoal, they keep themfelves always upon it in a round globular form. The falfujibile micrccrftnicum 'xs very fcarce, and not to be met with in the (hops; it is made of urine. For its preparation, fee Chemistry, n° 308. The quantity of thefe two falts required for an ex- 23;, periment is almoll the fame as the fal fodas ; but as thefe falts are cryftallifed, and confequently include a great deal of water, particularly the borax, their bulk is confiderably reduced when melted, and therefore little more may be taken than the before-mentioned quantity. The borax and microcofmic fait, when expofed to the 24, flame of the blow-pipe, bubble very much and foam before they melt to a clear glafs; but more fo the bo¬ rax, which for the mod part depends on the water they contain: and as this would hinder the eflayer to make due oblervations on the phenomena of the experiment, the fait which is to be ufed mud fird be brought to clear glafs before it can ferve as a flux; it mud there¬ fore be kept in the fire until it is become fo tranfpa¬ rent that the cracks in the charcoal may be feen thro* it. This done, whatfoever is to be tried, is put to it, and the fire continued. Here it is to be obferved, that for the eflays made with any of thefe two fluxes on mineral bodies, no lar¬ ger pieces of thefe mud be taken than that all together they may keep a globular form upon the charcoal; becaufe then it may be better didinguiflied in what manner the flux a (g) When any of the garnet kind is to be tried for its containing metal, the iron ought to be melted out of it by the common procefs; and if the garnet, at the fame time, contains both tin and lead, thefe two metals are likewife - included in the iron: however, they may be extracted out of the iron, by expofing it to a heat augmented by de¬ grees; becaufe then the tin aad lead fweat out in form of drops, aim oft pure, though always fomewhat mixed: with iron. 5084 M I N E R A Argillaceous I. Porcelain clay; Terra porcellanea, vulgo Argilla. Earths, apyra. This is very refraftory in the fire, and cannot in T3I any common ftrong fire be brought into fufion any farther than to acquire a tenacious foftnefs, without lofing its form : it becomes then of a dim ihining appearance and folid texture, when it is broke; ftrikes fire with fteel; and has confequently the bed qualities required as a fubftance whereof veffels ca¬ pable of refilling a melting and boiling heat, and of holding falts and acids, can be made. It is found, j j2 (i.) Pure, Pur a. A Diffufible in water. 1. Coherent and dry. a White. Mr Cropftedt affirms that he has feen a root of a tree changed into this clay. 2, Friable and dry. a. White. Thefe may be called pure, fince, after being burnt, they are quite white, though they have been expofed to a quick melting heat ; and it may be queried, if all fuch clays mull not be fome- what harlh, or at lead not un6luous to the touch. (2.) Mixed with phlogifton, and a very fmall quan¬ tity of infeparable heterogeneous fubftances. Of thefe are, A. Diffufible in water. a. White and fat pipe-clay. b. Of a pearl colour. c. Bluifh grey. d. Grey. e. Black. f. Violet. Thefe contain a phlogifton which is difcovered by expofing them to quick and ftrong fire, in which they become quite black interiorly, affu- ming the appearance of the common^ flints, not only in regard to colour, but alfo in regard to hardnefs: but if heated by degrees, they are firft white, and afterwards of a pearl colour. The fatter they feem to be, which may be judged both by their feeling fmooth and un&uous, and by their Ihining when fcraped with the nail, they contain a larger quantity of the inflammable prin¬ ciple. It is difficult to determine, whether this ftrongly inherent phlogifton be the caufe of the above-mentioned pearl colour, or prevents them from being burnt white in a ftrong fire : yet no heterogeneous fubftance can be extra&ed from them, except fand, which maybe feparated from fome by means of water, but which fand does not form any of the conftituent parts of the clays. If they be boiled in aqua regis in order t to extraft any iron, they are found to lofe their vifcofity. 5 , 2?. Indurated. Is commonly unfluous to the touch, and more or lefs difficult to be cut or turned in proportion to its different degrees of hardnefs; is not diffu¬ fible in water; grows hard, and is very refraftory in the fire 5 pounded and mixed with water, it will not eafily cohere in a pafte: however, if it is managed with care, it may be baked in the fire to a mafs, which, being broke, (hews a dull and porous texture. It takes for the moft part, LOGY. Clafs I. and without much labour, a fine polifh. It is Argillaceous found, Earths. : a. Compad and foft; Smeftis, Brian jon or „ ! French chalk. *35 a. White. b. Yellow. c. Red and white, and which looks like Caftrle foap. b. Solid and compaft fteatites, and alfo foap- *3^ rock. a. White or light green, b. Deep green c. Yellow. It is a very difficult matter tojfpecify all the varieties of the foap-ftones in regard to their hardnefs or foftnefs, fince they can¬ not be compared with any ftandard meafure. Thofe from Rifver, Sikfioberg, and China, are a great deal harder and more folid than the Englifh kind from the Land’s End, which breaks between the fingers; but are foft in comparifon to that from Salberg, which is there called ferpentine, although both thefe varieties may in difcriminately be made ufe of for cutting and turning. The foft ones, however, are not fo apt to crack, when they are worked, as the harder. But none of thefe varieties is found in the rock, - without being interfperfed with the unctu¬ ous clefts. When they are too many, too clofe to one another, and make the ftone unfit for ufe, they are in this cafe called by the Swedifti miners, Skiolige; and of this kind is a great quantity found at Salberg and Swartwik. Moft: part of the foap-rock which is found in Sweden, is likewife mixed with glimmer or mica ; and then it is called telgjien, that is, ollaris. c. Solid, and of vifible particles; ftrpentine 137 ftone. 1. Of fibrous and coherent particles. This is compofed, as it were, of fibres ^ and might therefore be confounded with the albeftus, if its fibres did riot cohere fo clofely with one another as not to be feen when the ftone is cut and poliftied. The fibres themfelves are large, and feem as if they were twifted. a. Deep green. This is fold for the lapis nephriticus,zm\ is dug at fome unknown place in Germany. h. Light green from Skienfliyttan, in • Weftmanland; in Sweden it is ufed by the plate-fmiths inftead of the French chalk. 2. Fine-grained ferpentine ftone: the Zoeb- ^ ^ litz ferpentine. ^ a. Black, b. Deep green, c. Light green, d. Red. e. Bluifh grey. f. White. Thefe colours are all mixed together in the ferpentine ftone from Zoeblitz, but the green is the moft predominant co¬ lour. (3.) Mixed with iron. This is, . A. Diffufible in water. 4 <*. Red. Some of the bricks which are im¬ ported Order IV. MIN ERA Argillaceous ported from certain places in Germany, feem Earths. to be made of this kind. B. Indurated. 1. Martial foap-earth; Creta Brianzonica mar¬ tial} s. a. Red, and mixed with fome calcareous matter. 2. Martial foap-rock; Steatites martialis. a. Black, b. Red. iao II- Stone-marrow ; Lithomarga. Kejfekil of the ^ Tartars. 1. When dry, it is as fat and flippery as foap s but, 2. Is not wholly diifufible in water, in which it only falls to pieces,- either in larger bits, or refembles a curd like mafs. 3. In the fire it eafily melts to a white or red- difh frothy flag, confequently is of a larger volume than the clay was before being fufed. 4. It breaks into irregular fcaly pieces. A. Of coarfe particles: Coarfe ftone-marrow. a. Grey, from Ofmundfberget, in the parifli of Rettwik, in Dalarne; and is there called ‘'jealklera, that is, fuller’s earth. It is mentioned in an account of Of- mundfberget, publiflied in the Tranfac- tions of the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, in the year 1739, by the berg’s-radet, or mine-mafter, Mr Tilas. 1. Whitifh yellow, from the Crim Tartary, where it is called keffekil, and is faid to be ufed for walking inftead of foap. b. Of very fine particles; fine ftone-marrow. a. Yellowilh-brown; Terra Lemnia.—Ys of a fhining texture, falls to pieces in the water with a crackling noife; it is more indu¬ rated than the preceding, but has other- wife the fame qualities. 141 III. Bole. Is a fine and denfe clay of various colours, containing a great quantity of iron, which makes it impoffible to know the natural and fpecifical qualities of the bole itfelf, by any eafy method hitherto in ufe. It is not eafily foftened in water, contrary to what the porcelain and the common clays are, (I. & V.); but either falls to pieces in form of fmall grains, or repels the wa¬ ter, and cannot be made duftile. In the fire it grows black, and is then attra&ed by the load- ftone. 142 si- Loofe and friable boles, or thofe which fall to a powder in water. a. Flelh-coloured bole. 1. Red. 1. Fine; Bolus A menus. 2. Coarfe; Bolus cormnunis officinalis* 3. Hard; Terra rulrica. t. Green; Terre verte. 1. Fine. 2. Coarfe. Earths‘ gure. 2. Of an undeferminate figure. At the time when the terrA figillatec, or fealed earths, were in general ufe, the drug- gifts endeavoured to have them of all co¬ lours, and for that reafon they took all forts of clays, and fealed them: not only the na¬ tural ones, but likewife fuch as had been co¬ loured by art, or had been mixed with mag- nejia alba officinalis, or other things, were afterwards vended for true boles; and for this reafon the fpecies of boles is ftill thought to comprehend fo many varieties. Thus the Cologne clay is by the druggifts ranked among the white fealed earths, and is called a 'white bole: and this fame clay is by the Swediih potters called Eisglejk jord, or Eng- lifli earth; and by the tobacco-pipe makers or pipe-clay, &c.: which {hews how great a confufion there mu ft enfue, if the knowledge of thefe bodies was not founded 'upon a furer ground than the colour, figure, and names invented by common mechanics. Since the moft part of thefe terra figillata, or fealed earths, are found to contain iron, we may conclude that the bole muft be a martial clay; and, as fuch, it feems to be more fit for medical ufes than other clays, if any dead earth muft be ufed internally, when there is fuch an abundance of finer fubftances. B. Indurated bole. 14.3 A. Of no vifible particles. This occurs very often in form of flate, or layers, in the earth; and then is made ufe of as an iron ore. However, it has ufually been confidered more in regard to its texture than to its conftituent parts; and has been called Jlate, in common with feveral other earths which are found to have the fame texture. a. Reddifli-brown; in moft collieries, between the feams of coal. b. Grey; from Coalbrookdale in Shropfhire, and moft collieries of England. b. Of fcaly particles.—The hornblende of the jaa Swedes. Is diftinguifhed from the martial glimmer, or mica, by the feales being lefs fhining, thicker, and rectangular,. a. Black.—This, when rubbed fine, gives a green powder. b. Greenifti. Both thefe, particularly the black, are found every-where inSweden among the iron-ores,and in the Grunften. The hornblende grows hard in the fire, which is the reafon why it is ranked here among the clays, though in all its other qualities it much refembles the cockle or fhirl. IV. Tripoli. Terra Tripolitana. Is known by its quality of rubbing hard t » bodies, and making their furfaces to ftiine; ^ the particles of the tripoli being fo fine as to . leave even no Scratches on the furface. This 28 S effect 50$ 6 Argillaceous iARTHS. 146 MINERALOGY. Clafs I. which is called polijhing, may likewife be effedhed by other fine clays when they have been burnt a little. The tripoli grows fome- what harder in the fire, and is very refra&ory: it is with difficulty diffolved by borax, and (till with greater difficulty by the microcofmic fait. It becomes white when it is heated: when crude, it imbibes water, but is not diffufible in it: it taftes like common chalk, and is rough or fandy between the teeth, although no fand can by any means be feparated from it. It has no quality common with any other kind of earth, by which it might be confidered as a variety of any other. That which is here de- fcribed is of a yellow colour, and is fold by druggifts. This kind of tripoli has been lately difcovered in Scotland. But the rotten-Jlone, fo called, is another fort found in England, viz. in Derbyfhire. It is in common ufe in Eng¬ land among workmen for all forts of finer grinding and polifhing, and is alfo fometimes ufed by; lapidaries for cutting of Hones, &c. V. Common clay, or brick clay. Argilla commu¬ nis; vulgaris plajlica. This kind may be difiinguiihed from the other clays, by the following qualities. 1. In the fire it acquires a red colour, more or lefs deep. 2. It melts pretty eafily into a greenifli glafs. 3. It contains a fmall quantity of iron and of the vitriolic acid, by which, the preceding effefts are produced. It is found, A. Diffufible in water. I. Pure. a. Red clay. b. Flefh-coloured, or pale-red. c. Grey. d. Blue. e. White, is found in the woody parts of Sodermanland, Dalarne, and of other provinces. It is often found in a flaty form, with fine fand between its ftrata. It is not eafy to be baked in the fire: when it it burnt, it is of a pale-red colour, and is more fufible than the preceding ones. f. Fermenting clay. Argilla intumefeens. This is very like the preceding, as to the external appearance and other qualities; but when they are both found in the fame place, which is not un¬ common in feveral of our mine coun¬ tries, they feem to be different in re¬ gard to the fermenting quality of this variety. This fermentation cannot be the effeft of the fand mixed with it, becaufe fand is found in them both: and befides, this kind ferments in the fame manner when it is mixed with gravel or Hones; and then it ferments later in the fpring than the other, fince by the Hones, perhaps, the froft is longer retained in it. 2. Mixed with lime. See MarlE, n° 05. Micaceous B. Indarated. Earths. 1. Pure. a. Grey fiaty. b. Red flaty, from Kinnekulle, in the pro¬ vince of Weffergottland. 2. Mixed with phlogifton, and a great deal of the vitriolic acid. See Alum Ores^ n° 173. 3. Mixed with lime; (n° 98). The Fifth Order. The Micaceous kinds. The glimmer, daze, or 148 glifi. Thefe are known by the following charadlers. 1. Their texture and compofition confifi of thin flexible particles, divifible into plates or leaves, having a Anning furface. 2. Thefe leaves, or feales, expofed to the fire, lofe their flexibility, and become brittle, and then feparate into thinner leaves: but in a quick and flrong fire, they curl or crumple, which is a mark of fufion ; though it is very difficult to reduce them into a pure glafs by themfelves, or without addition; 3. They melt pretty eafily with borax, the mi- crbcofmic fait, and the alkaline fait; and may, by means of the blow-pipe, be brought to a clear glafs with the two former falls. The martial mica is, however, more fufible than the uncoloured ones. There is not yet difcovered any loofe earth of this kind, but it is always found indurated. A* Colourlefs or pure mica; daze, glimmer, or gliH. 149- 1. Of large parallel plates; Mufcovy glafs. Is tranfparent as glafs; found in Siberia, and Elf- dalen in the province of Wermeland in Swe¬ den. 2. Of fmall plates; from Silfverberget, at Runneby, in the province of Blekinge, in Sweden. 3. Of particles like chaff; chaffy mica. 4. of twiHed plates; crumpled mica. 2?. Coloured and martial glimmer. 