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Encyclopedia Britannica;
Or, A
DICTIONARY
O F
ARTS, SCIENCES, &c.
On a Plan entirely New:
By Which,
THE DIFFERENT SCIENCES AND ARTS
Are digefted into the Form of Diftindt
TREATISES or SYSTEMS,
COMPREHENDING
The History, Theory, and Practice, of each,
according to the Lateft Difcoveries and Improvements;
and full EXPLANATIONS given of the
VARIOUS DETACHED PARTS OF KNOWLEDGE,
WHETHER RELATINO TO
Natural and Artificial Obje&s, or to Matters Ecclesiastical,
Civil, Military, Commercial, &c.
TOGETHER WITH
A Description of all the Countries, Cities, principal Mountains, Seas, Rivers, or. throughout
the World; a General History, Ancient znA Modern, of the different Empires, Kingdoms,
and States; and an Account of the Lives of the mod Eminent Perfons in every Nation,
from the earlieft ages down to the prefent times.
THE WHOLE COMPILED FROM
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The Second Edition; greatly Improved and Enlarged.
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EDINBURGH:
Printed for J. Balfour and Co. W. Gordon, J. Bijll, J. Dickson, C. Elliot, W. Creech,
J. McCli esh, A. Bell, J. Hutton, and C. Macfarqji h ar.
MDCCLXXIX.
■
A NEW
Di£nonary of Arts, Sciences, &c.
D.
D THE fourth letter of the alphabet, and the
|| $ * thiixi confonant.
lacca. J Grammarians generally reckon D among the
lingual letters, as fuppofing the tongue to have the
principal (hare in the pronunciation thereof; though
the Abbot de Dangeau feems to have reafon in making
it a palate letter. The letter D is the fourth in the
Hebrew, Chaldee, Samaritan, Syriac, Greek, and La¬
tin alphabets; in the -five firit of which languages it
has the fame name, though fomewhat differently fpoke,
e. g. in Hebrew and Chaldee Dalethy in Syriac Doleth,
and in Greek Delta.
The form of our D is the fame with that of the La¬
tins, as appears from all the ancient medals and infcrip-
tions; and the Latin D is no other than the Greek a,
rounded a little, by making it quicker and at two
flrokes. The a of the Greeks, again, is borrowed from
the ancient chara&er of the Hebrew Daleth ; which
form it (till retains, as is ihewn by the Jefuit Souciet,
in his Differtatiqn on the Samaritan Medals.
D is alfo a numeral letter, fignifying Jive hundred;
which arifes hence, that, in the Gothic charadlers, the
D is half the M, which fignifies a tkoufand. Hence
the verfe,
Litera D velut A quingentos Jignijicabit.
A dalh added a-top, y), denotes it to Hand for five
thoufand.
Ufed as an abbreviation, it has various fignifications:
thus, D Hands for Do∨ as, M. D. for Doftor of
Medicine; D. T. Do£tor of Theology ; 1). D. implies
Doftor of Divinity, or “ dono deditD. D. D. is
ufed for “ dat, dicat, dedicatand D. D. D. D. for
“ dignum Deo donum dedit.”
DAB, in ichthyology, the Englilh name of a fpe-
cies of Pleuronectes.
DABUL, a town of Afia, in the Eaft Indies, on
the coaft of Malabar, and to the fouth of the gulf of
Cambaye, on a navigable river. It was formerly very
flourilhing, but is now much decayed. It belongs to
the Portuguefe, and its trade confifts principally in pep¬
per and fait. E. Long. 73. 55. N. Lat. 17. 30.
DACCA, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of Ben¬
gal in the Eatt Indies, fituated in E. Long. 89. 10.
N- Lat. 24. o.—The advantages of the fituation of
this place, and the fertility of the foil round it, have
long fince made it the centre of an extenfive commerce.
The courts of Delhi and Muxadavad are furnifhed from,
thence with the cottons wanted for their own con-
fumption. They each of them maintain an agent on
the fpot to fuperintend the manufadture of them; and
he has an authority, independent of the magiftrate, over
the brokers, weavers, embroiderers, and all the work¬
men whofe bufinefs has any relation to the objeft of
his commiffion. Thefe unhappy people are forbidden,
under pecuniary and corporal penalties, to fell, to any
perfon whatever, a piece exceeding the value of three
guineas: nor can they, but by dint of money, relieve
themfelves from this oppreffion.
In this, as in all the other markets, the Europeans
treat with the Moorifh brokers fettled upon the fpot,
and appointed by the government. They likewife lend
their name to the individuals of their own nation, as
well as to Indians and Armenians living in their fettle-
ments, who, without this precaution, would infallibly
be plundered. The Moors themfelves, in their private
tranfadlions, fometimes avail -themfelves of the fame
pretence, that they may pay only two, inftead of five,
/>er cent. A diftindtion is obferved, in their contra&s,
between the cottons that are befpoke, and thofe which
the weaver ventures, in fome places, to manufafture on
his own account. The length, the number of threads,
and the price, of the former are fixed: nothing further
than the commiffion for the latter is ftipulated, becaufe
it is impoflible to enter into the fame detail. Thofe
nations that make a point"of having fine goods, take
proper meafures that they may be enabled to advance
money to their workmen at the beginning of the year.
The weavers, who in general have but little employ¬
ment at that time, perform their work with lefs hurry
than in the months of Odtober, November, and De¬
cember, when the demand is preffing.
Some of the cottons are delivered unbleached, and
others half-bleaehed. It were to be wifhed that this
cuftom might be altered. It is very common to fee
cottons, that look very beautiful, go off in the bleach¬
ing. Perhaps the manufadlurers and brokers forefee
how they will turn out; but the Europeans have not fo
exquifite a touch, nor fuch an experienced eye to dif-
cern this. It is a circumitance peculiar to India, that
cotto«s, of what kind foever they are, can never be well
13 U 2 bleached
D A C [ 23CS ] D A C
Dice bleached and prepared, but in the place where they are
Dacier manufactured. If they have the misfortune to get da-
0 . maged before they are fhipped for Europe, they muft
be fent back to the places from whence they came.
DACE, in ichthyology, a fpecies of Cyprinus.
This fifh is extremely common in our rivers, and
gives the expert angler'great diverfion. The dace will
bite at any fly; but he is more than ordinarily fond of
the ftone caddis, or May-fly, which is plentiful in the
latter end of April, and the whole month of May.
Great quantities of thefe may be gathered among the
reeds or fedges by the water-fide; and on the hawthorn
buthes near the waters. Thefe are a large and hand-
fome bait; but as they lad onlya fmatl part of the year
in feafon, recourfe is to be had to the ant-fly. Of thefe
the black ones found in large mole-hills or ant-hills,
are the beft. Thefe may be kept alive a long time in a
bottle, with a little of the earth of the hill, and fame
roots of grafs; and they ate in feafon throughout the
months of June, July, Auguft, and September. The
beft feafort of all is when they fwarm, which is in the
end of July, or beginning of Auguft; and they may
be kept many months in a veffel wafhed out with a fo-
lution of honey in water, even longer than with the
earth and grafs-roots in the vial ; though that is the
moft con' enient method with a fmall parcel taken
for one day’s fifhing. In warm weather this fifh very
feldom refufes a fly at the top of the water; but
at other times he muft have the bait funk to within
three inches of the bottom. The winter fifhing for
dace requires a very different bait: this is a white mag¬
got with a reddifh head, which is the produce of the
eggs of the beetle, and is turned up with the plough
in great abundance. A parcel of thefe put in any vef¬
fel, with the earth they were taken in, will keep many
months, and are an excellent bait. Small dace may be
put into a glafs jar with ftefh water; and there prefer-
ved alive for a long time, if the water is properly chan¬
ged. They have been obferved to eat nothing but the
animalcula of the water. They will grow very tame
by degrees.
DACHAW, a town of Bavaria in Germany. It
is pretty large, well built, and feated on a mountain,
near the river Amber. Here the ele&or has a^palace
and fine gardens. E. Long. u. 30. N. Lat. 4ft. 20.
DACIER (Andrew), born at Caftres in Upper
Languedoc, 1651, had a great genius and inclination
for learning, and ftudied at Saumur under Tannegui
Le Fevre, then engaged in the inftru&ion of his daugh¬
ter, who proved afterwards an honour to her fex. This
gave rife to that mutual tendernefs which a marriage
of 40 years could never weaken in them. The duke of
Montaufier hearing of his merit, put him in the lift of
commentators for the ufe of the dauphin, and enga¬
ged him in an edition of Pompeius Fejltts, which he
publifhed in 1681. His edition of Horace printed at
Paris in 10 vols in i2mo. and his other works, raifed
him a great reputation. He was made a member of
the academy of infcriptions in 1695. When the hi-
ftory of Lewis XIV. by medals was finilhed, he was
chofen to prefent it to his majefty; who being inform¬
ed of the pains which he had taken in it, fettled upon
him a penfion of 2000 livres, and appointed him keeper
of the books of the king’s clofet in the Louvre. When
that poft was united to that of library-keeper to the
king, he was not only continued in the privileges of Dacier
his place during life, but the furvivance was granted to „ 1
his wife, a favour of which there had been no inftance a y
before. But the death of Madam Dacier in 1720, ren¬
dered this gram, which was fo honourable to her, in-
effe&ual. He died Sept. 18. 1722, of an ulcer in the
throat. Jn his manners, fentiments, and the whole of
his eondudi, he was a complete model of that ancient
philofophy of which he was fo great an admirer, and
which he improved by the rules and principles of Chri-
ftianity.
Dacier (Anne), daughter of Tannegui le Fevre,
profeffor of Greek at Saumur in France. She early
ftiewed a fine genius, which her father cultivated with
great care and fatisfadlion. After her father’s death.
Ihe went to Paris, whither her fame had already reach¬
ed; (he was then preparing an edition of Callimachus
which fhe publifhed in 1674. Having fhewn fome
fheets of it to Mr Huet, preceptor to the dauphin, and
to feveral other men of learning at the court, the work
was fo highly admired, that the duke of Montaufier
made a propofal to her of publifhing feveral Latin au¬
thors for the ufe of the dauphin. She reje&ed this pro¬
pofal at firft, as a talk to which fhe was not equal-
But the duke infifted upon it; fo that at laft he gain¬
ed her confent; upon which flic undertook an edition*
of Floras, publifhed in 1674. Her reputation being
now fpread over all Europe, Chriftina queen of Swe¬
den ordered count Konigfmark to make her a compli¬
ment in her name: upon which Madamoifelle le Fevre
fent the queen a Latin letter, with her edition of Flo-
rus: to which her majefty wrote an obliging anfwer
and not long after fent her another letter, to perfuade
her to abandon the Proteftant religion, and made her
confiderable offers to fettle at her court. In 1683, fhe
married Mr Dacier; and foon after declared her defign
to the duke of Montaufier and the bifhop of Meaux, of
reconciling herfelf to the church of Rome, which fhe
had entertained for fome time: but as Mr Dacier was
not yet convinced of the reafonablenefsof fuch a change,
they retired to Caftres in 1684, where they had a fmall
eftate, in order to examine the points of controverfy
between the Proteftants and the Roman Catholics.
They at laft determined in favour of the latter, and
made their public abjuration in 1685. After this, the
king gave both hufband and wife marks of his favour..
In 1693, apphed herfelf to the education of her
fon and daughter, who made a prodigious progrefs -
the fon died in 1694, and the daughter became a nun in
the abbey of Longchamp. She had another daughter,,
who had united in her all the virtues and accomplifh-
ments that could adorn the fex;,but fhe died at 18..
Her mother has immortalized her memory in the pre¬
face to her tranflation of the Iliad. Madam Dacier
was in a very infirm ftate of health the two laft years
of her life; and died, after a very painful finknefs, Aur
guft 17. 1720, aged 69.. She was remarkable for hew
firmnefs, generofity, equality of temper, and piety.
DACTYL, in poetry, a metrical foot, confifting
of one long and two fhort fyllables; as, carmina, evi¬
dent, excellence.
The dactyl and fpondee are the only feet ufed in
hexameter verfes. See Hexameter.
DACTYLI 1 da; 1 ; the Fingers of Mount Ida~
Concerning thefe. Pagan theology and fable give very-
different
D iE D [ 2369 ] DAI
Ba&ylis different accounts. The Cretans paid divine worfhip
I to them, as thofe who had nurfed and brought up the
u u5' god Jupiter ; whence it appears, that they were the
fame as the Corybantes and Curetes. Neverthelefs
Strabo makes them different; and fays, that the tradi¬
tion in Phrygia was, that M Curetes and Corybantes
were defcended from the Daftyli Idasi: that there were
originally an hundred men in the ifland, who were called
Daftyli IcLti; from whom fprang nine Curetes, and
each of thefe nine produced ten men, as many as the
fingers of a man’s two hands ; and that tins gave the
name to the anceftors of the Daftyli Idtei.” He re¬
lates another opinion, which is, that there were but
five Daftyli Idsi; who, according to Sophocles, w'ere
the inventors of iron: that thefe five brothers had five
fifters, and that from this number they took the name
of fingers of mount Ida, becaufe they w'ere in number
ten ; and that they worked at the foot of this moun¬
tain. Diodorus Siculus reports the matter a little dif¬
ferently. He fays “ the firft inhabitants of the Ifland
of Crete were Daftyli Ideci, who had their refidence
on mount Ida: that feme faid, they were an hundred ;
, others only five, in number equal to the fingers of a
man’s hand, whence they had the name of Daftyli:
that they were magicians, and addifted to myflical ce¬
remonies: that Orpheus was their difciple, and carried
their myfteries into Greece: that the Daftyli invented
the life of iron and fire, and that they had been recom-
penfed with divine honours.”
Diomedes the Grammarian fays, The Daftyli I-
dau were priefts of the goddefs Cybele : called Idei, be¬
caufe that goddefs was chiefly wovfhipped on mount
Ida in Phrygia ; and Daftyli, becaufe that, to prevent
Saturn from hearing the cries of infant Jupiter, whom
Cybele had committed to their cuftody, they ufed to
fing certain verfes of their owm invention, in the Dac¬
tylic meafure. See Curetes and Corybantes.
DACTYLIS, Cock’s-foot grass ; a genus of
the digynia order, belonging to the triandna clafs of
plants. There are two fpecies, the cynofuroides or
fmooth cock’s-foot grafs, and the glomeratus or rough
cock’s-foot grafs. Both are natives of Britain : the
firft grows in marfhy places, and the latter is common
in meadows and pafture-grounds. This laft is eat by
borfes, fheep, and goats; but refufed by cows.
DACTYLUS in zoology, a name given by Pliny
to the Phoeas.
DADUCHI, in antiquity, priefts of the goddefs
Ceres, fo called, becaufe at the feafts and facrifices of
that goddefs, they ran about the temple, carrying a
lighted torch, which they delivered from hand to hand,
till it had paffed through them all. This they did in
memory of Ceres’s fearching for her daughter Profer-
pine, by the light of a torch, which flie kindled in
mount iEtna.
DAEDALUS, an ingenious Athenian artift, who
invented divers mechanical inftruments, as the faw, &c.
and made walking ftatues, with their eyes rolling as if
alive. He threw his brother’s fon out of a window,
for fear he fhould excel him in his art, becaufe he had
invented the potter’s wheel: whereupon he fled into
Crete to king Minos, and carried his fon Icarus along
with him. There he built the celebrated labyrinth; in
which he and his fon were fhut up, becaufe of his ha¬
ving ferved Paftphae the queen in her bafe amours: he,
however, made himfelf and his fon wings, by which Dxmo*
he efcaped; but his fon not obferving his direftions, fell jl
into the fca and was drowned. He fled to Cocalus i’t ‘e'
king of Egypt, who caufed him to be choaked in a
fiove, to prevent Minos’s making war againft him on
his account. He is faid to have lived about the year
2600. He made many famous wmrks at Memphis in
Egypt, where the inhabitants paid him divine ho¬
nours.
DJEMON, a name given by the ancients to certain
fpirits, or genii, which appeared to men, either to do
them fervice, or to hurt them. The Platonifts diftin-
guifti between gods, daemons, and heroes. The gods
are thofe whom Cicero calls Dii majorum gentium.
The daemons are thofe whom we call angels. Chriftians,
by the word dxmon, underftand only evil fpirits, or
devils.
DjEMONIAC, a word applied to a perfon fuppofed
to be pofleffed with an evil fpirit, or daemon.
Demoniacs, in church-hiftory, a branch of the a-
nabaptifts; whofe diftinguifhing tenet is, that the devils
{hall be faved at the end of the world.
DAFFY’s elixir. See Pharmacy, n°42i.
DAGNO, a town of Turky in Europe, in Albania,
with a bifhop’s fee. It is the capital of the diftrift of
Ducagini, and it is feated on the rivers Drino and Ne¬
ro, near their confluence. It is 15 miles fouth-eaft of
Scutari, and 15 north-eaft of Aleffio. E. Long. 19.
48. N. Lat. 42. o.
DAGO, or Dag ho, an ifland in the Baltic Sea,
on jhe coaft of Livonia, between the gulph of Finland
and Riga. It is of a triangular figure, and may be a-
bout 20 miles in circumference. It has nothing con-
fiderabie but two caftles, called Daggcr'wort and Pa-
den. E. Long. 22. 30. N. Lat. 58. 48.
DAGON, the falfe god of Aftrdod *, or, as the ‘ See 1 Sam.
Greeks call it, Azotus. He is commonly reprefented chap. v.
as a monfter, half man and half fifti : whence moll
learned men derive his name from the Hebrew dag,
which fignifies a fijh. Thofe, who make him to have
been the inventer of bread-corn, derive his name from
the Hebrew Dagan, which fignifiesfrumentum; whence
Philo Biblius calls him Jupiter Aratrius.
This deity continued to have a temple at Aflidod,
during all the ages of idolatry, to the time of the
Maccabees. For the author of the firft book of Mac¬
cabees tells us, that “ Jonathan, one of the Maccabees,
having beaten the army of Apollonius, Demetrius’s
general, they fled to Azotus, and entered into Beth-
dagon (the temple of their idol) ; but that Jonathan
fet fire to Azotus, and burnt the temple of Dagon, and.
all-thofe who were fled into it.
Dagon, according to fome, was the fame with Ju¬
piter, according to others Saturn, according to others
Venus, and according to moft Neptune. -
DAHGESTAN, a country of Afia, bounded by
Circaflia on the north, by the Cafpian fea on theeaft,
by Chirvein a province of Perfia on the fouth, and by
Georgia on the weft. Its chief towns are Tarku and
Derbent, both fituated on the Cafpian Sea.
DAHOME, a kingdom of Africa, on the coaft of
Guinea, to the north of Whidah, or Fida. The king
of this country conquered Whidah, and very much di-
fturbed the flave-trade of the Europeans.
DAILLIE (John), a Proteftant rainifter near Pa¬
ris*
DAL
[ 237° ]
D A M
Baify
ris, was owe of the moft learned divines of the 17th
century, and was the moft efteemed by the Catholics,
_ of all the controverfial writers among the Proteftants.
He was tutor to two of the grandfons of the illuftrious
Mr Du Pleffis Mornai. Mr Daille having lived 14
years with fo excellent a mafter, travelled into Italy
with his two pupils : one of them died abroad ; with
the other he faw ‘Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Flan¬
ders, Holland, and England, and returned in 1621.
received minifter in 1623, and firft exercifed
He ’
his office in the family of Mr Du Pleffis Mornai ; but
this did not laft long, for that lord died foon after.
The memoirs of this great man employed Mr Daille
the following year. In 1625 he was appointed mini¬
fter of the church of Saumur, and in 1626 removed to
Paris. He ferved all the reft of his life in die fervice
of this laft church, and compofed feveral works : his
firft piece was his mafter-piece, and an excellent work,
Of the UJe of the Fathers, printed 1631. It is a ftrong
chain of reafoning, which forms a moral demonftration
again!! thofe who would have religious difputes de¬
cided by the authority of the fathers. He died in 1670,
aged 77,
DAISY. See Bellis.
Ox-Eye Daisy. See Buphthalmum.
DALACA, an ifland of the Red Sea, over-againft
the coaft of Abex, about 72 miles in length, and 15
in breadth. It is very fertile, populous, and remark¬
able for a pearl fiftiery. The inhabitants are negroes,
and great enemies to the Mahometans. There is a town
of the fame name feated over-againft Abaffia.
DALEBURG, a town of Sweden, and capital of
the province of Dalia, feated on the weftern bank of
the'lake Wener, 50 miles north of Gottenburg. E.
Long. 13. o. N. Lat. 59. o.
DALFCARLIA, a province of Sweden, fo call¬
ed from a river of the fame name, On which it lies,
near Norway. It is divided into three parts, which
they call valleys; and is about 175 miles in length, and
too in breadth. It is full of mountains, which abound
in mines of copper and iron, fome of which are of a
prodigious depth. The towns are very fmall, and Idra
is the capital. The inhabitants are rough, robuft, and
warlike ; and all the great revolutions in Sweden'had
their rife in this province. The river rifes in the Dof-
north by Dalecarlia, on the eaft by the Wermeland Dalkcitk
and the lake Wener, on the fouth by Gothland, and on _ H f
the north by Norway and the fea. mis.0
DALKEITH, a town of Scotland, in Mid-Lo-     
thian, 6 miles fouth-eaft of Edinburgh. W. Long.
2. 20. N. Lat. 55. 50.
DALMATIA, a province of Europe ; bounded on
the north by Bofnia, on the fouth by the gulph of Ve¬
nice, on the eaft by Servia, and on the weft by Mor-
lachia. Spalatro is the capital of that part belonging
to the Venetians; and Raguza, of a republic of that
name i the Turks have a third, whofe capital is Herze¬
govina. The air is wholefome, and the foil fruitful ;
and it abounds in wine, corn, and oil.
DALTON, a town of Lancalhire, in England. It
is feated on the fpring-head of a river, in a champaign
country, not far from the fea; and the ancient caftle
is made ufe of to keep the records, and prifoners for
debt in the liberty of Furnes. W. Long. 3. o. N.
Lat. 54. 18.
Dalton (John), D. D. an eminent divine and
poet, was the fon of the rev. Mr John Dalton, re£tor
of Deane, near Whitehaven in Cumberland, where he
was born in 1709. He was educated at Queen’s col¬
lege, Oxford; and became tutor or governor to the
lord Beauchamp, only fon of the earl of Hertford,
late duke of Somerfet; during which time he adapt¬
ed Milton’s admirable Mafque of Comus to the ftage,
by a judicious infertion of feveral fongs and different
paffages fele&ed from other of Milton’s works, as well
as of feveral fongs and other elegant additions of his
own, fuited to the charadlers and to the manner of the
original author. During the run of this piece he in-
duftrioufly fought out a grand-daughter of Milton’s,
oppreffed both by age and poverty ; and procured her
a benefit from it, the profits of which amounted to a
very confiderable fum. He was promoted by the king
to a prebend of Worcefter ; where he died, on the 22J
of July 1763. Befides the above, he wrote adefcrip-
tive poem, addreffed to two ladies at their return from
viewing the coal-mines near Whitehaven ; and Remarks
on 12 hiftorical defigns of Raphael, and the Mufeum
Grxcuni Egyptiacutn.
DAMA, in zoology. See Cervus.
DAMAGE, in law, is generally underftood of a
rine mountains ; and, running fouth-eaft: thro’the pro- hurt or hindrance attending a perfon’s eftate : but, ii
vince, falls into the gulph of Bothnia. common law, it is part of what the jurors are to in-
DALECHAMP (James), a phyfician in Norman¬
dy, in the i6lh century, wrote a hiftory of plants,
and was well Ikilled in polite learning. He wrote notes
on Pliny’s natural hiftory, and tranflated Athenseus in¬
to Latin.
DALECHAMPIA, in botany ; a genus of the mo-
nadelphia order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of
plants. There is but one fpecies, viz. the fcandens, a
native of Jamaica. It is a climbing plant, which fifes
to a confiderable height; and is remarkable for nothing
but having its leaves armed with briftly hairs, which
fling the hands of thofe who unwarily touch them.
DALEM, a town of the United Provinces, and
capital of a diftridt of the fame name. It was taken
by the French in 1672, who demoliftied the fortifica¬
tions. It is feated on the river Bervine, five smiles north-
eaft of Liege. E. Long. 5. 59. N. Lat. 50. 40.
DALEA, a province of Sweden, bounded on the
quire of in giving verdidt for the plaintiff or defendant,
in a civil adtion, whether real or perfonal; for, after
giving verdid! on the principal caufe, they are likewife
afked their confciences, touching cofts and damages,
which contain the hindrances that one party hath fuf-
fered from the wrong done him by the other. See Costs.
DAMAN, a maritime town of the Eaft-Indies, at
the entrance into the gulph of Cambay. It is divided
by the river Daman into two parts ; one of which is
called New Daman, and is a handfome town, well
fortified, and defended by a good Portuguefe garrifon.
The other is called Old Daman, and is very ill built.
There is a harbour between the two towns, defended
by a fort. It was taken by the Portuguefe in 1535.
The mogul has attempted to get poffeffion of it feveral
times, but always without effedt. E. Long. 72. 35.
N. Lat. 21.5.
DAMASCENUS (John), an illuftrious father of
the
DAM [ 2371 ] DAM
©amafcius, the church in the 8th century, born at Damafcus,
Damafcus. where his father, though a Chriftian, enjoyed the of¬
fice of counfellor of ftate to the Saracen caliph ; to
•which the fon fucceeded. He retired afterwards to the
monaftery of St Sabas, and fpent the remainder of his
life in writing books of divinity. His works have been
often printed ; but the Paris edition in 1712, 2 vols fo¬
lio, is efteemed the beft.
DAMASCIUS, a celebrated heathen philofopher,
born at Damafcus in the year 540, when the Goths
reigned in Italy. He wrote the life of his mafter Ili-
dorus ; and dedicated it to Theodora, a very learned
and philofophical lady, who had alfo been a pupil to
Ifidorus. In this life, which was copioully written, he
frequently made oblique attacks on the Chriftian reli¬
gion. We have nothing remaining of it but fome ex-
trafls preferved by Photius. Damafcius fucceeded
Theon in the rhetorical fchool, and Ifidorus in that
of philofophy, at Athens.
DAMASCUS, a very ancient city of Syria in A-
fia, feated in E. Long. 47.18. N. Lat. 33. o. Some
of the ancients fuppofe this city to have been built by
one Damafcus, from whom it took its name; but the
mod generally received opinion is, that it was found¬
ed by Uz the eldeft fon of Aram. It is certain, from
Gen. xiv. 5. that it was in being in Abraham’s time,
and confequently may be looked upon as one of the
moft ancient cities in the world. In the time of king
David it feems to have been a very confiderable place ;
as the facred hiftorian tells us, that the Syrians of Da-
xnafcus fent 20,000 men to the relief of Hadadezer
king of Zobah. We are not informed whether at that
time it was governed by kings, or was a republic. Af¬
terwards, however, it became a monarchy which pro¬
ved very troublefome to the kingdom of Ifrael, and
would even havedeftroyed it entirely, had not the Dei¬
ty miraculoully interpofed in its behalf. At laft this
monarchy was deftroyed by Tiglath Pilefer king of
Affyria, and Damafcus was never afterwards governed
by its own kings. From the Aflyrians and Babylonians
it palled to the Perfians, and from them to the Greeks
under Alexander the Great. After his death it belong¬
ed, with the reft of Syria, to the Seleucidse ; till their
empire was fubdued by the Romans, about 70 years-be-
fore Chrift. From them it was taken by the Saracens
in 633 ; and it is now in the hands of the Turks.—
Notwithftanding the tyranny of the Turkilh govern¬
ment, Damafcus is ftill a confiderable place. It is fi-
tuated in a plain of fo great extent, that one can but
juft difcern the mountains which compafs it on the o-
ther fide. It Hands on the weft fide of the plain, a-
bout two miles from the head of the river Barrady,
which waters it. It is of a long, ftrait figure, extend¬
ing about two miles in length, adorned with mofques
and fteeples, and encompalfed with gardens computed
to be full 30 miles round. The river Barrady, as foon
as it iffues from the clefts of the Antilibanus into the
plain, is divided into three ftreams, whereof the mid-
dlemoft and biggeft runs dire&ly to Damafcus, and is
diftributedto all the cifterns and fountains of the city.
The other two feem to be artificial ; and are drawn
round, one to the right, and the other to the left, on
the borders of the gardens, into which they are let by
■little currents, and difperfed every where. Thehoufes
ef the city, whofe ftreets are very narrow, are all built
on the outfide either with fun-burnt brick, or Flemrfh Damaflc
wall: and yet it is no uncommon thing to fee the n?t)J,njfts
gates and doors adorned with marble portals, carved
and inlaid with great beauty and variety; and within
thefe portals to find large fquare courts beautified with
fragrant trees and marble fountains, and compafied
round with fplendid apartments. In thefe apartments
the ceilings are ufually richly painted and gilded ; and
their duans, which are a fort of low ftages feated in the
pleafanteft part of the room, and elevated about 16 or
18 inches above the floor, whereon the Turks eat, deep,
fay their prayers, &c. are floored, and adorned on the
fides with variety of marble mixed in mofaic knots and
mazes, fpread with carpets, and furnilhed all round
with bolfters and cufliions, to the very height of luxu¬
ry. In this city are (hewn the church of John the Bap-
tilt, now converted into a famous mofque ; the houfe
of Ananias, which is only a fmall grotto or cellar
wherein is nothing remarkable; and the houfe of Ju¬
das with whom Paul lodged. In this laft is an old
tomb, fuppofed to be that of Ananias; which the
Turks hold in fuch veneration, that they keep a lamp
continually burning over it. There is a caftlc belong¬
ing to Damafcus, which is like a little town, having
its own ftreets and houfes ; and in this caftle a maga¬
zine of the famous Damafcus fteel was formerly kept.
The fruit-tree called the damafcenc, and the flower
called the damajk rofe, were tranfplanted from the gar¬
dens belonging to this city; and the filks and linens
known by the name of damajks, were probably in¬
vented by the inhabitants.
DAMASK, a filk fluff, with a raifed pattern, fo as
that the right fide of thedamalk is that which hath the
flowers raifed or fattined.
Damalks fliould be of dreffed filk, both in warp and
woof; and, in France, half an ell in breadth? they are
made at Chalons in Champagne, and in fome places in
Flanders, as at Tournay, See. entirely of wool, -^df an
ell wide, and 20 ells long.
Damask is alfo applied to a very fine fteel, in fome
parts of the Levant, chiefly at Damafcus in Syria ;
whence its name. It is ufed for fword and cutlafs
blades, and is finely tempered.
DAMASKEENING, or Damasking, the art os?
operation of beautifying iron, fteel, &c. by making
incifions therein, and filling them up witji gold or filver
wire ; chiefly ufed for adorning fword-blades, guards
and gripes, locks of piftols, &c.
Damalkeening partakes of t he mofaic, of engraving,
and of carving: like the mofaic, it has inlaid work;
like engraving, it cuts the metal, reprefenting divers
figures ; and, as in chafing, gold and fiver is wrought
in relievo. There are two ways of damafking : the
one, which is the fineft, is when the metal is cut deep
with proper inftruments, and inlaid with gold and (li¬
ver wire : the other is fuperficial only.
DAMELOPRE, a kind of Bilander, ufed in HoK
land for conveying merchandife from one canal to an¬
other ; being very commodious for palling under the
bridges.
DAMIANISTS, in church-hiftory, a branch of
the ancient acephali-feverita;. They agreed with the
catholics in admitting the IVth council, but difowned
any diftin&ion of perfons in the Godhead ; and pro-
felfed one fingle nature, incapable of any differences
yeJt
DAM [ 2372 1 DAM
Damictta .yet they called God “ the Father, Son, and Holy
^ I! Ghoft.”
Damps’ DAMIETTA, a port-town of Egypt, fituated on
the ealtern mouth of the river Nile, four miles from the
fea, and 100 miles north of Grand Cairo. E. Long.
3 20, and N. Lat. 310.
DAMON, a philofopher B. C. 400, was fo clofely
connected in friendfhip with his collegue Pythias, that
Dionylius having fentenced one of them to death, per¬
mitted Damon to fettle his affairs accordingly, on con¬
dition of finding a furety to return, which Pythias un¬
dertook. Damon coming at the time appointed, the
tyrant admiring their friendfhip, pardoned them,
DAMPIER (William), a famous navigator, de-
fcended from a good family in Somerfetfhire in Eng¬
land, was born in 1652. Lofing his father when very
young, he was fent to the fea, where he foon diftinguifh-
ed himfelf, particularly in the South Sea. His voyage
round the world is well known, and has gone through
many editions. He appears afterward to have enga¬
ged in the Briltol expedition with Captain Woods Ro¬
gers ; who failed in Auguft'170S, and returned in
September 1711 : but we have no farther particulars
of his life or death.
DAMPS, in natural hiftory, (from the Saxon word
damp, fignifying vapour or exhalation), are certain
noxious exhalations iffuing from fome parts of the
earth, and which prove almoft inftantly fatal to thofe
who breathe them.
Thefe damps are chiefly obferved in mines and coal¬
pits : though vapours of the fame kind often iffuefrom
old lavas of burning mountains; and, in thofe countries
where volcanos are common, will frequently enter
houfes, and kill people fuddenly without the leaft warn¬
ing of their approach. In mines and coal-pits they
are chiefly of two kinds, called by the miners and col¬
liers the choke and fire damps ; and both go under one
general name of foul air. The choke-damp is very
much of the nature of fixed air; and ufually infefls thofe
places which have been formerly worked, but lyen long
p negle&ed, and are known to the miners by the name
oi ‘voafies. No place, however, can be reckoned fafe
from this kind of damps, except where there is a due
circulation of air; and the procuring of this is the only
proper means of preventing accidents from damps of all
kinds. The choke-damp fuffocates the miners fuddenly,
with all the appearances found in thofe that are fuffo-
cated by fixed air. Being heavy, it defcends towards
the loweft parts of the workings, and thus is danger¬
ous to the miners, who can fcarce avoid breathing it.