1. Of large parallel plates; Martialis. jej, a. Brown femi-tranfparent. 2. Of fine and minute fcales< a. Brown. b. Deep green. c. Light green ; Talcum officinale. d. Black, found in granites. 3. Twifled or crumpled glimmer. a. Light green, in the olaris. 4. Chaffy glimmer. a. Black, is found in the Hone called homberg-,. which occurs in moH of the Swediffi copper- mines. 5. Cry H alii fed glimmer; Mica drufica. 1. Of concentrated and eredt feales. 2. Of hexagonal horizontal plates. The Sixth Order. The fluors, Fluores miner ales. Suec. Fluff-arter. Germ. Flujf-arten. j . j Thefe are commonly called fluxing, vitrefeent, or ^ glafs fpars, becaufe moH part of them have a fparry from Order VI. MINE R Earths, form and appearance: they are, however, often met Fluors. wfth in an indeterminate figure. ” Thefe are only known in an indurated ftate; and di- ftinguifh themfelves from the other earths by the fol¬ lowing charafters. 1. They are fcarce harder than a calcareous fpar, and confequently do not ftrike fire with fteel. 2. They do not ferment with acids, neither be¬ fore nor after calcination, notwithftanding a phlogilton or an alkali had been added in the calcination. 3. They do not melt by thernfelves, but only fplit to pieces when expofed to a ftrong fire. But, 4. In mixtures with all other earths, they are very fufible, and efpecialiy when they are blended with the calcareous earth, with which they melt to a corroding glafs, which diflblves the ftrongeft crucibles, unlefs fome quartz or apy- rus clay is added thereto. 5. When heated flowly, and by degrees, they give a phofphorefcent light; but as loon as they are made red-hot, they lofe this quality. The coloured ones, and efpecially the green, give the ftrongelt light, but none of them any longer than whilft they are well warm. 6. They melt and diflblve very eafily by the ad¬ dition of borax, and next to that by the mi- crccofmic fait, without ebullition. 152 A. Indurated fluor. (1.) Solid, of an indeterminate figure. Is of a dull texture, femi-tranfparent, and full of cracks in the rock. a. White. (2.) Sparry fluor has nearly the figure of fpar, though, on clofe obfervation, it is found not to be fo regular, nothing but the glofiy fur- face of this ftone giving it the refemblance of fpar. a. White, b. Blue. c. Violet, d. Deep green, e. Pale gteen. f. Yellow, from Giflof in Skone. 153 (3.) Cryftallifed fluor, when in Angle cryftals; but fluor drufe, when many cryftals are heaped together. 1. Of an irregular figure. a. White, b. Blue. c. Red.. 2. Of a cubical figure. a. Yellow, b. Violet. 3. Of a polygonal fpherical figure. a. White, b. Blue. 4. Of an oiftoedral figure. a. Clear and colourlefs. The Seventh Order. 154 The AJbeJlus kind; AJbsJlinx. Thefe are only yet difcovered in an indurated ftate: their chara&ers are as follow, x. When pure they are very refradlory in the fire. 2. In large pieces they are flexible. 3. They have dull dr uneven furfaces. 4. In the fire they become more brittle. 5. They do not ftrike fire with the fteel. 6. They are not attacked by acids. 7. They are eafily brought into fufion by borax. 2 A L O G Y. 5087 In this order are included both thofe varieties which Earths. by fofiilogifts have been mentioned under the names AJbcft^, amianti and ajbejii, and have often been confounded Mlui- together. I. Albeftus which is compounded of foft and thin 155; membranes; Amiantus Wallaii. A. Of parallel membranes; Coriumthsz.caro mon- tana, mountain-leather. 1. Pure. a. White. 2. Martial. a. Yellowifh brown, from Storrginningen, at Danneraora, in the province of Upland. This melts pretty eafily in the fire to a black flag, or glafs. B. Of twitted foft membranes, mountain-cork. T X. Pure. 150 White. 2. Martial. a. Yellowifli brown. This has the fame quality in the fire as the martial mountain- leather. II. Of fine and flexible fibres; or earth-flax; 157 AJbeJlus Wallerii. A. With parallel fibres; Byjfus. 1. Pure and foft. a. Light green. b. White. 2. A little martial, and more brittle. a. Greenifh; from Baftnas Grufva, at Ryd- darhyttan in Weftmanland in Sweden. There it forms the greateft part of the vein out of which the copper ore is dug; a great part of it is confequently melted together with the ore, and is then brought to a pure femi-tranfparent martial flag or glafs. B. Of broken and recombined fibres. 1. Martial. a. Light green. The Eighth Order. Zeolites. This is deferibed in its indurated ftate, in the Tranf- aiftions of the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm for ^ the year 1756; and there methodifed as a ftone fui generis, in regard to the following qualities: 1. It is a little harder than the fluors, and the calcareous kind: it receives however fcratches from the fteel, but does not ftrike fire with it. 2. It melts eafily by itfelf in the fire, with a like ebullition as borax does, into a white frothy flag, which not without great difficulty can be brought to a folidity and tranfparency. 3. It is eafier diflblved in the fire by the mineral alkali (fal fodee), than by the borax and micro- cofmic fait. 4. It does not ferment with this laft fait, as the lime does; nor with the borax, as thofe of the gypfeous kind. 5. It diffolves very flowly, and without any effer- vefcence, in acids, as in oil of vitriol and fpirit of nitre. If concentrated oil of vitriol is pour¬ ed on pounded zeolites, a heat arifes, and the 28 S 2 powder . 1 MINERALOGY. powJer unites into a mafs (i). 6. In the very moment of fuiion it gives a phof- phorus or light. 160 The zeolites is found in an indurated ftate. (i.) Solid, or of no vifible particles. A. Pure ; Zeolites durus. a. White, from Iceland. B. Mixed with filver and iron. a. Blue ; Lapus lazuli, from the Buckarian Calmucks. This, by experiments made with it, has difcovered the following properties : 1. It retains for a long time its blue in a calcining heat, but is at laft changed into a brown colour. 2. It melts eafily in the fire to a white frothy flag ; which, when expofed to the flame of a blow-pipe, is greatly puffed up, but in a covered veffel, and with a ftronger heat, becomes clear and folid, with blue clouds in it. 3. It does not ferment with acids: but, 4. Boiled in oil of vitriol, it difiblves flowly, and lofes its blue colour. When a fixed alkali is added to this fo- lution, a white earth is precipitated, which being fcorified with borax, yields a filver regulus, that varies in bignefs according to the various famples of the (tone. 5. By fcorification with lead, there has been extrafted two ounces of filver out of 100 pounds weight of the ftone. 6. The prefence of filver is not difcovered with the fame certainty by the fpirit of nitre as by oil of vitriol. 7. When the fpirit of fal ammoniac is add¬ ed to any folution, made, either of crude or of a perfe&ly calcined lapis lazuli, there is no blue colour produced ; which proves that this colour is not owing to copper, as fome have pretended: and this is farther confirmed by the fixity of the blue colour in the fire (1, 2.), and by the colour of the flag or glafs (2). 8. It is a little harder than the other kinds of zeolites; but does not, however, in hard- nefs approach to the quartz} or to other ftones of the filiceous kind in general; be- caufe the pureft and fineft blue lapis la¬ zuli may be rubbed with the fteel to a white powder, although it takes a polilh like marble. 9. The lapis lazuli, when perfectly calcined, is a little attracted by the loadttone; and fcorified with lead, the flag becomes of a greeniih colour, not fuch a colour as cop¬ per gives, but fuch as is always produ¬ ced by iron mixed with a calcareous fub- ftance. r6i ('2.) Sparry zeolites. This refembles a calcareous fpar; though it is of a more irregular figure, and is more brittle. a. Light red, or orange-coloured; from Nya Clafs I. Krongrufvan, one of the gold-mines at Adel- -Earths* 11 fors, in the province of Smoland. Magnejia. J| (3.) Cryltallifed zeolites is more common than the ifo two preceding kinds; and is found, yd. In groups of cr'yftals in form of balls, and with concentrical points. a. Yellow. b. White. B. Prifmatical and truncated cryllals. a. White. C. Capillary cryftals are partly united in groups, and partly feparate. In this latter accretion they refemble the capillary or feather filver ore; and is perhaps fometimes called flos ferri, at places where the nature of that kind of Hone is not yet fully known. (I Thefe cryftals are found, a. White. The NinthOrder. j The Manganefe kind ; Magnefue. The ftones belonging to this order are in Swedifli ll called brunjlen, in Latin fyderea, or magnejix nigra; in .1 order to diftinguiflr them from the magnefia alba offici¬ nalis, and in French mangonefe, &c. They are by fome lithographifts entirely omitted, and by others ranked among the iron ores. 1. The manganefes confift of a fubftance which gives a colour both to flags and* to the folutions of falls, or, which is the fame thing, both to dry and to liquid menftrua, viz. a. Borax, which has diflblved manganefe in the fire, becomes tranfparent, of a reddifh Jjrown or jacinth colour, b. The microcofmic fait becomes tranfparent with it, of a crimfon co¬ lour, and moulders in the air. c. With the fixed alkali, in compofitions of glafs, it be¬ comes violet ; but if a great quantity of man¬ ganefe is added, the glafs is in thick lumps, and,looks black, d. Scorified with lead, the glafs gets a reddiih brown colour, e. The lixi¬ vium of a deflagrated manganeie is of a deep red colour. 2. It deflagrates with nitre, which is a proof that it contains fome phlogifton. 3. When reckoned to be light, it weighs as much as an iron ore of the fame texture. 4. Being melted together «with glafs-compofitions, it ferments during the folution : but it ferments in a ftill greater degree when it is melted with the microcofmic fait. 5. It does not excite any effervefcence with the fpi¬ rit of nitre: aqua regia, however, extradls the colour out of the black, and diflblves likewife a great deal of it, which, by means of an alkali, is precipitated to a white powder. 6. Such colours as are communicated to glaffes by manganefe, are eafily deftroyed by the calx of arfe- nic ortin: they alfo vanifh of themfelvesin the fire. 7. It is commonly of a loofe texture, fo as to colour the fingers like foot, although it is of a metallic appearance when broke. Manganefe 5088 Earths. Zeolites. (1) Other varieties of the zeolites have been difcovered, particularly at Adelfors’s gold-mines in Smoland in Swe¬ den; of which fome forts do not melt by. themfelves in the fire, but diffolve readily in the acid of nitre, and are turn-f¬ ed by it into a firm jelly. Order IX. MINER Manganeje Manganefe is found, Earths. Loofe and friable, ~ a. Black, feems to be decayed particles of the indurated kind. 165 B. Indurated. 1. Pure, in form of balls, whofe texture confifts of concentric fibres. a. White, Magnefm alba Jlricle fic did a, is very fcarce. Mr Cronftedt faw a fpecimen of this kind in a colle&ion from an unknown .place in Norway ; and by examining a piece of it, he found that it differed from the com¬ mon manganefe, by giving tp the borax a deep red colour in the fire: this fort acquires a reduifh brown colour when it is calcined. 1. Red manganefe is faid to be found in Pied¬ mont. This Mr Cronftedt has never feen ; but has been told that this variety is free from iron, and gives to glafs rather a red than a violet colour. 166 2. Mixed with a fmall quantity of iron. a. Black manganefe, with a metallic brightnefs. This is the moft common kind, and is em¬ ployed at the glafs-houfes and by the potters. It is found, 1. Solid, of a flaggy texture; Magnefia tex- iura vitrea. 2. Steel-grained. 3. Radiated. 4. Cryftaliifed. a. In form of coherent hemifpheres. jg- 3. Blended with a final] quantity of iron and tin ; Spuma lupi, or Wolfram. Wolfram is a name which is alfo fometimes given to mock lead, and fometimes to cockle or fhirl, as alfo to other minerals ; howt-ver, it is chiefly given to this fpecies of manganefe, when it occurs in the tin mines. 1. With coarfe fibres. a. Of an iron colour. This gives to the glafs compofitions, and alfo to borax and the microcofmic fait, an opaque whitifh yellow colour, which at laft va- nifties. SECOND CLASS. 168 The salts. By this name thofe mineral bodies are called which can be diffolved in water, find give it a tafte ; and which have the power, at leaft when they are mixed with one another, to form new bodies of a folid and angular fhape, when the water in which they are diffolved is diminilhed to a lefs quantity than is re¬ quired to keep them in folution; which quality is call¬ ed cryJLzllifation. No other falts ought to be confidered and ranked in a mineral fyftem but thofe which are found na¬ tural in the earth ; and for this reafon a great number of falts will be in vain looked for here, viz. all fuch as are either natural or prepared by art in the other two kingdoms of nature, and from fubftances belong¬ ing to them. Amongft thefe is nitre itfelf and its acid, and the vegetable acid, fince thefe are never had from true mineral bodies; nor is it demonftrated that they have their origin from the true mineral vitriolic and muriatic acids. There have,, indeed, been many A L O G T. 5089 attempts made to reduce moft of them to a vitriolic Acid acid, which by many is called the univerfal acid: but Salts^_ experiments will not agree with it; at leaft nobody has yet been able, by uniting a phlogifton with any other acid than the true vitriolic, to produce a fubftance in every particular refembling the true brimftone, or ful- phur. In regard to the known principal circumftances or qualities of the mineral falts, they are divided into 1. Acid falts, or mineral acids. 2. Alkaline falts, or mineral alkalis. The First Orber. jlcid falts; the charaders of which are, that they 165 1. Have a four tafte. 2. Are corrofive ; that is to fay, have a power of diffolving a great number of bodies. 3. They have a ftrong attradion to the^ alkaline falts and earths, whence they always unite with them with an effervefcence, and fometimes with a ftrong heat : by this mixture bodies are pro¬ duced, which are employed in common life un¬ der the names of. vitriols, neutral falts, gyp- fum, &c. 4. They change moft of the expreffed blue juices of vegetables into red. 5. They feparate the alkali from the fat, when they have been united in foap ; which effed is called curdling or coagulation. 6. They are volatile and fubtile, fo as never to be obfervable by the naked eye, unlefs they are mixed with heterogeneous bodies; and there¬ fore the figure of the pure mineral acids can¬ not be defined but by guefs. jd. The vitriolic acid; Acidum vitrioli, aluminis, et j yo- fulpburis. I. The pure vitriolic acid is, in abftrad, confi¬ dered as poffible to occur in nature : its quali¬ ties, when mixed with water, in which it is caught by diftillation, are as follows: 1. When mixed with the leaft poffible quanti¬ ty of water, it is of an unduous appearance, and is for that reafon improperly called oil of vitriol. 2. It has in that ftate a confiderable heavinefs, viz. incomparifon to water, as 1700 to loco. 3. It diffolves Giver, tin, the regulus of anti¬ mony, and quickiilver ; but, 4. When mixed with more water, it diffolves zinc, iron, and copper. 5. It diffolves likewife the calcareous earth, and precipitates with it in form of a gypfum, of which a part ftioots into gypfeous drufen, felemtes et cryftalU gypfei. 