The fire-damp, which feems chiefly to be compofed of
inflammable air, rifes to the roof of the workings, as
being fpecifically lighter than the common atmofphere;
and hence, though it will fuffocate as well as the o-
ther, it feldom proves fo dangerous in this way as by
its inflammable property, by which it often takes fire
at the candles, and explodes with extreme violence
In the Phil. Tranf. n° 119. there is an account of
fome explofions by damps of this kind, on which we
have the following obfervations. 1. Thofe who are in
the place where the vapour is fired, fuddenly find them-
felves furrounded with flames, but hear little or no
noife ; though thofe who are" in places adjacent, or a-
bove ground, hear a very great one. 2. Thofe who
are furrounded by the inflamed vapour fed themfelves
fcorched or burnt, but are not moved out of their Damps.
places, though fuch as unhappily (land in the way of
it are commonly killed by the violence of the (hock,
and often thrown with gt*eat force out at the mouth of
the pit; nor are the heavieft machines found able to re¬
fill the impetuofity of the blaft. 3. No fmell is perceived
before the fire, but a very ftrong one of brimftone is
afterwards felt. 4. The vapour lies towards the roof,
and is not perceived if the candles are held low; but
when thefe are held higher, the damp defcends like a
black milt, and catches hold of the flame, lengthening
it to two or three handfuls; and this appearance ceafes
when the candles are held nearer the ground. 5. The
flame continues in the vault for feveral minutes after
the crack. 6. Its colour is Blue, fomething inclining
to green, and very bright. 7. On the explofion of the
vapour, a dark fmoke like that proceeding from fired
gunpowder is perceived. 7. Damps are generally ob¬
ferved to come about the latter end of May, and to
continue during the heat of fummer. They return fe¬
veral times during the fummer feafon, but obferve no
certain rule.
Befides thefe kind of damps, which are very com¬
mon, we find others defcribed in the Philofophical
Tranfadlions, concerning the nature of which we can
fay nothing. Indeed the account feems fomewhat fuf-
picious. They are given by Mr Jefibp, from whom
we have the foregoing obfervations concerning the fire¬
damp, and who had thefe from the miners in Derby-
(hire. After defcribing the common damp, which
confifts of fixed air, “ They call the fecond fort
(fays he) the peafe-bloom damp, becaufe, as they fay, it
fmells like peafe-bloom. They tell me it always comes
in the fummer-time ; and thofe grooves are not free
which are never troubled with any other fort of damps.
I never heard that it was mortal; the fcent, perhaps,
freeing them from the danger of a furprife: but by
reafon of it many good grooves lie idle at the beft and
molt profitable time of the year, when the fubterrane-
ous waters are the loweft. They fancy it proceeds from
the multitude of red-trefoil flowers, by them called ho-
neyfuckles, with which the limeftone meadows in the
Peake do much abound. The third is the ftrangeft and
moft peftilential of any; if all be true which is faid con¬
cerning it. Thofe who pretend to have feen it, (for it
is vifible), defcribe it thus: In the higheft part of the
roof of thofe paffages which branch out from the main
groove, they often fee a round thing hanging, about
the bignefs of foot-ball, covered with a flcin of the
thicknefs and colour of a cobweb. This they fay, if it
is broke by any accident, as the fplinter of a ftone, or
the like, difperfeth itfelf immediately, and fuffocates
all the company. Therefore, to prevent cafualties, as
foon as they have efpied it, they have a way, by the
help of, a ftick and long rope, of breaking it at a di-
ftance ; which done, they purify the place well with
fire, before they dare enter it again. I dare not a-
vouch the truth of this ftory in all its circumftances,
becaufe the proof of it feems impoffible, fince they fay
it kills all that are likely to bear witneis to the parti¬
culars : neither dare I deny, but fuch a thing may-
have been feen hanging on the roof, fince I have'heard
many affirm it.”— Some damps, feemingly of the fame
nature with thofe laft mentioned, are noticed by the
author of the Chemical Didtionary, under the word
Damps.
DAM [ 2373 ] DAM
amps. Damps. “ Amongft the noxious mineral exhalations,
(fays he), w'e may place thofe which are found in the
mines of lal-gem in Poland. Thefe frequently appear
in form of light flocks, threads, and fpiders webs. They
are remarkable for their property of fuddenly catching
fire at the lamps of the miners with a terrible noife and
explofion. They inftantly kill thofe whom they touch.
Similar vapours are found in fame mines of foflil coal.”
With regard to damps, it is a queftion well worth
deciding, Whether they are occafioned by a ftagnation
of the common atmofphere in the pit, impregnating it-
felf by degrees with various noxious effluvia ; or whe¬
ther they are occafioned by fome imperceptible opera¬
tion of nature within the bowels of the earth itfelf?—
As the choke-damp is often to be met with in old
waftes, it would feem, that the air in thofe places be¬
comes noxious merely from ftagnation. But from fome
1 accounts given by thofe who are converfant in coal¬
mines, it appears that thefe damps, the inflammable ones
efpecially, iflue from particular places in great quanti¬
ty, and often very fuddenly; and that very dangerous
effects will follow from merely beating on thofe places
with a hammer. It cannot be denied, however, but that
thefe accounts muft befufpicious : for philofophers fel-
dom vifit thofe regions, at lead with a defign to take
up their abode in them; and the workmen are no
doubt apt to indulge the natural pafiion for the mar¬
vellous, in all their accounts of fuch phenomena. In
the Phil. Tranf. n° 136, we have the following ac¬
count of a fire-damp which feemed plainly to iflue from
the earth. “ This work is upon a .coal of five yards
in thicknefs, and hath been begun upon about fix or
eight and thirty years ago. When it was fii ft found, it
was extreme full of water, fo that it could not be
wrought down to the bottom of the coal; but a •witchet,
or cave, was driven out of the middle of it, upon a le¬
vel for gaining room to work, and drawing down the
fpring of water that lies in the coal tQ the eye of the
pit. In driving of which witchet, after they had gone
a confiderable way under ground, and were fcanted of
wind, the fire-damps did begin by little and little to
breed, and to appear in crevices and flits of the coal,
where water had lien before the opening of the coal,
with a fmall bluifh flame, wmrking and moving conti¬
nually; but not out of its firft feat, unlefs the work¬
men held their candles to it; and then being weak,
the blaze of the candle would drive ft with a fudden
fizz, away to another crevice, where it would foon af¬
ter appear blazing and moving as formerly. This was
the firft knowledge of it in this work, which the work¬
men made but a fport of; and fo partly neglefted, till
it had gotten fome ftrength ; and then upon a morning,
the firft collier that went down, going forwards in the
witchet with his candle in his hand, the damp pre-
fently darted out fo violently at his candle, that it ftruck
the man clear down, finged all his hair and clothes, and
difabled him from working for a while after. Some
other fmall warnings it gave them, infomuch that they
refolved to employ a man on purpofe that was more re-
folute than the reft, to go down a while before them e-
very morning, to chafe it from place to place, and fo
to weaken it. His ufual manner was to put on the
word rags he had, and to wet them all in water, and
when he came within the danger of it, then he fell
down groveling upon his belly, and fo went forward,
holding in one hand a long wand or pole, at the head PaiTIPs-
whereof he tied candles burning, and reached them by
degrees towards it; then the damp would fly at them,
and, if it miffed of putting them out, would quench it¬
felf with a blaft, and leave an ill-fcented fmoke behind.
Thus they dealt with it till they had wrought the coal
down to the bottom, and the water following, and not
remaining as before in the body of it, among fulphu-
reous and braffy metal that is in fome veins of the
coal, the fire-damp was not feen nor heard of till the
latter end of the year 1675, which happened as fol¬
io weth.
“ After long working of this coal, it was found up¬
on the riling grounds, that there lay another roach of
coal at the depth of 14 yards under it, which proved
to be 3) yards thick, and fomething more fulphureous.
This encouraged us to fink in one of the pits we had
formerly ufed on the five-yards coal.—As we funk the
lower part of it, we had many appearances of the fire¬
damp in the watery crevices of the rocks we funk thro’,
flafhing and darting from fide to fide of the pit, and
fhewing rainbow-like colours upon the furface of the
water in the bottom; but upon drawing up of the wa¬
ter with buckets, which ftirred the air in the pit, it
would leave burning, till the colliers at work, with their
breath and fweat, and the fmoke of their, candles,
thickened the air in the pit, and then it would appear
again; they lighted their candles at it fometimes when
they went out; and fo in this pit it did no further
harm.”
In another pit, however, it foon appeared, and at laft
produced a moft terrible explofion. This was occa¬
fioned by one of the workmen going imprudently down
with a lighted candle, after a ceflation of work for fome
days, and the force exerted by it feemed equal to that
of gunpowder.—Many very terrible accidents are alfo
daily known to happen from vapours of this kind; but
from any hiftories of 'thefe cafes which can yet be ob¬
tained, no certain theory of the formation of thefe va¬
pours can be eftablifhed. Do£tor Prieftley hath indeed
ftiewed, that inflammable air may be produced artifici¬
ally in a great number of ways. It arifes from a mix¬
ture of iron-filings and oil of vitriol or fpirit of fait;
and therefore the fire-damp hath been thought to pro¬
ceed from large quantities of pyrites. But it is alfo
produced from vegetable and animal fubftances in great
quantities by diftillation ; and even from feveral metals
by heat only, without any acid. From a letter by
JDoftor Franklin to Dodlor Prieftiey, it appears, that
inflammable vapours rife up even from the bottom of
ponds of water in fome places, take fire on the furface,
and will burn for two or thret feconds.—It doth not
appear that tbefe artificial methods of procuring in¬
flammable air can throw the fmalleft light upon the
natural prcceffes by which it is produced in mines, or
at the bottom of the waters above-mentioned. The
fuppofition of its being produced by pyrites in a man¬
ner analagous to that from oil of vitriol and iron-filings
can by no means be admitted f for the pyrites produce
no acid capable of a&ing upon iron, unlefs after long
expofure to the air; neither do they contain any iron
in its metalline form, which is abfolutely neceffary to
the fuccefs of the experiment. Though a mixture of
iron-filings and brimftone will take fire from being ex-
pofed to the air, or even if flightly covered with earth,
13 X yet
#
> . I
DAN [ 2374 ] DAN
Damps yet if covered with water, though the mixture fwells
II. and turns black, it does not generate the leaft quantity
Danaides. 0f ;n£arIlrnable vapour.
The difficulty is ftill greater with regard to fixed
air. This is well known to have iffued from many parts
of the earth, for a number of ages together; particu¬
larly the Grotto del Cani in Italy. Now, though we
know that this kind of air is difcharged in great quan¬
tity from fermenting and putrefying fubftances, and
alfo from earthy ones when calcined by heat, it feems
altogether impoffible, upon thefe principles, to account
for fuch a conllant and regular prodnOlionof this kind
of air in the cavern above-mentioned.—The greateft
quantity of fermenting or putrefying fubftances we can
imagine, muft in time have finilhed their fermentation
or putrefaction, and then ceafed to difcharge this kind
of air; and the like muft have happened with any
quantity of calcareous matter we can fuppofe to be
fubje&ed to the adtian of fuhterraneous heat. It feems
probable, therefore, that nature hath fome method of
producing thefe kinds of air which hath not yet been
imitated by any artificial procefles ; and, in all proba¬
bility, both fixed and inflammable air anfwer fome pur-
pofes in the natural operations which are as yet unknown
to us.—Concerning this, the author of the Chemical
Di&ionary offers the following conjedture. “ Almoft
all chemifts and metallurgifts agree in believing, that
mineral exhalations contribute to the produ&ion of
metals. .This opinion is fo much more probable, that,
as phlogifton is one of the principles of metals, (if it
be be true that thefe mineral exhalations, are nothing
elfe than phlogifton), and as this principle is then in a
ftate of vapour, and confequently much divided, per¬
haps reduced to ifs fmalleft integrant particles, it is
then in its moft favourable ftate for combination: it is
therefore probable, that when thefe exhalations meet
earths difpofed to receive them, they combine more or
lefs intimately with thofe earths, according to their na¬
ture. Perhaps this is the chief operation of the grand
myftery of metallifation.”
DAMSEL, from the French damoifel or dantoifiau,
an appellation anciently given to all young people of
either fex, that were of noble or genteel extra&ion, as
the fons and daughters of princes, knights, and barons :
thus we read of Damfel Pepin, Damfel Louis le Gros,
Damfel Richard prince of Wales.
From the fons of kings this appellation firft paffed
to thofe of great lords and barons, and at length to
thofe of gentlemen who were not yet knights.
At prefent, damfel is applied to all maids or girls
not yet married, provided they be not of the vulgar.
DANAE, in antiquity, a coin fomewhat more than
an obolus, ufed to be put into the mouths of the dead,
to pay their paffage over the river Acheron.
Danae, in fabulous hiftory, daughter Acrifius,
king of Argos; who being informed by an oracle, that
he (hould be killed by her fon, fhut her up in a caftle
of brafs to prevent it: but Jupiter transforming him-
felf into a (hovver of gold, or, in other words, corrupting
hex guards, he obtained accefs to her; and Danae be¬
coming pregnant, brought forth Perfeus, who at length
killed Acrifius. S
DAN AIDES, in the ancient mythology, the daugh¬
ters of Danais, or Danaus, eleventh king of Argos,
and brother of iEgyptus.—They were 50 in number,
and were efpoufed to the 50 fans of their uncle Danans^i
gyptus. Danaus, fearing the aceempliftiment of an Dance> j
oracle which had foretold^Shat he {hould be expelled
his kingdom by a fen-in-law, perfuaded his daughters
to murder each of them her huftiand the firft night; ;
which they performed, all but Hypermeneftra, who
fpared her hulband Lynceus.— In vengeance for this
crime of the 49 Danaides, the poets have condemned
them to hell, to be continually employed in filling a
caflc perforated at the bottom.—The Danaides are fome-
times alfo called BJides, from their father, who was
the fon of the ^Egyptian Belus. Hyginus has pre¬
ferred the names of 47 of them.
DANAUS, in fabulous hiftory, king of Argos, was,
according to fame authors, an Egyptian, and the bro¬
ther of Ramaffes. After having reigned nine.years :n.
conjundlion with his brother, he, it is faid, was forced
to leek an afylum in the country of Argos, which he
ere£ied into a kingdom B. C. 1476 ; but was de¬
throned by his nephew Danaus. See the preceding
article.
DANCE, or Dancing, as at prefent pra&ifed, may
he defined, “ an agreeable motion of the body, adjufted
by art to the meafures or tune of infiruments, or of the
voice.”—But, according to what fome people reckon
more agreeable to the true genius of the ayt, dancing
is “ the art of exprefling the fentiments of the mind,,
or the palfions, by meafured fteps or bounds that are
made in cadence by regulated motions of the body, and
by graceful geftures ; all performed to the found of
mufical inftruments, or of the voice.”
There is no account of the original of the praftice
of dancing among mankind. It is found to exift among
all nations whatever, even the moft rude and barbarous;
and, indeed, however much the afliftance of art may be
neceflary to make any one perfect in the pra&ice, the
foundation muft certainly lie in the mechanifin of the
human body itfelfi.
The connexion that there is between certain founds
and thofe motions of the human body called darning,
hath feldom or never been inquired into by philofo-
phers, though it is certainly,a very curious {peculation..
The power of certain founds not only over the human
fpecies, but even-over the inanimate creation, is indeed,
very furprifing. It is well known, that the moft folid
walls, nay the ground itfelf, will be found to (hake at
fome particular notes in mufic. This ftrongly indi¬
cates the prefence of fome univerfally diffufed and ex¬
ceedingly elaftic fluid, which is thrown, into vibrations
by the concuflions of the atmofphere upon it, produced
by the- motion of the founding body.— If thefe con-
cuflions are fo ftrong as to make the large quantity of
elaftic fluid vibrate that is difperfed through a ftone
wall, or a confiderable portion of earth,, it is no won¬
der they fliould have the fame effe& upon that inviliblc
and exceedingly fubtile matter that pervades and fttms
to reiide in our nerves. The confequence in both cafes
is precifcly the fame: the inanimate bodies tremulate,
L e. dance, to the found of the inftrument; and the pcr-
fon who hears the founds, has an inclination to move
bis limbs in proportion to the meafure or fuccelfion of
the mufical notes.
It would feem, therefore, that the origin of dancing
lies entirely in the mechanifm of the nerves of the bo¬
dy.—Some there are that have their nerves conftru&ed
in
DAN [23
Dajice. in fuch a manner, that they cannot be affefted by the
founds which affeft others, and fome fcarce with any ;
while others have fuch an irritability of the nerves in
this cafe, that they cannot, without the greateft diffi¬
culty, fit or ftand ftill when they hear a favourite piece
of mufic played.
It is conje&ured, with a great degree of probability,
by very eminent philofop'hers, that all the fenfations
and paffions to which we are fubjeft, do immediately
depend upon the vibrations excited in the nervous fluid
above-mentioned. Hence, mufical founds have the
greateft power over thofe people who are of a delicate,
fenfible frame, and who have ftrong paffions. If it is true,
therefore, which is indeed conjeffured with a great deal
of probability, that every paffion in the human nature
immediately depends upon a certain affe&ion of the
nervous fyftem, or a certain motion or vibration in the
nervous fluid, we fhall immediately fee the origin of the
different dances among different nations. One kind of
vibration, for inftance, raifes the paffions of anger,
pride, &c. which are indifpenfably neceffary in warlike
nations. The founds, for fuch there are, capable of
exciting a fimilar vibration, would naturally conftitute
the martial mufic among fuch nations, and dances con¬
formable to it would be inftituted. This appears to
be the cafe particularly among barbarous nations, as
we fhall presently have occafion to remark. Other vi¬
brations of the nervous fluid produce the paffions of joy,
love, &c. and founds capable of exciting thefe particu¬
lar vibrations will immediately be formed into mufic
for dances of another kind.
As barbarous people are obferved to have the ftrong-
eft paffions, fo. they are alfo obferved to be the molt
eafily affedfed by founds, and the moft addi&ed to dan¬
cing. Sounds to us the moft difagreeable, the drum¬
ming with flicks upon an empty cafk, or the uoife made
by blowing into reeds incapable of yielding one mufi¬
cal note tolerable to us, is agreeable mufic to them.
Much more are they affedled by the found of inftru-
ments which have any thing agreeable in them. Mr
Gallini informs us, that “ The fpirit of dancing pre¬
vails almoft beyond imagination among both men and
women in moft parts of Africa. It is even more than
inrtindl, it is a rage, in fome countries of that part of
the globe.—Upon the Gold Coaft efpecially, the inha¬
bitants are fo paffionately fond of it, that in the midft
of their hardeft labour, if they hear a perfon fing, or
any mufical inftrument played, they cannot refrain from
dancing.—There are even well attefted flories of fome
Negroes flinging themfelves at the feet of an European
playing on a fiddle, intreating him to defift, unlefs he
had a mind to tire them to death ; it being impoffible
for them to ceafe dancing while he continued playing.”
—The fame thing is found to take place in America,
though, as the inhabitants of that continent are found
to be of a more fierce and barbarous nature than the
African nations, their dances are ftill more uncouth
and barbarous than tbofe of the Negroes. “ In Mexi¬
co, fays Gallini, they have alfo their dances and mufic,
but in the moft uncouth and barbarous ftyle. For their
fymphony they have wooden drums, fomething in form
of a kettle-drum, with a kind of pipe or flagellet, made
of a hollow cane or reed, but very grating to an Euro¬
pean ear. It is obferved they love every thing that
makes a noife, how difagreeable foever the found is.
75 ] D A N
They will alfo hum over fomething like a tune when Dance,
they dance 30 or 40 in a circle, ftretching out their 1
hands, and laying them on each others (boulders. They
(lamp and jump, and ufe the moft antic geftures for
feveral hours, till they are heartily weary. And one
or two of the company fometimes ftep out of the ring
to make fport for the reft, by (bowing feats of activity,
throwing their lances up into the air, catching them
again, bending backwards, and fpringing forwards with
great agility.”
The origin of dancing among the Greeks was mod
certainly the fame as among all other nations; but as
they proceeded a certain length in civilization, their
dances were of confequence more regular and a-
reeable than thofe of the more barbarous nations.
"hey reduced dancing into a kind of regular fyftem;
and had dances proper for exciting, by means of the
fympathy above-mentioned, any palfion whatever in
the minds of the beholders. In this way they are faid
to have proceeded very great lengths, to us abfolutely
incredible. At Athens, it is faid, that the dance of
the Eumenides or Furies on the theatre, had fo ex-
preflive a charafter as to (trike the fpeftators with ir-
refiftible terror: men grown old in the profeffion of
arms trembled ; the multitude ran out; women with
child mifearried; people imagined they faw in earned
thofe terrible deities commilfioned with the vengeance
of heaven to purfue and puniflr crimes upon earth.
To produce fuch effeds as thefe would now be ut¬
terly impojfible. For this reafon it is, that many look
upon the art of dancing as loft ; and that the ancient
dancers were pofleffed of fome peculiar (kill in execu¬
ting thefe geftures that raife the paflions, which are to
us unknown. It feems rather probable, however, that
the paflions of mankind are now more under the domi¬
nion of reafon, or fome other principle, which keeps
them from appearing with fuch violence as formerly.
Hence it might very readily happen, that though thefe
celebrated dancers, or others equally (kilful, were to
appear on modern theatres, they might be treated with
contempt and derilion. It is certain, that the ancients
fell far (hort of the civilization of the modern Euro¬
peans, infomuch, that they may very well be called
barbarians and favages, in comparifon of them. The
art of dancing, therefore, is not loft, but only become
different from what it was ; and unlefs people were to
live in a different manner from what they now do, it is
utterly impofltble to expedt the fame effeds from any
kind of geftures whatever.
It is remarkable, however, that though the Greeks
were fo extravagantly fond of dancing, that it entered
into their polity both civil and religious, it was quite
etherwife with the Romans. As long as the republic
lafted, dancing was accounted difhonourable; infomuch
that Cicero reproaches Gabinius, a confular man, with
having danced. It was introduced indeed under the
Emperor Auguftus, but the dancers were baniftied by
Tiberius; and feveral fenators were expelled by Do-
mitian, beca'ufe they had danced. The Greeks had
martial dances, which they reckoned to be very ufefiil
for keeping up the warlike fpirit of their youth ; but
the Romans, though equally warlike with the Greeks,
never had any thing of the kind —This probably may
be owing to the want of that romantic turn for which
the Greeks were fo remarkable. The Romans had no
13 X 2 heroes
DAN [2.?
Dance, heroes among them fuch as Hercules, Achilles, or Ajax ;
1 nor does the whole Roman hiitory furnifh an example of
a general that made war after the manner of Alexander
the Great. Though their foldiers were as valiant as
ever the Greeks could pretend to be, the objedt with
them was the honour of the republic, and not their own
perfonal praife. Hence there was lefs fury, and much
more cool deliberate valour, exercifed by the Romans,
than any.other nation whatever. The paffions of pride,
refentment, obftinacy, &c. were excited in them, not
by the mechanical means of mufic and dancing, but by
being taught that it was their chief honour to tight for
the republic.—It does not however appear, that the
Romans were at all lefs capable of being affefted in
this mechanical manner than the Greeks. When dan¬
cing was once/introduced, it had the very fame effects
at Rome as at Athens.
Among the Jews, dancing feems to have made a
part of the religious worlhip on fome occafions, as we
learn from fome paffages in the Pfalms, though we do
not find either that or finging pofitively enjoined as a
divine precept.:—In the ChriJtian churches mentioned
in the New Teftament, there is no account of dancing
bejng introduced as an aft of worlhip, though it is cer¬
tain that it was ufed as fuch in after ages. Mr Gal-
lini tells us, that “ at Limoges^ not long ago, the people
tifed to dance the round in the choir of the church
which is under the invocation of their patron faint, and
at the end of each pfalm, inftead of the Gloria Patri,
they fung as follows: St Marcel, fray for us, and ive
•will dance in honour of you.” Though dancing would
now be looked upon as the higheff degree of profana¬
tion in a religious affembly, yet it is certain, that dan¬
cing, confidered as an expreflion of joy, is no more a
profanation than finging, or than fimple fpeaking ; nor
can it be thought in the leaft more abfurd, that a
Chriftian ffiould dance for joy that Jcfus Chrift Is rifen
from the dead, than that David danced before the ark
when it was returned to him after a long abfence.
Plato reduces the dances of the ancients to three
clafies. I. The military dances, which tended to make
the body robuft, aftive, and well-difpofed for all the
exercifes of war. 2. The domettic dances, which had
for their objeft an agreeable and innocent relaxation
and amufement. 3. The mediatorial dances, which
were in ufe in expiations and facrifices.— Of military
dances there were two forts: the gymnopedique dance,
or the dance of children ; and the enoplian, or armed
dance. The Spartans had invented the firft for an
early excitation of the courage of their children, and
to lead them on infenfibly to the exercife of the armed
dance. This childrens dance ufed to be executed in
the public place. It was compofed of two choirs; the
one of grown men, the other of children ; whence, be¬
ing chiefly defigned for the latter, it took its name.
They were both of them in a flate of nudity. The
choir of the children regulated their motions by thofe
of the men, and all danced at the fame time, finging
the poems of Thales, Aleman, and Dionyfodotus.—
The enoplian or pyrrbic was danced by young men
armed cap-a-pee, who executed, to the found of the
flute, all the proper movements either for attack 'or
for defence. It was compofed of four parts.—The firft,
the podifm or footing ; which confifted in a quick fhift-
ing motion of the feet, fuch as was necefiary for over-
76 ] DAN
taking a flying enemy, or for getting away from him Dance.
when an overmatch.—Ti’he fecond part was the xiphifm: 
this was a kind of mock-fight, in which the dancers
imitated all the motions of combatants ; aiming a
ftroke, darting a javelin, or dextroufly dodging, par¬
rying, or avoiding a blow or thruft. The third part,,
called the komos, confifted in very high leaps or vaul¬
tings, which the dancers frequently repeated, for the
better ufing themfelves occafionally to leap over a ditch,
or fpring over a wall. The tetracomos was the fourth
and lad part : this was a fquare figure, executed by
flow and majeftic movements ; but it is uncertain whe¬
ther this was every where executed in the fame man¬
ner.
Of all the Greeks, the Spartans were thofe who molt
cultivated the Pyrrhic dance. Athenseus relates, that
they had a law by which they were obliged to exercife
their children at it from the age of five years. This
warlike people conftantly retained the cufiom of accom¬
panying their dances with hymns and fongs. The
following was fung for the dance called trichoria, faid
to be initituted by Lycurgus, and which had its name
from its being compofed of three choirs, one of
children, another of young men, and the third of old
The old men opened the dance, faying, “ In time pall
we were valiant.” The young men anfwered, “ We
are fo at prefent.”—“ We ftiall be ftill more fo, when,
our time comes,” replied the chorus of children. The
Spartans never danced but with real arms. In procefs.
of time, however, other nations came to ufe only wea¬
pons of wood on fuch occafions. Nay, it was only fo¬
late as the days of Athenaeus, who lived in the fecond
century, that the dancers of the Pyrrhic, inftead of
arms, carried only flalks, ivy-bound wands, (thyrfus),.
or reeds. But, even in Ariftotle’s days, they had be¬
gun to ufe thyrfufes inftead of pikes, and lighted torches,
in lieu of javelins and fwords. With thefe torches,
they executed a dance called the conflagration of the
•world.
Of the dances for amufement and recreation, fome
were but Amply gambols, or fportive exercifes, which
had no charadW of imitation, and of which the greater
part exiil to this day. The others were more com¬
plex, more agreeable, figured, and were always accom¬
panied with finging. Among the firft or fimple ones
was the afsoliafmus ; which confifted in jumping, with
one foot only, on bladders filled with air or with wine,,
and rubbed on the outfide with oil. The dypodiujn was-
jumped with both feet clofe. The kybejlejis was what
is called in this country the fomerfet.—Of the fecond
kind was that called the. •wine-prefs, of which there is
a defeription in Longinus, and the Ionian dances r.
thefe laft, in the original of their inftitution, had no¬
thing but what was decent and modeft ; but, in time,
their movements came to be fa depraved, as to be em¬
ployed in exprefiing nothing but voluptuoufnefs, and
even the grofi'elt obfeenity.
Among the ancients there were no feftivals nor reli¬
gious afiemblies but what were accompanied with fongs
and dances. It was not held pofiible to celebrate any
myftery, or to be initiated, without the intervention of
thefe two arts. In/Ihort, they were looked upon to be
fo efiential in thefe kinds of ceremonies, that to exprefs
the crime of fuch as were guilty of revealing the facred
myfteries, they employed the word kheifla, “ t.o be out
DAN [ 2377 1 DAN
of the dance.”—The moft ancient of thefe religious
dances is the Bacchic; which was not only confecrated
to Bacchus, but to all the deities whofe feftival was ce¬
lebrated with a kind of enthufiafm.—The moft grave
and majeftic was the hyporchemaiic: it was executed to
the lyre, and accompanied with the voice.—At his re¬
turn from Crete, Thefeus inftituted a dance at which
he himfelf affifted at the head of a numerous and fplen-
did band of youth round the altar of Apollo. The
dance was compofed of three parts ; the Jirophe, the an-
tijirophe, and the Jlationary.—In the ftrophe, the move¬
ments were from the right to the left; in the antiftro-
phe, from the left to the right. In the ftationary, they
danced before the altar; .fo that the ftatxonary did not
mean an abfolute paufe or reft, but only a more How
or grave movement.—Plutarch is perfuaded, that in
this dance there is a profound my ftery : bethinks, that
by the Jlrophe is indicated the motion of the world from
eaft to weft ; by the antiftrophe, the motion of the pla¬
nets from the weft to the eaft ; and by the Jiationary,
the liability of the earth : To this dance Thefeus gave
the name o{ggranos, or the crane; becaufe the figures
which charadterifed it bore a refemblance to thofe de-
fdribed by cranes in their flight.
With regard to the modern pradlice of dancing as an
art, there are few diredlions that can be of much fervice.
The following is extradled from Mr Gallini’s defcrip-
tion of the feveral fteps or movements.
“ The dancing (fays be) is generally on a theatre,
or in a faloon or room.—At the theatre there are four
parts to be confidered. t. The neareft front to the
fpedlators. 2, and 3. The two fides or wings. 4. The
furtheft front from the fpedlators.
“ In a faloon or room, the place in which are the
fpedlators decides the appellation refpedlivcly to them
of right and left. The dancer Ihould place himfelf in
as advantageous a point of view to them as poflible.
“ In the dance itfelf, there are to be diftinguilhed,
the attitude of the body, the figure, the politions, the
bends, the raifings or leaps, the fteps, the cabriol, the
fallings, the Aides, the turns of the body ; the cadences.
“ The attitude of the body requires the prefenting
one’s felf in the moft graceful manner to the com-
pany.
“ figure is to follow the track prefcribed to the
Heps in the dancfe.
“ The pojition is that of the varied attitudes, which
mull be at once llriking and eafy, as alfo of the diffe¬
rent exertions of the legs and feet in dancing.
“ The bends are inflexions of the knees, of the body,
of the head, or the arms.
“ The rai/ings are the contrail to the bends, the ex-
tenfion of the knee. One ©f thefe two motions necef-
farily precedes the other.
“ The Jlep is the motion by the foot or feet from
one place to another.
“ The leap is executed by fpringing up into the air;
it begins with a bend, and proceeds with a quick ex-
tenfion of the legs, fo that both feet quit the ground.
“ The cabriole is the crofiing, or cutting of capers,
during the leap, before the return of the feet to the
ground.
“ The falling is the return of the feet to the ground,
by the natural gravitation of the body.
“ The fide is the a&ion of moving the foot along
the ground without quitting it.
“ The turn is the motion of the body towards either'
fide, or quite round.
“ The cadence is the knowledge of the different
meafures, and of the times of movement the moll
marked in the mulic.
“ The track is the line marked by the dance : it
may be either ftraight or curve, and is fufceptible of all
the inflexions correfpondent to the various defigns of
the' compofer.—There are the right, the diametral
line, the circular line, and the oblique line. The right
line is that which goes lengthways, reckoning from
one end of the room towards the other. The diame¬
tral line is acrofs the room, from one fide to the other.
The circular line is waving, or undulatory, from one
place to another. The oblique line proceeds obliquely
from one quarter of the room towards another.—Each
of thefe lines may diredlly or feparately form the dan¬
cer’s track, diverfified with -fteps and pofitions.
“ The regular figure is when two or more dancers
move in contrary diredlions ; that is to fay, that when
one moves towards the right, the other moves to the
left.—The irregular line is when the couples figuring
together are both on the fame fide.
“ Commonly the man gives the right-hand to the
lady in the beginning or ending of the dance, as we
fee in the minuet, louvre, &c.
“ When a greater number of dancers figure together,
they are to execute the figure agreeably to the compo-
fition of the dance, with fpecial attention to keep an
eye conftantly on the partner.—When, in any given
dance, the dancers have danced for fome time in the
fame place, the track is only to be confidered as the
condudlor of the Jleps, but not of the figure; but when
the dance continues, without being confined to the
fame place, then the track mull be confidered as the
condudlor both of the fteps and of the figure.
“ Now, to obferve the figure, the dancer muft have
placed himfelf at the beginning of the track upon
which he is to dance, and comprehend the figure before
he himfelf begins it. He is to remark and conceive
whether th6 figure is right, diametral, circular, or ob¬
lique ; ifit is progreflive or retrogreflive, or towards
the right or left. He fhould have the air played or
fung to him, to underftand the movement.—Where the
tracks crofs one another, the fteps of each of the couples
muft; leave a fufficient diftance between them not to
confufe the figure.
“ There are commonly reckoned ten kinds of pofi¬
tions, which are divided into true and falfe, five each:.
—There are three principal parts of the foot to be ob-
ferved; the toes, the heel, and the ancle.
“ The true pofitions are when the two feet are in a
certain uniform regularity, the toes turned equally
Outwards.—The falfe are divided into regular and ir¬
regular. They differ from the true, in that the toes
are either both turned inwards ; or if the toes of one
foot are turned outwards, the others are turned ip-
ward.
“ In the fir ft of the true pofitions, the heels of the
two feet are clofe together, fo that they touch; the
toes being turned out. In the fecond the two feet are
open, in the fame line, fo that the diftance between the
two heels is precifely the length of one foot. In the
third the heel of one foot is brought to the ancle
DAN [ 2378 ] DAN
Dance, of the other, or feems to Jock in with it. In the
fourth, the two feet are the one before the other, a
foot’s length diftance between the two heels, which
are on the fame line. In the fifth, the tw'o feet are a-
crofs, the one before the other; fo that the heel of one
foot is direftly oppofite to the toes of the other.
“ In the firtl of the falfe pofitions, the toes of both
feet are turned inwards, fo that they touch, the heels
being open. The fecond is, when the feet are afunder
at a foot’s difiance between the toes of each, which are
turned inward, the heels being on a line. The third
is, when the toes of one foot are turned outwards, the
other inwards, fo that the two feet form a parallel.
The fourth is, when the toes of the two feet are turn¬
ed inwards; but the toes of one foot are brought nearer
the ancle of the other. The fifth is, when the toes of
the two feet are turned inwards, but the heel of one
foot is oppofite to the toes of the other.