6. It unites with the earth-of quartz, when it has been previoufly diffolved in the liquor ft- licum ; and with a pure argillaceous earth, diffolving it without any fermentation : with both thefe earths it makes alum. 7. It has a ftronger attradion to the inflam¬ mable fubftance than to the alkaline fait, and forms with it a body which properly may be called the mineralfulphur. 8. When it is perfedly united with phlogiftic fubftances belonging to the vegetable king¬ dom,, 5090 Acid dom, and the water has been completely fe- Salts. parated, this mixture catches flame in the open air, and is confumed; as may be feen by the powder called pyraphorus. 9. It attra&s water ftrongly, and the aqueous vapours out of the air; and if a great quan¬ tity of water is added to it at once, a ftrong heat arifes. 10. It unites readily and eafily with the alka¬ lis, whereby, according to their nature, dif¬ ferent compounds a»re produced, which have obtained the names of tartarus vitriolatus~i fal mirabile, and fal ammonia cum fixum. 174 II. The vitriolic acid mixed or fat urated. A. With metals ; Vitr.iola, vitriols. a. Simple vitriols. 1. Martial vitriol; green vitriol, or cop¬ peras. This is the common green vitriol, which naturally is found diflblved in water, and is produced in abundance by decayed or calcined marcafites. 2. Copper vitriol; blue vitriol. This is of a deep blue colour, and is found in all ziment waters, as they are called ; .for inftance, at Neufohl in Hungary, in St Johan’s mine at Fahlune in the pro¬ vince of Dalarne, at Nya Kopparber- get in Weilmanland, and the copper- mines at Wicklow in Ireland, &c. It is, however, feldom perfedtly free from an admixture of iron and zinc. 3. Zinc vitriol, is white and clear as alum, and is found at the Rameliberg in the Hartz, as alfo in the rubbiflr at Stoll- grufvan in Weftmanland in Sweden, where the mock lead has decayed either fpontaneoufly,orafter having been burnt. 172 i. Compound vitriols. 1. Vitriol of iron and copper, is of a bluifli green colour. 2. Vitriol of iron, zinc, and copper. This verges more to the blue than to the green colour. It is made at Fahlune in Dalarne, from the water wdiich is-pump- ed out of the copper mines: in this water large cryftals of vitriol are often ready formed. If this vitriol is dipped in water, and afterwards rubbed on clean iron, the copper does not .precipi¬ tate from it. 3. Vitriol of zinc and iron. This is the green vitriol from Goflar in the Hartz. 4. Vitriol of zinc and copper. This is the blue vitriol from Goflar. 5. Vitriol of nickel and iron, is of a deep green colour, and is contained in the ochre or decayed parts of the nickell, at the cobalt-mines at Los, in the pro¬ vince of Hellingland. Mod part of the vitriols owe their for¬ mation to art : becaufe when fuch ores as contain fulphur are dug out of the mines by means of fire, the phlogifton of the ful¬ phur is by the heat expelled, leaving the Clafs n. acid behind; which, being let loofe or freed, Acid is thereby enabled to attradl and unite with Salts. watery vapours, diflblving at the fame time the metals ; and it is thus the vitriols are formed. Every fort of ore does not com¬ monly decay or weather in a natural man¬ ner, without being promoted by art; and this decaying or weathering is rnoftly per¬ formed in the open air: for which reafon-no very great quantity of vitriol can be expec¬ ted in that way ; for when any ore thus weathers or decays, the diffolved particles are by degrees carried off by the rain, and are at lad found in a didblved date in cer¬ tain fprings or mineral waters. Ail fuch ores may therefore be called true vitriol ores, as contain iron, copper, zinc, and nickel mineralifed with fulphur. The acid in the vitriols, however, is not dulcified by ths me¬ tals, as it is by the alkali in the true neutral falts. e. The acid of vitriol mixed or faturated with 173 earths. 1. With a calcareous earth. Gyfpum. 2. With an argillaceous earth. The alum kind. a. With a fmall quantity of clay. Native or plumofealum. Is found on decayed alum ores in very fmall quantities. The gypla and afbefli, but more efpecially the latter, have been ufed through ignorance in mod countries for plumofe native alum, on account of the (imilarity of dru&ure. b. With a greater quantity of pure clay. White alum ore. 1, Indurated pale red alum ore. Is employed at Lumini, not far from Civita Vecchia in Italy, to make the pale red alum called roche-alum. This is, of all alum ores, the mod free from iron ; and the reddilh earth which can be precipitated from it does not fhow the lead marks of any metallic fubdance. C. With a very large quantity of martial clay, which likewife contains an inflam¬ mable fubdance. Common alum ore. Is commonly indurated and flaty, and is therefore'generally called alum jlate. It is found, 1. Of parallel plates, with a dull fur- face; from Andrarum in the province of Skone, Hunneberg'and liillingen in the province of Wedergottland, Rodoen in the province of Jemtland, and the ifland of Oeland, &c. 2. Undulated and wedge-like, with a fliining furface. This at fird fight refembles pit-coal: it is found in great abundance in the parifli ofNas in Jemtland. C, Vitriolic add united with phlogidon. The fulphur kind. MINERALOGY. D, vr Order I. MINERALOGY. Add Salts. 175 176 B. Vitriolic acid faturated with alkaline fait. a. With the alkali of the common fall or fea-falt. This is a neutral fait, prepared by na- tute as well as by art, containing more or lefs. of iron, or of a calcareous eanth, from which arifes alfo fome difference in its ef¬ fects when internally ufed. It fhoots eafily into prifmatical cryflals, which be¬ come: larger in proportion to the quantity of water evaporated before the.cryftallifa- tion. When laid on a piece of burning charcoal, or elfe burnt with a phlogifton, the vitriolic acid difcovers itfelf by the fmell-like to the Bepar fulphuris. It is found in a diffplved date in fprings and wells, and in a dry form on walls, in fuch places where aphronitrum has efflo- refced through them, and the vitriolic acid has happened to be prefent; for infiance, where mareafites are roafied in the open air. This fait is often confounded with the aphronitrum, ora pure mineral alkali; and a learned difpute once arofe, which of thefe falls ought with the greateft pro¬ priety to be called natrorii Baurach vete- rum, faimirabile, or Epfom falt; whereas it might eaftly have been decided by che¬ mical experiments, if their qualities had been regarded in preference to their fi¬ gures or their native places. This may be ca\\<&EngliJIj or Epfom fait, when it. has naturally as equal a co¬ pious portion of the calcareous earth as of the artificial one; but in regard to its ef- feftSj for,•which it has been moft valued by Glauber, Mr Cronftedt has ranked all the lefs confiderable varieties of this neutral fait,, w h en n a t u ra 1, u n d er t h e n a m e o B- Acid of;common or fea-falt. This acid, confider- ed in that ftate in which it can be had, viz. in mix¬ ture with water, has the following qualities : 1. It does not alter the fluidity of Water, nor con- fiderably augment its heavinefs, as. the vitriolic acid does. 2. It is fomewhat lefs corrofive and four than the faid vitriolic acid. 3. It flrongly attra&s the alkaline falts ; but, however, is forced to quit them to the vitriolic acid, when that is added. 4. It diflblves the calcareous earth, and makes with it a fubftance called fal ammoniacum fixum. When expofed to the fire, combined with a phlogifton, itburnswith ayellowifh green flame. 6. When highly concentrated and pure, as when it is diftilled from common fait mixed with pipe¬ clay, it diffolves tin and lead: but lefs pure,it diffolves copper, iron, zinc, and the regulus of antimony: the copper is,however, more eafily diflblved when it is in form of a calx, as the calces of quickfilver and cobalt likewife are. 7. It unites with fiver diffolved in aquafortis, and with lead difiblved in aqua-regia, falling with them to the bottom in form of a white fpongy mafa. This precipitation, expofed to the fire, ftill retains the acid, and melts with it into a glafiy fubftance, which does not dif-_ folve in water. 8- It is apt to attraft the humidity of the air, and to promote the decaying of thofe dry fubftan- ces with which it has been united. 9. Mixed with the fpirit of nitre, it makes the folution. called aqua^regia, which is the true liquid menftruum for gold. This acid feems alfo, on certain occafions, to have got loofe from thofe fubftances with which it had been originally united in the earth : the fal ammomacum naturals at Solfa- tara in Italy, and the horn filver ore, appear to be proofs of this, as they feem to be the pro- du&s of time. I. Mixed or fatiated acid of fea-falt. A. With earths. 1. With a calcareous earth; falammoniacumfixum* This fomewhat decays, or attra&s the humi¬ dity of the air: it is found in abundance in the fea-water. See the calcareous kind, (9i>&c.) b. With alkaline falls. (l.) With the fixed mineral alkali, or fea alkali; common fait, or fea-falt. This fhoots into cubical cryftals during the evaporation ; it crackles in the fire, and at- tradfs the humidity of the air. «. Rock fait, foffil fait. Occurs in form of folid ftrata- in the earth. 1. With fcaly and irregular particles. a. Grey, and l. White. Thefe are the moft common, but the following are fcarcer: c. Red, hur,&c. I97 .S8 '99 mineralogy. Clafs III. a. Of--a compaA texture; Polita piedra del y nca., Hif pa norum. b. Steel-grained. c. Coarfe-grained. d. Cryftallifed. It fhoots moftly into cu¬ bical and oftoedral figures, tho’ it alfo cry ftallifes into innumerable other forms. b. Liver-coloured marcafite. Its colour can¬ not be deferibed, being betwixt that of the preceding marcafite, and the azure copper ore. The iron prevails in this kind; it is therefore lefs fit to have ful- phur extra&ed from it, and alfo for the fmelttng of copper ores. It is found, a. Of a compact texture. b. Steel-grained. c. Coarfe-grained. ■Z. Iron and tin. Black-lead, or wadd; Molyb- diena. If by fuch a mixture as this the iron and tin be not rendered too volatile, it muft be fuppofed that the great lofs the black lead fuftains in the calcining heat is occa- fioned from the fulphur, and that the fulphur confequently makes out the greateft part of the black lead. It is found, a. Lamellar and fhining, of the fame colour as the potters lead ore. b. Of a fteel-grained and dull texture. It is naturally black, but when rubbed it gives a dark lead colour. e. Of a fine fcaly and coarfe-grained texture ; coarfe black lead. It has at the fame time a fcaly and a granulated appearance. From Gran in the province of Upland, and fromTavaftehuflan in Finland. Pro- fefforPott has examined the black lead in covered veffels, and Mr Quift in an open fire; from which difference in the method ©f treating it, different notions have arifen: becaufe the black lead is nearly unalter¬ able when expofed to the fire in covered vef¬ fels, or when immediately put into a ftrong charcoal fire, but it is almoft wholly vola¬ tile in a calcining heat. This is the cafe with feveral others of the mineral phlogi- ftons; and from this we may in general learn, how neceffary it is to examine the mineral bodies by many and different me¬ thods, and to endeavour to multiply the experiments more than what has been hi¬ therto done. 3. Sulphur with iron and copper; yellow or marcafitical copper ore. 4. Sulphur with iron and lead; potters lead- ore. 5. Sulphur with iron and zinc; mock lead, black jack, or blende. 6. Sulphur with iron and arfenic; arfenical py¬ rites. 7. Sulphur with iron and cobalt. 8. Sulphur with iron and bifmmb. 9. Sulphur with iron and nickel. 10. Sulphur with iron and gold; pyritical gold ore. 11. Sulphur with filver; glafs filver orej _ 12. Sulphur yvhh copper; grey or vitreous InflAM- copper ore. ^ A,BLj s* 13. Sulphur with lead; potters lead ore. . ^ *’ r* 14. Sulphur with bifmuth. 15. Sulphur with quickfilver; cinnabar. 16. Sulphur with arfeftic, orpiment, rar/gwr. V. Mineral phlogifton united with earths. 200 A. With a calcareous earth. 1. With pure calcareous earth; the fetid or fwine fpar. 2. With the calcareous earth and vitriolic acid; the leberjlein or liverfione of the Swedes. 2?. With an argillaceous earth. 1. With a fmall quantity of argillaceous earth and vitriolic acid: Coal; Lithantrax. It is of a black colour, and of a (hining texture; it burns, and is moftly confumed, in the fire; but leaves, however, a fmall quantity of allies. v a. Solid coal. b. Slatty coal. 2. With a greater quantity of argillaceous earth and vitriolic acid; the kolrn of the Swedes. This is of the fame appearance with the former, though of a more dull tex¬ ture ; it burns with a flame, and yet is not confumed, but leaves behind a flag of the fame bulk or volume as the coal was. 3. With abundance of argillaceous earth ; Hone coal. It burns with a flame by itfelf, other- wife it looks like other Hates. VI. Mineral phlogifton mixed with metallic earths. 201 This is not found in any great quantity: in regard to its external appearance, it refembles pit-coal; and the fat fubftance contained in it, at times, partly burns to coal, and partly vola- tilifes in a calcining heat. The only known varieties of this kind are, A. Minera cupri phlogijlica. When it has been inflamed, it retains the fire, and at laft burns to aflies, out of which pure copper can be fmelted. B. Minera ferri phlogijlica. This is not very different in its appearance from the pit-coal or foffil pitch, but it is fome- what harder to the touch. There are two varie¬ ties of this fpecies: 1. Fixt in the fire; Minera ferri phlogijlica fixa. Expofed to a calcining heat, it bums with a very languid though quick flame; it pre- ferves its bulk, and lofts only a little of its weight. It yields above 30 per cent, of iron. a. Solid, refembles black fealing-wax, It is found in the liver-coloured marcafite in Wafkberget, at Norrberke in Weftman- land. b. Cracked, and friable. 2. Volatile in the fire. This is unalterable in an open fire, either of charcoal, or even upon a piece of charcoal before the flame of the blow-pipe; but under a muffle the greateft part of it volatilifes, fo that only a fmall quantity of calx of iron re¬ mains. It is found, a. Solid. b. Cracked. This laft kind leaves more aflies: thefe aflres, Clafs IV. MINERALOGY. Order!. afhes, when farther expofed to the fire, be- True come firft yellowifh-green, and afterwards g^LS* reddifh-brown, when, befides iron, they then alfo difcover feme marks of copper; it has, however, not been pofiible to extra& any metallic fubftanee from them, the effe&s of the loadftone, and the colour communicated to the glafs of borax, having only given occafion to this fufpicion. FOURTH CLASS. Metals. Are thofe mineral bodies which, with- refpe£l to 202 their volume, are the heavieft of all hitherto-known bodies; they are not only malleable, but they may alfo be decompounded, and in a melting heat be brought again to their former ftate, by the addition of the phlogifton they had loft in their decompofi- tion. Thofe metals which in a calcining heat lofe their phlogifton, and confequently with that the former co ¬ herency of their particles, are called imperfett; as tin, lead, copper, and iron, and all the femi-metals (of which more hereafter): notwithftanding which, they may be malleable. But thofe which cannot be de- ftroyed in the fire alone are called perfett; as gold, filver, and platina del pinto. Neverthelefs, the metals have commonly been confidered more with regard to their malleability than to their fixity in the fire; and are therefore divided into, A. Malleable, v'hich are called metals; and, B. Brittle, which are called femi-metals. The zinc is, however, as a medium between thefe two divifions, juft as the quickfilver is be¬ tween the perfeft and imperfedf metals; becaufe the quickfilver may indeed be fo far deftroyed in the fire, that its particles are feparated during their volatilifation ; but every one of them, even the minuteft, retains, however, the phlogifton united with it. The First Order. True Metals. I. Gold; Aurum, fol cbymicorwn. This is by mankind efteemed as the prin¬ cipal and firft among the metals; and that partly for its fcarcity, but chiefly for the fol¬ lowing qualities: 1. It is of a yellow (hining colour. 