“ There are mixed pofitions, compofed of the true
and falfe in combination; which admit of fuch an infi¬
nite variety, and are in their nature fo unfufceptible
of defcription by words, that it is only the fight of
the performance that can give any tolerable idea of
them.
“ Of the bends of the knee there are two kinds; the
one /imple, the o\\izx forced* The fimple bend is an in¬
flexion of the knees without moving the heel, and is ex¬
ecuted with the foot flat to the ground. The forced
bend is made on the toes with more force and lower.
“ Much is to be obferved on the head of Jleps.
Firft, not to make any movement before having put
the body in an upright pofture, firm on the haunches.
“ Begin with the inflexion of the knee and thigh ;
advance one leg foremoft ; with the whole foot on the
ground, laying the firefs of the body on the advanced
leg.
“ There are fome who begin the ftep by the point
of the toes ; but that has an air of theatrical aflefta-
tion. Nothing can be more noble than a graceful eafe
and dignity of ftep. The quantity of fteps ufed in
dancing are almoft innumerable ; they are neverthelefs
reducible under five denominations, which may ferve
well enough to give a general idea of the different
movements that may be made by the leg, viz. the di¬
rect ftep, the open ftep, the circular ftep, the twifted
ftep,- and the cut ftep.
“ The direct ftep is when the foot goes upon a right
line, either forwards or backwards.
The open ftep is when the legs open. Of this ftep
there are three kinds: one when they open outwards :
another, when, defcribing a kind of circle,, they form
an in-knee’d figure : a third, when they open fide-
ways ; this is a fort of right ftep, becaufe the figure is
in a right line.
“ The round ftep, is when the foot, in its mo¬
tion, makes a circular figure, either inwards or out¬
wards.
“ The t--w{fted ftep, or pas tortille, is when the foot
in its motion turns in and out. There are three kinds
of this ftep; one forwards, another backwards, the
third fidelong.
‘‘ The cut ftep is when one leg or foot comes to ftrike
againft the other. There are alfo three Carts of this
ftep; backwards, forwards, and fidelong.
“ The fteps may be accompanied with bendings.
rifings, leaps, cabrioles, fallings, Hidings, the foot in Dance
the air, the tip-toe, the reft on the heel, quarter-turns, I!
half-turns, three-quarter turns, and whole-turns. Danegelt.
“ There may be pra&ifed three kinds of bends, or
ftnkings, in the fteps ; viz. bending before the ftep
proceeds, in the aft of ftepping, and at the laft of the
fteps.
“ The beginning or initial fink-pace is at the firft
fetting off, on advancing the leg.
“ The bend in the a<ft of ftepping continues the
march or walk.
“ The final fink-pace clofes the march.
“ The rifingisjuft the reverfe of the bend, or fink-
pace, which (hall have preceded it.
“ Some great mafters in the art of dancing, having
obferved that mufic, which is infeparable from it, was
capable of being preferved and conveyed by the mufi-
cal characters, imagined by analogy, that the like ad¬
vantage could be procured to the compofition of dan¬
ces. Upon this plan they attempted what is called
the chorography, an art which they fuppofe was either
utterly unknown to the ancients, or not tranfmitted to
us from them.
“ It may indeed be eafily allowed, that the track or
figure of a dance may be determined by w'ritten or en¬
graved lines ; but thofe lines will neceflarily appear fo
perplexing, fo intricate, fo difficult, if not impoffible
to feize, in their various relations, that they are only
fit to difguft and difcourage, without the poffibility of
their conveying a fatisfaCtory or retainable inftrudlion.
—Thence it is, that the article Of Chorography in the
French Encyclopedic is univerfally exploded as unintelli¬
gible and ufelefs: though nothing more than an ele¬
mentary indication of the art; agd an explanation, fuch
as it is, of fome of the technical terms of it.”
/?0/>c-Dancer, fchoenobates, a perfon who walks,
leaps, dances, and performs feveral other feats, upon a
fmall rope or wire.
The ancients had their rope-dancers as well as we.
Thefe had four feveral ways of exercifing their art:
The firft vaulted, or turned round the rope like a wheel
round its axis, and there hung by the heels or neck.
The fecond flew or Aid from above, retting on their
ftomach, with the arms and legs extended. The third
ran along a rope ftretched in a right line or up and
down. Laftly, the fourth not only walked on the
rope, but made furprifing leaps and turns thereon.
They had likewife the creninobates, and or abates ,•
that is, people who walked on the brinks of precipi¬
ces : Nay more, Suetonius in Galba, c. 6. Seneca in
his 85th Epiftle, and Pliny, lib. viii. c. 2. make men¬
tion of elephants that were taught to walk on the rope.
St Vitus’s Dance. See (the Index fubjoided to)
Medicine.
DANCETTE, in heraldry, is when the outline of
any bordure, or ordinary, is indented very largely, the
largenefs of the indentures being the only thing that
diftinguiflies it from indented.
DANDELION, in botany. See Leontodon.
DANEGELT, an annual tax laid on the Anglo-
Saxons, firft of 1 s. afterwards 2 s. fofr every hide of
land thro’ the realm, for maintaining fuch a number of
forces as were thought fufficient to clear the Britilh
feas of Danilh pyrates, which heretofore greatly an¬
noyed our coafts.
Danegeet,
DAN [ 2379 ] DAN
Banegelt Danegelt was impofed as a Handing yearly
Daniel tax °n w^0'e natioh, under king Ethelred, A. D,
 ' 991, That prince, fays Canibden, Britan. 142. much
diftreflird by the continual invafions of the Danes ; to
procure his peace, was compelled to charge his people
with heavy taxes, called danegelt.—At firft he paid
10,000 /• then 16,060 1. then 24,000 /. after that
36,000 /. and laftly, 48,000/.
Edward the Confeffor remitted this tax : William I.
and II. reaffumed it occafionalty. In the reign of
Henry I. it was accounted among the king’s Handing
revenues ; but king Stephen, on his coronation-day, a-
brogated it for ever.
No church or church-land paid a penny to the dan-
gelt; becaufe, as is fet forth in an ancient Saxon law,
the people of England placed more co'nfidence in the
prayers of the church than in any military defence they
could make.
DANDOLO (Henry), doge of Venice, a brave
admiral and politician. With a Venetian fleet he took
Conftantinople in 1203, and had the moderation to re-
fufe to be emperor. He died in 1250.
DANET (Peter), abbot of St Nicholas de Verdun,
was one of the perfons chofen by the duke of Montau-
frer to write on the daffies for the ufe of the dauphin.
He had a fhare in Phasdrus, which he publifhed with
notes and explications in Latin. He alfo wrote a dic¬
tionary in Latin and French, and another in French
and Latin. He died at Paris in 1709.
DANIEL, the fourth of the greater prophets, was
born in Judea of the tribe of Judah, about the 2^
year of the reign of Jofiah. He was led captive to
Babylop, with other young Hebrew lords, after the ta¬
king of Jerufalem by Nebuchadnezzar, who took them
into his fervice. That prince gave them mafters to in-
ftrud them in the language and fciences of the Chal-
daeans, and ordered them to be fed with the moft de¬
licate viands ; but they, fearing that they fliould eat
meat forbidden by the law of Mofes, defired the king’s
officers to allow them only pulfe. The wifdom and
conduit of Daniel pleafing Nebuchadnezzar, that
prince gave him feveral pofts of honour. It is com¬
monly believed, that this prophet, when but 12 years of
age, made known the innocence of the chafte Sufan-
nah; but the learned are not agreed, that the young
Daniel, who confounded the old men, was the fame
with this prophet. However, he explained Nebuchad¬
nezzar’s dream of the myfterious ftatue, which foretold
the four great monarchies; on which account he was
made prefeA of the province of Babylon. In the reign
of Darius the king of the Medes, he refufed to adore
the golden ftatue of the king, and was caft into the
lions den, when thofe beafts, tho’ pinched with hunger,
did him no manner of hurt. And he explained the
charafters written on the wall of the room where Bel-
fhazzar wasfeafting.
It is believed that Daniel died in Chaldaea, and that
he did not take advantage of the permiffion granted by
Cyrus to the Jews of returning to their own country.
St Epiphanius fays he died at Babylon ; and herein he
is followed by the generality of hillorians The firft
fix chapters of the book of Daniel are an hifiory of the
kings of Babylon, and what befel the captive Jews un¬
der their government. In the fix laft he is altogether
propheticaij foretelling not only what Ihould happen
to his own church and nation, but events in which fo- Daniel,
reign princes were concerned ; particularly the rife and Dante~
downfal of the four fecular monarchies of the world,
and the eftabliftvment of the fifth, or fpiritual kingdom
of the Meffiah. “ Amongft the old prophets (fays
the great Sir Ifaac Newton), Daniel is the moftdiftinfk
in the order of time, and eafieft to be underftood ; and
therefore, in thofe things which relate to the laft times,
he muft be made key to the reft.—His prophecies are
all of them related to one another, as if they were but
feveral parts of one general prophecy. The firft is the
eafieft to be underftood, and every following prophecy
adds fomething to the former.”
Daniel (Samuel), an eminent poet and hiftorian,
was born near Taunton in Somerfetfhire in the year
1562, and educated at Oxford : but leaving that uni-
verfity without a degree, he applied himfelf to Englifh
hiftory and poetry under the patronage of the earl of
Pembroke’s family. He was afterwards tutor to the
lady Ann Clifford ; and, upon the death of Spencer,
was created poet-laureat to queen Elizabeth. In king
James’s reign he was appointed gentleman extraordi¬
nary, and afterwards one of the grooms of the privy-
chamber, to the queen confort, w ho took great delight
in his converfation and writings. He wrote an hiftory
of England, feveral dramatic pieces, and fome poems ^
and died in 1619.
Daniel (Gabriel), a celebrated Jefuit, and one of
the beft French hiftorians, was born at Rouen in 1649.
He taught polite literature, philolophy, and divinity,
among the Jefuits; and was fuperior of their houfe at
Paris, where he died in 1728. There are a great
number of his works publifhed in French, of which
the principal are, 1. An Hiftery of France, of which
he alfo wrote an abridgment in nine volumes I2m0.
2. An hiftory of the French Militia, in 2 vols 4to.
3. An anfwer to the Provincial Letters. 4. A voyage
to the World of Defcartes. 5. Letters on the doc¬
trines of the Theorifts, and on Probability. 6. New
difficulties relating to the knowledge of Brutes ; and,
7. A theological treatife on the Efficacy of Grace.
DANTE (Aligheri)., one of the firft poets of Ita¬
ly, born at Florence in 1265, of a good family. He
confecrated the firft of his mufe to love ; but after¬
wards he undertook a more ferious work. He would
have been more happy if he h.ad never meddled with
any thing elfe : for being ambitious, and having at¬
tained fome of the moft confiderable pofts of the com¬
mon wealth, he wascrufhed by the ruins of the fadlion
he had embraced. Pope Boniface VIII. fent Charles
of Valois thither in 1301, to re-eftablifh the peace;
Florence being divided into two fa/lions, one named
the •white, and the other the black. No better way was
found to pacify the city than to expel thence the fac¬
tion of the white, which Dante favoured. He endea¬
voured to revenge himfelf at the expence of his ccitui-
try, and did all he could to expofe it to a bloody war.
He died in exile in 1321. He applied himfelf diligent¬
ly to ftudy during his banifhment ; and wrote fome
books wherein he (bowed more fire and fpirit than he
would have done had he enjoyed a more quiet ftatc of
life. The moft confiderable of his works is the poem
entitled The Comedy of Hell, Purgatory, and
Paradife.” It has much difpleafed the church of
Rome ; as did likewife another book of his entitled,.
« De
DAN [ 2380 ] DAN
Dante te De Monarchia wherein he maintains, that the
H amhority of the emperors ought not to depend on
Panube- that of the Popes.
Dante (John Baptift), a native of Perugia, an ex¬
cellent mathematician, called the »eiv Daedalus, for the
wings he madehimfelf, and with which he flew feveral
times over the lake Thrafymenus. He fell in one of
his enterprifes ; the iron work with which he managed
one of his wings having failed ; by which accident he
broke his thigh : but it was fet by the furgeons, and
he was afterwards called to Venice to profefs mathe¬
matics.
D ANTZIC, the metropolis of the palatinate of Po-
meralla in Poland, (landing on a branch of the Viftula,
about four miles above where it falls into the Baltic ;
in E. Long. 18. 36. N. Lat. 54. 20. It is large, po¬
pulous, and rich; and carries on a vaft trade, being the
chief mart and magazine of Poland, and one of the
greatefl granaries in the world; fo that whole fleets of
fhips come hither every year to load with corn alone.
It confifts of the Old and New town, with their fub-
urbs, has a fine harbour, a great number of fhips, and
had many valuable privileges. Among the laft were
thofe of coining money, gathering amber, and fending
reprefentatives to the general diets of Poland and the
Prufilan fenate. It is well fortified ; but, being com¬
manded by two hills on the fouth fide, cannot fuflain
a long fiege. It is computed that 365,000 lafts of Po-
lifh wheat are (hipped from this place, one year with
another. Hither Poland fends its commodities for ex¬
portation, and from hence is chiefly fupplied with thofe
of other countries. Among the latter are great quan¬
tities of-herrings, both Scotch and Dutch. The ex¬
ports and imports confifl of a variety of articles, and
furnifh a vaft deal of bufinefs and wealth to the city.
The inhabitants, who are computed at 200,000, are
moftly Lutherans, with a mixture of Calvinifts and
Papifls. A conftant garrifon of 200 foldiersis kept
in the city. One of the fuburbs is called Scotland;
and the Scots have great privileges in confequence
of their gallant defence of the town, under one of the fa¬
mily of Douglas, when it was befieged by the Poles.
It is faid there are upwards of 30,000 pedlars of that
nation in Poland, who travel on foot, and fome with
three, four, or five horfes. In king Charles II.’s time
they were about 53,000 : in that reign Sir John Den¬
ham and Mr Killigrew were fent to take the number
of them, and to tax them by the poll, with the king of
Poland’s licence; which having obtained, they brought
home L. 10,000 Sterling, befides their charges in the
journey. Here is a Lutheran college with feven profeflbrs,
and one teacher of the Polifh language. At the mouth of
the Viftula, which is defended by feveral forts, is a good
harbour belonging to Dantzic. Its territory confifts
moftly of i(lands formed by the Viftula and Motlau.—
It is hardly credible how this city has changed its maf-
ters in competition for the crown of Poland, and what
fums have been extorted from it. While the kingdom
of Poland remained, Dantzic was under its proteflion,
but governed by its own magiftrates in the form of a
republic ; but fince the deftruftion of that kingdom,
the city of Dantzic has been greatly oppreffed by the
king of Pruflia.
DANUBE, the largeft and moft confiderable river
in Europe, rifing in the Black Foreft, near Zunberg ;
and running N. E. through Swabia by Ulm, the ca- Daphne.
pital of that country; then running E. through Baf-
faria and Auftria, paffes by Ratifbon, Pafiau, Ens, and
Vienna. It then enters Hungary, and runs S. E. from
Prelburg to Buda, and fo on to Belgrade ; after which
it divides Bulgaria from Molachia and Moldavia, dif-
charging itfelf by feveral channels into the Black Sea,
in the province of Beflarabia. Towards the mouth,
it was called the IJler by the ancients; and it is now
faid, that four of the mouths are choaked up with fand,
and that there are only two remaining. It begins to
be navigable for boats at Ulm, and receives feveral
large rivers as it pafies along. It is fo deep between
Buda and Belgrade, that the Turks and Chriftians have
had men of war upon it; and yet it is not navigable
to the Black Sea, on account of the cataracts.
DAPHNE, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter of
the river Peneus, was at her own defire turned into a
laurel by her father, to avoid the amours of Apollo.
Daphne, Spurge-laurel; a genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the o&andria clafs of plants.
There are 11 fpecies, of which the two following are
the moft remarkable. 1. The laureola, or common
fpurge laurel, is a native of the woods in many parts of
England. It is a low evergreen (hrub, rifing with fe¬
veral ftalks from the root to the height of three feet,
garniftied with thick fpear-lhaped leaves fitting clofe to
the branches, of a lucid green colour. Between thefe
to the upper part of the ftalks, come out the flowers
in fmall chillers, of a yellowifli green colour, and ap¬
pear foon after Chriftmas, if the feafon is not remark¬
ably fevere. The leaves continue green all the year,
which renders the plants very ornamental; and as they
will thrive under tall trees, they are therefore proper
to fill up the fpaces of plantations. 2. The mezereon,
or fpurge-olive, is a native of England, Germany, e-rc.
and is a very ornamental (hrub in gardens. It rifes to
the height of five or fix feet, with a (trong woody
ftalk, putting forth many woody branches, fo as to
forma regular head. The flowers come out very early
in the fpring, before the leaves appear, growing in
clufters all round the (hoots of the former year. There
are commonly three flowets produced from each joint
or knot, (landing on the fame (liort footftalk, which
have (hort fwelling tubes divided into four parts at the
top, which fpread open : they have a very fragrant o-
dour ; fo that where there ar'e plenty of the fhrubs to¬
gether, they perfume the air to a confiderable diftance
around them. The flowers are of a white or peach-
bloflom colour. After the flowers are pad, the leaves
come out, which are fpear-fliaped, fmoothp and placed
without order. The flowers are fucceeded by oval ber¬
ries; thofe of the white kind being yellow; and of the
other, "red. Both forts are eafily propagated by feeds,
which (hould be fown foon after they are ripe ; for
if not fown till the next fpring, they very often mif-
carry.
Very happy effe&s have been found from the ufe of
the firft fpecies in rheumatic fevers. It operates as a
brifk and rather fevere purgative. It is an efficacious
medicines in worm cafes; but is dangerous in unfleilful
hands, as being poflefled of confiderable acrimony.
The whole plant hath the fame qualities, but the bark
of the root is the ftrongeft. Dr Alfton fixes the out-
fide dofe at ten grains.—An ointment prepared from
D A R [ 2381 1 D A R
^ Dapifer the bark or the berries of mezereon root hath been fuc-
| II cefsfully applied to ill-conditioned ulcers. The whole
I reties P^ant *s very corr°flve* the berries will kill a
i   Il_ wolf. A woman gave 13 grains of the berries to her
daughter, who had a quartan ague : Ihe vomited blood,
and died immediately. A decoftion made of two
drams of the cortical part of the root, boiled in three
pints of water till one pint is walled ; and this quanti¬
ty drunk daily, is laid to be very efficacious in reCol-
ving venereal nodes, and other indurations of the pe-
riofteum. The confiderable and long-continued heat
and irritation produced by this root in the throat when
chewed, made Mr Withering think of giving it in a
cafe of-difficulty of fwallowing, feemingly occafioned
by a paralytic affeftion. The patient was direfted to
chew a thin lliee of the root as often as Ihe could bear
it; and, in about two months, Ihe recovered her power
of fwallowing. She bore the difagreeable irritation and
ulcerations its acrimony occafioned in her mouth with
great refolution : for fhe was reduced to Hein and bone,
and for three years before had fuffered extremely from
hunger, without being able to fatisfy her appetite; for
fhe fwallowed liquids very imperfe&ly, and folids not
at all: her complaint came on after lying in.—The
plant is eaten by fheep and goats, but refufed by cows
and horfes.
DAPIFER, the dignity or office of grand-mafter
of a prince’s houfehold. This title was’given by the
emperor of Conllantinople to the Czar of Rtilfia, as a
teftimony of favour. In France the like officer was
inllituted by Charlemagne, under the title of dapiferat;
and the dignity of dapifer is Hill fubfilting in Ger¬
many, the eledtor of Bavaria affuming the title of arch-
iapifer of the empire, whofe office is, at the corona¬
tion of the emperor, to carry the firll dilh of meat to
table, on horfe-back.
DAPPLE-bay, in the menage : When bay horfes
have ma^s of a dark bay, they are called dapple-bays.
DAPPLE-2?/tfci.• When a black horfe has got fpots
or marks more black or fhining than the reft of his
fkin, he is called a dapple-black.
DARAPT1, among logicians, one of the modes of
fyllogifms of the third figure, whofe premifes are uni-
verfal affirmatives, and the conclufion is a particular af¬
firmative : thus,
Dar- Every body is divifible ;
AP- Every body is a fubftance ;
ti, Therefore, fome fubftance is divifible.
DARDA, a town and fort of Lower Hungary,
built by the Turks in 1686, and taken by the Impe-
rialifts the next year, in whofe hands it remains. It is
feated on the river Draw, 10 miles from its confluence
with the Danube, and at the end of the bridge of Ef-
feck. E. Long 19. 10. N. Lat. 45. 45.
DARDANELLES,two ancient and ftrongcaftles
of Turky, one of which is in Romania, and the other
in Natolia, on each fide the canal formerly called the
Hellefpont. This keeps up a communication with the
Archipelago, and the Propontis or Sea of Marmora.
The mouth of the canal is four miles and a half over ;
and the caflles were built in 1659,10 fecure theTurk-
i(h fleet from the infults of the Venetians. The (hips
that come from Conftantinople are fearched at the
caftle on the fide of Natolia, to fee what they have on
board.
DARDANUS, fon of Jupiter and Ele£lra, founded Dardanus
the city and kingdom of Troy. | ,
DARE, in ichthyology, the fame with dace. See Di,rtforc"
Dace.
DARIEN, or the Ifthmus of Panama,, is a province
between South andNorth America, being a narrow ifth¬
mus, or neck of land, which joins them together. It is
bounded on the north by the North Sea, on the fouth
by the South Sea, on the eaft by the gulph or river of
Darien, and on the weft by another part of the South
Sea and the province of Veragua. It lies in the form
of a bow, or crefcent, about the great bay of Panama,
in the South Sea; and is 300 miles in length, and 60
in breadth. This province is not the richeft, but is of
the greateft importance to Spain, and has been the
feene of more aftions than any other in America. The
wealth of Peru is brought hither, and from hence ex<
ported to Europe- This has induced many enterpri-
fing people to make attempts on Panama, Porto-Bel-
lo, and other towns of this province, in hopes of ob¬
taining a rich booty.
The Scotch got pofieffion of part of this province in
1699, and had laid the foundations of a new town, de-
figaing to call it iWw Edinburgh ; but, as the Englifli
were then in alliance with the Spaniards, king Wil¬
liam would not permit them to go on. However, this
country is not a very defirable place to fettle in, it be-
ing generally mountainous and barren, as well as excef-
five hot, and the lower grounds are liable to be fud-
denly overflowed in the rainy feafon. Some of the
mountains are fo high, and of fuch difficult accefs, that
it requires feveral days to pafs them. It was from
thefe mountains the Spaniards firft difeovered the
South Sea, or Pacific Ocean, in 1513.
DARII, in logic, one of the modes of fyllogifm of
the firft figure, wherein the major propofition is an u-
niverfal affirmative, and the minor and conclufion par¬
ticular affirmatives: thus,
Da- Every thing that is moved, is moved by
another;
ri- Some body is moved;
1. Therefore, fome body is moved by ano¬
ther.
DARIUS, the name of feveral kings of Perfia. See
(Hi/lory of) Persia. %
DARKING, a market-town of Surrey in England,
fituated ten miles eaft of Guilford. The market is no¬
ted for corn and provifions, more efpecially for fowls.
W. I ong. 8. to. N. Lat. 51. 18.
DARLINGTON, a town of the county of Dur¬
ham, fituated in a flat on the nver Skernc, which falls
into the Tees. It is a pretty large place, has feveral
ftreets and a fpacious market-place. W. Long. x. 15.
N. Lat. 54. 30.
DARMSTADT, a town of Germany in the circle
of the Upper Rhine, and capital of the Landgraviate
of Hefle-Darmftadt, with a handfome caftle, where
its own prince generally refides. It is feated on a ri¬
ver of the fame name in E. Long. 8. 40. N. Lat. 49.
5°.
DARNEL, in botany. See Lolium.
DARNLEY (Lord). See (Hi/lory of) Scot¬
land.
DARTFORD, a town of the county of Kent in
England, feated on the river Darent not far from its
13 Y influx
DAS [ 2382 ] DAT
Dartmouth influx into the Thames, E. Long. o. 16. N, Lat. 51.
Daf>pus. DARTMOUTH, a fea-port town of Devonfliire,
feated on the river Dart, near its fall into the fea. It
is a well frequented and populous place, having a
Commodious harbour, and a confiderable trade Iryfea.
The town is large and well built; but the ftreets are
narrow and bad, though all paved. It has the title of
an earldom, and fends two members to parliament.
W. Long. 4. o. N. Lat. 50. -25.
DARTOS, in anatomy, one of the coats which
form the fcrotum. It is called the dartos mufcle ; but
Dr Hunter fays, that no fuch mufcle can be found, and
Albinus takes no notice of it in his tables.
DASYPUS, the Armadillo or Tatou, in zoolo¬
gy ; a genus of quadrupeds, belonging to the order of
bnita. The dafypus has neither foreteeth nor dog¬
teeth ; it is covered with a hard bony fhell, interfered
with diftin6I moveable zones or belts: this fhell covers
the head, the neck, the back, the flanks, and extends
even to the extremity of the tail ; the only parts to
which it does not extend, are the throat, the breaft,
and the belly, which are covered with a whitiih fkin of
a coarfe grain, refembling that of a hen after the fea¬
thers are pulled off. The fhell does not confift of one
entire piece, like that of the tortoife ; but is divided in¬
to feparate belts, connered to each other by mem¬
branes, which enable the animal to move it, and even
to roll itfelf up like a hedge-hog. The number of
thefe belts does not depend on the age of the animal,
as fome have imagined ; but is uniformly the fame at all
times, and ferves to diftinguifh the different fpecies.
All the fpecies of this animal were originally natives of
America: they were entirely unknown to the ancients;
and modern travellers mention them as peculiar to
Mexico, Brafil, and the fouthern parts of America ;
though fome indeed have confounded them with two
fpecies of manis, or fhell-lizard, which are found in
the Eaft Indies : others report that they are natives of
Africa, becaufe fome of .them have been tranfported
from Brafil to the coaft of Guinea, where a few have
fince been propagated : but they were never heard of
in Europe, Afia or Africa, till after the difcovery of
America.—They are all endowed with the faculty of
extending and contra&ing their bodies, and of rolling
themfelves up like a ball, but not into fo complete a
fphere as the hedge-hog. They are very inoffenfive a-
nimals, excepting when they get into gardens, where
they devour the melons, potatoes, and other roots.
They walk quickly ; but can hardly be faid to run or
leap, fo that they feldom efcape the purfuit either of
men or dogs. But nature has not left them altogether
defencelefs. They dig deep holes in the earth ; and
feldom go very far from their fubterraneous habitations :
upon any alarm, they immediately go into their holes;
but, when at too great a diftance, they require but a
few moments to make one. The hunters can hardly
catch them by the tail before they fink their body in
the ground ; where they flick fo clofe, that the tail fre¬
quently comes away and leaves the body in the earth ;
which obliges the hunters, when they want to take
them alive and immutilated, to dilate the fides of the
hole. When they are taken, and find that there is no
refource, they inftantly roll themfelves up, and will
not extend their bodies, unlefs they are held near a
fire. When in deep holes, there is no other method of Data;
making them come out, but by forcing in fmoke or Date-
water. They keep in their holes through the day, and
feldom go abroad in 'queft of fubfiftence but in the
night. The hunters ufually chafe them With final!
dogs, which eafily come up with them. When the dogs
are near, the creatures inftantly roll themfelves up, and
in this condition the hunters carry them off. However,
if they be near a precipice they often efcape both the
dogs and hunters: they roll themfelves up, and tumble
down like a ball, without breaking their fhell, or re¬
ceiving any injury. The dafypus is a very fruitful ani¬
mal : the female generally brings forth four young
Ones every month; which is the reafon why the fpecies
are fo numerous, notwithftanding they are fo much
fought after on account of the fweetnefs of their flefh.
The Indians likewife make bafkets, boxes, <&c. of the
fhells which cover their heads.
Linnaeus enumerates fix fpecies of dafypus, prin¬
cipally diftinguifhed by the number of their moveable
belts. See Elate LXXXVII. fig. 1.
DATA, among mathematicians, a term for fiich
things or quantities as are given or known, in order to
find other things thereby that are unknown. Euclid
ufes the wqrd data (of which he hath a particular
trad) for fuch fpaces, lines, and angles as are given
in magnitude, or to which we can affign others e-
qual.
From the primary ufe of the word data in mathe¬
matics, it has been tranfplanted into other arts ; as
philofophy, medicine, &c. where it expreffes any
quantity, which, for the fake of a prefent calculation,
is taken for granted to be fuch, without requiring an
immediate proof for its certainty; called alfo the given
quantity, number, or power. And hence alfo fuch
things as are known, from whence either in natural
philofophy, the animal mechamfm, or the operation
of medicines, wc come to the knowledge of others
unknown, are now frequently in phyfical writers call¬
ed data.
DATE, an addition or appendage in writings,
ads, inftruments, letters, &c. expreffing the day and
month of the year when the ad, or letter, was paffed
or figned ; together with the place where the fame was
done. The word is formed from the Latin datum “ gi¬
ven,” the participle of do “ I give.”
Date, the fruit of the pheenix or great palm-tree.
This fruit is fome what in the ftiape of an acorn.
It is compofed of a thin, light, and gloffy mem¬
brane, fomewhat pellucid and yellowilh ; which con¬
tains a fine, foft, and pulpy fruit, which is firm, fweet,
and fomewhat vinous to the tafte, efculent, and whole-
fome ; and within this is inclofed a folid, tough, and
hard kernel, of a pale grey colour on the outfide, and
finely marbled within like the nutmeg.—For medicinal
ufe, dates are to be chofer. large, full, frefti, yellow on
the furface, foft and tender, not too much wrinkled ;
fuch as have a vinous tafte, and do not rattle when
(haken. They are produced in many parts of Europe,,
but never ripen perfe&ly there. The heft, are from
Tunis ; they are alfo very fine and good in Egypt, and
in many parts of the eaft. Thofe of Spain and France
look well; but are never perfe&ly ripe, and are very
fubjeft to decay. They are preferved three different
ways : fome preffed and dry ; others preffed more mo¬
derately.
D A U [ 2383 ] D A U
Dati derately, and again moiftened with their own juice; and
Daucut ot^ers not prefTed at all, but moiftened with the juice
' of other dates, as they are packed up, which is done
in baikets or in fldns. Thofe preferved in this laft way
- are much the beft. Dates have always been efteemed
moderately ftrengthening and aftringent.
DATI (Carlo), profeflbr of polite learning at Flo¬
rence. His native country became very famous, as
well on account of his works, as of the eulogies which
have been beftowed on him by learned men. The chief
work to which Dati applied himfelf, was Della Pittu-
ra Antica, of which he publiftied an efiay in the year
1667. He died in 1675, much lamented, as well for
his humanity and amiable manners, as for his parts and
learning.
DATISI, in logic, a mode of fyllogifms in the
third figure, wherein the major is an univerfal affirma¬
tive, and the minor and conclufion particular affirma¬
tive propofitions. For example,
Da- All who ferve God are kings;
ti- Some who ferve God are poor;
si Therefore, fome who are poor are kings.
DATIVE, in grammar, the third cafe in the de-
clenfion of nouns; expreffing the ftate or relation of
a thing to whole profit or lofs fome other thing is re¬
ferred. See Grammar.
It is called dative^ becaufe ufually governed by a
verb implying fomething to be given to fome perfon.
As, commodare Socrati, “ to lend to Socrates;” uti-
lis reipublicce, “ ufeful to the commonwealth;” perni-
ciofas ecdefiie, “ pernicious to the church.
In Englifh, where we have properly no cafes, this
relation is expreffed by the fign to-, or fir.
DATURA, the thorn-apple ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. There are fix fpecies. The ftramonium, or
common thorn-apple, rifes a yard high, with an ereft,
ftrong, round, hollow, green ftalk, branching luxu¬
riantly, having the branches widely extended on every
fide ; large, oval, irregularly-angulated, fmooth, dark-
green leaves ; and from the divifions of the branches,
large white flowers fmgly, fucceeded by large, oval,
prickly capfules, growing ereft, commonly called thorn-
apples. At night the upper leaves rife up and inclofe
the flowers. The bloffoms have fometimes a tinge of
purple or violet. The flowers confift of one large,
funnel fhaped petal, having a long tube, and fpread-
ing pentagonal limb, fuceeeded by large roundifli cap¬
fules of the fize of middling apples, clofely befet with
(harp fpines. An ointment prepared from the leaves
gives eafe in external inflammations and in the haemor¬
rhoids. The feeds were lately recommended by Dr
Storck to be taken internally in cafes of madnefs ; but
they feem to be a very unfafe remedy. Taken even in
a fmall defe, they bring on a delirium, and in a large
one would certainly prove fatal. Cows, horfes, fheep,
and goats, refufe to eat this plant.
DATYL, in natural hiftory, a fort of Pholas.
DAUCUS, the Carrot ; a genus of the digynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
There are five fpecies ; but the only one which merits
attention is the carota, or common carrot. This is fo
well known as to need no defeription. There are fe-
veral varieties,as the white, the orange, and the purple
carrot; but of thefe the orange carrot is the moft e-
fteemed. It grows longer, larger, and is commonly
more handfome than the others, being often 15 or t8
inches long in the eatable part, and from two to four
in diameter at top. Carrots are propagated by feeds,
which are fown at different feafons of the year, in or¬
der to procure a fupply of young roots for the table at
all times. The feafon for fowing for the earlieft crop
is foon after Chriftmas. They fhould be fown in an
open fituation, but near a wall; though if they are
fown clofe under it they will be apt to run up to feed
too fall, and give no good roots : about eight inches
diftance is the moft proper. They delight in a warm
fandy foil, which fhould be light, and well dug to a
good depth, that the roots may meet with no obftruc-
tion in running down, fo as to make them forked, and
fhoot out lateral branches. This will happen efpecial-
ly when the ground has been too much dunged the
fame year that the feeds were fown, which will alfo oc-
cafion them to be worm-eaten. The hairynefs of thefe
feeds makes the fowing of them difficult, on account
of their being fo apt to ftick together. Before fowing,
therefore, they ffiould be put through a fine chaff fieve ;
and a calm day ffiould be chofen for fowing them.
When fown, they ffiould be trod in with the feet, and
the ground raked level over them. When they firft
come up they ffiould be cut up to four inches diftance,
and a month after this they are to be cleared again ;
and if drawn while young, they are now to be left at
fix inches diftance every way: if they are to ftand to
grow large, they muft be feparated to ten inches di¬
ftance. The fecond feafon for fowing carrots is in Fe¬
bruary. This muft be done under a wall or hedge, on
warm banks : but thofe which are to be on open large
quarters ffiould not be fown till the beginning of March.