2. It is the heavieft of all known bodies, its fpe- cific gravity to water being as 19,640 to 1000. 3. It is the moft tough and duftile of all metals; becaufe one grain of it may be ftretched out fo as to cover a filverw'ire of the length of 98 yards, by which means wor^o' grain becomes vifible to the naked eye. 4. Its foftnefs comes neareft to that of lead, and confequently it is but very little elaftic. 5. It is fixed and unalterable in air, water, and fire, becaufe it does not eafily quit its phlo¬ gifton ; its liquid menftruum being only made by art. It has, however, according to Homberg’s experiments, when expofed to Tfchirnhaufen’s burning-glafs, been found partly to volatilife 7i in form of fmoke, and partly to fcorify: but this wants to be farther examined. It is alfo faid, that gold, in certain circumftances, and by means of certain artifices in ele&rical ex¬ periments, may be forced into glafs; and that on this occafion it becomes white, leaving a black duft behind it; which, if fo, confirms certain other chemical experiments, viz. That gold can, together with its colour, lofe fome- thing of its phlogifton, and yet retain its hea- vinefs, duftiiity, &c. 6. When melted, it refledls a bluifh-green co¬ lour from its furface, 7. It diffolves in aqua regia, which is compofed of the acids of fea-falt and nitre; but not in either alone, nor in any other folution of fait or acid whatfoever. 8. When mixed with a volatile alkali and a little of the acid of nitre, by means of precipitation out of aqua regia, it burns off quickly, in the leaft degree of heat, with a ftrong fulmina- tion. 9. It is diffolved, in forma Jicca, by the liver of fulphur, and alfo fomewhat by the glafs of. bifmuth. 10. It is not carried away by the antimony du¬ ring the volatilifation of that femi-metal, and is therefore conveniently feparated from other metals by the help of crude antimony; in which proeefs the other metals are partly made vola¬ tile, and fly off with the antimony, and partly unite with the fulphur, to which the gold has no attra&ion, unlefs by means of fome uniting body, or by a long digeftion. 11. The phofphorus is faid to have ingrefs into gold. < 12. If mixed with alefsportion of filver, platina, copper, iron, and zinc, it preferves tolerably well its dudiility. But, 13. When mixed with tin, it becomes very brittle; and it attraQs likewife the fmoke of that metal fo as to be fpoiled, if melted in an hearth where tin has been lately melted: And this is perhaps the reafon why gold becomes brittle, and of a paler colour, when melted in a new black lead crucible. 14. It requires a ftrong heat before it melts, nearly as much, or a little more than copper. 15. It mixes or amalgamates readily with quick¬ filver. A. Native gold is in its metallic form commonly pure: and in this ftate moft part of this metal ufed in the world is found. With refpedt to either the figure or the quantity in which it is found in one place, it is by miners divided in- to, 1. Thin fuperficial plated or leaved gold; which confitts of very thin plates or leaves, like pa- Per 2. Solid or maffive, is found in form of thick pieces. 3. Cryftallifed, confifts of an angular or cry- ftalline figure. 4. Wafti gold, or-gold duft, is waflied out of funds, wherein it lies in form of loofe grains 28 T 2 and 5095 Order I. True Me tals. Gold. 204 $og6 M I N E R A True and lumps. The gold is in general more Metals. frequently imbedded;and mixed with quartz GM' than with any other kind of (tone; and the quartz in which the gold is found in the Hungarian gold mines is of a peculiar ap¬ pearance. All other forts-of ftones, how¬ ever, are not to be excluded, fince gold is likewife found in fome of them; for inftance, in limeftone, in Adolph Fredrik’s Grufva at Adelfors in the province of Smoland in Swe¬ den ; in Hornblende, in Baftnas Grufva at RiddarfhyWan in the province of Weftman- land; not to mention feveral other gold mines. 2-©5 B. Mineralifed gold. This is an ore in which the gold is fo far mineralifed, or fo entangled in other bodies,, as not to be diffolved by the aqua regia. i. Mineralifed with fulpliur. a. Mineralifed by means of iron. Marcafiti- e-al gold ore ; Pyrites aureus. It is found at Adelfors, in the province of Smoland ; and contains an ounce of gold, or lefs, in too poundk. h. Mineralifed by means of quickfilver. It is found in Hungary. c. Mineralifed by means of zinc and iron; Auntm fulphure mineralifatum mediants zinco & ferro, aut argento. The Sch.em- nitz blende. At Schemnitz in Hungary are found zinc ores, which contain a great deal of filver, and this filver is very rich in gold. Since gold and fulphnr have no immifcible power or attraction to one an¬ other, many have infifted that gold never could be found in marcafite, or thofe ores which contain fulphur: but fince we know by experience that gold can be melted out of the above-mentioned ores, although they have been previoufly digefted in a- qua-regia ; and that gold likewife mixes and diffolves into a regulus t there is the greateft reafon to believe that a third fub llance, which here is a metal, muft necef- farily have by its admixture enabled the fulphur to unite with a certain quantity of gold. Scheffer has given upon this fub- jeft fome very curious and ufeful obferva- tions, in hia Hiftory of the Refining of Metals, inferted in the Tranfa&ions of the Academy of Sciences-at Stockholm. It is, however, by no means hereby intended to confirm the credulous in their opinion, that the marcafites in general contain more gold than what true metal- lurgifts have afferted ; becaufe fraud might then perhaps become too common. It is only meant to indicate, that, as no gold is to be expefted from marcafites, where no native gold is found in the neighbour¬ hood, in the fame manner no marcafites ought to be defpifed which are found in tracks where gold ores are dug : but at the fame time care muft be taken not to be. deluded, by the. mention of volatile LOGY. Oafs VI. gold, as it is a notion really contradic- True tory and fufpicious; and then there can be Metals. no fear of being milled. 1 ver-_ II. Silver; Argentum, luna. Which is, 206 a. Gf a white fliining colour. b. Its fpecific gravity to water is 11,091 to 1000. c. It is very tough or duftile, fo that a grain of it may be ftretched out to three yards in length, and two inches in breadth. d. It is unalterable in air, water, and fire. e. It diffolves in the acid of nitre, and alfo by boiling in the acid of vitriol. f. If precipitated out of the acid of nitre with the common fait, or with its acid, it unites fo ftrongly with this laft acid, that it does not part from it, even in the fire itfelf, but melts with it into a mafs like glafs, which is called luna cornea. g. It does not unite with the femi-metal nickel, during the fufion. h. It amalgamates eafily with quickfilver. i. It is in the dry way diffolved by the nitre of fulphur. - L It has a ftrong attra&ion to fulphur, foas rea¬ dily to take a reddifh yellow or black colour, when it is expofed to fulphureous vapours. /. It has no attraftion to arfenic ; whence, when the red arfenical filver ore, or rotbgulden ertz of the Germans, is put into the fire, the avfe- nic flies off, and leaves the fulphur (which in this compound was the medium uniens') be¬ hind, united with the filver in form of the glafs filver ore, or glafs ertz. rn. It is not diffolved by the glafs of lead, and confequently it remains on the cupel. n. It is exhaled or carried off by volatile metals and acids, as by the vapours of antimony, zinc, and the acid of common fait. 0. It melts eafier than copper. Silver is found, A. Native or pure. 207 Native filver moft generally is nearly of fix teen carats ftandard. 1. Thin fuperficial plated or leaved filver. 2. It is alfo,found in form, a. Of fnaggs, and coarfe fibres. b. Of fine fibres. Capillary filver. c. Arborefcent. From Potofi in America, and Kongfberg in Norway. d. Cryftalline, or figured. This is very fcarce to be met with : it has diftinft fi¬ gures, with finning furfaces ; it is,, how¬ ever, fometimes found at Kongfberg. The filver from America is faid to be found for the moft part native; fo it is likewife at Kongfberg in Norway; but it is not commonly fo in the other European mines. In Sweden, it is found native in a very fmall quantity, in the mines of Salberg in Weftmanland, of Lofafen in Dalarne, of Hevaffwik and Sladkierr in the province of Dal, of Sunnerfkog in the province of Smoland, and in the ifland Utoen in the Lake Malaren. It was ©nee found in pretty large lumps in a vein Order True Metals. ^ Silver.. 208 209 210 I. MINER vein of clay in one of the iron mines at Normark, in the province of Wermeland. It was there mixed with nickel, which was partly decayed or withered; and under this circumftance it formed the compound ore called the ftercus anferinum, or goofe~ dung ore. At this place the argillaceous vein crofles the veins of the iron ore, and will perhaps be found to have more of thefe riches, even in feveral other places, if well fearcbed, as is done in other countries, oftentimes not on fuch evident marks or figns. B. Diflblved and mineralifed. (l.) With fulphur alone. Glafs filver ore, This is ductile, and of the fame colour as lead ; but, however, becomes blacker in the air. It has, therefore, very undefervedly got the name of glafs-ore; for that name ra¬ ther belongs to the minera argenti come a ^ or horn filver ore, if indeed any filver ore can be confidered as glafiy. It is found in the fame manner as. native gold; viz. 1. In crufts, plates, or leaves. 2. Grown into a. Snaggs, and £. Chryftalline figures. It is generally either of a lamellar or a grained texture, and is found at Kongfberg and in the Saxon mines. The glafs filver ore is the richeft of all filver ores ; fince the fulphur, which , is united with the filver in this ore, makes out but a very fmall quantity of its weight. (2.) With fulphur and arfenic. The red or ruby-like filver ore. The rothgulden al the Germans. The colour of, this ore varies as the pro¬ portion of each of thefe ingredients varies in the mixture ; viz. from dark grey to deep red: but when it is rubbed or pounded, it always gives-a red colour. When put in the fire, it crackles and breaks; and when the crackling ceafes, it melts eafily, the arfe¬ nic at the fame time exhaling in fmoke. a. Grey arfenical filver ore: which is either, 1. Plated, crufted, or leaved; and, 2. Solid. b. The red arfenical filver ore: 1. Plated, crufted, or leaved; 2. Solid or fcaly; and, 3. Cryftallifed. In this laft form it ihows the moll beautiful red colour, and is often femi- tranfparent. It contains about 60 per cent.in filver; and isfound in the greateft quantity at Andreafberg in the Hartz. (3.) With fulphurated arfenic and copper. The 'weijfgulden of the Germans. This, in its folid form, is of a light grey colour, and of a dull and fteel-grained tex¬ ture. The more copper it.contains, the L O G Y. darker is the colour. It often holds feven pounds of (Aver per cent. It is, a. Friable, withered, or decayed, of a black or footy colour; and is therefore by the Germans called filber-fcbuvartz, or Rujfg- tes-ertz. b. Solid, of a light grey colour, and is that fort properly called ’weijfgulden. It is found at St Mary of the Mines in Alfatia, the Saxon mines, and at St An¬ dreafberg in the Hartz. (4.) With fulphurated arfenic and iron. The ’weifertz, or white filver ore, of the Germans. This is an arfenical pyrites, which con¬ tains fiver; it occurs in the Saxon mines, and fo exaftly refembles the common arfe¬ nical pyrites as not to be diftinguifhed from it by fight alone, or without other means. The filver it contains may perhaps confift of very fubtile capillary filver mixed in it. (5.) With fulphurated antimony. a. Of a dark-grey and fomewhat brownifh colour. The lebererz, from Braunfdorff in Saxony. 1. Of a blackiih blue colour. 1. In form of capillary cryftals. Feder- ertz, or plumofe filver ore. It is found in Saxony, and contains onlytwo or four ounces of filver percent. (6.) With fulphurated copper and antimony. The Dal falertz. This refembles, both in colour and tex¬ ture, the dark-coloured weiffgulden, or fa¬ lertz. When rubbed, it gives a red powder. «. Solid. b. Cryftallifed, is found in the parifh of Aminfleog in the province of Dal; and at that place has been for feveral years melted by a method invented for the different mixture ofthe ores;which pro- cefs muft be very troublefome to thofe who are not perfectly well verfed in me¬ tallurgy. It contains 13. ounces of filver, and 24 per cent, of copper. (7.) With fulphurated zinc. The pechblendc of the Germans. This is a zinc ore, mock lead, or blende, which contains filver, and is found among rich filver and gold ores; for inftance, in the Hungarian and Saxon mines. a. Of a metallic changeable colour. 1. Solid, and with line feales. 2. In form of balls. The kugel-ertz, or ball ore. It is found at Schemnitz, and con¬ tains alfo gold. Its yield of filver is 24 ounces per cent, and 30 percent, of zinc. / b. Black mock lead, or blende, .found in Saxony. This is alfo found, 1. Solid, and with dine feales ;, 2. And in form of bails. (8.) With fulphurated lead ; potters ore. Ga¬ lena, bleyglanz. (^).With. 5097 True Metals. Silver. 21 X 212 213- 214.. 2J55 5098 True MftAlS. Platlna. M I.N ERA (9.) With fulphurated lead and antimony, call¬ ed Jlriperz. (10.) With fulphurated iron. Silberhaltiger kies; marcafite holding fiiver. At Kongfberg in Norway, it is faid, a li¬ ver-coloured marcafite is often found, parti¬ cularly at the mine called Fraulein Chriftiana, &c. This marcafite contains of fiiver from three ounces to three and an half per cent. (11.) With the acid of common fait. Minera argenti cornea. Hornertz, or horn-filver pre. This is the fcarceft fiiver ore ; it is of a white or pearl colour, changeable or varying on the furface, femi-tranfparent, and fome- what du&ile both when crude and when melted. It cannot be decompofed without fome admixture of fuch fubftances as attraft the acid of the fea-falt. It is found in very thin wrought leaves or crufts, at Johan Geor- genftadt, in Saxony. III. Platina del Pinto; Juan blanca. This metal is a recent difcovery of our times; and is defcribed with great accuracy by Scheffer, in the A£ts of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm for the year 1752; as alfo by Dr Lewis, in the Philofophical Tranfadions for the year 1754, vol. xlviii. And though thefe two gentlemen agree in the principal circumftances relating to this metal, yet it is very plain by their deferiptions, that neither of them knew any thing of the other’s experiments. By thefe de- fcriptions we are convinced of the refemblance this metal bears to gold ; and therefore we muft allow it to be called white gold, though, both theo¬ retically and practically, it may be diftinguifhed from gold by the following qualities. 1. It is of a white colour. 