In July, carrots may be fown for an autumnal crop ;
and laftly, in the end of Auguft, for thofe which are to
ftand the winter. Thefe laft will be fit for ufe in March,
before any of the fpring ones; but they are feldom fo
tender or well tafted. In order to preferve carrots for
ufe all winter, they are to be dug up in the beginning
of November, and laid in a dry place in fand ; and
thefe roots being again planted in February, will ripen
feeds in Auguft for fuceeeding crops: the longcft and
ftraighteft roots are to be chofen for this purpofe.
Under the article Agriculture, n° 44. we have
taken notice of the good properties of carrots as a food
for cattle. They have been greatly recommended as
proper for fattening hogs ; but from fome experiments
mentioned in the GeorgicalPjfays, it appears, thattho’
the bacon thus fed is of excellent quality, the feeding
is confiderably dearer than that fed with peafe, pollard,
&c. In the fame effays, the following experiment is
mentioned by Dr Hunter, concerning the propriety of
raifing carrots for the ufe of the diftiller. “ In the
month of Odfober (1773), I took 24 buffiels of car¬
rots. After being waffied, topped, and tailed, I put
them into a large brewing copper with four gallons of
water; and covering them up with cloths to haften
the maceration, I ordered a fire to be kindled under¬
neath, which in a ffiort time reduced the whole into a
tender pulp. They were then put into a common
ferew-prefs, and the juice taken from them; which,
together with the liquor left in the copper, was run
through a flannel bag. The juice was then returned
into the copper ; and, as it was my defign to make it
13 Y 2 into
Daucus,
or Carrot.
DAY [ 2384 I * DAY
Caucus, Into ale, I put to it a proportionable quantity of hops,
■pavenant. ,p}ie liqUor Was then boiled about an hour, when it ac¬
quired both the tafte and colour of wort. It was next
put into a cooler, and afterwards into the working
vefiel, where the yeaft was added to it. It worked
kindly, and in all refpefts was treated as ale. I al¬
lowed it to remain in the calk about four months, when
I broached it, but found it of a thick, muddy appear¬
ance. I attempted to fine it, but in vain. The tafte
was by no means difpleafing, as it much refembled
malt liquor. My firft intention being fruftrated, I
threw it into tl-e Hill, being about 40 gallons in mea-
fure, and by two diftillations obtained four gallons of
a clean proof fpirit. It had, however, contrafted a
flavour from the hop, which Ihould be left out when
the intention is to reduce the liquor into fpirit. From
a grofs calculation I am induced to think that a good
acre of carrots manufactured in this manner, will leave
a profit of L. 40, after deducing the landlord’s rent,
cultivation, diftillation, and other iircidental expences.
In this calculation, I prefume that the fpirit is worth
fix Ihillings per gallon, and not excifed. An acre of
barley will by no means produce fo much fpirit. A
rich Tandy loam is the bell land for carrots; which, af¬
ter the crop is removed, will be in high cultivation for
Attempts have alfo been made to prepare fugar from
carrots, but without fuccefs; a thick fyrupy matter
like treacle being only obtainable.—Raw carrots are gi¬
ven to children troubled with worms. They pafsthro’
moft people but little changed.—A poultice made of
the roots hath been found to mitigate the pain and a-
bate the ftenchoffoul and cancerous ulcers.—Crickets
are very fond of carrots ; and are eafily deftrqyed'by
making a pafte of powdered arfenic, wheat-meal, and
fcraped carrots, which mull be placed near their habi¬
tations.—By their ftrong antifeptic .qualities, a mar¬
malade made from carrots has alfo been found ufeful
in preventing and curing the fea-fcurvy.—The feeds
have been reckoned carminative and diuretic; and were
formerly much ufed as a remedy for the ftone, but are
at prefent difregarded.— Carrots were firft introduced
into England, by the Flemings, in the reign of queen
Elizabeth.
DAVENANT (Sir William), an eminent poet in
the 17th century, was born at Oxford in 1606. After
fome ftay at the univerfity, he entered into the fervice of
Frances firft duchefs of Richmond, and afterward of
Fulke Grevil, lord Brook; who having an excellent
tafte for poetry, was much charmed with him. He
got great efteem by writing poems and plays; and up¬
on the death of Ben Johnfon was created poet-laureat.
He wrote his poem Gondibert at Paris. He formed
a defign for carrying over a confiderable number of
artificers, efpecially weavers, to Virginia, by the en¬
couragement of Henrietta Maria, the rjueen-mother of
England, who obtained leave for him ©f the king of
France. But he and his company were feized by fome
parliament ■ ps, and he carried prifooer firft to the Ifle
of Wight, and then to the Tower of London ; but, by
the mediation of Milton and others, he got his liberty
as a prifoner at large. At this time tragedies and co¬
medies being prohibited, he contrived to fet up an O-
pera, to be performed by declamations and mufic. This
Italian opera began in Rutland-houfe in Charter-
houfe-yard, 1656 ; but was afterwards removed to the Daveirant
Cock-Pit in Drury-Lane, and was much frequented D.Jjja
for many years. In 1648, his Madagafcar, with other 
poems, were printed. He died in 1668.
DAVENANT (Dodor Charles), an eminent ci¬
vilian and writer, eldeft fon of the preceding, and edu¬
cated in Cambridge : he wrote feveral political tra&s;
and likewife plays. He was (1685) impowered, with
the matter of the revels, to infped the plays defigned
for the ftage, that no immoralities might be prefented.
His Effays on Trade are in high efteem ; and were
lately reprinted in 5 vols. 8vo. Dodor Davenant was
infpedor-general of exports and imports; and died in
lytz.
DAVENTRY, or Daintry, a handfome town of
Northamptonfhire in England, fituated on the fide of a
hill on the great road to Chefter and Carliile. W. Long,
1. 15. N. Lat. 52. 12.
DAUGHTER, ///<?, a female child. See the ar¬
ticle Children.
DAVID, king of Ifrael, and Hebrew poet, was
born at Bethlehem 1085, and died 1014 years B. C.
His hiftory is particularly recorded in the facred wri¬
tings.
Sr DAVID’s, an epifcopal town of Pembroke-
fhire, in S. Wales; but has neither, market nor fair.
It is feated in a barren foil on the river Hen, not a
mile from the fea-ftiore. It was once a confiderable
place, and had walls, which are now demoliftied; but
it is fmall at prefent, and thinly inhabited; however,
the cathedral is a pretty good ftru&ure. From the
•cape, near this place, there is a prafpeft into Ireland.
W. Lon. 5. 20. N. Lat. 52. o.
St David’s, a town and fort of Afia, in the pe*
ninfula on this fide the Ganges, and on the coaft of
Coromandel. It is an Englifh fa&ory, and one of the
ftrongeft places they have in the Eaft-Indies. The
fort ftands clofe to the river, and the territory belong¬
ing to it is 8 miles on the fea-ftiore, and 4 within land.
It produces good long-cloths, chints, callicoes, and
muilins. Each houfe has a gardenand there are plenty
of black cattle, but fmall. The rivers and fea abound
with excellent fifti. It is 80 miles S. of Fort St
George. E. Long. 79. 55. N. Lat. 11. 30.
DAVIES (Sir John), an eminent lawyer and
poet, born about the year 1570. He firft diftinguifhed
himfelf by his poem Nofce Teipfum on the Immortality
of the Soul. He became attorney-general, and fpeaker
of the Houfe of Commons in Ireland ; and afterward
was appointed lord chief juftice of the court of King’s
Bench in England, but died before his inftallation, in
1626. He publilhed many law trafts ; but was efteem-
ed more of a fcholar and a wit, than of a lawyer.
DAVILA (Henrico Catherino), a celebrated
hiftorian, was born of an illuftrious family in the Iflc
of Cyprus ; but was obliged to leave his country, on
its being taken by the Turks, in 1571. He firft re¬
tired to Avila in Spain, whence his family fuppofed
they had derived their name and origin ; from tbence
he went to France, and made himfelf known at court
under the reigns of Henry TIL and Henry the Great.
He there diftinguifhed himfelf on feveral occafions by
his valour ; and at length went to Venice, where he had
a very handfome penfion fettled upon him by that re¬
public, in whofe fervice his brother Lewis Davila had
bee*
D A U
Ba-vis been a commander. Davila, while he was at Venice,
11^. wrote his admirable Hiftory of the Civil Wars of
allp 111' France, which contains every thing worth notice that
pafled from the death of Henry II. in 1559, to the
peace of Vervins in 1598. He was killed about the
year 1635, by a gentleman of Verona; who, in a dif-
pute about furnifliing him with carriages in purfuance
of his having a commiffion from the republic, difehar-
ged a piltol at Davila, and wounded him in fuch a man¬
ner, that he died foon after. Davila’s fon, a youth of
about 18, being prefent, had the fpirit to revenge the
death of his father; for, tnltantly rulhing upon the
murderer, he cut him in pieces.
DAVIS (John), a famous navigator in the i6ch
century, w’as born at Sandridge, near Dartmouth, in
Devonlhire; and diftinguiihed himfelf by making three
voyages to the moft northern parts of America, in or¬
der to difeover a North-weft palfage to the Eaft-Indies;
in which he difeovered the Straits which bear his name.
He aftevwards performed five voyages to the Eaft-
Indies; in the laft of which he was ilain in a defpe-
rate fight with fome Japanefe, near the eoaft of Malac¬
ca, on the 27th of December 1605. He wrote an ac¬
count of his feeond voyage for the difeovery of the
North-weft paflage; a Voyage to the Eaft-Indies;
and other tra&s.
Davis’s Straits. See iVew Britain.
DAVIT, in a (hip, a long beam of timber, repre-
fented by a, a, Plate LXXXVII. fig. 2. and ufed as
* crane whereby to hoift the flukes of the anchor to the
top of the bow, without injuring the fides of the (hip
as it afeends 3 an operation which, by mariners, is cal¬
led fifhing the anchor. The anchors being fituated on
both the bows, the davit may be occafionally Ihifted,
fo as to project over either fide of the Ihip, according
to the pofition of that anchor on which it is employed.
The inner end of the davit is fecured by being thruft
into a fquare ring of iron h, which is bolted to the
deck, and forelocked under the beams. This ring,
which is called the fpan-Jhackle, exhibited at large by
fig. 9. is fixed exaffly in the middle of the deck, and
clofe behind the foremaft. Upon the outer end of the
davit is hung a large block c, through which a ftrong
rope traverfes, called the fi/h-pendent, d; to whofe
foremoft end is fitted a large iron hook e, and to its
after-end a tackle or complication of pullies f; the for¬
mer of which is called the fijh-hook, and the latter
the f/f?-tackle.
The davit, therefore, according to the fea-phrafe, is
employed to fijh the anchor; which being previoufly
tatted, the filh-hook is fattened upon its flukes ; and
the effort of the tackle being tranfmitted to the hook,
by means of the fifh-pendent, draws up that part of.the
.anchor fufficiently high upon the bow to faften it,
which is done by the Jhank-pabiter. See that article.
—There is alfo a davit of a fmalkr kind occafionally
fixed in the long-boat, and employed to weigh the
anchor therein.
DAUPHIN, a title given to the eldeft fon of
France, and heir prefumptive of the crown, on account
of the province of Dauphiny ; which, in 1343, was
given to Philip of Valois, on this condition, by Hum¬
bert, dauphin of the Viennois.
The feigneurs or lords of Auvergne have likewife
.borne the appellation of dauphin} but the dauphins of
DAY
Auvergne held it not till a good while after thofe of BaupMny
the Viennois, and even received it from them. II
DAUPHINY, a province of France, bounded on
the weft by the river Rhone, on the north by the
Rhone and Savoy, on the fouth by Provence, and on
the eaft by the Alps. Hence the prefumptive heir of
France is called the Dauphin. In fome places it is
very fertile; and produces corn, wine, olives, woad, cop¬
peras, filk, cryftal, iron, and copper. But the greatefl:
part of this province is barren, and the inhabitants
are obliged to go into other countries for fubfiftence.
The mountains abound in fimples and game of all forts }
and here are fir-trees proper for mails. The principal
rivers are, the Rhone, the Durance, the Ifere, and the
Drone. There a great number of mineral fprings; and
Grenoble is the capital town.
DAURAT (John), an eminent French poet, born
in 1507. In the reign of Henry II. he was preceptor
to the king’s pages, and Charles IX. who took great
delight in his converfation, and honoured him with the
title of his poet : but his generofity and wan* of ma¬
nagement, placed him in that clafs of itarned men who
have been very near ftarving. Conformable to the tafte
of the age, he had fo much flcill in making anagrams,
that feveral illuftrious perfons gave him tiieir names to
anagrammatife : he alfo undertook to explain the Cen¬
turies of Nottradamus. Making verfes was a difeafe
in him : for no book was printed, nor did any perfon
of confequence die, but Daurat made fome verfes on
the occafion; as if he had been poet in ordinary, or his
mufe had been a hired mourner, to the whole kingdom.
Scaliger tells us, that he fpent the latter part of his
life in endeavouring to find all the bible in Homer. He
died in 1588.
DAY, according to the moft natural and obvious
fenfe of the word, fignifies that fpace of time during
which it continues to be light; in contradiftinftion to
night, being that partition of time wherein it is dark ;
but the fpace of time fn which it is light, being fome-
what vague and indeterminate, the time between the
rifing and the fetting of the fun is ufually looked on as
the day ; and the time which lapfes from its fetting to
its rifing again, the night.
The word day is often taken in a large fenfe, fo as
to include the night alfo^ or to denote the time of a
wbole apparent revolution of the fun round the earth ;
in which fenfe it is called by fome a natural day, and
by others an artificial one : but, to avoid confufion, it
is ufual to call it in the former fenfe limply the day,
and in the latter a nychthemeron ; by which term that
acceptation of it is aptly denoted, as it implies both
day and night.
The nychthemeron is divided into twenty-four parts,
called hours; which are of two forts, equal and unequal
or temporary. See the article Hour.
Different nations begin their day at a different hour.
Thus the Egyptians began their day at midnight; from
whom Hippocrates introduced that way of reckoning
into aftronomy, and Copernicus and others have fol¬
lowed him : But the greateft part of aftronomers rec¬
kon the day to begin at noon, and fo count twenty-
four hours, till the noon of the next day ; and not
twice twelve, according to the vulgar computation.
The method of beginning the day at midnight prevails
alfo in Great Britain, France, Spain, and moft parts of
Europe,
[ 2385 ]
DAY [ 2386 ] DAY
Day-coal, Europe. See Astronomy, n® 300.
~The Babylonians began their day at fun-rifing;
reckoning the hour immediately before its rifing again,
the twenty-fourth hour of the day ; from whence the
hours reckoned in this way are called the Babylonic. In
feveral parts of Germany, they begin their day at fun-
fetting, and reckon on til! it fets next day, calling that
the twenty-fourth hour: thefe are generally termed Ita¬
lian hours. The Jews alfo began their nychthemeron
at fun-fetting: but then they divided it into twice
twelve hours, as we do; reckoning twelve for the day,
be it long or Ihort, and twelve for the night; fo that
their hours continually varying with the day and night,
the hours of the day were longer than thofe of the
night for one half year, and the contrary the other;
from whence their hours are called temporary : thofe
at the time of the equinoxes became equal, becaufe then
thofe of the day and night are fo. The Romans alfo
reckoned their hours after this manner, as do the Turks
at this day.
This kind of hours is called planetary, becaufe the
feven planets were anciently looked upon as preliding
over the affairs of the world, and to take it by turns
each of thefe hours, according to the following order:
Saturn firft, then Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mer¬
cury, and laft of all the Moon : hence they denomina¬
ted each day of the week from that planet whofe turn
it was to preiide the iirft hour of the nychthemeron.
Thus, afiigning the firft hour of Saturday to Saturn,
the fecond will fall to Jupiter, the third to Mars; and
fo the twenty-fecond of the fame nychthemeron will
fall to Saturn again, and therefore the twenty-third to
Jupiter, and the laft to Mars : fo that on the firft hour
of the next day, it will fall to the Sun to prefide; and
by the like manner of reckoning, the firft hour of the
next will fall to the Moon ; of the next, to Mars ; of
the next, to Mercury; of the next, to Venus: hence,
the days of the week came to be diftinguifhed by the
Latin names of Dies Saturn's, Solis, Luna, Martis,
Mercurii, Jovis, and Veneris; and among us, by the
names of Saturday, Sunday, Monday, &c.
Day-CW/, in natural hiftory, a name given by the
miners of England, and the common people who live
in coal-countries, to that feam or ftratum of the
coal which lies uppermoft in the earth. The fame
vein or ftratum of coal ufually runs a great way thro’
the country, and dips and rifes in the earth at different
places ; fo that this upper ftratum, or day-coal, is, in
the various parts of the fame ftratum, fometimes near
the furface, and fometimes many fathoms deep. The
fubterranean fires found in fome of our coal-countries
feed principally on this coal; and are nearer to or far¬
ther from the furface, as it rifes or finks.
DAY-iVttf, among fowlers, a net generally ufed for
taking fuch fmall birds as play in the air, and will ftoop
either to prey, gig, or the like; as larks, linnets, bunt-
Sportman's ^nSs’ &c‘ t‘rne t*le year ^or u^lng th*8 net is
DiH. from Auguft to November ; and the belt time is very
early in the morning : and it is to be obferved, that
the milder the air, and the brighter the fun is, the bet¬
ter will be the fport, and of longer continuance. The
place where this net fhould be laid, ought to be plain
champaign, either on fhort ftubbles, green lays, or flat
meadow's, near corn-fields, and fomewhat remote from
towms and villages : you mu ft be fure to let your net
lie clofe to the ground, that the birds creep not out Day-net.
and make their efcape.—The net is made of a fine ' |
pack-thread with a fmall melh, not exceeding half an
inch fquare ; it muft be three fathoms long, and but
one broad : it muft be verged about with a fmall, but
ftrong, cord ; and the two ends extended upon two
fmall, long, poles, fuitable to the breadth of the net,
with four flakes, tail-ftrings, and drawing-lines.—This
net is.compofed of two, which muft be exadtly alike ;
and are to be laid oppofite to one another, fo even and
clofe, that when they are drawn and pulled over, the
fides muft meet and touch each other.—You muft flake
this net down with ftrong flakes, very ftiff on their
lines, fo that you may wnth a nimble touch caft them
to and fro at pleafure ; then faften your drawing-cords
or hand-lines (of which there muft be a dozen at leaft,
and each tw-o yards long) to the upper end of the fore-
moft ftaves : and fo extend them of fuch a ftraightnefs,
that with a little ftrength they may rife up in the nets,
and caft them over.
Your nets being thus laid, place your gigs, or play¬
ing-wantons, about 20 or 30 paces beyond, and as
much on this fide your nets : the gigs muft be faftened
to the tops of long poles, and turned into the wind, fo
as they may play to make a noife therein. Thefe gigs
are a fort of toys made of long ^oofe-feathers, like
(huttle-cocks, and with little fmall tunnels of wood
running in broad and flat fwan-quills, made round like
a fmall hoop; and fo, with longer firings faftened to a
pole, will, with any fmall wind or air, move after fuch
a manner, that birds will come in great flocks to play
about them.
When you have placed your gigs, then place your
ftale ; which is a fmall flake of wood, to prick down
into the earth, having in it a mortice-hole, in which
a fmall and flender piece of wood, about two foot
long, is faftened, fo as it may move up and down
at pleafure : and faftea to this longer flick a fmall line,
which, running through a hole in the flick above-
mentioned, and fo coming up to the place where you
are to fit, you may, by drawing the line up and down
with your right hand, raife up the longer flick as you
fee occafion.
Faften a live lark, or fuch like bird, to this longer
flick, which, with the line making it to ftir up and
down by your pulling, will entice the birds to come to
your net.
There is another ftale, or enticement, to draw on
thefe birds, called a looking-glafs; which is a round
flake of wood, as big as a man’s arm, made very (harp
at the end, to thruft it into the ground : they make it
very hollow in the upper part, above five fingers deep;
into which hollow they place a three-fquare piece of
wood about a foot long, and each two inches broad,
lying upon the top of the flake, and going with a foot
into the hollownefs: which foot muft have a great knob
at the top, and another at the bottom, with a deep
flendernefs between ; to which flendernefs you are to
faften a fmall pack-thread, which, running through a
hole in the fide of the flake, muft come up to the place
where you fit. The three-fquare piece of wood which
lies on the top of the flake, muft be of fuch a poife and
evennefs, and the foot of the focket fo fmooth and
round, that it may whirl and turn round upon the leaft
touch ; winding the .pack-thread fo many times about
Days,
Daze.
DAY [ 2387 ] DAY
it, which being fuddenly drawn, and as fuddenly let
 go, will keep the engine in a conftant rotatory motion:
then faften with glue on the uppermoft flat fquares of
the three-fquare piece, about twenty ,/mall pieces of
looking-glafs, and paint all the fquare wood between
them of a light and lively red : which, in the conti¬
nual motion, will give fuch a reflexion, that the birds
will play about to admiration until they are taken.
Both this and the other ftale are to be placed in the
middle between the two nets, about two or three feet
diftance from each other; fo that, in the falling of the
nets, the cords may not touch or annoy them: neither
muft they ftand one before or after another; the glafs
being kept in a continual motion, and the bird very
often fluttering. Having placed your nets in this
manner, as alfo your gigs and {tales, go to the further
end of your long-drawing lines and ftale lines; and,
having placed yourfelf, lay the main drawing line acrofs
your thigh, and, with your left, pull the Itale-line to
fhew the birds; and when you perceive them to play
near and about your nets and (tales, then pull the net
over with both hands, with a quick, but not too hafty
motion; for otherwife your fport will be fpoiled.
See Plate XCV. fig. 1. where A (hews the bodies of
the main net, and how they ought to belaid. B, the
tail-lines, or the hinder lines, flaked to the ground.
C, the fore-lines flaked alfo to the ground. D, the
bird-ftale. E, the looking-glafs ftale. G, the line
which draws the bird-ftale. H, the line that draws
the glafs-ftalc. I, the drawing, double lines of the
nets, which pulls them over. K, the flakes which
flake down the four nether points of the net, and the
two tail-lines. L, the flakes that flake down the fore-
lines, M, the Angle line, with the wooden button to
pull the net over with. N, the flake that flakes down
the Angle line, and where the man fliould fit; find Q
the gig. >
Days 0/' Grace are thofe granted by the court at the
prayer of the defendant, or plaintiff, in whofe delay
it is.
Days of gtace, in commerce, are a cuftomary num¬
ber of days allowed for the payment of a bill of ex¬
change, &c. after the fame becomes due.
Three days of grace are allowed in Britain ; ten in
France and Dantzic; eight at Naples ; fix at Venice,
Amfterdam, Rotterdam, and Antwerp ; four at Franc-
fort; five in Leipfic; twelve at Hamburg ; fix in Por¬
tugal ; fourteen in Spain ; thirty in Genoa, &c.
Day’s-.M^w, in the north of England, an arbitrator
orpetfon chofen to determine an affair in difpute.
Intercalary Days. See Intercalary Days.
Day’s-among feamen, the reckoning or ac¬
count of the .{hip’s courfe during 24 hours, or between
noon and noon, according to the rules of trigonome¬
try. See D'EA.D-Reckoning.
DAZE, in natural hiftory, a name given by our
miners to a glittering fort of ftone, which often occurs
in their works ; and, as it is unprofitable fubftance, is
one of thofe things they call 'weeds. The word daze
takes in with them every ftone that is hard and glit¬
tering ; and therefore it comprehends the whole genus
of the telangia, or ftony modules, which have the
flakes of talc in their fubftance: thefe, according to the
colour of the ftony matter they are bedded in, and their
own colour, give the names of black daze, white, red,
znHyellonx) daze, to thefe ftones.
DEACON, Diaconus, a perfon in the loweft de¬
gree of holy orders, whofe bufinefs is to baptize, read in
the church, and afiift at the celebration of the eucharift.
The word is formed from the Latin Diaconus, of the
Greek Jiaxovo®-, minifter, fervant. Deacons were in-
flituted feven in number, by the apoftles, edfts chap.vi.
which number was retained a long time in feveral
churches. Their office was to ferve in the Agapae,
and to diftribute the bread and wine to the communi¬
cants. Another part of the office of deacons, was to
be a fort of monitors and direftors to the people in the
exercife of their public devotions in the church ; for
which purpofe they made ufe of certain known forms of
words, to give notice when each part of the fervice be¬
gan. Whence they are fometimes called eirokerukes ;
“ the holy cryers of the church.”
Deacons had, by licence and authority from the bi-
fhop, a power to preach, to reconcile penitents and
grant them abfolution, and to reprefent their bilhops
in general councils. Their office out of the church was
to take care of the neceffitous, fuch as orphans, wi¬
dows, prifoners, and all the poor and fick who had any
title to be maintained out of the revenues of the church;
to inquire into the morals and converfation of thepeople,
and tomaketheir report thereof to the biftiop. Whence,
on account of the variety of bufinefs, it was ufual to
have feveral deacons in the fame church.
In the Romifh church, it is the deacon’s office to in-
cenfe the officiating prieft or prelate ; to lay the cor¬
poral on the altar ; to receive the patten or cup from
the fubdeacon, and prefect them to the perfon officiat¬
ing ; to incenfe the choir; to receive the pax from the
officiating prelate, and carry it to the fubdeacon; and
at the pontifical mafs, when the bifhop gives the blef-
fing, to put the mitre on his head, and to take off the
archbiftiop’s pall and lay it on the altar. In Eng¬
land, the form of Ordaining deacons, declares that it is
their office to affift the prieft in the diftribution of the
holy communion ; in which, agreeably to the pra&ice
of the ancient church, they are confined to the admi-
nifteringthe wine to the communicants. A deacon in
England is not capable of any ecelefiaftical promotion ;
yet he may be a chaplain to a family, curate to a be-
neficed clergyman, or lefturer to a parifti-church. He
may be ordained at 23 years of age, anno currente ;
but it is exprefly provided, that the bifhop {hall not
ordain the fame perfon a prieft and deacon in the fame
day. Deacons, according to St Paul, fhould bechafte,
fincere, and blamelefs ; neither great drinkers, nor gi¬
ven to filthy lucre : they fhould hold the myftery of
the faith in a pure confidence ; and fltould be well ap¬
proved before they are admitted to the miniftry.
DEACONESS, a female deacon ; an order of wo¬
men who had their diflindl offices and fervices in the
primitive church. This office appears as ancient as the
apoftolical age ; for St Paul calls Phebe a fervant of
the ichurch of Cenchrea. The original word is
koxoc, anfwerable to the Latin word minijlra. Ter-
tullian calls them vidua, widows, becaufe they were
commonly chofen out of the widows of the church;
and, for the fame reafon, Epiphahius, and the coun¬
cil of Laodicea, calls them xpicfiyldac, elderly women,
becaufe none but fuch were ordinarily taken into this
office. For, indeed, by fome ancient laws, thefe four
qualffi-
Deaconcfs.
D E A [ 2388 ] D E A
Pcad. qualifications were required in every one that was to
be admitted into this order. 1. That flie fhouid be a
widow. 2. That (he fhould be a widow that had born
children. 3. A widow that was but once married.
4. One of a confiderable age, 40, 50, or 60 years old.
Though all thefe rules admitted of exceptions. Con¬
cerning their ordination, whether it was always per¬
formed by impofition of hands, the learned are much
divided in their fentiments. Baronius and Valefius
think they were not, and make no other account of
them than as mere lay-perfons. But the author of the
conftitutions, fpeaking of their ordination, requires
the bifhop to ufe impofition of hands, with a form of
prayer which is there recited. We are not, however,
to imagine, that this ordination gave them any power
to execute any part of the facerdotal office. They
were only to perform fomeinferiorfervices of thechurch,
and thofe chiefly relating to the women for whofe fakes
they were ordained. One part of their office was to
affiit the minifter at the baptizing of women, to undrefs
them for immerfion, and to drefs them again, that the
whole ceremony might be performed with all the de¬
cency becoming fo facred an a&ioo. Another part of
their office was to be private catechifts to the women-
catechumens who were preparing for baptifm. They
were likewife to attend the women that were fick and
in diltrefs ; to minifter to, martyrs and confeflbrs in pri-
fon ; to attend the womens gate in the church j and,
laftly, to affign all women their places in the church,
regulate their behaviour, and prefide over the reft of
the widows; whence in fome canons they are ftyled
xgoKxIS-t/tivxi, “ governefles.” This order, which fince
the 10th or 12th century has been wholly laid afide,
was hot abolilhtd every where at once, but continued
in the Greek church longer than in the Latin, and in
fome of the Latin churches longer than in others.
DEAD languages. See Philology, chap. iii.
Prefervation of Dead Bodies. See Embalming.
YiTL&n-Lights, certain wooden ports which are made
to fallen into the cabin windows, to prevent the waves
from giifhing into the (hip in a high fea. As they are
made exaftly to fit the windows, and are ftrong enough
to refift the waves, they are always fixed in on the ap¬
proach of a ftorm, and the glafs lights taken out, which
mull otherwife be (battered to pieces by the furges,
and fuffer great quantities of water to enter the veffel.
T)'e.M>-mens-eyes, in the fea-language, a kind of
blocks with many holes in them, but no (heevers,
whereby the (hrowds are fattened to the chains 1 the
crow-feet reeve alfo through thefe holes ; and, in fome
(hips, the main-days are fet tight in them; but then
they have only one hole, through which the lanyards
are pafied feveral times. See Plate LXXXVII. fig. 3.
Dead’s Part. See Law, N° clxxxi. 6.
TtKAV-Reckening, in navigation, the judgement
or eftirnation which is made of the place where a (hip
is fituated; without any obfervation of the heavenly
bodies. It is difeovered by keeping an account of the
diftance (he has run by the log, and of her courfe (leered
by the compafs ; and-by redlifying thefe data by the
ufual allowances for drift, lee-way, &c. according to the
(hip’s known trim. This reckoning, however, is always
to be corredled, as often as any good obfervation of
the fun can be obtained-
Dead-Sew, in geography, a lake of Judea, into which
the river Jordan difeharges itfelf; being about 70 miles Deadly,
long, and 20 broad. See Asphaltites. Deatnefa.
Dead-To//, a difeafe incident to young trees, and
cured by cutting off the dead parts clofe to the next
good twig or moot, and claying them over as in
grafting.
Dk an-Water, at fea, the eddy-water juft aftern of
a (hip ; fo called, becaufe it does not pafs away fo fwift
as the water running by her fides does.' They fay
that a (hip makes much dead-water, when (he has a
great eddy following her (tern.
DEADLY-carrot. See Thapsia.
jy^ADnY-Feud, in Englifli law-books, a profeffiott
of irreconcileable enmity, till a perfon is revenged by
the death of his enemy. The word feud is derived
from the German/oW; which, as Hottoman obferves,
fignifies mo do bellwn, msdo capitales inimieitias *. Such * See Feuf^
enmity and revenge was allowed by law in the time of l
the Saxons, viz. If any man was killed, and a pecu¬
niary fatisfaftion was not made to the kindred, it was
lawful for them to take up arms and revenge themfelves
on the murderer : which was called deadly feud. And
this probably was the original of an Appeal.
DEAFNESS, the (late of a perfon who wants the
fenfe of hearing ; or the difeafe of the ear, which pre¬
vents its due reception of founds j;. f See (Ih-
Deafnefs generally arifes either from an obftrudlion, ?e.x fub' ‘
or a compreffion, of the auditory nerve ; or from fome .
colleftion of matter in the cavities of the inner ear ; or ]
from the auditory paffage being (lopped up by fome
hardened excrement; or, laftly, from fome excrefcence,
a fwelling of the glands, or fome foreign body intro¬
duced within it,
Thofe born deaf are alfo dumb, as not being able
to learn any language ; at leail in the common way.
However, as the eyes in fome meafure ferve them for
ears, they may underftand what is faid by the mo¬
tion ofthe lips, tongue, &c. of the fpeaker ; and even
accoftom themfelves to move their own, as they fee
other people do; and by this means learn to fpeak.—
Thus it was that Dr Wallis taught two young gentle¬
men born deaf, to know what was faid to them, and
to return pertinent anfwers. Digby gives us another
inftance of the fame, within his own knowledge. And
there was a Swifs phyfician lately living at Amfterdam,
one John Conrad Amman, who effefted the fame in
feveral children born deaf, with furprifing fuccefs. He
has reduced the thing to a fixed art or method, which
he has pnbliftied in his Surdus Loquens, Amftelod. 1692,
and de Loquela, ibid. 1700.
In the Phil. Tranf. N° 312. we have an account by
Mr Waller, R. S. Seer, of a man and his filler, each
about 50 years old, born in the fame town with Mr
Waller, who had neither of them the lead fenfe of
hearing ; yet both of them knew, by the motion of
the lips only, whatever was faid to them, and would
anfwer pertinently to the queftion propofed. Itfeems
they could both hear and fpeak when children ; but
loft their fenfe afterwards ; whence they retained their
fpeech, which, though uncouth, was yet intelligible.
Such another inftance is that of Mr Goddy’s daugh¬
ter, minifter of St Gervais in Geneva, related by bf-
(hop Burnet. “ At two years old they perceived (lie
had loft her hearing; and ever fince, though (he hears
great noifes, yet hears nothing of what is faid to her.
But
D E A [ 2389 ] D E A
Deal But by obferving the motions of the mouth and lips of
^ others, fhe acquired fo many words, that out of thefe
eit11* ihe has formed a fort of jargon, in w'hich fhe can
hold converfation whole days with thofe that can
fpeak her language. She knows nothing that is faid
to her, unlefs (he fee the motion of their mouths that
fpeak to her ; ' fo that in the night they are obliged to
light candles to fpeak to her. One thing will appear
the ftrangeft part of the .whole narration : (he has a
filler, with whom (he has pra£tifed her language more
than with any body elfe; and in the night, by laying
her hand on her lifter’s mouth, (he can perceive by
that what (he faith, and fo can difcourfe with her in the
* See fur- dark.” Burn. Let. IV. p. Z48 *.
tide DamJ- ^ *s observable that deaf perfons, and feveral others
ntjS' thick of hearing, hear better and more ealily if a loud
noife be raifed at the time when you fpeak to them :
which is owing, no doubt, to the greater tenlion of the
ear-drum on that occafion. Or Willis mentions a deaf
woman, who, if a drum were beat in the room, could
hear any thing very clearly ; fo that her hnfband hired
a drummer for a fervant, that by this means he might
hold converfation with his wife. The fame author
mentions another, who, living near a fteeple, could
always hear very well if there was a ringing of three
or four bells, but never elfe.