2. It is fo refraCtory in the fire, that there is no degree of heat yet found by which it can be brought into fufion by itfelf, the burning-glafs excepted, which has not yet been tried. But, when mixed with other metals and femi-metals, it melts very eafily, and efpecially with arfe- nic, both in its metallic form and in form of a calx or glafs. 3. It does not amalgamate with quickfilverby it¬ felf, but only by means of the acid of common fait after a long trituration. This metal is there¬ fore really feparated from gold by amalgama¬ tion, at thofe places where it is found ; and without this quality it would be very difficult to feparate it. 4. It is harder and lefs coherent than gold. 5. It is heavier than gold ; and therefore the heavieft of all bodies hitherto difcovered : for though the fpecific gravity of platina, in the hydrollatical experiments made by Dr Lewis, is found to be to water only as 17,000 to 1000; yet, when melted with other certain metals, its fpecific gravity has, by an exaft calculation, been found to be confiderably augmented, even fo much asto 22,000. 6. Diffolved in aqua regia, and precipitated with tin, or with a folution of that metal, it yields no purpura mbisralis. LOGY. Clafs IV. Except thefe, this metal has the fame qua- Tr lities as gold : but it cannot, on account of its Met refraftorinefs in the fire, be worked off pure L on the cupel, nor can it be worked with anti¬ mony; becaufe, before it is rendered perfectly plhre, it cools, grows hard, and retains al¬ ways fome part of the added metals. It is brought to us only in its native ftate, in fmall, irregular, rugged grains ; and it is yet uncer¬ tain whether it is found naturally mineralifed. The platina is brought to Europe from the Rio del Pinto, in the Spanilh Weft Indies. IV. Tin; Stannum^ Jupiter. 21 This is diftinguillied from the other metals by the following charafters and qualities. a. A white colour, which verges more to the blue than that of fiiver. 1. It is the moft fufible of all metals; and, c. The leaft duftile ; that is, it cannot be extend¬ ed or hammered out fo much as the others. d. In breaking or bending it makes a crackling noife. e. It has a fmell particular to itfelf, and which cannot be defcribed. f. In the fire it is eafily calcined to white afhes, * which are 25 per cent, heavier than the metal itfelf. During this operation, the phlogiftcn is feen to burn off in form of fmall fparkles a- mong the afhes, or calx. g. This calx is very refra&ory; but may, how¬ ever, with a very ftrong degree of heat be brought to a glafs of the hard refin. But this calx is eafily mixed in glafs compofitions, and makes with them the white enamel. h. It unites with all metals and femi-metals; but renders moft of them very brittle, except lead, bifmuth, and zinc. i. It amalgamates eafily with q,uickfilver. k. It diffolves in aqua-regia, the fpirit of fea-falt, and the vitriolic acid ; but it is only corroded into a white powder by the fpirit of nitre. The vegetable acid, foaps, and pure alkaline falts, alfo corrode this metal by degrees. l. Its fpecific gravity to water is as 7400 to 1000, or as 7321 to 1000. m. Diffolved in aqua-regia, which for this pur- pofe ought to confift of equal parts of the fpi¬ rit of nitre and fea-falt, it heightens the co¬ lour of the cochineal, and makes it deeper; for otherwife that dye would be violet. Tin is not found naturally in the earth in any 22 other ftate than, (1.) In form of a calx. A. Indurated, or vitrified. 1. Mixed with a little of the calx of arfenic. A. Solid tin ore, without any determinate figure; tin-ftone. It refembles a garnet of a blackifh- brown colour, but is a great deal hea¬ vier ; and has been confidered, at the Englilh tin-mines, as a ftone contain¬ ing no metal, until fome years ago it began to be fmelted to great advantage. B. Cryftallifed ; tin-grains. Is like the garnets, of a fpherical polygonal Order I. True Metals. Lead. 32* 222 223 MINERALOGY. polygonal figure, but looks more unc¬ tuous on the furface. 1. In larger grains ; and, 2. In fmaller grains. 2. Mixed with the calx of iron. 3. Mixed with the manganefe. 4. Mineralifed with fulphurand iron; black lead. V. Lead ; Plumbum, Saturnus. It is, a. Of a blueiih-white colour when frefh broke, but foon dulls or fullies in the air. b. Is very heavy; viz. to water as 11,325 to 1000. c. Is fofted next to gold; but has no great tena¬ city, and is not in the lead fonorous. d. It is eafily calcined ; and, by a certain art in managing the degrees of the fire, its calx be¬ comes white, yellow, and red. e. This calx melts eafier than any other metallic calx to a glafs, which becomes of a yellow co¬ lour, and femi-tranfparent. This glafs brings other, bodies, and tfic imperfed metals, into fufion with it. f. It difiblves, 1 ft, In the fpirit of nitre; 2dly, In a diluted oil of vitriol, by way of digeftion; jdly, In the vegetable acid ; 4thly, In alkaline foluttons; and 5thly, In expreffed oils, both in the form of metal and of calxi g It gives a fweet tafte to all folutions. h. It amalgamates with quickfilver. With the fpirit of fea-falt it has the fameeffed as filver, whereby is produced a faturnus cor- neitr. k. It does not unite with iron, when it is alone added to it in the fire. /. It works on the cupel, which fignifies that its glafs enters into certain porous bodies, defti- tute of phlogifton and alkaline falls. m. It melts in the fire before it is made red-hot, almoft as eafily as the tin. n. Its calx or glafs may be reduced to its metallic Hate by pot-afhes. Lead is found, A. In form of a calx. (t.) Pure. A. Friable; lead ochre; native cerufs. This is found at Kriftierlberget in Weftmanland in Sweden, on the furface of the potter’s ore. B. Indurated ; lead fpar, or fpatofe lead ore. 1. Radiated, or fibrous. a. White. 2. Cryftallifed into a prifmatical figure. a. White. b. Yellowifti green. {2.) Mixed. A. With the calx of arfenic ; arfenic lead-fpar. I. Indurated. a. White. Mr Cronftedt has tried fuch an ore from an unknown place in Ger¬ many, and found that no metallic lead could be melted from it by means of the blow-pipe, as can be done out of other lead fpars ; but it muft be-per¬ formed in a crucible, and then that part 5°99 of the arfenic which did not fly off in True fmoke during the experiment was like- MetalS' wife reduced, and found in form of___flL. grains difperfed, and forced into the lead. Another ore of this kind, which likewife was not eafily reduced by means of the blow-pipe, did always, after being melted, and during the cool¬ ing, haftily fhoot into polygonal, but moftly hexagonal, cryftals, with fhining furfaces. Can this cryftallifation be owing to falts, which are faid not to a6t in this manner but when they are difolved in water ? b. With a calcareous earth. The above-mentioned lead ores are very rich in lead, and eafy to be tried ; becaufe moll of them, being flowly heated, may be reduced to lead by means of the blow¬ pipe on a piece of charcoal. The calx of the lead in thefe ores has, perhaps, firft: been difiblved by fulphur and arfenic ; and has afterwards, when thefe two have wea¬ thered away or decayed, and parted from it, affumed this form, m the fame manner as wefee it really happens, during the calci¬ nation, with rich lead ores, or luch regules as contain lead. The fame, very likely, is the cafe with other metals ; for which reafon their ores, when they occur in form of a calx, often contain a little fulphur, and more efpecially arfenic. B. Mineralifed. 22 1. With fulphur alone : the bley-fchmveiff', or bley- glanz, of the Germans. a. Steel-grained lead-ore ; from the mines at Reliefers, in the province of Weftmanland. b. Radiated, or antimoniated lead-ore. c. Teflellated, or potter’s lead-ore. At Villach in Auftria there is faid to be found a potter’s lead-ore, which contains not the leaft portion of filver. 2. With fulphurated filver. Galena; alfo called 225 bleyglcmz, by the Germans. a. Steel-grained. b. With fmall feales; is found at Selberg, and is there particularly called blyfchweif. c. Fine-grained. el. Of a fine cubical texture ; and, e. Of coarfe cubes. Thefe two varieties are found in all the Swedilh filver-mines. f. Cryftallifed. The fteel-grained and fcaly ores are of a dim and dull appearance when they are broke, and their particles have no deter¬ mined angular figure : they are therefore in Swedifh commonly called blyfchweif; in op- pofition to the cubical ores, which are call¬ ed blyglanz. The moll part of the ores call¬ ed blyglanz Qouteln filver, even to 24 ounces per cent, of which we have inftances in the mines of Salberg, where it has been obfer- ved, that the coarfe cubical lead ores are ge¬ nerally the richeft in filver, contrary to what 51 oo True Mbtals.. Copper. M I N E R A what is commonly taught in books; the reafon of which may perhaps be, that, in making the eflays on thefe two ores, the coarfe cubical can be chofen purer or freer from the rock than the fine cubical ores. 3. With fulphurated iron and filver. This is found, a. Fine-grained, b. Fine cubical, c. Coarfe cubical. When this ore is fcorified, it yields a black flag; whereas the preceding lead- ores yield a yellow one, becaufe they do not contain any iron. 4. With fulphurated antimony and filver ; anti- .moniated or radiated lead-ore. This has the colour of a blyglanz, but is of a radiated tex¬ ture. It is found, a. Of fine rays and fibres 5 and, b. Of coarfe rays or fibres. The lead in this ore prevents any ufe being made of the anti¬ mony to advantage; and the antimony like- wife in a great meafnre hinders the extrac¬ ting of the filver. /I. Copper; Cuprum^ Vetius, JEs. This metal is, a. Of a red colour. b. The fpecific gravity of the Japan copper is 9000, and of the Swedifh 8784 or 8843 to 1000. e. It is pretty foft and tough. d. The calx of copper being diflblved by acids becomes green, and by alkalies blue. e. It is eafily calcined in the fire into a blackifh blue fubftance, which, when rubbed to a fine powder, is red ; when melted together with glafs, it tinges it firft reddifh brown, and af¬ terwards of a tranfparent green or fea-green colour. f. It diffolves in all the acids; viz. the acids of vitriol, fea-falt, nitre, and the vegetable; and likewife in all alkaline folutions. That it be¬ comes rufty, and tarnifhes in the air (a confe- quence of a former folution), depends verymuch on fome vitriolic acid which is left in the cop¬ per in the refining of it. This metal is eafier diffolved when in form of a calx than in a me¬ tallic ftate, efpecially by the acids of vitriol and fea-falt, and the vegetable acid. £. Vitriol of copper is of a deep blue colour; but the vegetable acid produces with the copper a green fait, which is verdigrife. h. It can be precipitated out of the folutions in a metallic ftate; and this is the origin of the pre¬ cipitated copper of the mines, called Ximent copper. i. It is not eafily amalgamated with quiekfilver; but requires for this purpdfe a very ftrong tri¬ turation, or the admixture of the acid of nitre. k. It becomes yellow when mixed with zinc, which has a ftrong attraftion to it, and makes brafs, pinchbeck, &c. /. It is eafily diflblved by lead glafs, which laft is coloured green by it. m. When this metal is expofed to the lire, it gives a green colour to the flame in the mo¬ ment it begins to melt, and continues to do fo 229 230 LOGY. Clafs IV. afterwards, without lofing any thing confider- True able of its weight. Metals. n. It requires a ftrong degree of heat before it °Pfer- melts, yet is it a lelfer degree than for iron. Copper is found in the earth, A. Native, or in a metallic ftate; virgin or native copper. 1. Solid, is found in the iron mine of Hefsle- kulla in the province of Nerike, and at Sun- nerlkog in the province of Smoland ; alfo in the Ruffian Carelia, and in other foreign places. 2. Friable, in form of fmall, and fomewhat coherent grains. Precipitated or ziment cop¬ per. It is found at Riddarlhyttan in Weft- manland, at Fahlun in Dalarne, and in Hungary. It has been obferved, that both coppef and filver glafs ore, being precipitated from water, become friable and granulated, but that they in time grow folid and dn&ile: whence the difpute about the diftinftion be¬ tween native and precipitated copper may ceafe; the rather as native copper will fcarce- ly be found in other places, and in any other kinds of ftones, than thofe thro’ which the .ziment or vitriolic waters have circulated ; although the fiflures through which it has run may afterwards be filled with a ftony fubftance. B. In form of a calx. (1.) Pure. A. Loofe or friable ; Ochra veneris. 1. Blue; Cceruleum montanum. Is very feldom found perfe&ly free from a cal¬ careous fubftance. 2. Green; Viride montanum. Both thefe colours depend on menftrua, which of¬ ten are edulcorated or waftted awuy. 3. Red. This is an efflorefcence of the glafs copper ore. It is found in the province of Dal, and at Oftanberg in the province of Dalarne. B. Indurated. Glafs copper ore. a. Red. This isfometimes as red as feah ing wax, and fometimes of a more li¬ ver-brown colour. It is found in Sand- backen, at Norberg in Weftmanland, at Ordal in Norway, in Siberia, and in Suabia in Germany. . This ore is always found along with native copper, and feems to have loft its phlogifton by way of effloitefcence, and to be changed into this form. It is likewife found along with the fulphu¬ rated copper; and is commonly, though very improperly, called glafs copper ore. (2.) Mixed. a, Loofe or friable ,* Ochra veneris friabilis imp urn. 1. Mixed with a calcareous fubftance; Cce¬ ruleum montanum. In this ftate copper blue is moftly found. It ferments du¬ ring the folution in aquafortis. 2. Mixed with iron. Black. It is the decom- 231 232 Order I. True 233 234 MINERAL decompofition of the Fahlun copper ore. B. Indurated. 1. Mixed with gypfumjor plafter. Green, Is found at Ordal in Norway, and there called malachites. 2. Mixed with quartz. Red. From Sun- nerfkog in the province of Smoland. 3. Mixed with lime. Blue. This is the lapis armenus, according to the accounts given of it by authors. C. Diflblved and mineralifed; Cuprum minerali- fatum. (1.) With fulphur alone. Grey copper ore. Is improperly alfo called glafs copper ore. a. Solid, without any certain texture. This is very foft, fo that it can be cut with a knife, almoft as eafily as black lead. VII 1. Fine cubical; Minera cupri fulphurata a. tejfilis conflans minoribus. Both thefe va- b. rieties are found at Sunnerlkog in Smo¬ land ; where the laft is fometimes found c. decompofed or weathered, and changed into a deep mountain blue. (2.) With fulphurated iron. Minera cupri py- d. ritacea; yellow copper ore. Marcafitical copper ore; Pyrites cupri. This is various e. both in regard to colour, and in regard to the different proportion of each of the con- f. tained metals; for inftance, a. Blackifli grey, inclining a little to yellow; Pyrites cupri grifeus. When decayed or weathered, it is of a black colour; is the richeft of all the varieties of this kind of g. copper ore, yielding between 50 and 60 per cent, and is found in Spain and Ger¬ many. b. Reddifh yellow, or liver brown, with a h. blue coat on the furface ; Minera cupri lazurea. This ore yields between 40 and 50 per cent, of copper, and is commonly i. laid to be blue, though it is as red, when frefh broke, as a red copper regulus. e. Yellowifh green; Pyrites cuprifiavo viri- defcens. This is the mo ft common in the north part of Europe; and is, in regard to its texture, found, 1. Solid, and of a fhining texture, from k. Oftanberg in the province of Dalarne. /. 2. Steel-grained, of a dim texture, from the fame place, and Falun in Dalarne. 3. Coarfe-grained, is of an uneven and fhining texture. It occurs in mod of the Swedilh and Norwegian copper A mines. 4. CryftajBfed marcafnical copper ore. a. Of long oftoedrical cryftals. This is found at Hevaffvvik in the province of Dal, and in Lovifagrufva in Weft- manland ; notwithftanding its ex- iftence is denied by Henckel and his followers. d. Pale yellow. This cannot be defcribed but as a marcafite, though an experienced eye will eafily difeover fomc difference be- Vol. VII. 2 o G Y. 5IQ1 tween them. It yields 22 per cent, of Trrie copper. Metals. e. Liver-coloured. This is found at Falun, Irtn' in Darlarne in Sweden, where it contains copper; though at moft other places where it occurs, it does not contain any copper, but is only a martial marcafite. (3.) With fulphurated arfenic and iron. White 235 copper ore. It is faid to be found in the Hartz in Germany, and to refemble an arfe- nical pyrites; but moft of the pyriticai cop- . per ores, as well as the marcafites, contain a little arfenic, though it is in too finall a quan¬ tity to be obfervable. (4.) DifTolved by the vitriolic acid; Vitriolum 236 veneris. (5.) With phlogifton. Copper coal-ore. . Iron; Ferrum, Mars. It is, 237 Of a blackifh blue fhining colour. It becomes du6lile by repeated heating be¬ tween coals, and hammering. It is attradled by the loadftone, which is an iron ore; and the metal itfelf may alfo be ren¬ dered magnetical. Its fpecific gravity to water is as 7,645, or 8000 :: 1000. It calcines eafily to a black fcaly calx, which, when pounded, is of a deep red colour. When this calx is melted in great quantity with glafs compofitions, it gives a blackifti brown colour to the glafs; but in a fmall quantity a greenifh colour, which at laft va- nifhes, if forced by a ftrong degree of heat. It is diffolved by all falts, by water, and like- wife by their vapours. The calx of iron is dif¬ folved by the fpirit of fea-falt, and by aqua regia. The calx of the diffolved metal becomes yel¬ low, or yellowifh brown; and in a certain de¬ gree of heat, it turns red. The fame calx, when precipitated from acid? by means of the fixed alkali, is of a greenifh colour; but it becomes blue, when precipitated by means of an alkali united with phlogifton; in which laft cir^umftanee the phlogifton unites with the iron: thefe two precipitates lofe their colour in the fire, and turn brown. The vitriol of iron is brown. It is the moft common metal in nature, and at the fame time the moft ufeful in common life; notwithftanding which, its qualities are per¬ haps very little known ’ Iron is found, 23S . In form of calx. £i.J Pure. A. Loofe and friable. Martial ochre; Mi¬ nera ochracea. 1. Powdery; Oehraferri. Thisiscommonly yellow or red, and is iron which has been diffolved by the vitriolic acid. 2. Concreted. Bog-ore. a. In form of round porous balls. b. More folid balls. c. In fmall flat pieces, like cakes, or pieces of money. 28 U d> In 5102 True MhiAls. Iron. 239 M I N E R A d. In fmall grains. e. In lumps of an indeterminate figure. All thefe are of a blackilh brown, or a light brown colour. B. Indurated. The bloodftone; Haematites. (l.) Of an iron colour; Haematites cxru- lefcens. This is of a blueifh grey co¬ lour ; it is not attrafted by the load- ftone, yields a red powder when rub¬ bed, and is hard. a. Solid, and of a dim appearance when broken. b. Cubical, and of a (hining appearance when broken. c. Fibrous, is the mod common torrjien of Sweden. d. Scaly; the eifenman of the Germans. 1. Black; from Gellebeck, in Nor¬ way. 2. Blueilh grey; from Reka Klitt. When this is found along with marcafite, as at Sandfwar in Nor¬ way, it is not only attrafted by the loadftone, but is of itfelf really a loadftone. e. Cryftallifed. 1. In oftoedrical cryftals. 2. In polyedrical cryftals. 3. In a cellular form. Thefe varie¬ ties are the moft common in Swe¬ den, and are very feldom blended with marcafite, or any other hete¬ rogeneous fubftance, except their different beds. It is remarkable, that, when thefe ores are found along with marcafite, thofe par¬ ticles which have lain neareft to the marcafite are attra&ed by the loadftone, although they yield a red, orreddifli brown powder, like thofe which are not attrafted by the loadftone: it islikewife worth obfervation, that they generally contain a little fulphur, if they are imbedded in a lime-ftone rock, which, however, very feldom hap¬ pens in Sweden; but there is one fuch inftance at Billfia in Soder- berke, in the province of Da- larne. (2.) Blackifh brown bloodftone; Haema¬ tites nigrefcens. Kidney ore. This yields a red or brown powder when it is rubbed; it is-very hard, and is attrac¬ ted by the loadftone. a. Solid, with a glaffy texture. 1. Radiated. e. Cryftallifed. 1. In form of cones, from Siberia.. 2. In form of concentric balls, with a facetted furface. Thefe are very common in Germany, but very fcarce in Sweden. (3O Red bloodftone; Hematites ruber. Red kidney ore. o G Y. Clafs IV. a. Solid, and dim in its texture. T™e l. Scaly. The eifenman of the Ger- M j^LS' mans. This is commonly found a- '' long with the iron-coloured iron glimmer, and fmears the hands. c. Cryftallifed, in concentric balls, with a flat or facetted furface. (4.) Yellow bloodftone; Hamatitesflavus. a. Solid. _ 242 b. Fibrous, from Lamerhof in Bohe¬ mia. The varieties of the colours in the bloodftone are the fame with thofe produced in the calces of iron, made by dry or liquid menftrua, and after¬ wards expofed to different degrees of heat. [2.] Iron in form of calx, mixed with hetero¬ geneous fubftances. 243 A. With a calcareous earth. White fpathofe iron ore. The Jlahlftein of the Germans. b. With a filiceous earth. The martial jaf- per of Sinople. c. With a garnet earth. Garnet and cockle or ftiirl. d. With an argillaceous earth. The bole. e. With a micaceous earth. Mica. f. With manganefe. G. With an alkali and phlogifton. Blue 244 martial earth. Native Pruflian-like blue. I. Loofe or powdery: found among the turf in the levels of the province of Skone; alfo in Sax Weiffenfels, and at Norvlanden in Norway, &c. h. With an unknown earth, which hardens 24.? in water. Tarras; Cementum. 1. Loofe or granulated; Terra Puzzo- lana: from Naples and Civita Vecchia in Italy. This is of a reddilh brown colour, is rich in iron, and is pretty fu- fible. 2. Indurated; Cementuminduratum. This 246 is of a whitifti yellow colour, contains likewife a great deal of iron, and has the fame quality with the former, to harden foon in water, when mixed with mortar. This quality cannot be owing to the iron alone, but rather to fome particular modification of it occafioned by fome accidental caufes, becaufe thefe varieties rarely happen at any other places except where volcanos have been, or are yet in the neighbourhood. 1. Calx of iron, united with another un- 2 ,T known earth. The tungften of the Swedes. ^ This is alfo, though improperly, called nubile tin-grains. This refembles the gar- net-ftone,and the tin-grains; is nearly as heavy as pure tin; very refra&ory in the fire, and exceffively difficult to reduce to metal. Iron has, however, been melted out of it to more than 30 per cent. It is very difficultly diffolved by borax and al¬ kaline falts, but melts very eafdy with the microcofmic fait; giving a black flag: and for this reafon, this laft mentioned fait mull be Order I. True Metals. 248 249 M I N E R A be employed in the experiments on this {tone. It is found, 1. Solid and fine-grained. a. Reddifh or flefh-coloured. 1. Yellow. 2. Spathofe, and with an un&uous fur- face. White. b. Pearl-coloured. This kind of Itone is very feldom met with, but in fuch places where black-lead is common in the neighbourhood ; and the hi- ftory of the black lead, inferted in the Memoirs of the Swedilh Academy of Sciences, gives reafon to believe, that this may contain fome tin ; which merits further examination. MrCronftedt has in the faid Memoirs communicated his experiments upon this kind of ftone from Riddarfhyt- tan, and Bifpberget in Weftmanland; as has alfo Mr Rinman, on a great number of other martial earths. See the Memoirs for the years 1751 and I754*> B. Diffolved or mineralifed iron. [1.3 With fulphur alone. A. Perfeftly faturated with fulphur; Ferrum fulphure faturatum. Marcafite. b. With very little fulphur. Black iron ore. Iron ftone. This is either attra&ed by the load- ftone, or is a loadftone itfelf attra&ing iron ; it refembles iron, and yields a black powder when rubbed. (1.) Magnetic iron ore. The loadftone, Magnes. a. Steel-grained, of a dim texture, from Hogberget in the parirti of Gagncef in Dalarne : it is found at that place almoft to the day, and is of as great ftrength as any natural load- ftones were ever commonly found. 1. Fine grained, from Saxony. c. Coarfe-grained, from Spetalfgrufvan at Norberg, and Kierrgrufvan, both in the province of Weftmanland. This lofes very foon its magnetical vir¬ tue. d. With coarfe fcales, found at Sand- fwcer in Norway. This yields a red powder when rubbed. (2.) Refra&ory iron ore. This in its crude ftate is attracted by the load¬ ftone. a. Giving a black powder when rubbed; Tritura atra. Of this kind are, 1. Steel-grained. 2. Fine-grained. 3. Coarfe-grained. This kind is found in great quantities in all the Swedifti iron mines ; and of this moft part of the fufible ores con- fift, becaufe it is commonly found in fuch kinds of rocks as are very O G Y. 5103 fufible : and it is a* feldom met Semi- with in quartz as the haematites met with in limeftone. — l. Rubbing into a red powder. Thefe are real haematites, that are fo far modified by fulphur or lime as to be attracted by the loadftone. 1. Steel-grained. 2. Fine-grained. Emery. This is imported from the Levant: it is mixed with mica, is ftronglyattrac- ted by the loadftone, and fmells of fulphur when put to the fire. 3. Of large (hining cubes. 4. Coarfe, fcaly. The eifenglimmer or eifenman, from Gellebeck in Nor¬ way. Thefe are very fcarce in Swe¬ den, moft part of the Swedifti bloodftones being pure, as has al¬ ready been faid, and form that very profitable ore in Swedifti call¬ ed torrjlen. [2.3 With arfenic ; Ferrum arfenico minerali- 25® fatum. Called mifpickel by the Germans, and plate mundic in Cornwall. £3.3 With fulphurated arfenic. Arfenical py¬ rites. [4.3 With vitriolic acid. Martial vitriol. C5-] With phlogifton. Martial coal ore. [6.3 With other fulphurated and arfenicated metals. See thefe in their refpeftive ar¬ rangements. Second Order. Semi-metals. There are but feven femi-metals yet difcovered, viz. I. Quickfilver, mercury; Argentum vivum, mercu- 2$l rius, hydrargyrum. This diftinguifties itfelf from all metals, by the following qualities: a. Its colour is white and fliining, a little darker than that of filver. 1. It is fluid in the cold, and divifible by the lead force ; but as it only flicks to a few bo¬ dies, to which it has an attra&ion, it is faid that it does not wet. c. It is volatile in the fire. d. Its weight is next to that of the gold, viz. to water, as 13,593 : : 1000. e. It attra&s the other femi-metals and metals, and unites with them all, except cobalt and nickel, with which it cannot by any means yet known be made to mix. This union is called an amalgamation. This amalgamation, or mixtion of metallic bodies, according to the readinefs with which they unite or mix, is in the following progrefiion, viz. gold, filver, lead, tin, zinc, bifmuth, copper, iron, and the regu- lus of antimony : but the three latter, however, do not very readily amalgamate. The iron • requires a folution of the vitriol of iron, as a medium to promote the union. f. It diflblves in the fpirit of nitre, out of which it is precipitated by a volatile alkali, and the common fait, in form of a white powder; but 28 U | if 5I04 Metals. *ss M I N E R A if a fixed alkali is ufec!, into a yellow powder or caix. It difiblves in the oil of vitriol by a ftrong boiling. b. It is not affe&ed by the acid of common fait, unlefs it be previoufly difiblved by other acids; in which cafe only they unite with one another, and may be fublimed together, which fublima- tion is a ftrong poifon. i. It unites with fulphur by grinding; and then produces a black powder called athiops mine- rails, which fublimes into a red ftriated body called factitious cinnabar. k. The fulphur is again feparated from thequick- filver, by adding iron or lime, to which the fulphur attaches itfelf, leaving the quickfilver to be diftilled over in a metallic form; but if a fixed alkali is added to it, fome part of the quickfilver will remain in the refiduum, and in that cafe makes a liver of fulphur. Quickfilver is found, A. Native, or in a metallic ftate. This is found in the quickfilver mines at Idria in Friuli, or the Lower Auftria, in clay, or in a black llaty lapis ollaris, out of which it runs, either fpon- taneoufly or by being warmed even in the hands. It has feveral times been found at Herr Sten’s Bottn, in the mines of Salberg in Weftman- land, and fometimes alfo amalgamated with na¬ tive filver. B. Mineralifed, (i.) With fulphur. Cinnabar; Cinnabaris na- tiva. This is of a red colour, and its fpe- cific gravity to water is as 7500 to 1000. a. Loofe or friable cinnabar; looks like red ochre. b. Indurated. Solid cinnabar. Is of a deep red colour; and, with refpect to its texture, is either, 1. Steel-grained: 2. Radiated t 3. Compofed of fmall cubes, or fcaly : 4. Chryftallifed, a. In a cubical form ; it is tranfparent, and deep red as a ruby. {2.) With fulphur and copper; Mercurius cupro fulphur a to- miner alifatus. This is blackifh grey, of a glalfy texture, and brittle; crackles and fplits exceluvely in the fire; and when the quickfilver and fulphur are evaporated, the copper is difcovered by its common opaque red. colour in the glafs of borax, which, when farther forced in the fire, or diluted, becomes green and tranfparent. II. Bifmuth; tin-^glafs. Vifmutum, bifmututn, mar- cafita officinalis. It is, a. Of a whitifti yellow colour. b. Of a laminated texture, foft under the ham¬ mer, and nevertheltfs very brittle. c. Its fpecific gravity to water is, 339,700: : 1000. d. It is very fufible ; calcines and fcorifies like lead, if not rather eafier; and therefore it works on the cuppel. It is pretty volatile in the fire. e. Its glafs or flag becomes yellowiflt brown, and has the quality of retaining forae part of the LOGY. Glafs IV. gold, if that metal has been melted, calcined, Semi- and vitrified with it. ^BiJrnutb' f. It maybe mixed with the other metals, except co- ^ .L bait and zinc, making them white and brittle. g. It dilfolves in aquafortis, without imparting to it any colour ; but to the aqua-regia it gives a red colour, and may be precipitated out of both thefe folutions with pure water, into a w’hite powder, which is called Spanifj ‘white. It is alfo precipitated by the acid of fea-falt; which laft unites with it, and makes the vifnm- turn corneum. h. It amalgamates eafily with quickfilver. Other metals are fo far attenuated by the bifmuth, when mixed with it, as to be {trained or forced along with the quickfilver through {kins or leather. Bifinuth is found in the earth. A. Native. This refembles a regulus of bifmuth, but confifts of fmaller feales or plates. 1. Superficial, or in crufts. 