DEAL, a thin kind of fir-planks, of great life in
carpentry: they are formed by fawing the trunk of a
tree into a great manylongitudinal diviiions, of more or
lefs thicknefs according to the purpofes they are in¬
tended to ferve.
A very good method of feafojiing planks of deal and
fir, is to throw them into fait water as foon as they are
fawed ; and keep them there three or four days, fre¬
quently turning them. In this cafe they will be ren¬
dered much harder, by drying afterwards in the air
and fun : but neither this nor any other method yet
known will preferve them from (hrinking.
Rods of deal expand laterally, or crofs the grain, in
moift weather, and contraft again in dry ; and thence
have been found to make an ufeful hygrometer.
Deal, a town of Kent in England, lying between
Dover and Sandwich, in E. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. 51.
16. is fuppofed to be the Dola of Nennius, and is fi-
tuated on a flat and level coaft. This town, according
to Dr Campbell, juftifies an obfervation he had made
in favour of (ituations of this kind, viz. that they are
lefs liable than others to be injured by the fea. The
town of Deal, as far as we are able to judge,; except
it may be the fea’s (hrinking a little from it, is in much
the fame condition in which it ever was, even from the ear-
lieft accounts. The learned Dr Halley has proved, Mif-
cellanea Curiofa, vol. iii. p. 426, that Julius Caefar
landed here, Auguft 26th, the year before the coming
of Chrift55.—The great conveniency of landing, has
been of infinite fervice to the place ; fo that it is large
and populous, divided into the upper and lower towns,
adorned with many fair buildings, and is in effect the
principal place on the Downs.
DEAN, an erclefiaftieal dignitary in cathedral and
collegiate churches, and head of the Chapter.
Rural Dean, called alfo Arch-prefbyter^ originally
exercifed jurifdi&ion over ten churches in the country,
and afterwards became only the bifhop’s fubftitute, to
grant letters of adminiftration, probate of wills, &c.;
to convocate the clergy ; and to figirify to them fome-
timesby letters the bifliop’swill, and to give indmSlion to
the arch-deacon. Their office is now loft in that of the
arch-deacons and chancellors.
Dean of a Monafiery, was a fuperior eftablifhed un¬
der the abbot, to eafe him in taking care of ten monks;
whence he was called decanus.
Dean and Chapter, are the council of the bifhop,
to affift him with their advice in affairs of religion, and
alfo in the temporal concerns of his fee. When the
reft of the clergy were fettled in the feveral parilhes of
each diocefe, thefe were referved for the celebration of
divine fervice in the bifhop’s own cathedral ; and the
chief of them, who prefided over the reft, obtained the
name of decanus or dean, being probably at firft ap¬
pointed to fuperintend ten canons or prebendaries.
All ancient deans are eledted by the chapter, by
conge d'eflire from the king, and letters miffive of re¬
commendation ; in the fame manner as biflrops : but
in thofe chapters that were founded by Henry VIII.
out of the fpoils of the diffolved monafteries, the deanerv
is donative, and the inftallation merely by the king*
letters*patent. The chapter, confiding of canons or
prebendaries, are fometimes appointed by the king,
fometimes by the biftiop, and fometimes eledled by each
other.
The dean and chapter, are the nominal ele&ors of
a biftiop. The bifhop is their ordinary and immediate
fuperior ; and has, generally fpeaking, the power of
vifiting them, and correiling their exceffes and enor¬
mities. They had alfo a check on the biftiop at com¬
mon law ; for till the ftatute 32 Hen. VIII. c. 28. his
grant or leafe would not have bound his fucceffors, un¬
lefs confirmed by the dean and chapter.
Dean of Guild. See Law, N° clviii. 11.
DEANERY, tke office of a dean.—Deaneries and
prebends may become void, like a bifhopric, by death,
by deprivation, or by refignation either to the king 01*
biftiop. If a dean, prebendary, or other fpiritual per-
fon, be made a bifhop, all the preferments of which he
was before poffeffed are void ; and the king may pre-
fent to them, in right of his prerogative royal. But
they are not void by the eledion, but only by the con-
fecration.
DE ATH is generally confidered as the reparation
of the foul from the body ; in which fenfe it (lands op -
pofed to life, which confifts in the union thereof.
Phyficians ufually define death by a total ftoppage of
the circulation of the blood, and a ceffation of the animal
and vital fundlions confequent thereon ; as refpiration,
fenfation, &c.
An animal body, by the a&ions infeparable from
life, undergoes a continual change. Its fmalleft
fibres become rigid; its minute veffels grow into folid
fibres no longer pervious to the fluids; its greater vef¬
fels grow hard and narrow; and every thing becomes
contradled, clofed, and bound up : whence the drynefs,
immobility, and extenuation, obferved in old age. By
fuch means the offices of the minuter veffels are de-
ftroyedj; the humours (lagnate, harden, and at length
coalefce with the folids. Thus are the fubtileft fluids
in the body intercepted and loft, the concodlion weak¬
ened, and the reparation prevented ; only the coarfer
juices continue to run (lowly through the greater vef¬
fels, to the prefervation of life, after the animal func-
13 Z tions
Dean
II
Death.
D E A [ 2390 ] DEB
Death, tions are deftroyed. At length, in the procefs of thefe
changes, death xtfelf becomes inevitable, as the necef-
fary confequence of life. But it is rare that life is thus
long protr&dled, or that death fucceeds merely from
the decays and impairment of old age. Difeafes, a
long and horrid train, cut the work (hort.
The figns of death are in many cafes very uncertain.
If we confult what Window or Bruchier have faid on
this fubied, we (hall be convinced, that between life
and death the fliade is fo very undirtinguifhable, that
even all the powers of art can fcarcely determine where
the one ends and the other begins. rldie colour of the
vifage, the warmth of the body, and fupplenefs of the
joints, are but uncertain figns of life ftill fubfifting ;
while, on the contrary, the palenefs of the complexion,
the coldnefs of the body, the ftiffnefs of the extremi¬
ties, the ceffation of all motion, and the total infenli-
bilityof the parts, are but uncertain marks of death be¬
gun. In the fame manner alfo, with regard to the
pulfe and breathing ; thefe motions are often fo kept
jjnder, that it is impofiible to perceive them. By bring¬
ing a looking-glafs near to the mouth of the perfon
fuppofed to be dead, people often exped to find whe¬
ther he breathes or not. But this is a very uncertain
experiment: the glafs is frequently fullied by the va¬
pour of the dead man’s body ; and often the perfon is
ftill alive, though the glafs is no way tarnifhed. In
the fame manner, neither burning nor fcarifying, nei¬
ther noifes in the ears nor pungent fpirits applied to
the noftrils, give certain figns of the difcontinuance of
life ; and there are many inftancesof perfons who have
endured them all, and afterwards recovered, without
any external affiftance, to the aftonilhmentof the fpec-
tators. This ought to be a caution againft hafty bu¬
rials, efpecially in cafes of fudden death, drowning, &c.
Death in Law. In law, there is a natural death
and a civil death : natural, where nature itfelf expires;
civil, where a perfon is not adually dead, but adjudged
fo by law. Thus, if any perfon, for whofe life an eftate
is granted, remains beyond fea, or is otherwife abient,
feven years, and no proof made of his being alive,
he /hall be accounted naturally dead.
c/'Deathbed. SeeLAw, N°clxxxi.38—41.
Death- Watch, in natural hiftory, a little infedt fa¬
mous for a ticking node, like the beat of a watch,
which the vulgar have long taken for a prefage of
death in the family where it is heard: whence it is alfo
called pediculus, futidicus-, mortifaga, pufatorius, &c.
There are two kinds of death-watches. Of the firft
we have a good account in the Phil. Tranf. by Mr Al¬
len. It is a fmall beetle of an inch long, of a dark-
brown colour, fpotted; having pellucid wings under
the vagina, a large cap or helmet on the head, and
two antennas proceeding from beneath the eyes, and
doing the office of probofeides. The part it beats
withal, he obferved, was the extreme edge of the face,
which he chufes to call the upper-lip, the mouth be¬
ing protradted by this bony part, and lying underneath
out of view.
This account is confirmed by Dr Derham ; with this
difference, that inftead of ticking with the upper-lip,
he obferved the infedt to draw back its mouth, and
beat with its forehead. That author had two death-
watches, a male and a female, which he kept alive in
a box feveral months; and could bring one of them to
beat whenever he pleafed, by imitating its beating Death,
By his ticking noife he could frequently invite the male Dehenturc'
to get up upon the other in the way of coition. When
the male found he got up in vain, he would get off a-
gain, beat very eagerly, and then up again : Whence
the ingenious author concludes, thofe pulfations to be
the way whereby thefe infedls woo one another, and
find out and invite each other to copulation.
The fecond kind of death-watch is an infedf in ap¬
pearance quite different from the firft. The former
only beats feven or eight ftrokes at a time, and quicker;
the latter will .beat fome hours together without inter-
milfion ; and his ftrokes are more leifurely, and like
the beat of a watch. This latter is a fmall greyifh in-
fed!, much like a loufe when viewed with the naked eye.
It is very common in all parts of the houfe in the
fummer-months : it is very nimble in running to (bel¬
ter, and (hy of beating when difturbed ; but will beat
very freely before you, and alfo anfwer the beating, if
you can view it without giving it difturbance, or (bak¬
ing the place where it lies, &c. The author cannot,
fay whether they beat in any other thing, but he ne¬
ver heard their noife except in or near paper. As to
their noife, the fame perfon is in doubt, whether it be
made by their heads, or rather fnouts, againft the pa¬
per ; or, whether it be not made after fome fuch man¬
ner as grafhoppers and crickets make their noife. He
inclines to the former opinion : the reafon of his doubt
is, that he obferved the animal’s body to (hake and
give a jerk at every beat, but could fcarce perceive any
part of its body to touch the paper. But its body is
fo fmall and near- the paper, and its motion in tick¬
ing fo quick, that he thinks it might be, yet he not per¬
ceive it. The ticking, as in the other, he judges to
be a wooing-adl; as having obferved another, after much
beating, come andmakeofferstothebeating infedt, who,
after fome offers, left off beating, and got upon the back
the other. When they were joined, he left off again;
and they continued fome hours joined tail to tail, like
dog and bitch in coition. Whether this infedt changes
its (hape and becomes another animal, or not, he can¬
not fay; though he has fome caufe to fufpedt that it
becomes a fort of fly. It is at firft a minute white egg,
much fmaller than the nits office ; though the infedl
is near as big as a loufe. In March it is hatched, and
creeps about with its (hell on. When it firft leaves its
(hell, it is even fmaller than its egg ; though that be
fearce difcernible without a microfcope. In this ftate
it is perfedtly like the mites in cheefe : from the. mite-
ftate they grow’ gradually to their mature perfedt ftate ;
when they become like the old ones, they are at firft
very fmall, but run about much more fwiftly than before.*
DEBENTURE, a term of trade ufed at the cuftom-
houfe for a kind of certificate figned by the officers of
thecuftoms, which entitles a merchant exporting goods
to the receipt of a bounty or draw-back. All mer-
chandifes that are defigned to be taken on board for
that voyage being entered and (hipped, and the (hip
being regularly cleared out, and failed out of port on
her intended voyage, debentures may be made out
from the exporter’s entries, in order to obtain the
drawbacks, allowances bounties, or premiums; which
debentures for foreign goods are to be paid within one
month after demand. And in making out thefe de¬
bentures, it mult be obferved, that every piece of vel-
DEC [ 2391 ] DEC
Debenture lUm, parchment, or paper, containing any debenture
Jl for drawing back cuftoms or duties, mutt, before wri-
ecaiogue. t;ngj damped, and pay a duty of 8d.
The forms of debentures vary, according to the
merchandife exported. In the execution of debentures
for tobacco, it mutt be particularly obfcrved, 1. That
debentures for the fame quantity, may be made on one
or more parchments. 2. That the exporter’s oath mutt
be printed, fpecifying whether he ads for himfelf or
©fl commifiion. If exported to any other foreign ports
than Ireland, the word Ireland mutt be added to the
oath after Great-Britain. 4. That as no tobacco may
be confumed on board fhips of war in Europe, but
what has paid full duties, and been manufadured in
Great Britain, no drawback is to be allowed for to¬
bacco exported in any man of war. 5. That the eight
pounds per hoglhead of 350 pounds, or more, allowed
for draught at importation, mutt not be deduded on
exportation. 6. That debentures for tobacco exported
to Ireland, mutt not be paid till a certificate be pro¬
duced, teftifying the landing thereof. 7. That no
perfons may fwear to the exportation, but fuch as are
permitted to fwear to debentures for other goods. In
debentures for all other foreign goods, no perfon may
be admitted to fwear to the exportation, but the true
exporter, either as a proprietor, or who, being employed
by commifiion, is concerned in the diredion of the
voyage. All kinds of debentures, before delivered or
aid to the exporters, are entered into a feparate book
ept for that purpofe by the colledor and comptroller
of the cuftoms.
DEBITA funih. See Law, N° clxvi. 1.
Debita Frufiuum. See Law. N° clxx. 17.
DEBILITY, among phyficians, a relaxation of
the folids, occaiioning oftentimes weaknefies and faint-
ings.
DEBRECHEN, a town of Upper Hungary, a-
bout 77 miles call of Buda: E, Long. 21. 10. N. Lat.
47- 45-
DEBRUIZED, in heraldry, a term peculiar to
the Englifh, by which is intimated the grievous re-
Hraint of any animal, debarred of its natural freedom,
by any of the ordinaries being laid over it.
DEBT, in law, any thing due to another, whether
it be money, goods, or fervices ; or the adion brought
for recoveririg the fame.
DEBTOR, a perfon who owes any thing to ano¬
ther ; in contradittindlon to creditor, which is he to
the debt is owing.
Debtor, in merchants accounts. SeeBooK-KEEPiNG.
DECAGON, in geometry, a plane figure with ten
-fides and ten angles.
DECAGYNIA, (from ten, and yv™ a wo-
man ;) the name of an order, or fecondary divifion, in
the clafs decandria, of the fexual method, confiding
of plants whofe flowers are furnifhed with ten (lami¬
na and the fame number of ftyles; which laft are con-
fidered by Linnaeus, and the fexualifts, as the female
organs of generation in plants. Neurada, and Ameri¬
can night-lhade, furnifh examples.
DECALOGUE, the ten precepts or commandments
delivered by God to Mofes, after engraving them on
two tables of done.
The Jews, by way of excellence, call thefe com¬
mandments the ten ’words, from whence they had af¬
terwards the name of decalogue : but it is to be obferved, Decan
that they joined the firtl and fecond into one, and di- !l
vided the lad into two : they underftand that againft Decemviri-
dealing, to relate to the dealing of men, or kidnap¬
ping ; alleging, that the dealing one anothers goods
or property, is forbidden in the laft commandment.
The emperor Julian objedled to the decalogue, that
the precepts it contained (thofe only excepted which
concern the worfhip of falfe gods, and the obfervation
of the fabbath) were already fo familiar to all nations,
and fo univerfally received, that they were unworthy,
for that very reafon, to be delivered, by fo great a le-
giflator, to fo peculiar a people. The church of Rome
has (truck the fecond commandment quite out of the
decalogue; and to make their number complete, hath
fplit the tenth into two : The reafon of which may be
ealily conceived.
DECAN, a kingdom of Afia, in the peninfula on
this fide the Ganges, bounded on the fouth by the
kingdom of Bifnagar, on the weft by the ocean, on the
north by Mogulittan, and on the eaft by the moun¬
tains which feparate it from Golconda.
DECA'NDRIA (W ten, and. a hujband) ;
Linnasus’s tenth clafs, comprehending thofe herma¬
phrodite plants which bear flowers with ten (lamina.
See Botany, p. 1292, and Plate LIX. fig. 10.
DECANTATION, among chemitls, &c.the gently
pouring off a liquor from its faeces, by inclining the lip
or canthus of the veffel; whence the name.
DECANUS, in Roman antiquity, an officer who
prefided over the other ten officers, and was head of
the contuberinum, or ferjeant of a file of foldiers.
DECAPRO IT, decemprimi, in Roman antiqui¬
ty, officers for gathering the tributes and taxes.
The decaproti were alfo obliged to pay for the
dead, or to anfwer to the emperor for the quota parts
of fuch as died, out of their own ettates.
DEC ASTYLE, in the ancient architefture, a build¬
ing with an ordnance of ten columns in front, as the
temple of Jupiter Olympius was.
DECEIT, inlaw; afubtle trick, or device, to which
may be added all manner of craft and collufion, or un¬
derhand pra&ice, ufed to defraud another, by any
means whatever.
DECEMBER, the laft month of the year, con¬
fiding of thirty-one days ; and fo called as being the
tenth month in the Roman year, which commenced
with March.
DECEMPEDA, in antiquity, a rule or rod divided
into ten feet, each of which was fubdivided into inches,
and thofe into digits, ufed in meafuring of land, and,
by architefts, in giving the proper dimenfions and pro¬
portions to the parts of their buildings.
DECEMVIRI, in Roman antiquity, ten magi-
(Irates chofen annually at Rome, tp govern the com¬
monwealth inftead of confuls, with an abfolute power
to draw up and make laws for the people.
One of the decemvirs had all the enfigns and ho¬
nours of the funflion, and the reft had the like in their
turn, during the year of their decemvirate. In them
was vetted all the legiflative authority ever enjoyed by
the kings, or, after them, by the confuls. It was the
decemviri that drew up the laws of the Twelve Tables,
thence called leges decemvir ales, which were the whole
ot the Roman law for a confiderable time.
13 Z 2
DE.'
DEC 1 2392 ] DEC
Dscennalia DECENNALIA, ancient Roman feftivals, cele-
(l bratcd by- the emperors every tenth year of their reign,
<:clU5' with facritices, games, and largeifes for the people.
The emperor Auguftus firll inftituted thefe folemnities,
in which he was imitated by his fucceffors. At the
fame time the people offered up vows for the emperor,
and for the perpetuity of the empire ; which were there¬
fore called vota decennalia. Auguftus’s view in efta-
blilhing the decennalia was to-preferve the empire and
the fovereign power without offence or redraint to the
people. For during the celebration of this fead, that
prince ufed to furrender up all his authority into the
hands of the people ; who, filled with joy, and charmed
with the goodnefs of Auguftus, immediately delivered
it him back again.
DE CHALES (Claudius Francis Milliet), an ex¬
cellent mathematician, mechanic, and aftronomer, de-
fcended from a noble family, and born at Chamberry
in 16 J1. His principal performances are an edition of
Euclid’s elements of geometry, in which the unfervice-
able propofuions are rejedfed, and the ufesof thofe re¬
tained, annexed ; a difcourfe on fortification ; and an¬
other on navigation. Thefe with others have been col-
ledfed, firft in 3 vols folio, and afterwards in 4, under
the title of Mundus Mathernaticus: being indeed a
complete coiirfe of mathematics. He died in 1678,
profeffor of mathematics in the univerfity of Turin.
DECIDUOUS, an appellation chiefly ufed in re-
fpedf of plants: thus, the calix or cup of a flower is
faid to be deciduous, when it falls along with the
flower-petals ; and, on the contrary, it is called per-
tnanent, when it remains after they are fallen. Again,
deciduous leaves are thofe which fall in autumn; in con-
tradiftinftion to thofe of the ever-greens, which remain
all the winter. See Defoliation.
DECIL, in aftronomy, an afpe& or pofitjon of two
planets, when they are diftant from each other a tenth
part of the zodiac.
DECIMAL arithmetic, the art of computing by
decimal fra&ions. See Arithmetic.
DECIMATION, a punifhment infli&ed by the
Romans, on fuch foldiers as quitted their polls, or be¬
haved themfelves cowardly in the field. The names of
the guilty were put into an urn or helmet, and as ma¬
ny were drawn out as made the tenth part of the whole
number, and thefe were put to the fword and the o-
thers faved. This was called decimare; a word of the
ancient Roman militia, who, to punifti w-hole legions,
when they had failed in their duty, made every tenth
foldier draw lots, and put him to death for an exam¬
ple to the others.
As the Romans had their decimatio, they had alfo
the vicefimatio, and even centefimatio, when only the
20th or icoth man fuffered by lot.
DECIPHERING, the art of finding the alpha¬
bet of a cipher. For the art both of Ciphering and
Deciphering, fee the article Cipher.
DECIUS (Publius), the Roman conful, and brave
general, memorable for devoting himfelf for his coun¬
try, in a battle with the Latins 340 B. C. Decius
Mus, his fon, followed his father’s example, as did a
grandfon. The cuftom was, that the officer who de¬
voted himfelf to the gods for the fervice of his coun¬
try, after certain ceremonies of confecration, rulhed
completely armed into the midft of the enemy’s fore-
moft ranks, when their own defpaired of viftory : tho* Deems, j
this was an aft of fuperftilion which proved fatal to Peck- •
the hero, it reanimated his party, and occafioned them
to gain the battle. See Devotion.
Dectus, the Roman emperor. He perfecuted the
Chriftians, which was accounted the 7th perfecution.
At laft he drowned himfelf in a marfii, that he might
efcape his enemies ; who had killed his ion, and defeat¬
ed his army ; A. D. 251.
DECK of a Ship, (from decken, Dan. to cover) ;
the planked floors of a (hip, which conntft the fides
together, and ferve as different platforms to fupport
the artillery and lodge the men, as alfo to preferve the
cargo from the fea in merchant-veffels. As all fliips
are broader at the lower deck than on the next a-
bove it, and as the cannon thereof are always hea-
vieft, it is neceffary that the frame of it Ihould be
much ftronger than that of the others ; and for the
fame reafon the fecond or middle deck ought to be
ftronger than the upper deck or forecaftle.
Ships of the firft and fecond rates are furnifhed with
three whole decks, reaching from the ftttn to the
ftern, befides a forecallle and a quarter-deck, which ex¬
tends from the ttern to the mainmaft ; between which
and the forecaftle a vacancy is left in the middle, open¬
ing to the upper deck, and forming what is called the
’waijl. There is yet another deck above the hinder
or aftmoft part of the quarter-deck, called the poop,
which alfo ferves as a roof for the captain’s cabin or
couch.
The inferior Ihips of the line of battle are equipped
with two decks and a half; and frigates, Hoops, &e.
with one gun-deck and a half, with a fpar-deck below
to lodge the crew.
The decks are formed and fuftained by the beams,
the clamps, the water-ways, the earlings, the ledges,
the knees, ahd twp rows of fmall pillars called Jia/i-
chions, See. Se.e thofe articles.
That the figure of a deck, together with its corre-
fponding parts, may be more clearly underftood, we
have exhibited a plan of the lower-deck of a 74 gun
Ihip in Plate LXXXVIII. And as both fides of the
deck are exaftly fimilar, the pieces by which it is flip-
ported appear on one fide, and on the other fide the
planks of the floor of which it is compofed, as laid up
on thofe upper pieces.
A, the principal or main hatch-way..
B, the ftern-poft.
C, the ftem.,
D, the beams, compofed of three pieces, as exhi¬
bited by D, in one of which the dotted lines fliewthe
arrangement of one of the beams under the other fide
of the deck.
E, part of the vertical, or hanging knees.
F, the horizontal or lodging knees, which fallen the
beams to the fides.
G, the carlings ranging fore and aft, from one beam
to another.
H, the gun-ports.
L the pump-dales, being large wooden tubes, which
return the water from the pumps into the fea.
K, the fpurs of the beams, being curved pieces of
timber ferving as half-beams to fupport the decks,
where a whole beam cannot be placed on account of
the hatchways.
L, the
Deck,
Dtclama-
D E C [ 2393 ] DEC
L, the wlng-tranfom, which is bolted by the middle
to the ftern-poft, and whofe endi reft upon the fafhion-
. pieces.
M, the bulk-head or partition, which inclofes the
manger, and prevents the water which enters at the
hawfe-holes from running aft between decks.
N N, the fore hatch-way.
O O, the after hatch-way.
P, the drum-head of the gear capftern.
P p, the drum-head of the main capftern.
the wing-tranfom knee.
R, one of the breaft-hooks under the gun-deck.
S, the brealt-hook of the gun-deck.
T T, the ftation of the chain-pumps.
V, the breadth and thicknefs of the timbers at the
height of the gun-deck.
U U, fcuttles leading to the gunner's ftore-room,
and the bread-room.
W, the ftation of the fore-maft.
X, the ftation of the main-maft.
Y, the ftation of the mizen-maft.
Z, the ring-bolts of the decks, ufed to retain the
cannon whilft charging.
a a, The ring-bolts of the fides whereon the tackles
are hooked that fecure the cannon at fea.
c a a d, The water-ways, through which the fcupper
holes are pierced, to carry the water off from the deck
into the fea.
b b, Plan of the foremoft and aftmoft cable-bits,
with their erofs-pieces gg, and their ftandards e e.
Thus we have reprefented On one fide all the pieces
which fuftain the deck with its cannon ; and on the
other fide, the deck itfelf, with a tier of 32 pounders
planted in battery thereon. In order alfo to fhew the
ufe of the breeching and train-tackle, one of the guns
is drawn in as ready for charging.
The number of beams by which the decks of fhips
are fupported, is often very different, according to the
practice of different countries ; the ttrength of the tim-
berof which the beams are framed; and the fervices for
which the (hip is calculated.
As the deck which contains the train of a fire-fhip is
furnifhed with an equipage peculiar to itfelf, the whole
apparatus is particularly deferibed in the article Fire-
Skip.
>/«/&-Deck implies a continued floor laid from
ftem to ftern, upon one line, without any flops or in¬
tervals.
Half-T>ZCK, a fpace under the quarter-deck of a
fhip of war, contained between the foremoft bulk¬
head of the fteerage, and the fore-part of the quar¬
ter-deck. In the colliers of Northumberland the ftee¬
rage itfelf is called ha If-deck, and is ufually the ha¬
bitation of the crew.
DECLAMATION, a fpeech made in public, in
the tone and manner of an oration, uniting the expref-
fion of aftion to the propriety of pronunciation, in or¬
der to give the fentiment its full impreflion upon the
mind. According to the manners and cuftoms of the
prefent age, public harangues are made only, 1. In
the pulpit. 2. In the fenate, in council, or other
public affembly. 4. By public profeffors. 5., On the
theatre.
I. With regard to the declamation of the pulpit, the
dignity and fan&ity <?f the place, and the importance
of the fubje&, require the preacher to exert the utmoft D^lama-
powers of his voice to produce a pronunciation that is 11011 ‘
perfectly diftimfl and harmonious, and that he obferve
a deportment and aclion which is expreffive and grace¬
ful. No man therefore, who is deftitute of a voice,
fhould afeend the pulpit, and there a6t the part of a
pantomime before his audience. The preacher fhould Biclfield't
not, however, roar like a common cryer, and rend the
ear with the voice of thunder ; for fuch kind of decla¬
mation is not only without meaning and without per-
fuafion, but highly incongruous with the meek and
gentle exprefllons of the gofpel. He fhould likewife
take particular care to avoid a monotony ; his voice
fhould rife from the beginning, as it were by degrees,
and its greateft ftrength fhould be exerted in the appli¬
cation. Each inflexion of the voice fhould be adapted
to the phrafe, and to the meaning of the words; and
each remarkable expreflion fhould have its peculiar in¬
flexion. The dogmatic requires a plain, uniform tone
of voice only ; and the menaces of the gofpel demand a
greater force than do its promifes and rewards : but the
latter fhculd not be pronounced in the foft tone of a
flute, nor the former with the loud found of a trum¬
pet. The voice fhould ftill retain its natural tone in all
its various inflexions. Happy is that preacher, to
whom nature has given a voice that is at once ftrong,
flexible, and harmonious.
An air of complacency and benevolence, as well as
devotion, ftiould be conflantly vifible in the countenance
of the preacher. But every appearance of affectation
mult be carefully avoided : for nothing is fo difguftftd
to an audience, as even tht femblance of difiimulation.
Eyes conftantly rolling, turned towards heaven, and
ftreaming with tears, rather denote a hypocrite, than
a man poflefied of the real fpirit of religion, and
that feels the true import of what he preaches. An
air of affeCled devotion infallibly deftroys the efficacy
of all that the preacher can fay, however juft and im¬
portant it may be. On the other hand, he muft avoid
every" appearance of mirth or raillery, or of that cold
unfeeling manner which is fo apt to freeze the hearts
of his hearers.
The body fhould be in general ereft, and in a natural
and eafy attitude. The perpetual movement, or con¬
tortion, of the.body, has a ridiculous effeCl in the pul¬
pit, and makes the figure of a preacher and a harlequin
much too fimilar. But, on the other hand, he ought
not to remain conftantly upright and motionlefs, like
a fpeaking ftatue.
The motions of the hands give a ftrong expreffion to
a difeourfe ; but they fhould be conftantly decent,
grave, noble, and expreflive. The preacher, who is
inceflantly in action, who is perpetually clafping his
hands, or who menaces with a clenched flit, or counts
his arguments on his lingers, will only excite mirth a-
mong his auditory. In a word, declamation is an art
that the facred orator fhould ftudy with the utmoft af-
fiduity. The delign of a fermon is to convince, to af-
fe£l, and to perfuade. The voice, the countenance,
and the adtion, which are to produce this triple effe£l,
are therefore the objedts to which the preacher fhould
particularly apply himfelf.
II. The declamation of a minifter or ftatefman in
the fenate, in council, or other public aflembly, is of
a more unconfined nature. To perfuade, to move the
paffions,
DEC
[
DEC
pafiions, and gain an afcendancy in a public afiembly,
the orator fliould himfelf feel the force of what he fays,
and the declamation (hould only exprefs that internal
fenfation. But nothing fliould be carried to excefs. A
fuavity in the tone of voice, a dignity of deportment,
a graceful a£tion, and a certain tranquillity of counte¬
nance, fliould conflantly accompany the ilatefman when
be fpeaks in public* even when he is moft earneflly en¬
gaged in debate, or when he is addreffing his fovereign
in perfon. A pleafing tone of voice, and a diltinCt
pronunciation, prejudice the hearers greatly in the
fpeaker’s favour. A young man may improve thele to
a furprifing degree. Demoithenes, who had a natural
impediment in his fpeech, was accultomed to go to the
fea-fliore, and partly tilling his mouth with pebbles he
declaimed with a loud voice. The tlones by degrees
gave a volubility to his tongue, and the roaring of the
waves reconciled him infeniibiy to the noife of the mul¬
titude.
III. The principal object: of a public profeflbr is the
inftruflion of the itudious'youth : for which purpofe,
he is to convince and perfuade. Every tone of voice,
every expreffion of the countenance, or attion of the
body, which can produce this effeft by enforcing the
words, fliould therefore be employed by thofe who are
to teach the fciences. There is, moreover, one very
eflential refieftion which every profeflbr ought to
make, and which is, that the chair, from which he ha¬
rangues, is furrounded by young ftudents, naturally
poflefled with vivacity, not infrequently ludicrous, and
for the moft part previoufly inltrudled in the prepara¬
tory fciences. They are therefore conftantly inclined
to criticife, to jeft, and to ridicule : for which realon,
the profeflbr fliould endeavour to infpire them with re-
fpe£t and attention, by a grave, commanding, and ve- •
nerable countenance ; and carefully avoid all appearance
of grimace in his adion, and every kind of affedation
in his difeourfe, that he may not aiford the leaft oppor¬
tunity for pleafantry.
IV. We are now come to theatric declamation.
I. This was very different among the ancients from
what it is, and ought to be, with us, from the nature of
the thing itfelf, and from the difference of circumftan-
ces. Numberlefs paffages in Qumtiiian, and other an¬
cient hiftorians, critics, grammarians, and commenta¬
tors, evidently prove, that the ancient dramatic decla¬
mation was fubfervient to the rules of the mufical rhyth-
■a, mus : and by this, according to Ariftides*, their ac¬
tion, as well as recital, was regulated. But to explain
this feeming paradox, it will be’neceffary to make here
fome-preliminary remarks. The ancients gave a much
more extenfive (ignification than we do to the word
inujic, (mufica), which they derived from the mufes,
•or at leaft from fome of them. It is for this reafon,
that the fame Arillides and (Quintilian define it to be
“ An art that teaches all that relates to the ufe of the
voice, and the manner of performing all the motions of
the body with grace Ars decor is in vocibus <b motibus.
Therefore poetry, declamation, dancing, pantomimes,
and many other geftures and exercifes, were lubfervient
to this art.
2. That part of general mufic which taught the art
of declamation and gefture according to the rules of
an eftabliftied method, (and which we perform by in-
ftinft, or at moft by the aid of common fenie), was
2394 ] ^ ^ ^ |
diftinguiftied by the name of hypocritic mufic: and this Derlama. |
mufical art was called, by the Greeks, orchefs ; and by don. |
the Romans, faltatio. It was, however, fo far from'
being an advantage to the ancients to have had this art,
which we have not, that it was, on the contrary, a mark
of great imperfebtion. For, in the firft place, it was an
inftance of high abfurdity to reprefent a tragedy, or
comedy, before an audience of twenty thoufand people,
the far greateft part of whom could neither hear nor
fee what paffed to any good purpofe, unlefs they were
poffeffed of organs which we have not. The theatres
of London and Paris may conveniently contain about
a thoufand perfons; and that is found fufficient in the
moft populous cities, where there are fevtral places of
entertainment on the fame day, and where the people
are reafonable enough to fucceed each other in their
diverfions. As the features of the face could not be
diftinguiftied at fo great a diftance, and ftill lefs the
alteration of countenance in order to reprefent the
different paffions, they were obliged to have recourfe to
majks; a wretched, childifli invention, that dtftroyed
all the ftrength and variety of expreffion. Their ac¬
tion became extravagant; and, at the fame time, fub¬
fervient to a regular mechanifm, which prevented all
the refinement, and all the pleafure of furprife, in the
•performance ; and muft have had an effebl horribly dif-
agreeable to thofe who were placed near the ftage.
3. The egregious imperfebtion of their language
likewife, which confifted of fyllables long and fliort,
whofe duration was determined by a fet meafure of
time, and their manner of tuning thefe fyllables, after
the method of the orchetis of the Greeks, was another
difadvantage. For by this means they determined by
notes or charablers placed after the long and ftiort fyl-
lables, not only the nature, but the duration, of each-
abtion. Now, nothing could be more affebted, more
.conftrained and difguftful, than fuch method of de¬
claiming. How far fuperior in this refpebl are the
moderns, who confult nature alone in their theatric de¬
clamation ; who can make the audience hear each figh;
who can accompany it with a proper attitude ; who
can inceffantly vary their abtion; who can feize the
lucky moment, and make the countenance fully ex¬
prefs the fenfations of the mind ? Nature does all here;
and art, infinitely inferior to nature, did all among the
ancients. Modern declamation cannot be fubfervient
to a mufical rhythmus, feeing we fpeak rapidly, and
without affebtation. Our abtors learn their art without
art, from nature itfelf, affifted by reflection ; and they
arrive at a degree of excellence infinitely greater than
that of the ancients, by a method far more fimple, and
by efforts incomparably more eafy.