2. Solid, and compofed of fmall cubes. This is found in and with the cobalt ore, at Schnee- berg in Saxony, and other foreign places: likewife along with the copper ore, at Ny- berget, in theparifti of Stora Skedwi,inthe province of Dalarne. B. In form of calx. 2.y 1. Powdery or friable; Ochra vifmuti. This is of a whitifti yellow colour; it is found in form of an efflorefcence, to the day, at Los in the province of Helfiugland. It has been cuftomary to give the name of flonuers of bifmuth to the pale red calx of co¬ balt, but it is wrong; becaufe neither the calx of bifmuth, nor its folutions, become red, this being a quality belonging to the cobalt. c. Mineralifed bifmuth. This is, with refpeft to 2-§ colour and appearance, like the coarfe teflela- ^ ted potter’s lead ore; but it Confifts of very thin fquare plates or flakes, from which it receives a radiated appearance when broken croflwife. j. With fulphur. a. With large plates or flakes,, from Baftnas at Riddarftiyttan, Bafringe and Stripas in Weftmanland. b. With fine or fmall feales, from Jacobs- grufvanat Riddarftiyttan, and the mines at Los in the parifti of Farila in Helfingland. 2. With fulphurated iron. a. Of coarfe, wedge-like fcalss, from Kon- gruben, at Gellebeck in Norway. This mineralifed bifmutiiore yields a fine radiated regulus ; for which reafon it has been ranked among the antimonial ores, by thofe who have not taken proper care to melt a pure regulus or deftitute of ful- phur from it; while others, who make no difference between regules and pure me¬ tals, have ftill more pofitively aflerted it to be only an antimonial ore. III. Zinc; fpeltre. Zincutn. a. Its colour comes neareft to that of lead, but it does not fo eafily tarnifti. 'b. It fhows a texture, when it is broken, as if it were compounded of flat pyramids. c. Its Order II Semi- Metals. Zinc. 260 261 c. Its fpeclfic gravity to water is, as 6,900 or 7000 to 1000. d. It melts in the fire before it has acquired a glowing heat; but when it has gained that degree of heat, it burns with a flame of a changeable colour, between blue and yellow ; and If in an open fire, the calx rifes in form of foft white flowers; but if in a covered vefiei, with the addition of fome inflammable, it is di* {tilled in a metallic form ; in which operation, however, part of it is fometimes found vitrified. e. It unites with all the metals, except bifmuth, and makes them volatile. It is, however, not eafy to unite it with h'on without the addition of fulphur. It has the ftrongeft attraction to gold and copper, and this lad metal acquires a yellow colour by it; which has occafioned many experiments to be made to produce new metallic compofitions. /. It is diffolved by all the acids: of thefe the vitriolic acid has the ftrongeft attraction to it; yet it does not diflblve it, if it is not previoufly diluted with much water. The abundance of phlogifton in this femi-metal is perhaps the rea- fon of its ftrong attraction to the vitriolic acid. g. Qujckfilver amalgamates eafier with zinc than with copper, by which means it is feparated from compofitions made with copper. b. It feems to become eleCtrical by friCtion, and then its fmaller particles are attracted by the loadftone; which effeCts are not yet perfectly inveftigated ; but they may excite philofophers to make farther experiments, in order to difco- ver whether the eleCtrical power fhews itfelf in the metals by being attracted by the load¬ ftone, or whether the magnetic power can be exerted on other metals than iron. Zinc is found. In form of calx. (1.) Pure. a. Indurated. 1. Solid. 2. Cryftallifed. This is of a whitifh grey colour, and its external appearance is like that of a lead fpar ; it cannot be defcribed, but is eafily known by an experienced eye. It looks very like an artificial glafs of zinc; and is found among other cala¬ mines at Namur, and in England. (2.) Mixed. a. With a martial ochre; Ochra Jive cate zinci martialis. 1. Half indurated. Calamine; Lapis ca* larninaris. a. Whitilh yellow, b. Reddifli brown. This feems to be a mouldered or weathered blende. B. With a martial clay or bole. t. With a lead oehre and iron, i?. Mineralifed zinc. (1.) With fulphurated iron. Blende, mock- lead, black-jack, mock-ore ; p£eudogakn& and blende of the Germaas. Mineralifed zinc in a metallic form. Zinc ore. This is ofa metallic blueifh grey colour, neither perfeftly clear as a potter’s ore, nor fo dark as the Swedifh iron ores. 1. Of a fine cubical or fcaly texture. 2. Steel-grained. In form of calx. I^ler.de. Mock-lead ; Sterile nigrum. Pfeudogalena. This is found, 1. With courfe fcales, a. Yellow; femi-tranfparertt. b. Greenifli. c. Black; pechbende or pitch blende of the Germans. d. Blackhh brown. 2. With fine fcales, White. b. Whitifh yellow. c. Reddifh brown. 3. Fine and fparkling ; at Goflar called braun bleyertz. a. Dark brown. The zinc, in thefe laft kinds of blendes, is as it were in form of a calx or glafs, fo that they are often tranfparent: on the contrary, in the zinc ore, (n° 261.) it feems rather to be in a metallic form, or, like moft other metals, mineralifed with fulphur. The fulphur, neverthelefs, exifts in the different kinds of blende, equally as in the zinc ore; and this remarkable difference in their ap¬ pearance muft be accounted for from another principle than the quantity of the zinc which they contain ; be- caufe the yellow and white blendes are often found richer than the zinc ores; but the zinc ores are, however, more eafy to melt, and confequently more profitable. Perhaps it is be- caufe the blende does not contain a fufficient quantity of the phlogifton of the fulphur, to prevent the cal¬ cination of the zinc. It is no matter whether a calcined blende is called calamine or not, pro¬ vided it has fuch properties that it may be employed to the fame pur- poies, and with the fame advantage, as that calamine which nature has freed from its fulphur by its wea¬ thering or decaying. This may be done with fome kinds of blende; and Mr Von Swab has given evident and excellent proofs o£ it in Sweden ; in- fomuch that it would demonftrate a want of experience to infift that ful- phur cannot be expelled by calcina¬ tion, without deftroying the zinc it- felf, and that flowers of zinc may be produced from zinc ores in a calci¬ ning heat, without addition of any. phlogifton. MINERALOGY. 51 °5 Metals. Zinc. 262 Mr 5106 Semt- Me TALS.’ Antimony. 263 264 MINERALOGY. Mr Jufti however avers, that he has found an ore of this quality, which in his Mineralogy he calls 7jinkfpat: hut there is great reafon to doubt if it really contains any zinc, until it is proved whether the author added any phlogifton during the calcination, or reduced the zinc out of it; becaufe, although the flowers of zink may not always be t perfe&ly well calcined, yet there is no inflance of a natural zinc ore be¬ ing difcovered, which by itfelf yields thofe flowers during the calcination: and it requires, befides, a ftrong heat to produce thefe flowers from a per¬ fect calx or glafs of this femi-metal, either natural or artificial, though mixed with a phlogifton ; for it could not have been a native zinc, fince it refembled a fpar, and fuch a one very likely is not to be found in nature. IV. Antimony; Antimonimn Stibium. This femi- metal is, a. Of a white colour almoft like filver. 1. Brittle ; and in regard to its texture, it con- fsfts of fhining planes, of greater length than breadth. c. In the fire it is volatile, and volatilifes part of the other metals along with it, except gold and platina. It may, however, in a moderate fire, be calcined into a light grey calx, which is pretty refra&ory in the fire, but melts at laft _ to a glafs of a reddifti brown colour. d. It diffolves in fpirit of fea-falt and aqua regia, but is only corroded by the fpirit of nitre into a white calx 5 it is precipitated out of the aqua regia by water. 1. It has an emetic quality when its calx, glafs, or metal, is diffolved in an acid, except when in the fpirit of nitre, which has not this effeft. f. It amalgamates with quickfilver, if the re- gulus, when fufed, is put to it; but the quick¬ filver ought for this purpofe to be covered with warm water: it amalgamates with it likewife, if the regulus of antimony be previoufly melted with an addition of lime. Antimony is found in the earth. A. Native. This is of a filver colour,-and its texture is compofed of pretty large fhining planes. This kind was found in Carls Ort, in the mine of Salberg, about the end of the laft century j and fpecimens thereof have been preferred in collections under the name of an arfenical pyrites, until the mine-mafter Mr Von Swab difcovered its real nature, in a treatife he communicated to the Royal Aca¬ demy of Sciences at Stockholm in the year 1748. Among other remarkable obfervations in this treatife, it is faid, firft, That this native antimony eafily amalgamated with quickfilver; doubtlefs, becaufe it was imbedded in a lime- Clafs IV. {tone; fince, according to Mr Pott’s experi- Semi- ments, an artificial regulus of antimony may, by means of lime, be difpofed to an amalga- L—!_ mation: Secondly, That when brought in form of a calx, it (hot into cryftals during the cooling. B. Mineralifed antimony. 26c (1.) With fulphur. This is commonly of a radiated texture, compofed of long wedge-like flakes or plates; it is nearly of a lead colour, and rough to the touch. a. Of coarfe fibres. b. Of fmall fibres. c. Steel-grained, from Saxony and Hun- gary. d. Cryftallifed, from Hungary. 1. Of a prifmatioal, or of a pointed pyra¬ midal figure, in which laft circumftance the points are concentrical. Mr Cronftedt mentions a fpecimen of this, in which the cryftals were co- . vered with very minute cryftals ofquartz, except at the extremities, where there was always a little hole: this fpecimen was given for a flos fsrri fpar. (2.) With fulphur and arfenic. Redantimony 266 ore; Antimonium folare. This is of a red colour, and has the fame texture with the preceding, though its fibres are not fo coarfe. a. With final] fibres. b. With abrupt broken fibres, from Braunf- dorff in Saxony, and from Hungary. All antimonial ores are fomewhat arfe- nical, but this is more fo than the preceding kinds. (3.) With fulphurated filver. Plumofe filver- ore. (4.) With fulphurated filver, copper, and arfe- (5.) With fulphurated lead. V. Arfenic. This is, 267 a. In its metallic form, nearly of the fame colour as lead, but brittle, and changes fooner its fhining colour in the air, firft to yellow, and afterwards to black. b. It appears laminated in its fra&ures, or where broken. c. Is very volatile in the fire, burns with a fmall flame, and gives a very difagreeable fmell like garlic. d. It is, by reafon of its volatility, very difficult to be reduced, unlefs it is mixed with other metals: However, a regultis may be got from the white arfenic, if it is quickly melted with equal parts of pot-afhes and foap; but this regulus contains generally fome cobalt, moft of the white arfenic being produced from the cobalt ores during their calcination. The white arfenic, mixed with a phlogiftrin, fub- limes likewife into o&oedral cryftals' of a metallic appearance, whofe fpecific gravity is 8,308. e. The calx of arfenic, which always, oa account of MINERALOGY. Order II. of its volatility, muft be got as a fublimation, is white, and eafily melts to a glafs, whofe fpecific gravity is 5,000. When fulphur is blended in this calx, it becomes of a yellow, orange, or red colour; and according to the degrees of colour is called orpiment or yellow arfenic; fandarach, realgar, or red arfenic; and alfo rubims arfenici. f This calx and glafs are diffohible in water, and in all liquids; though not in all with the fame facility; In this circumftance arfenic refembles the falls; for which reafon it alfo might be ranked in that clafs. g. The regains of arfenic difTolves in fpirit of nitre; but as it is very difficult to have it per- fe&ly free from other metals, it is yet very little examined in various menftrua. 1. It is poifonous, efpecially in form of a pure calx or glafs: But probably it is lefs dange¬ rous when mixed with fulphur, fince it is proved by experience, that the men at mineral works are not fo much afFefled by the fmoke of this mixture as by the fmoke of lead ; and that fome certain nations make ufe of the red arfe¬ nic in fmall dofes as a medicine. i. It unites with all metals, and is likewife much ufed by nature itfelf to diffolve, or, as we terra it, to mineralife, the metals, to which its vola¬ tility and diffolubility in water muft greatly contribute. It is likewife moft generally mixed with fulphur. k. It abforbs or expels the phlogifton, which has coloured glaffes, if mixed with them in the fire. Arfenic is found, 268 [ 1.] Native; called Scherbencobolt and Fliegenjlein by the Germans. It is of a lead colour when frefh broken, and may be cut with a knife, like black lead, but foon blackens in the air. It burns with a fmall flame, and goes off in fmoke. A. Solid and teftaceous. This is found in the mines of Saxony, the Hartz, and Hungary. B. Scaly, at Kongfberg in Norway. C. Friable and porous; Fliegenjlein. (1.) With fhining fiffures. This is by fome called Spigel cobolt, (mi~ tier a cobalti fpecularis), according to their notions of the affinity of thefe metals to one another. However, there always remains after the volatilifatipn of the fcherbencobolt, fome calx, either of cobalt or bifmuth, and fome filver, though in too fmail a quantity to deferve any notice. (2.) In form of a calx. A. Pure, or free from heterogeneous fubfiances. 1. Loofe or powdery. 2. Indurated, or hardened. This is found in form of white femi-tranfparent cryftals. B. Mixed with fulphur. X. Hardened. a. Yellow. Orpiment; Auripigmentum. b. Red. Native realgar, or fandarach. The orpiment may perhaps be found naturally in loofe fcaly powder, as it is fometimes met with in the ffiops: how¬ ever, the hardened fort is feldom found but. in colle&ions. C. Mixed with the calx of tin, in the tin-grains. Z). With fulphur and filver, in the rothgulden, or red filver ore. E. With calx of lead; in the lead-fpar. F. With calx of cobalt,, in the efflorefcence of cobalt. [2.] Mineralifed. A. With fulphur and iron. Arfentcal pyrites or marcafite. Thefe kinds in Cornwall are , called ftlvery or white mundics, and plate mun- dics. This alone produces red arfenic, when cal¬ cined, and is found in great quantities in the mines of Loras in the province of Dalarne: It is if a deeper colour than the following. B. With iron only. This differs with regard to its particles, being, x. Steel-grained; 2. Coai fe-grained, from Wefterfilfverberget; 3. Cryllallifed. a. In an odtoedral figure. This is the mod common kind. b. Prifmatical. The fulphureous marcafite is added to this kind, when red arfenic is to be made; but in Sweden it is fcarcer than the fulphureous arfenical pyrites. C. With cobalt, almoft in all cobalt ores. D. With filver. E. With copper. F. With antimony. VI. Cobalt. This femi-metal is,. a. Of a whitiffi grey colour, nearly as fine-tem¬ pered fteel. b. Is bard and brittle, and of a fine-grained tex¬ ture ; hence it is of a dufky, or not ffiining ap¬ pearance. c. Its fpecific gravity to water is 6000 to 10C0. d. It is fixt in the fire, and becomes black by cal¬ cination ; it then gives to glaffes a blue colour, inclining a little to violet, which colour, of all others, is the mod fixed in fire. e. The concentrated oil of vitriol, aquafortis, and aqua-regia, diffolve it; and the folutions become red. The cobalt calx is likewife dif- folved by the fame menftrua, and alfo by the volatile alkali and the fpirit of. fea-falt. f. When united with the calx of arfenic in a flow (not a brilk) calcining heaf, it affumes a red colour:, the fame colour is naturally produced by'way of efflorefcence, and is then called the bloom, or flowers of cobalt. When cobalt and arfenic are melted together in an open fire, they produce a blue flame. g. It does not amalgamate with quickftlver by any means hitherto known. h. Nor does it mix with bifmuth, when melted with It, without addition of fome medium to promote their union. The cobalt is moft commonly found in the earth mixed with iron. 3 A. Ift Semi- Metals. Arfmc. 