4. We do not, moreover, precifely know what the
theatric declamation of the ancients was ; nor what
were the mufical inttruments which accompanied that
declamation. The title to the Eunuch of Terence
fays, for example, “ That Flaccus, the freedman of
Claudius, made the mufic of that piece, in which he
employed the two flutes, the right and the left.” Thefe
flutes, it is likely, gave the tone to the ador ; which
muft have had a very odd effed on the audience. Moft
of the ancient pieces have fimilar titles. They who
would be particularly informed of the art of declaim¬
ing among the Greeks and Romans, may read to ad¬
vantage the Critical Refledions on Poetry and Pain¬
ting
DEC L 2395 ] DEC
Dcclama- t;ng Abbe du Bos- The third part of that
tlon' work confifls entirely of learned refearches, and inge¬
nious reflexions, on this filly pradice of the ancients.
But as this art has happily no place in modern decla¬
mation, and can at belt ferve only to make a parade
of erudition, we fhall fay no more of it, but pafs to
matters of real utility.
5. We think there is good reafon to believe, more¬
over, that the moft polifhed nations of modern Europe
do not accompany their difcourfes, in general, with fo
many gefticulations, as did the Greeks, the Romans,
and other inhabitants of warm climates. They ap¬
pear to have found the method of animating a difcourfe,
and giving it an expreflion, by the Ample inflexions of
the voice, and by the features of the countenance;
which is far more decent, more juft, and rational, than
all thofe contortions which perpetually derange the na¬
tural attitude of the body and its members, and give
the fpeaker the air of a harlequin.
6. Expreflion, therefore, forms at once the efience
and the end of declamation ; and the means of produ¬
cing it confifts in a pronunciation that is fonorous, di-
ftinX, and pleafing, fupported by an aXion that is de¬
cent and proper to the fubjeX. If the beft dramatic
poet has need of a good declaimer or aXor to make
his writing produce its proper effeX, the aXor has like-
wife need of a good poet to enable him to pleafe and
afleX by his aXion : for it is to little purpofe that he
endeavours to charm his auditory by uniting, with na¬
ture, all the powers of art, if the poet has not furnilhed
him with fentiments that are rational and affeXing.
7. The aXor, in ftudying his part before a large
mirror, where he can fee his whole figure, in order to
determine the moft proper expreffion for every thought,
Ihould con full nature, and endeavour to imitate her.
But, in this imitation, he fhould take care not to make
too ferviie a copy. He has this to obferve, in common
with his colleagues, the mafters in all the polite arts r
The theatre is intended to exhibit an imitation of na¬
ture, and not nature itfelf. Tragedy and comedy form
piXures of human life ; but thefe piXures are alfo pie¬
ces of perfpeXive, which require ftrokes fomewhat
ftronger than nature, that they may be difeerned at a
diftance. The aXor is elevated to a conliderable
height from the ground ; he is furrounded by feentry,
he is feparated from the audience by fhe orcheftra, and
he fpeaks in verfe ; all this is not natural: but the
fpeXator is ter accede to. this neceftary illufibn, in order
to promote his own pltafure, which would not be fo
great as it is were all thefe matters* otherwife difpofed.
Declamation, therefore, (hould fomewhat exceed, but
never lofe fight of, nature.
8. The tone bf the aXor’s voice fhould be natural,
but regulated by the extent of the theatre ; fufficiently
loud to be heard by all the audience, but not fo vio¬
lent as to rend their ears. A pure and graceful pro¬
nunciation, without any provincial accent, is likewife
a great merit in an aXor ; and he fhould alfo habituate
himfelf to fpeak in a manner perfeXly diftinX. It is
a capital point in the pronouncing of verfe, not to fe-
parate the two hemiftics, by refting too long on the
cafura in the middle, or dwelling on the end of each
hemiftic: for, by fo doing, the aXor falls into a mo¬
notony, an infufferable uniformity of cadence, in a
piece that confifts of feme thoufand verfes. The gra¬
dations of the voice demand alfo a very judicious ob- Declama-
fervance. The fpeaker, who begins in a high tone, ti°n
will find it very difficult to fuftain it through the whole « .P .
piece ; and he, who clamours inceflantly, will find his 
lungs fail him in thofe parts where the vehemence of
paffion requires the flrongeft efforts. If we may be
allowed the expreffion, the ftrongeft touches, the bold-
eft figures, will not there ftand out from the piXure in
a linking manner.
9. The deportment of an aXor fhould be conftantly
graceful, decent, and proper to the charaXer he repre-
fents. An old man has a different polition of body
from a young petit maitre ; an aged queen from a
young princeis; a noble gallant from a valet de cham-
bre. A rational obfervance of nature, and an imita¬
tion of the beft aXors, are here the fureft guides. The
fame may be faid of the aXion of the hands, the thea¬
tric ftep, &c. An inanimated figure, a body in the
pofition of a ftatue, and hands immoveable, are as dif-
pleafing in the feene, as a player whefe inceffant gefti-
culation refembles the aXion of a puppet.
10. Every aXor who afpires to make his art fome-
thing more than merely mechanical, will begin by e-
nabling himfelf readily to repeat his part, that the de-
feX of his memory may not embarrafs his aXion.
When he is fo far a mailer of it, he will make it the
fubjeX of ferious refleXion in his clofet; endeavour to
feize the true fenfeof the author; and to find out that
expreffion of each fentiment and paffion, which is the
moft natural, the moft linking, and beft adapted to the
ftage ; and which he will cultivate by repeated effays,
till he is able to render it in its full force.
DECLARATORY action. SeeLAw,N0clxxxii.
21.
DECLENSION, in grammar, an infleXion of
nouns according to their divers cafes ; as nominative,
genitive, dative, &c. See Grammar.
DECLINATION, in aftronomy, the diftance of
any celeftial objeX from the equinoXial, either north¬
ward or fouthward. It is either true or apparent, ac¬
cording as the real or apparent place of the objeX is
confidered. See Astronomy, n° 210,211.
Declination of the Sea-Compafs or Needle, is its
variation from the true meridian of any place.
Declination of a Wall, or Plane, for Dials, is an
arch of the horizon, contained either between the plane
and the prime vertical circle, if you reckon it from the
eaft or w'eft ; or elfe between the meridian and the
plane, if you account it from the north or fouth. See
Dial.
DECLINATORIES, are inftruments for taking
the declinations, inclinations, and reclinations of planes;
and they are of feveral kinds.
The beft fort for taking the declination confifts of a
fquare piece of brafs, or wood, with a limb accurately
divided into degrees; and every fifth minute, if poffible,
having a horizontal dial moving on the centre, made
for the latitude of the place it is to ferve in; and which
has a fmall bit of fine brafs fixed on its meridian line,
like a fiducial edge, to cut the degrees of the limb: for
at any time when the fun Ihines, by having the hour of
the day, you may find the declination of any wall or
plane by this inftrument.
DECLINATUREo/Judges. SeeLAw,N°clvi.i2.
DECLIVITY denotes the reverfe of Acclivity.
DECOC-
DEC [ 2396 ] DEC
Decoftion DECOCTION, ufually fignifies either the a&ion
!| of boiling a fubftance in water, or the water itfelf in
Decoration. wh;ch the fubftance has been boiled. It is only appli-
cable to matters containing fome principles foluble in
water; fuch particularly are animal and vegetable
matters. Decoftion ought not to be ufed with fach
fubftances as contain any volatile principles, as they
would be diftipated in the air during the procefs. But
it may be fafely ufed, nay even becomes neceflary, when
the matters to be treated are folid, and of a clofe and
compa& texture ; becaufe then the water could not
extraft its principles without a boiling heat. Moft foft
animal matters, as fleih, ikin, tendons, may be conve¬
niently boiled in water; becaufe they contain no prin¬
ciple volatile with a boiling heat. Wster extrads from
them nothing but a gelatinous fubftance, and fome
oily parts which float on the furface of the water. All
vegetable matters which are inodorous, and particular¬
ly thofe which are hard, as roots, barks, &c. are ge¬
nerally boiled., when an extra&ion of their principles
by water is required.—To this rule, however, there
are fome exceptions. Peruvian bark, for inftance, gives
its ftrength to cold water better than to fuch as is boil¬
ing hot. Many other vegetables alfo have the fame
property of yielding lefs to boiling than to cold water.
And therefore a general rule may be eftablifhed, that
deepdion ought not to be employed but when abfo-
Jutely neceflary ; that is, when the fame principles, or
the fame quantities of tliofe principles, cannot be ob¬
tained by an infufion, and that without heat, if it can
be fo done, confidering that the proximate principles
of vegetables are generally fo delicate, and fo fufeep-
tible of change and decompofition, that frequently the
•moft gentle heat changes much their nature and pro-
. perties.
DECOLLATION, beheading, a term feldom
ufed but in the phrafe decollation of St John Baptift;
which denotes a painting, wherein is reprefented the
Baptift’s head, ftruck off from his trunk ; or the feaft
held in honour of that martyr.
DECOMPOSITION, in chemiftry, ufually figni¬
fies the difunion or feparation of the conftituent parts
"of bodies.—It differs from mere mechanical divifion, in
that when a body is chemically decompofed, the parts
into which it is refolved are effentially different from
the body itfelf; but though a mechanical force is ap¬
plied to it ever fo long, or with ever fo much violence,
the minuteft particles into which the body may be re¬
duced, ftill retain their original nature.—Thus, forex-
ample, though we fuppofe nitre, or any other fait, to
be reduced to ever fo fine powder, each particle retains
the nature of nitre, as much as the largeft unpounded
mafs ; but if oil of vitriol is applied, a decompofition
takes place, and one of the component parts of the ni¬
tre rifes in the form of a fmoking acid fpirit, which
never could have been fufpe&ed to lie hid in the* mild
neutral fait.
DECORATION, in architt&ure, any thing that
adorns and enriches a building, church, triumphal
arch, or the like, either without fide or within.
The orders of archite&ure contribute greatly to the
decoration : but then the feveral parts of thofe orders
muft have their juft proportions, charaders, and orna¬
ments ; otherwife the fineft order will bring confufion
rather than richnefs. See Architecture.
Decorations in churches, are paintings, vafee, fe-
ftoons, &c. occafionally applied to the walls ; and with
fo much conduit and diferetion, as not to take off any _
thing from the form of the archite&ure: as is much
pradifed in Italy, at the folemn feafts.
Decoration is more particularly applied to the
feenes of theatres.
In operas, and other theatrical performances, the
decorations muft be frequently changed conformably to
the fubjed.
The ancients had two kinds of decorations for their
theatres: the firft, called verfatiles, having three Tides,
or faces, which were turned fuccelfively to the fptda-
tors: the other called duttiles, ftiewing a new decora¬
tion by drawing or Aiding another before it.—This
latter fort is (till ufed, and apparently with much
greater fuccefs than among the ancients, who were
obliged to draw a curtain whenever they made a
change in the decoration ; whereas on our ftage the
change is made in a moment, and almoft without be¬
ing perceived.
DECORUM, in architedure, is the fuitablenefs of
a building, and the feveral parts and ornaments there¬
of, to the ftation and occafion.
DECOUPLE, in heraldry, the fame as uncoupled:
thus a chevron decouple, is a chevron wanting fo
much of it towards the point, that the two ends ftand
at a diftance from one another, being parted and un¬
coupled.
DECOY, in naval affairs, a ftatagem employed by
a fmall ftiip of war to betray a veffel of inferior force
into an uncautious purfuit, till fhe has drawn her with¬
in the range of her cannon, or what is called within
gunjbot. It is ufually performed by painting the ftern
and Tides in fuch a manner as to difguife the fiiip, and re-
prefent her either much fmaller and of inferior force, or
as a friend to the hoftile veffel, which ftie endeavours to
enfnare, by affuming the emblems and ornaments of
the nation to which the ftranger is fuppofed to belong.
When fhe has thus provoked the adverfary to chafe, in
hopes of acquiring a prize, fhe continues the decoy
by fpreading a great fail, as endeavouring to efcape ;
at the fame time that her courfe is confiderably retard¬
ed by an artful alteration of her trim, till the enemy
approaches. Decoying is alfo performed to elude the
chafe of a fhip of a fuperior force in a dark night, by
throwing out a lighted caftc of pitch into the fea, which
will burn for a confiderable time and mifguide the ene¬
my. Immediately after the ca/k is thrown out, the
fhip changes her courfe, and may eafily efcape if at
any tolerable diftance from the foe.
Decoy, among fowlers, a place made for catching
wild-fowl. A decoy is generally made where there is
a large pond furrounded with wood, and beyond that
a marfhy and uncultivated country : if the piece of wa¬
ter is not thus furrounded, it will be attended witll the
noife and other accidents which maybe expe&ed to
frighten the wild-fowl from a quiet haunt, where they
mean to fleep, during the day-time, in fecurity. If
thefe noifes or difturbances are wilful, it hath been
held that an a6lion will lie againft the difturber.—As
foon as the evening fets in, the decoy rijes (as they
term it), and the wild fowl feed during the night. If
the evening is ftill, the noife of their wings, during
their flight, is heard at a very great diftances, and is a
pleafing
Decorum
II
Decoy.
DEC [ 2397 ] DEC
Decaf, pleafing though rather melancholy found. This rifing
*“ of the decoy in the evening, is in Somerfetihire called
radding.
The decoy-ducks are fed with hempfeed,- which is
thrown over the ikreens in fmall quantities, to bring
them forwards into the pipes, and to allure the wild¬
fowl to follow, as this feed is fo light as to float.
There are feyeral pipes, as they are called, which
lead up. a narrow ditch that clafes at laft with a funnel-
net. Over thefe pipes, (which grow narrower from
their firft entrance), is a continued arch of netting
fufpended on hoops. It is neceflary to have a pipe or
ditch for almoft every 'wind that can blow, as upon
this circumftance it depends which pipe the fowl will
take to ; and the decoy-man always keeps on the lee¬
ward fide of the ducks, to prevent his effluvia reaching
their fagacious noftrils. All along each pipe at certain
intervals, are placed ikreens made of reeds, which are
fo fituated, that it is impoffible the wild-fowl ihould
fee the decoy-man, before they have paifed on towards
the end of the. pipe, where the purfe-net is placed
The inducement to the wild-fowl to go up one of
thefe pipes is, becaufe the decoy-ducks trained to
this, lead the way, either after hearing the whittle of
the decoy-man, or enticed by the hempfeed ; the lat¬
ter will dive under water, whilft the wild-fowl fly on,
and are taken in the purfe.
It often happens, however, that the wild-fowl are
in fnch a ftate of ileepinefs and dozing, that they will
not follow the decoy-ducks. Ufe is then generally
made of a dog, who is taught his leflbn: he paffes
- backwards and forwards hetween the reed-lltreens, (in
which are little holes, both for the decoy-man to fee,
and the little dog to pafs through) ; this attrafts the
eye of the wild-fowl, who, not choofing to be inter¬
rupted, advance towards the fmall and contemptible a-
nimal, that they may drive him away. The dog all the
time, by the dire&ion of the decoy-man, plays among
the fkreens of reeds, nearer and nearer the purfe-net;
till, at laft, perhaps, the decoy-man appears behind
a Ikreen, and the wild-fowl not daring to pafs by him
in return, nor being able to efcape upwards on account
of the net-covering, rufh on into the purfe-net.' Some¬
times the dog will not attradl their attention, if a red
handkerchief, or fomething very Angular, is not put a-
bout him.
The general feafon for catching fowl in decoys, is
from the latter end of October till- February t the ta¬
king of them earlier is prohibited by an aft 10 Geo. II.
c. 32. which forbids it from June ill; to Oftober itt,
under the penalty of five (hillings for each bird deitroy-
ed within that fpace.
The Lincolnlhire decoys.are commonly fet at a cer¬
tain annualrent, from 5 to 20 pounds a-year: and
there is one in Somerfetfhlre that pays 30 /. The for¬
mer contribute principally to fupply the markets in
London. Amazing numbers of ducks, wigeons, and
Pennant's teal, are taken : by an account fent us * of the number
Brit.Zool. cai,ght a few winters patt, in one feafon, and in only
ll" J9S- ten jec0ySj jn (hg neighbourhood of Wain-fleet, it ap¬
peared to amount to 31,200, in which are included fe-
veral other fpecies of ducks : it is alfo to be obferved,
that, in the above particular, wigeon and teal are rec¬
koned but as one, and confequently fell but at half price
of the ducks. This quantity makes them fo cheap on
Vol. IV.
the fpot, that we have been aflured, feveral decoy-men Decree
would be content to contraft for years to deliver their (I.
ducks at Button, for 10 d. per couple. The account of Dectl!^ta"
the numbers here mentioned, relates only to thofe that  
were fent to the capital.
It was cuftomary formerly to have in the fenns an
annual driving of the young ducks before they took
wing. Numbers of people affembled, who beat a vafl;
traft, and forced the birds into a net placed at the
fpot where the fport was to terminate. A hundred and
fifty dozens have been taken at once : but this praftice
being fuppofed to be detrimental, has been abolilhcd
by aft of parliament.
DECREE, an order made by a fuperior power for
the regulation of an inferior.
Decree, in the civil law, is a determination which
the emperor pronounces upon hearing a particular caufe
between the plaintiff and defendant.
Decrees of Councils, are the laws made by them,
to regulate the doftrine and policy of the church.
Decrees in Chancery, are the determination of the
lord-chancellor, upon a full hearing of the merits of a
caufe.
DECREET, in the law of Scotland, a final decree
or judgment of the lords of feffion, from which an ap¬
peal only lies to parliament.
Arbitral, in Scots law, the fentence or
judgment of one to whom parties voluntarily fubmit the
determination ofanyqueftion betwixt them *. » See Lanu,
DECREMENT, in heraldry, fignifies the wane of N° clxxxv.
the moon from the full to the new. The moon in this IS’
ftate is called moon decrefcent, or in devours ; and when
borne in coat-armour, faces to the left fide of the e-
fcutcheon, as Ihe does to the right fide when in the in¬
crement.
DECREPITATION, in chemiftry, fignifies the
quick fcparation of the parts of a body, occafionedby
a ftrong heat, and accompanied with npife and crack¬
ling. This effeft is moft frequently produced by wa¬
ter contained betwixt the parts of the decrepitating bo¬
dy, when thefe ^arts have a certain degree of adhefion
together. This water being quickly reduced into va¬
pours by the heat fuddenly applied to it, rarities, and
burfts with noife the parts which comprefs it. The bo¬
dies moft fubjeft to decrepitation are certain falts, fuch
as common fait, vitriolated tartar, nitre of lead, &c.
the decrepitation of all which proceeds from the' water
of their cryllallization. Clays which are not perfect¬
ly dry, and flints, are alfo fubjeft to decrepitation.
DECRETAJL,, in the canon law, a letter of a
Pope determining fome point or queftion in the eccle-
fiattical law. The decretals compofe the fecond part
of the canon law. The firtt genuine one, acknowledged
by all the learned as fuch, is a letter of Pope Siricius,
written in the year 385, to Himerus bifhop of Tarra¬
gona, in Spain, concerning fome diforders which had
crept into the churches of Spain. Gratiari publifhed
a collection of decretals, Containing all the ordinances
made by the Popes till the year 1150. Gregory IX.
in 1227, following the example of Theodofius and Ju-
ftinian, formed a conftitution of his own, collefting into
one body all the decifions and all the caufes which
ferved to advance the papal power; which colleftion
of decretals was called the pentateuch, becaufe it con¬
tains five books.
14 A DE-
DEE [ 2398 ] DEE
Decuple DECUPLE proportion, that of ten to one.
D|e DECURIO, in Roman antiquity, a commander of
' ten men in the army, or the chief of a decury.
DECURRENT leaf. See Botany, p. 1297.
DECURY, ten perfons ranged under one chief, or
leader, called the
The Roman cavalry was divided into decuries, which
were fubdivifions of a century, each century containing
ten decuries.
DECUSSATION, a term in geometry, optics, and
anatomy, fignifying the croffing of two lines, rays, or
nerves, when they meet in a point, and then go on fe-
parately from one another.
DECUSSORIUM, a furgeon’s inflrument, which,
by preffing gently on the dura mater, caufes an evacua¬
tion of the pus colie&ed between the cranium and the
before-mentioned membrane, through the perforation
made by the trepan.
DEDHAM, a town of Effex in England, confid¬
ing of about 400 lofty houfes. The ftreets are not
paved, but very clean, occafioned by their lying pretty
high. It has one large old church, remarkable for a
fine Gothic fteeple, with a great deal of carved work
about it, but much injured by time. E. Long. 1. xo.
N. Lat. 52. 5.
DEDICATION, the a£f of confecrating a temple,
altar, ftatue, palace, &c. to the honour of fome deity.
The ufe of dedications is very ancient both among
' the worlhippers of the true God, and among the hea¬
thens : the Hebrews call it roan hhanuchab, “ imita¬
tion which the Greek tranflators render E/xama, and
E/xawrTfwf, “ renewing.”
In the fcripture we meet with dedications of the ta¬
bernacle, of altars, of the firft and fecond temple, and
even of the houfes of private perfons. There are alfo
dedications of veffels, and garments of the priefts and
Levites, and even of the men themfelves.
The heathens had alfo dedications of temples, altars,
and images of their gods, &c. Nebuchadnezzar held a
folemn dedication of his ftatute, Dan. iii. 2. Pilate
dedicated gilt bucklers at Jerufalem to Tiberius, Philo
de legat. Petronius would have dedicated a ftatue to
the emperor in the fame city, ibid. p. 791. Tacitus,
Hift. lib. iv. c. 53. mentions the dedication of the ca-
pitol, upon rebuilding it by Vefpafian, &c.
The Jews celebrated the anniverfary of the dedica¬
tion of their temple every year for eight days. This was
firft enjoined by Judas Maccabeus, and the whole fyna-
gogue, in the year of the Syro-Macedonian iEra 148,
i. e. 164 years before Chrift. The heathens had the
like anniverfaries, as that of the dedication of the tem¬
ple of Parthenope, mentioned by Lycophron. Under
Chriftianity, dedication is only applied to a church ;
and is properly the confecration thereof performed by
a bilhop, with a number of ceremonies prefcribed by
the church.
The Chriftians finding themfelves at liberty under
Conftantine, in lieu of their ruinous churches, built
»ew ones in every place; and dedicated them with a
deal of folemnity. The dedication was ufually per¬
formed in a lynod; at leaft they aflembled a number of
bifhops to amft at the fervice. We have the defcrip-
tion of thofe of the churches at Jerufalem and Tyre in
Eufebius, and many others in later writers.
DEE (John), a famous mathematician and aftro-
loger, wasborn (July 1527) in London, wherehisfather Bsa.
was a wealthy vintner. In 1542, he was fentto St John’s "
college, Cambridge. After five years clofe application
to mathematical ftudies, particularly aftronomy, he went
to Holland, in order to vifit feveral eminent mathemati¬
cians on the continent. Having continued abroad near a
year, he returned to Cambridge ; and was there elefted
one of the fellows of Trinity college, then firft ere&edby
king Henry VIII. In 1548, he took the degree of ma¬
tter of arts ; and, in the fame year, left England a fecond
time ; his ftay at home being rendered uneafy to him,
by the fufpicions that were entertained of his being a
conjuror; arifing partly from his application to aftro¬
nomy, but efpecially on account of a piece of machi¬
nery in the Eipum of Ariftophanes, which he exhibited
to the univerfity, and in which he reprtfented the
Scarabeus flying up to- Jupiter, with a man and a
balket of viAuals on its back. Thefe lufpicions he
could never after fliake off: nor did his fubfequent
conduft, as we ftiall fee, tend to clear him of the im¬
putation ; for if he was not a&ual!y a conjuror, it was
not for want of endeavours.
Upon leaving England, he went to the univerfity of
Louvain;; where he was much efteemed, and viiited by
feveral perfons of high rank. Here he refided about
. two years, and then fet out for France ; where, in the
college of Rheims, he read leisures of Euclid’s eiements-
with vaft applaufe. In 1351, he returned to England,
and was introduced by the fecretary Cecil to king Ed¬
ward, who affigned him a penfion of 100 crowns, which
he afterwards relinquilhed for the reftory of Upton
upon Severn : but foon after the accefiion of queen
Mary, having fome correfpondence with the lady Eli¬
zabeth’s fervgnts, he was accufed of pradlifing againli
againft the queen’s life by enchantment. On this ac¬
count he fuffered a tedious confinement, and was feverai
times examined ; till, in the year 1555, he obtained
his liberty by an order of council.
When queen Elizabeth afcended the throne, our
aftrological Dee was confulted by lord Dudley, con¬
cerning a propitious day for her majefty’s coronation.!
He was on this occafion introduced to the queen, who
made him great promifes, which were never performed,,
though ftie condefcended to receive his inftruiftions re¬
lative to the myftical interpretation of fome of his un-
telli^ible writings, which he publifhed about this time-
In 1564, he made another voyage to the continent;
in order to prefent a book which he had dedicated to.
the emperor Maximilian. He returned to England in
the fame year ; but in 1571, we find him in Lorain;
where, being dangeroufiy ill, the queen fent over two
phyficians to his relief. Having once more returned
to his native country, he fettled at Mortlake in Surrey,,
where he continued his ftudies with unremitting ardor,
and colle&ed a confiderable library of curious books
and manufcripts, with a variety of inftruments ; molt
of which were afterwards deftroyed by the mob, as
belonging to one who dealt with the devil. In 1578,
the queen being much indifpofed, Mr Dee was fent a-
broad to confult with German phyficians and philofo-
phers (aftrologers no doubt) on the occafion. We
now behold- him again in England, where he was foon
after employed in a more rational fervice. Her ma-
jefty, defirous to be informed concerning her title to
thofe countries which had been difcovered by her fob-
DEE [ 2399 j D E F
Dee. jefts, commanded Mr Dee to confult the ancient re-
cords, and furnifh her with proper geographical de-
fcriptions. Accordingly, in a fhort time he prefented
to the queen, in the gardens at Richmond, two large
rolls, in which the difcovered countries were geogra¬
phically defcribed and hiltorically illuttrated. Thefe
rolls are preferved in the Cotton library, Auguftus I.
His next employment was the reformation of the ca¬
lendar, on which fubjedf he wrote a rational and learned
treatife, preferved in the Aihmolean library at Oxford.
Hitherto the extravagancies of our eccentrical phi-
lofopher feem to have been counterpoffed by a tolerable
proportion of reafon and fcience ; but henceforward we
confider him as a mere necromancer, and credulous al-
chymift. In the year 1581, he became acquainted
with one Edward Kelley, by whofe affiftance he per¬
formed diverfe incantations, and maintained a frequent
imaginary intercourfe with fpirits. He was particu-
' larly intimate, it feems, with the angels Raphael and
Gabriel. One of them made him a prefent of a black
fpeculum, in which his angels and demons appeared
as often as he had occafion for them ; they anfwered
his queftions, and Kelley’s bufinefs was to record their
didates:
Kelly did all his feats upon
The devil’s lookiug-glafs, a ftone.
Hu DIB. fart ii. cavt. iii. v. dji.
In 1583, they were both introduced to a certain
Polilh nobleman, then in England, named Albert
Lajki, palatine of Siradia, a perfon equally addided
to the fame ridiculous purfuits. He was fo charm¬
ed with Dee and his companion, that he perfuaded
them to accompany him to his native country. They
embarked for Holland in Sept. 1583 ; and travel¬
ling over land, arrived at the town of Laiki, in Feb¬
ruary following. Their patron, however, finding him-
felf abufed by their idle pretenfions, perfuaded them
to pay a vifit to Rodolph king of Bohemia ; who, tho’
a credulous man, was foon difgufied with their non-
fenfe. They were afterwards introduced to the king
of Poland, but with no better fuccefs. Soon after this,
they were invited by a rich Bohemian nobleman, to
his caftle of Trebona, where they continued for fome
time in great affluence ; owing, as they afferted, to
their art of tranfmutation by means of a certain pow¬
der in the pofleffion of Kelly.
Dee, now quarrelling with his companion in iniquity,
’quitted Bohemia, and returned to England, where he
was once more gracioufly received by the queen ; who,
in 1595) niacie him warden of Mancheiler college, in
which town he refided feveral years. In 1604, here-
turned to his houfe at Mortlake, where he died in the
year T608, aged 81 ; leaving a large family, and many
works, behind him.—The black ftone into which
Dee ufed to call his fpirits, was in the colle&ion of
the earls of Peterborough, whence it came to lady E-
lizabeth Germaine. It was next the property of the
late duke of Argyle, and is now Mr Walpole’s. It
appears upon examination to be nothing but a polilhed
piece of cannel-coal.—That Dee was a man of confi-
derable acquirements, is beyond a doubt; his mathema¬
tical knowledge is generally allowed : but, unlefs we
fuppofe him a wicked impoftor, which is by no means
improbable, we muft tranfmit him to pofterity as one
®f the moft foolilh, fuperftitious, necromancers of his
time. Neverthelefs, the celebrated Dr Hook, many
years after Dee’s death, took it into his head to prove
that his journal, publifhed by Cafaubon, was entirely  [
cryptographical, concealing his political tranfaclions,
and that he was employed by queen Elizabeth as a fpy.
DEE, the name of feveral rivers in Scotland and
England ; as thofe whereon the cities of Chefter in
England, and New Aberdeen in Scotland, are fituated.
DEED, an inftrument written on paper or parch¬
ment, comprehending fome contradt, bargain or agree¬
ment between the parties thereto, in relation to the
matter therein contained.
DEEMSTERS, or Demsters; (from the Saxon
dema, judge or umpire). All controverfies in the Ifle
of Man are decided without procefs, writings, or any
charges, by certain judges, chofen yearly from among
themfelves, called deemjlers ; there being two of them
for each divifion of the ifland : they fit judges in all
courts, either for life or property ; and with the advice
of 24 keys, declare what is law in uncommon emer¬
gencies.
DEEPING, a town of Lincolnlhire in England,
feated on the river Weland, in a fenny ground. W.
Long. o. 20. N. Lat. 52. 35.
DEER, in zoology. See Cervus.’—The method
of hunting deer in the ifland of Ceylon, is very parti¬
cular. The huntfmen go out in the night, and only
two ufually go together: the one of thefe carries upon
his head an earthen veflel, in which there is fome fire
burning and flaming ; the ingredients are generally
fmall Iticks cut into pieces, and common rofin. Of
this the other man carries a fupply about him to re-
plenilh the pot when ir grows low. The perfon who
has the fire upon his head, carries in one hand a ftaff,
on which there are fixed eight bells; and the larger
thefe are, the better. This man goes firft into the
woods, and the other follows clofe behind with a fpear
in his hand. As foon as the deer hears the noife of
the bells, he turns towards the place whence the found
comes ; and leeing the fire, he eagerly runs up to it,
and Hands gazing at a fmall diftance : the fecond man
has then nothing to do but to kill him with the fpear;
for he fees neither of them.—Not only deer, but even
elks and hares, are thus taken ; for they gaze at the fire,
and never fee the men. The profits of this fort of hunt¬
ing are very large, and the danger nothing ; for tho’
there are numbers of tygers, elephants, and wild boars,
in thefe woods, the huntfmen are in no danger from
them while the fire burns, for they all run away
from it.
DE facto, fomething actually in fa<S, orexifting; in
contradiftinftion to de jure, where a thing is only fo in
juftice, but not in fact: as a king defatto, is a perfon
who is adtually in pofleffion of a crown, but has no le¬
gal right to the fame ; and a king de jure, is the per¬
fon who has a juft right to the crown, though he is
out of pofleffion thereof.
DEFAMATION, the fpeaking flanderous words
of another ; for which the fland.erer is punifliable, ac¬
cording to the nature of his offence, either by adtion
upon the cafe at common law', or by ftatute in the ec-
clefiaftical court.
DEFAULT, in law, is generally taken for non-
appearance in court, at a day affigned ; but import*
any omifliOn of that which w'e ought to do, for which
14 A 2 judgment
D E F [ 2400 ] D E F
Defeafance judgment may be given againft the defaulter.
11 DEFEASANCE. See Defeisance.
Dcrenders- DEFECATE, or Defecate, in chemiftry, a term
^applied to a bqdy freed and purged from faeces and im¬
purities,
DEFECTION, the aft of abandoning or relin-
quifliing a party or intereft a perfon had been enga¬
ged in.—The word is formed of the Latin deficit), to
fall of.
DEFECTIVE, in general, an appellation given to
tilings which want fome of the properties that naturally
they ought to have. Thus,
Defective or Deficient Nouns, in grammar, arp
fuch as want either a-vvhole number, a particular cafe,
or are totally indeclinable. See Noun.
The term defettive is alfo applied to a verb that has
not all its moods and tenfes. See Verb, Mood, &c.
DEFEISANCE, in law, a condition relating to
fome certain deed, which being performed, the deed
is defeated and rendered void, as if it had never been
made.
DEFENCE, in fortification, all forts of works that
cover and defend the oppofite polls, as flanks, cafe-
ments, parapets, and fauflebrays. See Fortification.
Line of Defence, a fuppofed line drawn from the
angle of the curtin, or from any other part in the cur-
tin, to the flanked angle of the oppofite baftion.
DEFEND, in general, fignifies much the fame with
■proteRing, or keeping off injuries offered to any perfon
either by enemies or otherwife.
Defend, in our ancient laws and ftatutes, fignifies
to prohibit or forbid : as, Ufuarios defendit quoque rex
Ed’wardus ne remanerent in regno. L. L. Edw. Conf.
c. 37. dr 5 Rich. 2. c. 7. In which fenfe Chaucer
alfo ufes it in the following palfage.:
“ Where can you fay in any manner age,
“ That ever God defended marriage.”
In 7 Edw. I. there is a ftatute, intitled, “ Statutum de
defenfione portandi armaf &c. And “ it is defended
by law to dillrain on the highway Coke on Littl.
fob 161.
DEFENDANT, in law, the perfon fued in an ac¬
tion perional; as tenant is he who is fued in an aftion
real. See Action.
DEFENDERS, were anciently notable dignita¬
ries both in church and Hate, whofe bufinefs was to
look to the prefervation of the public weal, to pro-
teft the poor and helplefs, and to maintain the inte-
refts and canfes of churches and religious houfes. See
Protector.— The council of Chalcedon, can. 2. calls
the defender of a church Codin, de officiis
aulx Conji. makes mention of defenders of the palace.
There were alfo a defender of the kingdom, defenfor
regni; defenders of cities, dsfenfores civ it at is; defen¬
ders of die people, defenfores plebis', of the poor, fa-
therlefs* widows, &c.
About the year 420, each patriarchal church began
to have its defender; which cuftom was afterwards in¬
troduced into other churches, and continued to later
days under other names ; as thofe of Advocate, and
Advance.
In the year 407, we find the council of Carthage
. afkiog the emperor for defenders, of the number of
Scholajiici, i. e. advocates who were in office; and
that it might be allowed them to enter and fearch
the cabinets and papers pf the judges and other ci¬
vil magiftrates, whenever it. ffiould be found necef-
fary for the interdl of the church. The emperor
ftill retains the quality of advocate of the church;
and the kings of Great Britain prtferve the title of
Defender of the Faith,, granted to Henry V1II. by
pope Leo X. in 1521^ on occafion of that prince’s
writing againft Lujher, and afterwards confirmed by
Clement VII. Tho. Chamberlayne fays, the title be¬
longed to the kings of England before that time; and
lor proof hereof appeals to feveral charters granted to
the univerfity of Oxford: So that pope Leo’s bull
was only a renovation of an ancient right. Pref.
St at. 1. 1. c. 2.
DEFILE, in'fortification, a ftraight narrow paf-
fage, through which a company of horfe or foot can
pafs only in .file, by making a fmall front.
DEFINITE, in grammar, is applied to an article
that has a precife determinate fignification; fuch as the
article the in Engliffi, le and la in French, he. which
fix and afeertain the noun they belong to, to fome par¬
ticular ; as the king, le roy: whereas, in the quality of
king, de roy, the articles of and ^ mark nothing pre¬
cife, and are therefore indefinite.
DEFINITION, in general, a ffiort defeription of
a thing by its properties; or, in logic, the explication
of the efience of a thing by its kind and difference.
See Logic, n° 6,—24.51,52.
DEFINITIVE, a term applied to whatever termi¬
nates a procefs, queftion, he.; in opppiition to provi-
fional and interlocutory.
DEFLAGRATION, in chemiftry, the kindling
or fetting fire to a faU or mineral, he. either alone or
mixed for that purpofe with a fulphureous one, in order
to purify it. See Chemistrv, n° 83.
This ffiort procefs has been often recommended to
the world as of great ufe in trying the ftrength of
brandies and other vinous fpirits, and has been greatly
improved in this refpeft by Mr Geoffrey.
The common way of trying fpirits by deflagration,
is to meafure out any quantity of it, then to heat it,
and fet it on fire. If, after it will no longer burn, the
remainder is half as much as the quantity meafuredout
for the trial was, then the fpirit tried is found to con-
fift of half water, and half totally inflammable fpirit;
that is, it is fomewhat below what we underftand by
the term perfett proof.—This method is much more
certain than that by the crown of bubbles which arifes
upon ffiaking the fpirit in a vial. Monf. Geoffrey’s
method is this: Take a cylindric veffel two inches
high, and as much in diameter, confiding of thin plate
filver, that metal being much lefs liable to ruft than
copper; this veffel muft be fitted with i\ little reftan-
gular gage exaftly graduated into lines, half lines, &c.
then the veffel being fet level upon a copper cafe made
to contain it, a parcel of the brandy to be examined is
poured in, to the height of 16 lines. This height is to
be exaftly hit by pouring in more than enough at firft,
and then fucking out the overplus with a very fmall
tube. Then the veffel being heated a little, fo as juft
to make the liquor fume, it is to be fet on fire, and
left to go out of itfelf; at the inftant when the
flame expires, the gage is plunged perpendicularly into
the veffel, and the lines and quarters exaftly noted
which the liquor wants of its former height: this dif¬
ference
Defile
II
Deflagra-
D E F [ 2401 ] D E JF
Befleftfon, ference gives the precife quantity of alcohol or pure
DoF fp'rit contained in the liquor. Thus, if eight lines of
-^ e ',c‘ phlegm are found remaining, this being the half of the
16 lines of the original filling, it is plaiii, that the li¬
quor contained one half fpirit, or was fomething below
proof. If only four lines remained, it was nearly
double proof, or of a middle nature betwixt alcohol
and common proof-fpirit.
DEFLECTION of the Rays c/"Light, a property
which Doftor Hook obferved in 1675, afld read an
account of before the Royal Society, March 18, the
fame year. He fays he found it different both from
reflection and refraction, and that it was made towards
the furface of the opaque body, perpendicularly. This
is the fame property which Sir Ifaac Newton calls in¬
fection. See the article Inflection.
DEFLORATION, or Deflowering, the aft of
violating or taking-away a woman’s virginity. See
Virginity.—Deaths or marriage, are decreed by the
civil law in cafe of defloration.
The ancients had fo much refpeft for virgins, that
they would not put them to death, till they had firft
procured them to be deflowered. It is faid, the na¬
tives of the coaft of Malabar pay ftrangers to come and
deflower their brides.
In Scotland, and the northern parts of England, it
was a privilege of the lords of the manor, granted them
by king Ewen, that they fliould have the firff night’s
lodging with their tenants wives. King Malcolm III.
allowed the tenants to redeem this fervice at a certain
rate, called viarcheta, confiding of a certain number of
cows : Buchanan fays it was redeemed with half a
mark of filver. The fame cuftom had place in Wales,
Flanders, Frifeland, and fome parts of Germany.
DEFLUXION, in medicine, the falling of the hu¬
mours from a fuperior to an inferior part of the body.
DE FOE (Daniel), a writer famous for politics
and poetry, was bred a holier; which profeffion how¬
ever he foon forfoqk, and became one of the moft enter-
prifing authors that any age produced. When difcon-
tents ran high at the Revolution, and king William
was obliged to difmifs his Dutch guards, De Foe, who
had true notions of civil liberty, ridiculed the enemies
of government in his well-known poem, called The
True-horn Englijhman, which had a prodigious fale.
The next fatire he wrote was intitled, Reformation of
Manners; aimed at fome perfons of high rank, who
rendered themfelves a difgrace to their country. When
the ecclefiaftics in power breathed too much of a fpirit
of perfecution, De Foe wrote a traft called The Short-
eji ojuay ’with the Dijfenters; for which he was called to
account, and explained himfelf with great firmnefs. He
was afterward fentenced to the pillory for attacking
fome public meafures; which fo little intimidated him,
that, in defiance of their ufage, he wrote 4 Hymn to the
Pillory. It w'ould be endlefs to enumerate all his pub¬
lications : but as he is perhaps bell known for his ad¬
mirable Hiftory of Robinfon Crufoe, it may be worth
while to give the hiftory of that work ; which does the
author of it no credit as to the better part of a writer’s
charafter, honefty. When captain Woods Rogers
touched at the ifland of Juan Fernandez, in the South
Sea, he brought away Alexander Selkirk, a Scots
failor, who had been left aftiore there, and had lived on
that defolate place above four years. . When Selkirk
came back to England, he tvrote a narrative of his ad- Defoliation
ventures, and put the papers into the hands of De Foe,
to digeft for publication ; who ungeneroufly converted
the materials into the Hiftory of Robinfon Crufoe,
and returned Selkirk his papers again ! A fraud for
which, in a humane- view, the diftinguiflied merit of
that romance can never'atone. Daniel de Foe died at
Iflington, in 1731.
DEFOLIATION, (from de, and folium a leaf); the
fall of the leaves. A term oppofed to frondefcentia,
the annual renovation of the leaves, produced by the
unfolding of the buds in fpring. See Frondescentia.
Moft plants in cold and temperate climates ftied
their leaves every year : this happens in Autumn, and
is generally announced by the flowering of the com¬
mon meadow faffron. The term is only applied to
trees and fhrubs; for herbs pCrifh down to the root
every year, lofing item, leaves, and all.
All plants do not .drop their leaves at the fame time.
Among large trees, the aih and walnut, although lateft
in unfolding, are fooneil divefted of them : the latter
feldom carries its leaves above five months.
On the oak and horn-beam, the leaves die, and wi¬
ther, as foon as the colds commence; but remain at¬
tached to the branches till they are puftied off by the
new ones, which unfold themfelves the following fpring.
Thefe trees are doubtlefs a kind of ever-greens: the
leaves are probably deftroyed only by cold; and per¬
haps would continue longer on the plant, but for the
force of the fpring-fap, joined to the moifture.
In mild and dry feafons, the lilac, privet, yellow jef-
famine of the woods, and maple of Crete, preferve their
leaves green until fpring, and do not drop them till the
new leaves are beginning to appear. The fig-tree, and
many other trees that grow between the tropics, are
of this particular clafs of ever-greens. The trees in
Egypt, fays Doftor Haffelquift, call their leaves in the
latter end of December- and beginning of January,
having young leaves ready before all the old ones are
fallen off; and, to forward this operation of nature,
few of the trees have buds : the fycamore and willow,
indeed, have fome, but with few and quite loofe ftipu-
lue or fcales. Nature did not imagine buds fo necef-
fary in the fouthern as in the northern countries; this
occafions a great difference between them.
Laftly, fome trees and Ihrubs preferve their leaves
conftantly through the whole year : and are not in the
leaft influenced by the clemency or inclemency of fea-
fons. Such are the firs, juniper, yew, cedar, cyprefs,
and many other trees, hence denominated ever-greens,
Thefe preferve their old leaves along time after the for¬
mation of the new, and do not drop them at any de¬
terminate time. In general, the leaves of ever-greens
are harder, and lefs fucculent, than thofe which are re¬
newed annually. The trees are generally natives of
warm climates; as the alaternufes of France and Italy,
the ever-green oak of Portugal and Suabia.
Some herbaceous perennials, as the houfe-leeks and
navel-worts, enjoy the fame privilege with the ever¬
green trees, and refill the feverities of winter: fome
even can difpenfe with the earth for fome time ; being
replete with juices, which the leaves imbibe from the
humidity of the atmofphe-e, and which, in fuch plants,
are, of themfelves, fufficient for effefting the purpofes ,
of vegetation. It is for this reafon, that, unlefs in ex-
cefiive
Defoliation
Deforce-
Bot. Did.
DEG
[ 2402 ]
DEG
ceffive hot weather, gardeners are feldom wont to wa- Deforcement, in Scots law, the oppofing or re- Deforce-
ter fat fucculent plants, as the aloes, which rot, when filling of the officers of the law in the execution-;of
they are moiftened, if the fun does not quickly dry
them up.
The leaves of all the ever-green (hrubs -and trees,
have a thin compadl Ikin, or cover, over their furface;
as is eafily difcovered by macerating them in watej, in
order to feparate the parenchyma, or pulp, from the
veflels of the leaves ; which cannot be effected in any
their office. See Law, N° clxxxvi. 1
DEFORMITY, the want of that uniformity necef- .1
fary to conftitute the beauty of an obje£l *. See B
DEFOSSION, Defossio, the punifhment of bu¬
rying alive, inflifted among the Romans on veital vir¬
gins guilty of incontinency. It is alfo a cuftom among
the Hungarians to inflift this punifhment on women
of thefe ever-greens, til! a thin parchment-like cover is convidted of adultery. Heretics were alfo punifhed in
taken off. Thefe trees and fhrubs are found by expe- this manner. See BuRYiNG-yiVn/e.
riment to perfpire but little, when compared with o- DEGENERATION, or Degenerating, in ge-
thers which fhed their leaves ; and it is, perhaps, prin- neral, denotes the growing worfe, or lofing fome va-
cipally owing to this clofe covering, as alfo to the fmall luable qualities whereof a thing was formerly pofTefied.
proportion of moifture contained in their vefiels, that Some naturalifls have' been of opinion, that things are
they retain their verdure, and continue thro’ the win- capable of degenerating into quite a diftindt fpecies ;
ter on the trees. The nutritive juices of thefe plants but this is a mere chimera. All that happens in the
always abound, more or lefs, with an oily quality, degeneration of a plant, for inltance, is the lofing its
which fecures them from being injured by fevere frofls; ufual beauty, colour, fmell, &c. a misfortune entirely
fo that many of thefe ever-green trees are adapted to owing to its being planted in an improper foil, cli-
grow in the coldeft parts of the habitable world.
With refpedt to deciduous trees,, the falling off of
the leaves feems principally to depend on the tempera¬
ture of the atmofphere, which likewife ferves to haften
or retard the appearance in queftion. An ardent fun
contributes to haften the dropping of the leaves.
Hence in hot and dry fummers, the leaves of the lime-
mate, &c.
DEGLUTITION, the a£lion of fwallowing. See
Anatomy, n® 368.
A difficulty of fw’allowing may be caufed, id, By
ulcers of the oefophagus ; in which cafe, there will be
frequent vomiting of blood, and other kinds of matter,
zdly, A feirrhous bronchocele. 3dly, A thickening of
tree and horfe-chefnut turn yellow -about the firft of the mucus in the oefophagus. qthly, Indurations of
September^ whilft in other years, the yellownefs does the oefophagus. ythly, A fungus in the cefophagus.
not appear till the 'beginning of Odlober. Nothing, 6thly, A facculus formed by fome hard fubftance lodg-
however, contributes more to haften the fall of the ing a little time in the oefophagus, and weakening its
leaves, than immoderate cold or moift weather in eu- coats, ythly, By fpafms.
tumn ; moderate droughts, on the other hand, ferve fo When any thing (licks in its pafiage into the fto-
retard it. As a proof of this pofition, Mr Adanfon mach, the bed method is to relieve the patient with the
relates, that in the year 1759, the leaves of the elm- greateft fpeed, by drawing it up, or pudring it down
tree, which generally fall off about, the 25th of No- into the domach.
vember, continued in verdure and vigour at Paris, DEGRAD ATION, the aft of depriving a perfon
where the autumn was remarkably dry, till the toth of for ever of a dignity or degree of honour, and taking
the following month. away the title, badge, and privileges of it.
The following table, refpefting the mean times in Degradation, in painting, expreffes the leffening
which different trees died their leaves, is founded upon the appearance of didant objefts in alandfkip, in the
obfervations.
Goofeberry-tree, and bladder-
fena,
Walnut and afh,
Almond-tree, horfe - chefnut,
and lime-tree,
Maple, hazel-nut, black-pop¬
lar, and afpen tree,
Birch, plane-tree, mountain-
ofier, falfe-acacia, pear, and
apple-tree,
Vine, mulberry, fig, fumac,
and angelica-tree,
Elm-tree, and willow,
Apricot, and elder-trees,
fame manner as they would appear to an eye placed at
« f that diftance from them.
o | Oftober id. DEGREE, in geometry, a divifion of a circle, in¬
's j —1   15th. eluding a three hundred and fixtieth part of its circuna-
5 j ference.
2 j   —20th. Degree cY Latitude. See Latitude.
'Z ! Degree 0/ Longitude. See Longitude.
ji I ———— 25th. A degree of the meridian on the furface of the globe
Z 1 is vayioufly determined by various obfervers. Mr Pi¬
'S I cart meafured a degree in the latitude of 49® 21', and
^ | Novemberid. found it equal to 57060 French toifes. But the French
^3 i mathematicians, who have lately examined Mr Picart’s
6 I 10th. operations, affure us, that the degree in that latitude
<u | 15th. is 57183 toifes. Our countryman, Mr Norwood, mea-
J ^ l 20th. fured the diftance between London and York, and found
It deferves to be remarked, that an ever-green tree it 905751 Englifh feet; and finding the difference of
grafted upon a deciduous, determines the latter to re- latitudes 2° 28', determined the quantity of one de¬
tain its leaves. This obfervation is confirmed by re- gree to be 367196 Englifh feet, or 69 Englifh miles
peated experiments; particularly by grafting the lau- and 288 yards. Mr Maupertuis meafured a degree in
rel, or cherry-bay, an ever-green, on the common Lapland, in the latitude of 66° 20', and found it
cherry ; and the ilex, or ever-green oak, on the oak. 57438 toifes. A degree was likewife meafured at the
DEFORCEMENT, in law, the calling any one equator by other French mathematicians, and found
outof his land, or with-holding of lands and tenements to contain 56767.8 toifes. Whence it appears, that
by force from the right owner. the earth is not,a fphere, but an oblate fuheroid.
Degree,
DEI [ 2403 ] DEL
Begree Degree, in the civil and canon law, denotes an
D*irts inrerval *n kinihip, by which proximity and remotenefs
  '— of blood are computed. See Consanguinity, and
Descent.
Degrees, in mufic, are the little intervals whereof
the concords or harmonical intervals are compofed.
Degree, in univerfities, denotes a quality conferred
on the ftudents or members thereof, as a teftimony of
their proficiency in the arts or fciences, and intitling
them to certain privileges.
DEJANIRA, in fabulous hiftory, daughter of Oe-
neus king of JEtolia, and wife to Hercules. The cen¬
taur Nefius endeavouring to ravifli her, was llain by
Hercules with a poifoned arrow. Neffus, when dy-
ing, gave his bloody fturt to Dejanira ; alluring her,
that it was a fovereign remedy to cure her hulband if
ever he proved unfaithful. Some time after, Dejanira
thinking (he had reafon to fufpedt his fidelity, fent him
the (hirt ; which he had no fooner put on, than he
was feized with the moft excruciating torments ; when
being unable to fupport his pains, he retired to mount
Oeta, and erecting a pile of wood fet fire to it, and
threw himfelf into the flames ; upon which Dejanira
killed herfelf in defpair.
DEJECTION, in medicine, the a& of voiding the
excrements by the anus.—When the faeces are accumu-
* See Ana- lated in the intedinum return * in fufficient quantity to
£M9’,n®354. become troublefome either by their weight or acrimo¬
ny, they excite a certain uneafinefs, which produces
an inclination to go to Itool. The efforts for this pur-
pofe are begun by a confideruble infpiration, in confe-
quence of which the diaphragm is carried down to¬
wards the lower belly f the abdominal mufcles are at
the fame time contracted in obedience to the will ; and
the inteftines being compreffed on all (ides, the refift-
ance of the fphinfters is overcome, and the fasces pafs
out at the anus ; which is afterwards drawn up by its
longitudinal fibres, which are called levatorcs ani, and
then by means of its fphinCters is again contracted: but
it fometimes happens, as in dyfenteries, for inftance,
that the faeces are very thin, and have confiderable a-
crimony ; and then the irritation they occafion is more
frequent, fo as to promote their difeharge without any
preffure from the diaphragm or abdominal mufcles; and
fometimes involuntarily, as is the cafe when thefphinc-
ters become paralytic.
DEIFICATION, in antiquity. See Apotheosis.
DEISM, the fyftem of religion acknowledged by
the deifls.
DEISTS, in the modern fenfe of the word, are
thofe perfons in Chriltian countries, who, acknow¬
ledging all the obligations and duties of natural reli¬
gion, difbelieve the Chriftian fcheme of revealed reli¬
gion. They are fo called from their belief in God a-
lone, in oppofition to Chriftians. The learned Dr
Clarke taking the denomination in the moft extenfive
fignification, diftinguilhes deifts into four forts, x. Such
as pretend to believe the exiflence of an eternal, infi¬
nite, independent, intelligent Being ; and who teach,
that this fupreme Being made the world, though they
fancy he does not at all concern himfelf in the manage¬
ment of it. 2. Thofe who believe not only the being,
l>ut alfo the providence, of God with refpeCl to the na¬
tural world ; but who, not allowing any difference be¬
tween moi.'! good and evil, deny that God takes any
notice of the morally good or evil aflions of men; thefe Deity,
things depending, as they imagine, on the arbitrary Delegatc
conftitutions of human laws. 3. Thofe who having
right apprehenlions concerning the natural attributes
of God, and his all-governing providence, and feme
notion of his moral perfections alfo; yet, being pre¬
judiced againft the notion of the immortality of the hu¬
man foul, believe that men perifli entirely at death, and
that one generation (hall perpetually fucceed another,
without any future reftoration or renovation of things.
4. Such as believe the exiftence of a fupreme Being,
together with his providence in the government of the
world, as alfo the obligations of natural religion ; but
fo far only as thefe things are difeoverable by the light
of nature alone, without believing any divine revela¬
tion. Thefe laft are the only true deifts ; but as the
principles of thefe men would naturally lead them to
embrace the Chriftian revelation, the learned author
concludes there is now no confiftent fcheme of deifm in
the world.
DEITY, a term frequently ufed in a fynonymous
fenfe with God.
DELEGATE, in a general fenfe, a deputy or com-
miffioner.
Delegates, coramiflioners appointed by the king,
under the great feal, to hear and determine appeals
from the ecclefiaftical court.
Court of Delegates, the great court of appeal in
all ecclefiaftical caufes. Thefe delegates are appointed
by the king’s commiflion under his great feal, and if- Comments
fuing out of chancery, to reprefent his royal perfon,
and hear all appeals to him made by virtue of the fta-
tute 25 Henry VIII. e. 19. This commiflion is ufual-
ly filled with lords fpiritual and temporal, judges of
the courts at Weftminfter, and doftors of the civil
law. Appeals to Rome were always looked upon by
the Englifti nation, even in the times of Popery, with
an evil eye, as being contrary to the liberty of the fub-
jedft, the honour of the crown, and the independence
of the whole realm; and were firft introduced in very
turbulent times, in the 16th year of king Stephen
(A. D. 1151), at the fame period (Sir Henry Spel-
man obferves) that the civil and canon laws were firft
imported into England. But in a few years after, to
obviate this growing pfaflice, the conftitutions made
at Clarendon, 11 Hen. II. on account of the difturb-
ances raifed by archbifhop Becket and other zealots of
the holy fee, exprefsly declare, that appeals in caufes
ecclefiaftical ought to lie from the archdeacon to the
diocefan ; from the diocefan to the archbilhop of the
province ; and from the archbiftiop to the king ; and
are not to proceed any farther without fpecial licenfe
from the crown. But the unhappy advantage that was
given in the reign of king John, andhis fon Hen. III.
to the encroaching power of the Pope, who was ever
vigilant to improve all opportunities of extending his
jurifdidlion to Britain, at length rivetted the cuftom
of appealing to Rome in caufes ecclefiaftical foftrong-
ly, that it never could be thoroughly broken off, till
the grand rupture happened in the reign of Hen. VIII.
when all the jurifdi&ion ufurped by the Pope in mat¬
ters ecclefraftical was reftored to the crown, to which
it originally belonged: fothat the ftatutezy Hen. VIII.
was but declaratory of the ancient law of the realm.
But in cafe the king himfelf be party in any of thefe
DEL
Delegation, fuits, the appeal does not then lie to him in chancery,
which would be abfurd ; but, by the 24 Henry VIII.
c. 12. to all the bifhops of the realm, affembiedin the
upper houfe of convocation.
DELEGATION, a commiffion extraordinary gi¬
ven by a judge to take cognifance of and determine
fome caufe which ordinarily does not-come before him.
Delegatuin, in Scots law. See Law, N° clxxvii. 8.
DELETERIOUS, an appellation given to things
of a deftruftive or poifonous nature. See Poison.
DELFT, a town of the united provinces, and capi¬
tal of Delftiand in Holland. It is a pretty large place,
very clean and well built, with canals in the llreets,
planted On each fide with trees. The public buildings,
efpecially the town-houfe, are very magnificent. Here
are two churches : in one is the tomb of the prince of
Orange, who was affafiinated ; and in the .other, that
of admiral Tromp. It has a fine arfenal, well furnilh- ■
ed ; is about two miles in circumference, and is de¬
fended againft inundations by three dams or dikes.
Here is made a prodigious quantity of fine earthen
ware called delft-nuare; but the town has no other
trade. It is pleafantly fituated among the meadow's
on the river Schie, in E. Long. 4. 13. N1 Lat. 32. 6,
DELFT-ffWe, a kind of pottery of baked earth, co¬
vered with an enamel or white glazing, which gives it
the appearance and neatnefs of porcelain.—Some kinds
of this enamelled pottery differ much from others, ei¬
ther in their fuftaining fudden heat without breaking,
or in the beauty and regularity of their forms, of their
enamel, and of the painting w'ith which they are or¬
namented. In general, the fine and beautiful enamel¬
led potteries, which approach the neared to porcelain
in external appearance, are at the fame time thofe
which lead refid a brifk fire. Again, thofe which
fudain a fudden heat, are coarfe, and referable com¬
mon pottery.
The balls of this pottery is clay, which is to be
nvxed, when too fat, w-ith fuch a quantity of fand, that
the earth dial! preferve enough of its dii&ility to be
worked, moulded, and turned ealily; and yet that its
fatuefs dial! be fufficiently taken from it, that it may
not crack or"fhrink- too much in drying or in baking.
Veffels formed of this earth mult be dried'very gently,
to 'avoid cracking. They are then to be placed in a
furnace to receive a (light baking, which is only meant
to give them a certain confidence or hardnefs. And,
ladly, they are to be covered with an enamel or glazing ;
which is done, by putting upon the velfels thus prepa¬
red, the enamel, which has been ground' very fine, and
diluted with water.
As vedels on which.the enamel is applied are but
{lightly baked, they readily imbibe the water in which
the enamel is fufpended, and a layer of this enamel ad¬
heres to their furfact : thefe velfels may then be painted
with colours compofed of metallic calces, mixed and
ground with a fufible glafs. When they are become
perfectly dry, they are to be placed in the furnace, in¬
cluded in cafes of baked earth called feggars, and ex-
poied to a heat capable of fufinc uniformly the enamel
which covers them.—This heat given to fuft- the ena¬
mel being much ftronger than that v h ch was applied
at firft to give fome confifience to the ware, is alfo the
heat neceffary to complete the baking of it. The fur¬
nace and the colours uied fdr painting this ware, are the
DEL
fame as thofe employed for Porcelain. The glazing, Deifr,
which is nothing but white enamel, ought to be fo Deha.
opake as not to fhew the ware under it. There are ti
many receipts for making thefe enamels: but all of
them are edmpofed of fand or flints, vitrifying falts, ' \
calx of lead, an’d calx of tin; and the fand mud be per-
fe&ly vitrified, fo as to form a glafs confiderably fufible.
Somewhat lefs than an eqtial part of alkaline fait, or
twice its weight of calx of lead, is requifite to effeft
fuch vitrifications of fand. The calx of tin is not in¬
tended to be vitrified, but to give a white opake colour
to the mafs; and one part of it is to be added to three
or four parts of all the other ingredients taken together.
From thefe general principles, various enamels may be
made to fuit the different kinds of earths. To make the
enamel, lead and tin are calcined together with a* ftrong
fire ; and the fand is alfo to be made into a fritt with
the falls or afhes. The whole is then to be well mix¬
ed and ground together. This matter is then to be
placed under the furnace, where it is melted and vitri¬
fied during the baking of the ware. It is next to be
ground in a mill, and applied as above dire&ed.
The preparation of the white enamel is a very effen-
tial article in making delft-ware, and one in which ma¬
ny artifts fail. M. Bofc. d’Antic, in a Memoir con¬
cerning this kind of ware, publiflied in the Mem. det
Scavans Etrang. dom. 6. recommends the following
proportions. An hundred pounds of calx of lead are
to be mixed with about a feventh part of that quantity
of calx of tin for common delft-ware, or a fourth part
of calx of tin for the fined kind ; an hundred, or an
hundred and ten, pounds of fine (and ; and about 20
or 30 pounds of fea-falt.— Concerning the earth of
which the ware is made, he obferves, that pure clay is
not a proper material when ufed alone. Different
kinds of earths mixed together are found to fucceed
better. Pieces of ware made of clay alone, are found
to require too much time todry; and they crack, and lofc
their form, unlefs they are made exceedingly thick. An
addition of marie diminifhes the contradlibn of the
clay; renders it lefs compadt; and allows the Water to
efcape, without altering the form of the ware in dry¬
ing. It affords alfo a better ground for the enamel;
which appears more gloffy and white, than when laid
on clay alone.—The kinds of clay which are chiefly
ufed irrthe compofition of delft-ware, are the blue, and
green. A mixture of blue clay and marie would not
be fufficiently folid, and would be apt to fcale, unlefs
it were expofed to ,a fire more intenfe than what is
commonly ufed for the burning of delft-ware. To
give a greater folidity, fome red clay is added ; which,
on account of its ferruginous matter, poffeffes the.re¬
quifite binding quality. The proportions of thtfe in¬
gredients vary in different works, according to the dif¬
ferent qualities of the earths employed. Three parts
of blue clay, two parts of red clay, and five parts
of marie, form the compofition ufed in feveral manufac¬
tories. M. d'Antic thinks,- that the belt delft-ware
might be mu d of rqual parts of pure clay and pure
calcareous earthy but this compofition would require
that the fire (hould be continued twice as long as it
generally is.
DELIA, in antiquity, feafts celebrated by the A-
thenians in ronour of Apollo, fornamtd Delius.
Delia was alfo a quinquennial ftftival in the ifland
of
[ 2404 ]
l)eliba-
T
Deliquiuni.
DEL' [ 2405 ] D E fc
of Delos, Inftituted by 'Thefeus at his return from
Crete, in honour of Venus, whofe ftatue, given him by
Ariadne, he ere&ed in that place, having by her af>
fiftancc met with fuccefs in his expedition.
DELIBAMENTA, in antiquity, a libation to the
infernal gods, always offered by pouring downwards.
See Libation.
JUS DELIBERANDI. See LaW, N° clxxx. 23.
DELIBERATIVE, an appellation given to a kind
or branch of rhetoric, employed in proving a thing, or
convincing an affembly thereof, in order to perfuade
them to put it in execution.
To have a deliberative voice in the affembly, is
when a perfon has a right to give his advice and his
vote therein. In councils, the bifhops have delibera¬
tive voices; thofe beneath them have only confultative
Voices.
DELICT, in Scots law, fignifies fuch fmall offences
or breaches of the peace as are puniihable only by fine
or Ihort imprifonment.
DELINQUENT, a guilty perfon, or one who has
committed fome fault or offence for which he is pu-
nifnable. See Britain, N° 97.
DELIQUESCENCE, in chemiftry, fignifies the
property which certain bodies have of attradting moi-
fture from the air, and becoming liquid thereby. This
property is never found but in faline fubftances, or
matters containing them. It is caufed by the great
affinity which thefe fubftances have Tvith water. The
more fimple they are, according to Mr Macquer, the
more they incline to deliquefcence. Hence, acids, and
certain alkalies, which are the moft fimple, are alfo the
molt deliquefcent falls. Mineral acids are fo deli-
quefcent, that they ftrongly imbibe moifture from the
air, even though they are already mixed with a fuf-
ficient quantity of water to be fluid. For this purpofe,
it is fufficient that they be concentrated only to a cer¬
tain degree.—Many neutral falls are deliquefcent,
chiefly thofe whofe bafes are not faline fubftances.
Salts formed by the vitriolic acid, with fixed or vola¬
tile alkalies, earths,, or moft metallic fubftances, are
not deliquefcent; although this acid is the ftrongeft of
all, and, when difengaged, attra&s the moifture of the
air moft powerfully.
Though the immediate caufe of deliquefcence is the
attradlion of the moifture of the air, as we have already
obferved ; yet it remains to be fhewn why fome falls at-
traft this moifture powerfully, and others, though
feemingly equally fimple, do not attrad it at all. The
vegetable alkali, for inftance, attracts moifture power¬
fully ; the mineral alkali, though to appearance equally
fimple, does not attradt it at all. The acid of tartar by
itfelf does not attraft the moifture of the air ; but if
mixed with borax, which has a little attra&ion for moi¬
fture, the mixture is exceedingly deliquefcent.—Some
theories have been fuggefted, in order to account for
thefe and other limilar facts ; but we are ^ yet too
little acquainted with the nature of the atmofphere,
and the relation its conftituent parts luwe to thofe of
terreftrial fubftances, to determine any thing with cer¬
tainty on this head.
DELIQUIUM, a term frequently employed by
chemifts to chara&erife a body which is refolved into a
liquor by expofure to the air. In this fenfe they talk
of the deliquitim of a fait, as of fait of tartar for in-
Vol. IV.
ftance. This word is aifo frequently ufed inflead of
DELIQUESCENCE.
DELIRIUM, from deliro, to rave or talk idly.
When the ideas excited in the mind dp not correfpond
to the external objefts, but are produced by the change
induced on the common fenfory, the patient is faid to
be delirious. The Greeks call it paraphrenefu. In the
Englifh there is no word for it, except light-keadednefs
be admitted.
The paraphrenefis, or delirium, differs from a mad-
uefs, in not being perpetual, which happens in deliri¬
ums without a fever.—The proximate caufe of a deli¬
rium is an affection of the brain ; but the remote cau-
fes may be an irritation, fometimes a very flight one,
of any part of the nervous fyftem. See (the Index fub-
joined to) Medicine.
DELIVERY, or Child-birth. See Midwifery.
DELLY, or Delhi, a kingdom and city of the
Mogul’s empire, in Alia. The city is one of the capi¬
tals of the empire. The road between it and Agra
the other capital, is that famous alley or walk planted
with trees by Jehan Ghir, and 150 leagues in length.
Each half league is marked with a kind of turret; and
at every ftage there are little farays, or caravanferas, for
the benefit of travellers. The road, though pretty
good, has many inconveniencies. It is not only fre¬
quented by wild beafts, but by robbers. The latter
are fo dextrous at calling a noofe about a man’s neck,
that they never fail, if within reach, to febze and ftrangie
him. They gain their point likewife by means of
handfome women ; who, feigning grelt diftrefs, and
being taken up behind the unwary traveller, choak him
with the fame fnare.—The capital cpnfifts of three ci¬
ties, built near one another. The firft, now quite de-
ftroyed, is faid to have had 52 gates; and to have been
the refidence of king Porus, conquered by Alexander
the Great. The fecond, which is alfo in ruins, was
demplilhed by Shah Jehan, to build yehati-abad with
the materials. This makes the third city, and joins
the ruins of the fecond. This city Hands in an open
plain country, on the river J‘amna, which rifes in this
province. It is encompaffed with walls, except to¬
wards the river. Thefe are of brick, flanked with
round towers ; But without a ditch, and terraced be-
hindi four or five feet thick. The circumference of the
walls may be about nine miles. The fortrefs, which is
a mile and an half in circuit, has good walls and round
towers, and ditches full of water, faced with ftone. It
is furrounded with fine gardens, and in it is the Mo¬
gul’s palace. See Indostan. E. Long.' 79. 25. N.
Lat. 28. 20.
DELMENHORST, a ftrong town of Germany,
in the circle of Weftphalia, and county of Oldenburgh,
belonging to Denmark; feated on the river Delm near
the Wefer. E. Long. 8. 37. N. Lat. 53. 10.