5107 Semi- Metals, Cobalt. 269, 270 5io8 Semi- MKT A Ls. Cobalt. 27f 272 2 73 274 MINER Ji. In form of~3 calx. (1.) With iron without arfenic. a. Loofe or friable. Cobalt ochre. It is black, and like the artificial zaffre. 1. Indurated ; the fcblacken or flag cobalt. This is likewife of a black colour, but of a glaffy texture; and feems to have loft that fubftance which mineralifed it, by be¬ ing decayed or weathered. It is often con¬ founded with the fcherbencobolt, for it is feldom quite free from arfenic; and there may perhaps exill a progreflive feries from the fchlacken kind to the fcherbenco¬ bolt kind. (2 ) With the calx of arfenic. Cobalt-blut; Ochra cobalti rubra ; bloom, flowers, or ef- florefcence, of cobalt. a. Loofe or friable. This is often found of a red colour like other earths, fpread very thin on the cobalt ores, and is, when of a pale colour,erroneoufly calledfloiuers of bifmuth. b. Indurated. Hardened flowers of cobalt. This is commonly cryftallifed in form of deep red femi-tranfparent rays or radiations. A white cobalt-earth, or ochre, is faid to have been found. It has been feen and examined by a celebrated mineralift, who has found it in every refpeft, except the colour, to refemble the cobalt flowers; and it is very pofitble that thofe cobalt flowers might in length of time have loft their red colour, and become white. B- Mineralifed. (1.) With arfenic and iron in a metallic form. This is of a dim cpiour when broken, and not unlike fteel. It is found, a. Steel-grained. b. Fine-grained, c. Coarfe-grained. d. Cryftallifed. 1. In a dendritical or arborefcent form. 2. Polyedral, with (hining furfaces; the glanzkobolt of the Germans. 3. In radiated nodules. (2.) With fulphurated iron. This is of a lighter colour than the preceding, nearly like to tin or filver. It is found, A. Cryftallifed. x. In a polygonal form. a. Of a flaggy texture. b. Coarfe-grained. This kind dif- covers not the leaft mark of arfe¬ nic. The coarfe-grained becomes filmy in the fire, and flicks to the birring hook during the calcination, in the fame manner as many regules do ; and is a kind of regule prepared by nature. That fort of a flaggy texture is very martial, and is defcribed by the mine-mafter Mr Brandt, in the Adis of the Swedifh Academy of Sciences for the year 1746. Both thefe give a beautiful colour. (3,) With fulpbur, arfenic, and iron. '’This re- L O G Y. Clafs IV. fembles the arfenicated cobalt ore, being on- Semi- ly rather of a whiter or lighter colour. It is found, Nickel. a. Coarfe-grained. b. Cryftallifed, 1. In a polygonal figure, with ftiining furfaces, or glanzkobolt. It is partly of a white or light colour, and partly of a fomewhat reddifh yellow. (4.) With fulphurated and arfenicated nickel 27S and iron ; fee n° 279. VII. Nickel; Niccolutn. This is the lateft difeo- 27_ vered femi-metal. It was firft defcribed by its ' . difeoverer Mr Cronftedt, in the Adis of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm for the years 1751 and 1754, where it is faid to have the fol¬ lowing qualities: That, 1. It is of a white colour, which, however, in¬ clines fomewhat to red. 2. Of a foil’d texture, and fliining in its fradtures. 3. Its fpecific gravity to water is as 8,500 to 1000. 4. It is pretty fixt in the fire; but, together with the fulphur and arfenic, with which its ore abounds, it is fo far volatile as to rife in form of hairs and branches, if in the calcination it is left without being ftirred. 5. It calcines to a green calx. 6. This calx is not very fufible, but, however, tinges glafs of a transparent reddifh-brown or jacinth colour. 7. It diflblves in aquafortis, aqua regia, and the fpirit of fea-falt, but more difficultly in the vi¬ triolic acid, tinging all thefe folutions of a deep green colour. Its vitriol is of the fame co¬ lour ; but the colcothar of this vitriol, as well as the precipitates from the folutions, become by calcination of a light green colour. 8. Thefe precipitates are diffolved by the fpirit of fal ammoniac, and the folution has a blue co¬ lour; but being evaporated, and the fediment reduced, there is no copper, but a nickel re- gulus is produced. 9. It has a ftrong attradlion to fulphur; fo that when its calx is mixed with i;, and put ou a fcorifying teft under the muffel, it forms with the fulphur a regule: this regule refembles the yellow fteel-grained copper-ores, and is hard and fhining on its convex furface. 10. It unites with all the metals, except quick- filver and filver. When the nickel regulus is melted with the latter, it only adheres clofe to it, both the metals lying near one another on the fame plane; but they are eafily feparated with a hamiper. Cobalt has the ftrongeft at- traftion to nickel, after that to iron, and then to arfenic. The two former cannot be fepa¬ rated from one another but by their fcorifica- tion; which is eafily done, fince 11. This femi-metal retains its phlogifton a long time in the fire, and its calx is reduced by the help of a very fmall portion of inflammable matter: it requires, however, a red heat before it can be brought into fufion, and melts a little fooner, or almoft as foon as copper or gold, opnfequently fooner than iron. The Saxa. Ophites, &c. 278 279 280 381 282 *83 284 M I N E R A The nickel is found. A. In form of a calx. Nickel ochre. I. Mixed with the calx of iron. This is green, and is found in form of flowers on Kupfer- nickel. B- Mineralifed nickel. 1. With fulphurated and arfenicated iron and cobalt. Kupfernickel. This is of a reddiih yellow colour; and is found, a. Of a flaggy texture, in Saxony. b. Fine-grained; and c. Scaly, in Loos cobalt-mines in the pro¬ vince of Helfingeland, at which place it is of a lighter colour than the foreign ones. Thefe two are often from their colour con¬ founded with the liver-coloured marcafitc. 2. With the acid of vitriol. This is of a beau¬ tiful green colour, and may be extra&ed out of the nickel ochre, or efflorefcence of the Kupfernickel. Cf Saxa and PetrifaEHons. Though the Saxa, and foflils commonly calledpe- trifaftions, cannot be ranked in a mineral fyftem, as confifting of principles already taken notice of; yet as thefe bodies, efpecially the latter, occupy fo confider- able a place in moft mineral colledtions, and the former muft neceflarily be taken notice of by the miners in the obfervations they make in the fubterranean geo¬ graphy, it appeared proper to fubjoin them in fuch an order as may anfwer the purpofe for which they are regarded by miners and mineralogifts. FIRST ORDER. Saxa. Petrx. Thefe may be divided into two kinds. 1. Compound faxa, are ftones whofe particles, con- fifting of different fubftances, are fo exaftly fitted and joined together, that no empty fpace, or even cement, can be perceived between them ; which feems to indi¬ cate, that fome, if not all, of thefe fubftances have been foft at the inftant of their union. 2. Conglutinated ftones, are ftones whofe particles have been united by fome cementitious fubftance, which, however, is feldom perceivable, and which of¬ ten has not been fufficient to fill every fpace between the particles: in this cafe the particles feem to have been hard, worn off, and in loofe, Angle, unfigured pieces, before they were united. I. Compound faxa. A. Ophites. Scaly limeftone with kernels or bits of ferpentine ftone in it. 1. Kolmcrd's marble. It is white and green. 2. Serpentina antico, is white, with round pieces of black fteatites in it. This muft not be confounded with the ferpentino verde antico. 3. The Haraldfio marble. White, with qua¬ drangular pieces of a black fteatites. 4. The marmor pozzevera di Genoua. Dark green marble, with white veins. This kind receives its fine polifh and appearance from the ferpentine ftone. B. Stelljlen ox gejielljlein; Saxum compafitum par- Vol. VII. 2 LOGY. 5109 ticulis quartzofis ty tnicaceis. Whetftonei 1. Of diftind particles. In fome of thefe the &c- quartzqfe particles predominate, and in others the micaceous: in the laft cafe it is com¬ monly flaty, and eafy to fplit. 2. Of particles which are wrapt up in one an¬ other. a. Whitifh grey. b. Greenifh. c. Reddifh. Both thefe kinds of ftellften are, for their refiftance to the fire, employ¬ ed in building furnaces; but the latter is the beft, becaufe it feems at the fame time to contain a little of a refra&ory clayifh fubftance : it, however, cracks very foou, if the flat fide of the ftratum, inftead of the extremity, is turned towards the fire. It is alfo of great ufe in mills. It is lucky for oeconomical purpofes, that the plates of thefe ftones are fo thick, although thereby they are not fo eafily fplit. C. Norrka. Murkjten of the Swedes. Saxum 285 compofttum mica, quartzo, et granato. 1. With diftind garnets or fhirl. a- L;ght g^y. b. Dark grey. c. Dark grey, with prifmatical, radiated, or fibrous cockle or ftiirl. 2. With kernels of garnet-ftone. a. Of pale red garnet-ftone. The firft of this kind, whole flaty ftrata makes it com¬ monly eafy to be fplit, is employed for mill-ftones, which without difficulty di- ftinguifh themfelves for that purpofe, if fand is firft ground with them, becaufe the fand wears away the micaceous par¬ ticles on the furfaces, and leaves the gar¬ nets prominent, which renders the ftone fitter for grinding the corn. D. The whetftone, Cos. Saxum compqfitum mi- 286 cd, quartzo, et fir fan argilld mar tialt in non- nullis fpeciebus. 1. Of coarfe particles. a. White. b. Light grey. 2. Of fine particles. a. Liver-brown colour. b. Blackifti grey. c. Light grey. d. Black. The table-flate, or that kind ufed for large tables and for fchool-flates. The naked eye, and the magnifying glafs, much better difeovers the micaceous particles in this kind to be as it were tv/ifted in one another; fome clay feems likewife to enter into the compofition : however, it cannot yet be certainly afiert- ed that it is real mica which has that ap¬ pearance in this kind. 3. Of very minute and clofely combined par¬ ticles. The Turkey ftone. This is of an olive colour, and feems to be the fineft mix¬ ture of the firft fpecies of this genus. It is found in loofe ftones at Biorkfkoginas in the parifh of Hellefors in Weftmanland, though ' 28 X not 511© Porphyry, uot perfefUy free from crofs veins of quartz, &c- which always are in the furface of the rock, and fpoil the whetftones. It is alfo faid to be found in Teliemarken in Norway, The belt of this fort come from the Levant, and are pretty dear. The whetilone kinds, when they fplit eafily, and in thin plates, are very fit to cover houfes with, tho’ mod: of them are not ufed for that purpofe. E. The telgften of the Swedes. Lapis allaris. Saxum compofitum Jleaiite et mica. a. Light grey. b. Whitifh yellow. c. Dark grey. ci. Dark green. This is employed with great advantage to build fire-places and furnaces, &c. and when it is flaty, the extremities of the ftrata muft be turned towards the fire. 287 F. Porphyry; Porphyrites. Italorum porfido. Saxum cornpofitum jafpide et feltfpatot interdum mica et lafalte. .» a. Its colour is green, with light green feltfpat, Serpentina verde antico. It is faid to have been brought from Egypt to Rome, from which latter place the fpecimens of it now come. V. Deep red, with white feltfpat. c. Black, with white and red feltfpat. d. Reddifii brown, with light-red and white feltfpat. e. Dark grey, with white grains of feltfpat al¬ fo. Many varieties of this kind in regard to colour are found in form of nodules or loofe ftones in Sweden ; but we have only men¬ tioned the hardeft and fineft of thofe which are found in the rocks; becaufe, befides thefe, there are coarfe porphyries found, which fcarce admit of any polifh. The dark red porphyry has been mod employed for ornaments in building : yet it is not the on¬ ly one known by the name of porjido, the I- talians applying the fame name alfo to the black kind. 288 G. The/nsy>/> of the Swedes. Saxum compofitum jafpide martiaii molli, feu argilld martiali indu- ratd, et - • - - This kind of ftone fometimes conftitutes or forms whole mountains ; as, for example, the ■mountain called Hunneberg in the province of Weftergottland, and at Drammen in Norway; but it is oftener found in form of veins in moun¬ tains of another kind, running commonly in a ferpentine manner, contrary or acrofs to the dire&ion of the rock itfelf. It is not homoge¬ neous, as may be plainly feen at thofe places where it is not preffed clofe together; but wher;e it is prefTed clofe, it feems to be per¬ fectly free from heterogeneous fubftances. When this kind is very coarfe, it is interfper- fed with feltfpat; but it is not known if the finer forts likewife contain any of it. Befides this, there are alfo fome fibrous particles in it, and fomething that refembles a calcareous fpar: this, however, docs not ferment with acids, but melts as eafy as the ftone itfelf, which be- Saxa. comes a black folid glafs in the fire. By cal-Trapp, &e. cination it becomes red, and yields in elfays 12 ~" or more per cent, of iron. No other fort of ore is to be found in it, unlefs now and then fomewhat merely fuperficial lies in its fiffures ; for this ftone is commonly, even to a great depth in the rock, cracked in acute angles, or in form of large rhomboida! dice. It is em¬ ployed at the glafs-houfes, and added to the" compofition of which bottles are made. By the Germans it is called fchwach or fchwarts- fein; at the Swedifh glafs-works, trappjkiol, tegel/kiol, or fvartjkiol; and at Jarlfberg in Norway, blabeft. In the air it decays a little, leaving a powder of a brown colour ; it cracks commonly in the fire, and becomes reddifli brown if made red-hot. It is found* 1. Of coarfe chaffy particles. a. Dark grey. b. Black. 2. Coarfe-grained. a. Dark grey. b. Reddifli. c. Deep brown. 3. Of fine imperceptible particles. , a. Black. The touchftone ; Lapis lydius. b. Blueifli. c. Grey. d. Reddifli. The black variety (j.tf.) is fometimes found fo compadt and hard, as to take a polifli like the black agate: it melts, how¬ ever, in the fire to a black glafs; and is, when calcined, attradled by the load- ftone. H. Amygdaloides. Saxum baf jafpided 'martiali, „ cum fragment is fpati calcar ei et ferpentini, fgu- 2 ^ rd ellipticd. The carpolithi or fruit-tlone rocks of the Germans. It is a martial jafper, in which elliptical kernels of calcareous ipar and ferpentine ftone are included. a. Red, with kernels of white limeftone, and of a green fteatites. This is of a particular appearance, and when calcined is attradled by the loadftone ; it decays pretty much in the air, and has fome affinity with the trapp, and alfo with the porphyry. There are fometimes found pieces of native copper in this ftone. /. The gronfen of the Swedes. Saxum compof- 29c turn mica et hornblende. Its bafis is hornblende, interfperfed with mica. It is of a dark green colour, and is dug in feveral places in Smoland, where it is employed in the iron furnaces as a flux to the bog ore. K. The granites. Saxum compoftum feltfpata, mica et quartzo, quibus accidentaliter interdum hornblende, featites, granatus et bafaltes immix- ti funt. Its principal conftituent parts are felt¬ fpat, or rhombic quartz, mica, and quartz. It is found, (1.) Loofe or friable. This is ufed at the Swedifti brafs-works'to call tire brafs in, and - comes from France. (2.) Hard and compadi. MINERALOGY. *. Red* Saxa. Congluti- nated Stones. 292 293 294 295 296 MINER