DELOS, an ifland of the Archipelago, very famous
in ancient hiftory. Originally it is faid to have been
a floating ifland, but afterwards it became fixed and
immoveable. It was held facred on account of its be¬
ing the birth-place of Apollo and Diana.—Anciently
this ifland was governed by its own kings. Virgil
mentions one Anius reigning here in the time of the
Trojan war. He was, according to that poet, both
king and high-prieft of Apollo, and entertained JEneas
with great kindnefs. The Perfians allowed the De-
14 B Hans
Delirium
Delos.
Delos.
DEL
[
DEL
lians to enjoy their ancient liberties, after they had re-
~ duced the reft of the Grecian iflands. In after ages,
the Athenians made themfelves mafters of it; and held
it till they were driven out by Mithridates the Great,
who plundered the rich temple of'Apollo, and obliged
the Delians to fide with him. Mithridates was in his
turn driven out by the Romans, who granted the inha¬
bitants many privileges, and exempted them from all
forts of taxes. At prefent it is quite abandoned; the
lands being covered with ruins and rubbilh, in fuch a
manner as to be quite incapable of cultivation. The
inhabitants of Mycone hold it now, and pay but ten
crowns land-tax to the Grand Signior for an ifland
which was once one of the richeft in the world.—Strabo
and Callimachus tell us that the ifland of Delos was
watered by the river Inapus: but Pliny calls it only a
fpring ; and adds, that its waters fwelled and abated
at the fame time with thofe of the Nile. At prefent
there is no river in the ifland, but one of the nobleft
fprings in the world; being twelve paces in diameter, and
inclofed partly by rocks, and partly by a wall. Mount
* Cynthus, whence Apollo had the furname of Cynthius, is
by Strabo placed near the city, and faid to be fo high,
that the whole ifland was covered by its fhadow ; but
r modern travellers fpeak of it as an hill of a very
2406 ]
Deliacum; and is faid to have been propofed by the
oracle, for the purpofe of freeing the country from a
plague. The diftemper was to ceafe when the pro¬
blem was folved.—The trunk of the famous ftatue of
Apollo, mentioned by Strabo and Pliny, is ftill an ob-
jtft of great admiration to travellers. It is without
head, feet, arms, or legs; but from the parts that are
yet remaining, it plainly appears, that the ancients did
not exaggerate when they commended it as a wonder
of art. It was of a gigantic fize, though cut out of a
Angle block of marble ; the ftioulders being fix feet
broadband the thighs nine feet round. At a ftnall
diftance from this ftatue lies, amongft confufed heaps
of broken columns, architraves,, bafes, chapiters, &e.
a fquare piece of marble 154- feet long, ten feet nine
inches broad, and two feet three inches thick ; which
undoubtedly ferved as a pedettal for this coloflus. It
bears, in very fair chara&ers, this infcription in Greek,
“ The Naxians to Apollo.” Plutarch tells us, in the
life of Nicias, that he caufed to be fet up, near the
temple of Delos, an huge palm-tree of brafs, which he
confecrated to Apollo; and adds, that a violent ftorm
of wind threw down this tree on a colofiian ftatue raifed
by the inhabitants of Naxos. Round the temple were
ignificent porticoes built at the charge of various
DelphfniJ
moderate height. It is but one block of granate of princes, as appears from infcriptions which are ftill ve-
the ordinary fort, cut, on that fide which faced the ci¬
ty, into regular fteps, and inclofed on both fides by a
wall. On the top of the mountain are ftill to be feen
the remains of a ftately building, with a mofaic pave¬
ment, many broken pillars, and other valuable monu¬
ments of antiquity. From an infcription difcovered there
fome time ago, and which mentions a vow made to Se-
rapis, Ifis, and Anubis, fome have conje&ured, that on
this hill flood a temple dedicated to thefe Egyptian
deities, though no where mentioned in hiftory.—The
city of Delos, as is manifeft from the magnificent
ruins ftill extant, took up that fpacious plain reaching
from one coaft to the other. It was well peopled, and
the richeft city in the Archipelago, efpecially after the
deftru&ion of Corinth; merchants flocking thither
from all parts, both in regard of the immunity they
enjoyed there, and of the convenient fituation of the
place between Europe and Afia. Strabo calls it one
of the moft frequented empories in the world; and
Pliny tells us, that all the commodities of Europe and
Afia were fold, purchafed, or exchanged there. It
contained many noble and ftately buildings; as, the
temples of Apollo, Diana, and Latona ; the porticoes
of Philip of Macedon, and Dionyfius Eutyches ; a
gymnafium ; an oval bafon made at an immenfe ex¬
pence, for the reprefentation of fea-fights; and a moft
magn'ificent theatre. The temple of Apollo was, ac¬
cording to Plutarch, begun by Eryjichton the fon of
Cecrops; but afterwards enlarged and embelliftied at
the common charges of all the ftates of Greece. Plu¬
tarch tells us, that it was one of the moft ftately build¬
ings in the univerfe ; and fpeaks of an altar in it,
which, in his opinion, deferved a place among the
wonders of the world. It was built with the horns of
various animals, fa artificially adapted to one another,
that they hanged together without any cement. This
altar is faid to have been a perfefl cube; and the dou¬
bling it was a famous mathematical problem among the
ancients. This went under the name of Probkma
ry plain. The names of Philip king of Macedon, Di¬
onyfius Eutyches, Mithridates Euergetes, Mithridates
Eupator, kings of Pontus, and Nicomedes king of Bi-
thyuia, are found on feyeral pedeftals.—To this temple
the inhabitants of the neighbouring iflands fent yearly
a company of virgins to celebrate, with dancing, the
feftival of Apollo and his filler Diana, and to make
offerings in the name of their refpeflive cities.
So very facred was the ifland of Delos held by the
ancients, that no hoftilities were pradlifed here, even
by the nations that were at war with one another,
when they happened to meet in this place. Of this,
Livy gives an inftance. He tells us, that fome Ro¬
man deputies being obliged to put in at Delos, in their
voyage to Syria and Egypt, found the galleys of Per-
feus king of Macedon, and thofe of Eumenes king of
Pergamus, anchored in the fanie harbour, though thefe
two princes were then making war upon one another.
—Hence this ifland was a general afylum, and the pro-
tedlion extended to all kinds of living creatures; for
this reafon it abounded with hares, no dogs being fuf-
fered to enter it. No dead body was fuffered to be
buried in it, nor was any woman fuffered to lie-in there;
all dying perfons, and women ready to be delivered,,
were carried over to the neighbouring ifland of Rhe-
naja.
DELPHINIUM, dolphin-flowlr, or lark¬
spur; a genus of the trigynia order, belonging to the
polyandria clafs of plants. There are feven fpecies; four
are cultivated in gardens. Two of thefe are annual, and
two perennial. They are herbaceous plants of up-
right growth, rifing from 18 inches to four feet in
height, garnifhed with finely divided leaves, and ter¬
minated by long fpikes of pentapetalous flowers of
blue, red, white, or violet colours.—One fpecj'es, the
confolida, is found wild in feveral parts of Britain, and
grows in corn-fields. According to Mr Withering,
the expreffed juice of the petals, with a little alum,
makes a good blue ink. The feeds are acrid and poi-
foncus.
<J/(f. /HXa^ycvg of ARMAimo
Plate LXSXV1I.
4> . # 1)AATE,
PE AD EYES
DEL [ 2407 j DEL
Delphinus, fonous. When cultivated, the bloflbms often become
or dolphin, Sheep and goats eat this plant; horfes are
not fond of it ; cows and fwine refufe it.—The firft-
mentioned fpecies makes a very fine appearance in gar¬
dens, and is eafily propagated by feeds; being fo
hardy, that it thrives in any foil or fituation.
DELPHINUS, or dolp him ; a genus of fifhes be¬
longing to the order of Cete. There are three fpecies.
1. The delphis, or dolphin. Hiftorians and phi-
lofophers feem to have contended who fhould invent
moll fables concerning this filh. It was confecrated
to the gods, was celebrated in the earlieft time for its
fondefs of the human race, was honoured with the title
of the facred fifo, and diftinguilhed by thofe of boy-
loving and philanthropijl. It gave rife to a long train
of inventions, proofs of the credulity and ignorance of
the times. Ariftotle (leers the clearefft of ,all the an¬
cients, from thefe fables, and gives in general 3 faith¬
ful hiftory of this animal ; but the elder Pliny, Lilian,
and others, feem to preferve no bounds in their belief
of the tales related of this filh’s attachment to mankind.
Scarce an accident could happen at fea, but the dol¬
phin offered himfelf to convey to (bore the unfortunate.
Arion the mufician, when flung into the ocean by the
pirates, is received and faved by this benevolent fifh.
Inie (fide majus) tergo Dciphina recitrva,
Se memorant oneri fuppofui/fe novo.
Illefedens citbaromque tenons, preiiumque vehendi
Cantat, el xquoreas carmine mulcct aquas.
Ovid. Fajii, lib, ii. 113.
But (part belief) a dolphin’s arched back
Preferved Arion Iron' his deftined wrack ;
Secure he fits, and with harmonious (trains
Requites his bearer for his friendly pains.
We are at a lofs to account for the origin of thofe
fables, fince it does not appear that the dolphin fhews
a greater attachment to mankind, than the reft of the
cetaceous tribe. We know that at prefent the appear¬
ance of this fifh, and the porpeffe, are far from being
efteemed favourable omens by the feamen ; for their
boundings, fprings, and frolics, in the water, are held
to be fare figns of an approaching gale.
It is from their leaps out of that element, that they
affume a temporary form that is not natural to them ;
but which the old painters and fculptors have almoft
always given them. A dolphin is fcarce ever exhibited
by the ancients in a ftraight ftutpe, but almoft always in-
curvated : fuch are thofe on the coin of Alexander the
Great, which is preferved by Belon, as well as on fe-
veral other pieces of antiquity. * The poets defcribe
them much in the fame manner, and it is not impro¬
bable but that the one had borrowed from the other :
Turmdumque pando tranfilit dorfo mare
■ Tyrrhenus Omni pifcis exjultat freto,
Agitatque gyros. Sen k c . Trag. Agam. 450.
Upon the (welling waves the dolphins (how
Their bending backs; then, fwiftly darting, go,
And in a thoufand wreaths their bodies throw.
* See Plate The natural (hape of the dolphin * is almoft ftraight,
LXXXVII. the back being very (lightly incurvated, and the body
4’ (lender: the nofe is long, narrow, and pointed, not
much unlike *he beak of fome birds, for which reafon
the French call it /’ oye de mcr. It has in all 40 teeth ;
21 in the upper jaw, and 19 in the lower; a little a-
boye an inch long, conic at their upper end, (harp-
pointed, bending a little in. They are placed at
fmalldiftances from each other; fo that when the mouth Delphinus,
is (hut, the teeth of both jaws lock into one another : or d1’1!'11111-
the fpout-hole is placed in the middle bf the head; the
tail is femilunar ; the (kin is fniooth, the colour of the
back and Tides dufky, the belly whitifli : it fwims with
reat fwiftnefs; and its prey is fifh. It was formerly rec¬
oned a great delicacy; Dr Cains fays, that one which
was taken in his time, was thought a prefent worthy
the duke of Norfolk, who diftributed part of it among
his, friends. It was roafted and dreffed with porpeffe
fauce, made of crumbs of fine wheat bread, mixed with
vinegar and fugar.
This fpecies of dolphin mud not be confounded
with that to which feamen give the name ; the latter
being quite another kind of fifh, the coryphxna hip-
of Linnaeus, and the dorado of the Portuguefe.
2. The phocaena, or porpeffe. This fpecies is found
in vaft multitudes in all parts of the Britifh Teas ; but
in greateft numbers at the time when fifh of paffage ap¬
pear, fuch as mackerel, herrings, and falmon, which
they purfue up the bays with the fame eagernefs as a
dog does a hare. In fome places they almoft darken
the fea as they rife above water to take breath : but
porpeffes not only feek for prey near the furface, but
often defeend to the bottom in fearch of fand-eels, and
fea-worms, which they root out of the fand with their
nofes in the fame manner as hogs do in the fields for
their food.
Their bodies are very thick towards the head, but
grow (lender towards the tail, forming the figure of a
cone. The nofe projedls a little, is much fhorter than
that of the dolphin, and is furnifhed with very
ftrong mufcles, which enables it the readier to turn
up the fand. In each jaw are 48 teeth, fmall, (harp-
pointed, and a little moveable ; like thofe of the dol¬
phin, they are fo placed as that the teeth of one
jaw locks into thofe of the other when elofed.
The eyes are fmall; the fpout-hole is on the top of the
head; the tail femilunar. The colour of the porpeffe is
generally black, and the belly whitifh ; but they fome-
times vary : in the river St Laurence there is a white
kind; and Dr Borlafe, in his voyage to the Scilly
ides, obferved a fmall fpecies of cetaceous fifti, which
he calls thornbacts, from their broad and (harp fin on Brit. Zooi.
the back ; fome of thefe were brown, fome quite white,
others fpotted : but whether they were only a variety
of this fifh, or whether they were fmall grampufes,
which are alfo fpotted, we cannot determine.
The porpeffe is remarkable for the vaft quantity of
the fat or lard that furrounds the body, which yields a
great quantity of excellent oil: from this lard, or
from their rooting like fwine, they are called in many
places fea-hogs; the Germans call them meerfchnxiein;
the Swedes marfuin; and the Englifh porpeffe, from
the Italian porco pefee.
It would be curious to trace the revolutions of fa-
fhion in the article of eatables ; what epicure firft re-
jefted the fea-gull and heron, and what delicate flo-
mach firft naufeated the greafy flefh of the porpeffe.
This latter was once a royal difh, even fo late as the
reign of Henry VIII. and from its magnitude muft have
held a very refpeftable ftation at the table ; for in a
houfehold book of that prince, extradls of which are
publifhed in the third volume of the Archteologia, it is
ordered, that if a porpeffe (hould be too big fora horfe-
14 B 2 load.
DEL [ 2408 ] DEL
Delphos load, allowance fhould be made to the purveyor. This
I! fifh continued in vogue even in the reign of Elizabeth:
Deluge. for J)0£t0r Caius, on mentioning a dolphin (tliat was
taken at Shoreham, and brought to Thomas duke of
Norfolk, who divided, and fent it as a prefent to his
friends) fays, that it eat beft with porpeife fauce,
which was made of vinegar, crums of hne bread, and
fugar.
3. The orca, or grampus, is found from the length
©f 15 feet to that of 25. It is remarkably thick in
proportion to its length, one of 18 feet being in the
thiekell place 16 feet diameter. With reafon then did
Pliny call this “ an immenfe heap of flefh armed with
dreadful teeth.” It is extremely voracious ; and will not
even fpare the porpefie, a congenerous fifh. It is faid
to be a great enemy to the whale, and that it will fa¬
llen on it like a dog on a bull, till the animal roars
with pain. The nofe is flat, and turns up at the end.
There are 30 teeth in each ja,w : thofe before are blunt,
round, and {lender; the fartheft (harp and thick : be¬
tween each is a fpace adapted to receive the teeth of the
oppofite jaw when the mouth is clofed. The fpout-
hole is in the top of the neck. The colour of the
back is black, but on each flioulder is a large white
fpot; the fides marbled with black and white ; the bel¬
ly of a fno\yy whitenefs,
Thefe fi flies fometimes appear on our coafts ; but
are found in much greater numbers off the Nprth
Gape in Norway, whence they are called the iVbr-^-
Capers. Thefe and all other whales are obferved ta
fwim againft the wind; and to be much difturbed, and
tumble about with unyfual violence, at the approach of
a ftorm.
Delphinus, in aftronomy, a conftellatioix of the
northern hemifphere. See Astronpmy, n° 206.
DELPHOS, a town of Turky in Afia, in the pro¬
vince of Libadia, anciently Phocis. In former times it
was famous for an oracle of Apollo. See Oracle.
DELTA, is a part of Lower Egypt, which takes
up a confiderable fpace of ground between the branches ,
of the Nile and the Mediterranean Sea : the ancients
called it the IJle of Delta, becaufe it is in the fhape of
a triangle, like the Greek letter of that name. It is
about 130 miles along the coaft from Damietta to A-
iexandria, and 70 on the fides from the place where
the Nile begins to divide itfelf. It is the moll plenti¬
ful country of all Egypt, and it rains more there than
in other parts, but the fertility is chiefly owing to the
inundation of the river Nile. The principal towns on
the coaft are, Damietta, Rofetta, and Alexandria;
but, within land, Mcnoufia and Maala, or Elnjala.
DELTOIDES, in anatomy. See Anatomy, Table
of the Mufcles.
' DELUGE, an inundation or overflowing of the
earth, either wholly or in part, by water.
We have feveral deluges recorded in hiftory ; as that
of Ogyges, which overflowed almoft all Attica ; and
that of Deucalion, which drowned all Theflaly in
Greece : but the moft memorable was that called the
Univerfal Deluge, or Noah’s Flood, which overflowed
and deftroyed the whole earth ; and from which only
Noah, and thofe with him in the ark, efcaped.
The deftruftion of the whole earth by water, and its
formation anew in the way we fee it, is an event fo ex¬
ceedingly remarkable, and fo much out of the ordinary
courfe of nature, that it is no wonder to find the Deluge,
reality of the fa6t called in queftion by many. As ——
the giving up this point, however, would utterly de-
ftroy the authenticity of thefacred writings, thofe who
have undertaken the defence of revelation, have confe-
quently laboured to bring fome pofitive evidence of the
fa£t, diftindt from that of Mofcs; and not only to (hew
hoW by natural means fuch an event might have hap¬
pened, but likew’ife to bring proofs that it a&ually
did happen. There are .two principal arguments againll
the exiltence of a univerfaj deluge : 1. The want, of a
fufficient quantity of water to cover the whole earth-to .
the height mentioned by Mofes, Or, 2. Suppofingthis
to be obviated, the immutability of the lawsof nature are
urged ; as it is thought, that, during the time of the^
flood, the great law of gravitation muft have been fuf-
pended, or rather reverfed, and the fluid water have
had no tendency to return to the loweft parts of the
earth as we fee it hath at prefent.—On the other hand,
molj of.thofe who maintain the reality of the univer¬
fal deluge, have had recourfe to the w-aters of the o-
cean as fufficieht in quantity ; and to the omnipotence
of God, exerted either immediately, or by the media¬
tion of fome of the great natural agents, for raifing
them to the height to w^ich they are faid to have rifen.
The finding a quantity of water fufficient for an
univerfal deluge, hath however been looked on as a
matter of great difficulty, and various hypothefes have
been invented to folve it.
1. It hath been afferted, that a quantity of water
was created on purpofe, and at a proper time annihi¬
lated by divine power. This, however, befides its
being abfolutely without evidence, is diredlly con¬
trary to the words of the facred writer whom the af-
ferters of this hypothefis mean to defend. He ex-
prefsly derives the waters, of the flood from two
fources; firft, the fountains of the great deep, which he
tells us were all broken up; and fecondly, the 'window;
of heaven, which he fays w’ere opened: and fpeaking
of the decreafe of the' waters, he fays, th'e ‘fountains
of the deep and the windows of heaven were fiopped,
and the waters returned cont;nually‘frt>m off the earth.
Here it is obvious, that Mofes was fo far from hiving
any difficulty about the quantity of water, that he
thought the fources from whence it carhe were not ex;
haufted ; fince both of them required to 'oefbppedbj
the fame Almighty hand who opened them, left the:
flood fhould inereafe more than it actually did.
2. Dr Burnet, in his Telliiris Theoria Sacra, endea¬
vours to fhew, that all the waters in the ocean are
not fufficient to cover the earth to the depth affigbed
by Mofes. Supy-ofing the fea drained quite dry, and
all the clouds of the atmofphere diffolved into rain,
we ftiould ftill, according to him, want much the
greateft part of the water of a deluge. To get
clear of this difficulty, Dr Burnet and others have
adopted Defcartes’s theory. That philofopher will
have the antediluvian world, to, have been perfeftly
round and equal, without .mountains.or valleys. H®
accountsffor its formation on mechanical principles, by
fuppofing it at firft in the condition of a thick turbid
fluid replete with divers heterogeneous mutters ; which,
fubfiding by flow degrees, formed themfelveg into dif¬
ferent concentric ftrata, or beds; by the laws of gravi¬
ty. Dr Burnet improves on this theory, by fuppofing
DEL [ 2409 ] DEL
Deluge, the primitive earth to have been no more than a (hell
^ or cruft invefting the furface of the water contained in
the ocean, and in the central abyfs which he and o-
* See Ah/s. thers fuppofe to exift in the bowels of the earth *. At
the time of the flood, this outward cruft, according
to him, broke in a thoufand places; and confequent-
ly funk down among the water, which thus fpout-
ed up in vaft catara&s, and overflowed the whole fur-
face. He fuppofes alfo, that before the flood there
was a perfeft coincidence of the equator with the ec-
liptip, and confequently that the antediluvian world
enjoyed a perpetual fpring ; but that the violence of
the (hock by which the outer cruft was broken, (hifted
alfo the pofition of the earth, and produced the prefent
obliquity of the ecliptic. This theory, it will be ob^
ferved, is equally arbitrary with the former. But it
is, befides, dire&ly contrary to the words of Mofes,
who aflures us, that all the high kills were covered ;
while Dr Burnet affirips that there, were then no hills
in. being,
3. Other authors, fuppofing a fufficient fund of
water in the abyfs, or (ea, are only concerned for an
expedient to bring it forth : accordingly, fome have re-
courfe to a (hifting of the earth’s centre of gravity,
which, drawing after it the water out of its channel,
overwhelmed the feveral parts of the earth fucceffively.
4. The inqnifitive Mr Whifton, in his Ne<w Theory
of the Earth, (hews, from feveral remarkable co-inci¬
dences, that a comet defcending in the plane of the
ecliptic, towards its perihelion, pafled juft before the
earth on the firft day of the deluge ; the confequences
whereof would be, firft, that this comet, when it came
below the moon, would raife a vaft and ftrong
tide, both in. the fmall feas which according to his
hypothefis were in the antediluvian earth, (for he
allows no great occean there, as in ours), and alfo in
the abyfs which was under the upper cruft of the
earth. And this tide would rife, and increafe all the
time of the approach of the comet towards the earth ;
and would be at its greateft height when the comet
was at its lead diftance from it. By the force of which
tide, as alfo by the attraftion of the comet, he judges,
that the abyfs muft put on an elliptical figure, whofe
furface being confiderably larger than the former fphe-
rical one, thfc outward cruft of the earth, incumbent
on the abyfs, muft accommodate itfelf to that figure,
which it could not do while it held folid, and conjoined
together. He concludes, therefore, that it muft of ne-
cefiity be extended, and at laft broke by the violence
of the faid tides, and attraftion ; out of which the in¬
cluded water ifloing, was a great means of the deluge:
this anfwering to what Moi'es fpeaks of the “ foun¬
tains of the great deep being broke open.’’—Again,
the fame comet, he (hews, in its defcent towards the
fun, pafled fo clofe by the body of the earth, as to in¬
volve it in its atmofphere, and tail, for a confiderable
time ; and of confequence, left a vaft quantity of its va¬
pours, both expanded and condenfed, on its furface;
a great part of which being afterwards rarefied by
the folar heat would be drawfl up into the atmo¬
fphere, and afterwards return in violent rains : and
this he takes to be what Mofes intimates by “ the
windows of heaven being opened,” and particularly
by the “ forty days rain.” For as the following rain,
which with this made the whole time of raining 150
days, Mr Whifton attributes it to the earth coming a • Deluge,
fecond time within the atmofphere of the comet, as the '
comet was on its return from the fun. Laftly, to re¬
move this vaft orb of waters again, he fuppofes a mighty
wind to have arifen, which dried up fome, and forced
the reft into the abyfs again through the clefts by which
it came up: only a good quantity remained in the al¬
veus of the great ocean, now firft made, and in lef-
fer feas, lakes, &c.—This theory was at firft only pro-
pofed as an hypothefis; but, on further confideration,
Mr Whifton thought he could a&ually prove that a co¬
met did at that time pafs very near the earth, and that
it was the fame which afterwards appeared in 1680.
After this, he looked upon his theory no longer as an
hypothefis, but publifhed it in a particular traft en¬
titled The caufe of the deluge demonjlrated.—But the
uncertainty of the comet’s return in 1758, when fup-
pofed to be abfent only 75 or 76 years *, muft certainly * See Apro*
render Mr Whifton’s calculations for fuch a length of so,
time extremely dubious ; and, the great fimilarity be- S5’
tween the tails of comets and dreams of eledlric matter
renders his fuppofition of their being aqueous vapours
exceedingly improbable.
5. According to Mr de la Pryme, the antediluvian
world had an external fea, as well as land, with moun¬
tains, rivers, &c. and the deluge was effected by break¬
ing the fubterraneous caverns, and pillars thereof, with
dreadful earthquakes, and caufing the fame to be for .
the moft part, if not wholly, abforbed and fwallowed
up, and covered by the feas that we now have.
Laftly, this earth of ours arofe out of the bottonrt of
the antediluvian fea ; and in its room, juft as many
iflands are fwallowed down, and others thruft up in
their (lead.—On this, as on all the other hypothefes, it
may be remarked, that it is quite arbitrary, and with¬
out the leaft foundation from the words of Mofes. The
facred hiftorian fpeaks not one word of earthquakes ;
nay, from the nature of the thing, we know it is im-
poflible that the flood could have been occafioned by
an earthquake, and the ark preferved, without a mi¬
racle. It is certain, that, if a (hip finks at fea, the com¬
motion excited in the water by the defcent of fuch a large
body, will {wallow up a fmall boat that happens to
come too near. If the pillars of the earth itfelf then
were broken, what muft the commotion have been,
when the continents of Europe, Afia, and Africa, def-
cended into the «byfs at once? not to mention Ame¬
rica, which lying at fo great a diftance from Noah, he
might be fuppofed out of danger from that quarter.
By what miracle was the little ark preferved amidft the
tumult of thofe impetuous waves which muft have rufhed
in from all quarters ? Befides, as the ark was built not
at fea, but on dry ground; when the earth on which
it.refted funk down, the ark muft have funk along with
it; and the waters falling in as it were over-head, muft
have daflud in pieces the ftrongeft veffcl that can be
imagined. Earthquakes, alfo, operatefuddenly and vio¬
lently ; whereas, according to the Mofaic account, the
flood came on gradually, and did not arrive at its height
till fix weeks, or perhaps five months, after it began-
6. Mr Hutchinfon and his followers prefent us with
a theory of the deluge, which they pretend,,to.derive
from the word of God itfelf. This theory hath been
particularly enlarged upon and illuftrated by Mr Cat-
cot, ^dio in 1768 publiftied a volume on the fubjeft.
This
DEL [44
Deiuae. This gentleman afferts, that when the world was firft
created, at the time when it is faid to have been “ with¬
out form and void,” the terrelh ial matter was then en¬
tirely diflblved in the aqueous; fo that the whole
formed, as it were, a thick muddy water. The figure
of the whole was fpherical; and on the outfide of this
fphere, lay the grofs dark air. Within the fphere of
earth and water, was an immenfe cavity, called by Mo-
fes the deep ; and this internal cavity was filled with
air of a kind fimilar to that on the outfide. On the
creation of light, the internal air received elafticity
fufficient to burft out through the external covering of
earth and water. Upon this the water defcended,
filled up the void, and left the earth in a form fimilar
to what it hath at prefent.—Thus, according to him,
the antediluvian world, as well as the prefent, con-
fifted of a vaft colle&ion or nucleus of water, called the
great deep, or the abyfs; and over this the Ihell of
earth, perforated in many places; by which means the
waters of the ocean communicated with the abyfs.
The breaking up of thefe fountains was occafioned by
a miraculous preffure of the atmofphere, from the im¬
mediate aftion of the Deity himfelf. So violent was
this prefiure, that the air defcended to where it had
been originally; occupied the fpace of the abyfs; and
drove out the waters over the whole face of the dry
land.—But this account, io far from being infallibly
certain, feems inconfiftent with the molt common ob-
fervationTs. No prelfure, however violent, will caufe
water rife above its level, unlefs that preiTure is unequal.
If, therefore, the atmofphere entered into the fuppofed
abyfs, by a vehement preffure on the furface of theo-
cean, that prelfure mult only have been on one place,
or on a few places : and even though we fuppofe the
atmofphere to have been the agent made ufe of, it is
impoffible, that it could have remained for any time
in the abyfs, without a continued miracle ; as the pref¬
fure of the water would immediately have forced it up
again, through thofe holes which had afforded it a paf-
fage downwards.
The explication given from Hutchinfon by Mr Cat-
cot, of the “ windows of heaven,” is fome what ex¬
traordinary. According to him, thefe windows are
not in heaven, but in the bowels of the earth ; and
mean no more than the cracks and filfures by which
the airs, as he calls them, found a paflage through
the Ihell or covering of earth, which they utterly dif-
folved, and reduced to its original Hate of fluidity. It
is, however, difficult to conceive how the opening of
fuch windows as thefe could caufe a violent rain for 40
days and nights.
It is not to be fuppofed, that we can pretend to afcer-
tain any thing on the fubjecl more than others have done.
The following conje&ures, however, may be offered on
the manner in which the deluge might have happened
without any violence to the eftablilhed laws of nature.
1. If we confider the quantity of water requifite for
the purpofe of the deluge, it will not appear fo very ex¬
traordinary as has been commonly reprefented. The
height of the highert hills is not thought to exceed
three miles. It will therefore be deemed a fuffi¬
cient allowance, when we fuppofe the waters of the
deluge to have been four miles deep on the fur-
face of the ground. Now, it is certain, that water, or
any other matter, when fpread out at large updh the
[o ] DEL
ground, feems to occupy an immenfe fpace in compa- Deluge,
rifon of what it does when contained in a cubical vef-
fel, or when packed together in a cubical form. Sup-
pofe we wanted to overflow a room t6 feet every way,
or containing 256 fqaare feet, with water, to the height
of one foot, it may be nearly done by a cubical vef-
fel of fix feet, filled with water. A cube of eight feet
will cover it two feet deep, and a cube of ten feet will
very nearly cover it four feet deep. It makes not the
leaft difference, whether we fuppofe feet or miles, to
be covered. A cube of ten miles of water, would very
nearly overflow 256 fquare miles of plain ground, to the
height of four miles. But if we take into our ac¬
count the vaft number of eminences with which the
furface of the earth abounds, the abovementioned quan¬
tity of water would do a great deal more. If, there¬
fore, we attempt to calculate the quantity of water fuf¬
ficient to deluge the earth, we mull make a very con-
fiderable allowance for the bulk of all the hills on its
furface. To confider this matter, however, in its ut-
moft latitude. The furface of the earth is fuppofed,
by the lateft computations, to contain 199,512,595
fquare miles. To overflow this furface to the height
of four miles, is required a parallelopiped of water 16
miles deep, and containing 49,878,148 fquare miles
of furface. Now, confidering the immenfe thicknefs
of the globe of the earth, it can by no means be im¬
probable, that this whole quantity of water may be
contained in its bowels ; without the neceffity of any
remarkable abyfs, or huge colledlion of water, fuch as
moft of our theorifts fuppofe to exift in the centre. It
is certain, that as far as the earth has been dug, it
hath been found not dry, but moift ; nor have we the
leaft reafon to imagine, that it is not at leaft equally
moift all the way down to the centre. How moift it
really is, cannot be known, nor the quantity of wa¬
ter requifite to impart to it the degree of moifture it has;
but^we are fure it mull be immenfe. The earth is com¬
puted to be near 8000 miles in diameter. The ocean
is of an unfathomable depth ; but there is no reafon for
fuppofing it more than a few miles. To make all re-
fonable allowances, however, we ftiall fuppofe the
whole folid matter in the globe to be only equal to a
cube of 5000 miles; and even on this fuppofition we fhall
find, that all the waters of the deluge would not be
half fufficient to moiften it. The above mentioned
parallelopiped of water would indeed contain 798,
050,368 cubic miles of that fluid ; but the cube of
earth containing no lefs than an hundred and twenty-
five thoufand millions of cubic miles, it is evident, that
the quantity affigned for the deluge would fcarce be
known to moiften it. It could have indeed no more
effe& this way, than a Angle pound of water could have
upon 150 times its bulk of dry earth. We are per-
fuaded therefore, that any perfon who will try by expe¬
riment how much water a given quantity of earth con¬
tains, and from that experiment will make calculations
with regard to the whole quantity of water contained in
the bowels of the earth, muft be abundantly fatisfied,
that though «//the water of the deluge had been thence
derived, the diminution of the generalftore would, com¬
paratively fpeaking, have been next to nothing.
2. It was not from the bowels of the earth only
that the waters were difcharged, but alfo from the air;
for we are affured by Mofes, that it rained 40 days
and
DEL [ 24
Deluge, and 40 nights. This fource of the diluvian waters hath
“ been confidered as of fmall confequence by almoft every
one who hath treated on the fubjeft. The general opi¬
nion concerning this matter we (hall tranfcribe from the
Univerfal Hiftory, Vol. I. where it is very fully exprefs-
ed. “ According to the obfervations made of the
quantity of water that falls in rain, the rains could not
afford one ocean, nor half an ocean, and would be a
very inconfiderable part of what was neceflary for a de¬
luge. If it rained 40 days and 40 nights throughout
the whole earth at once, it might be fufficient to lay
all the lower grounds under water, but it would figni-
fy very little as to the overflowing of the mountains;
fo that it has been faid, that if the deluge had been
made by rains only, there would have needed not
40 days, but 40 years to have brought it to pafs.
And if we fuppofe the whole atmofphere condenfed in¬
to water, it would not all have been fufficient for this
effedf ; for it is certain that it could not have rifen a-
bove 32 foot, the height to which water can be raifed by
the preffure of the atmofphere: for the weight of the
whole air, when coridenfed into water, can be no more
than equal to its weight in its natural ftate, and muft
become no lefs than 800 times, denfer; for that is the
difference between the weight of the heavieft air, and
that of water.”
On this fubjeft we muft obferve, that there is a very
general miftake with regard to the air, fimilar to the
afore-mentioned one regarding the earth. Becaufe the
earth below our feet appears to our fenfes firm and com-
padf, therefore the vaft quantity of water, contained e-
ven in the moft folid parts of it, and which will readi¬
ly appear on proper experiment, is overlooked, and
treated as a non-entity. In like manner, becaufe the
air does not always deluge with exceffive rains, it
is alfo imagined that it contains but very little wa¬
ter. Becaufe the preffure of the air is able to raife
only 32 feet of water on the furface of the earth, it is
therefore fuppofed we may know to what depth the
atmofphere could deluge the earth if it was to let fall
the 'whole water contained in it. But daily obferva¬
tions (hew, that the preffure of the atmofphere hath
not the lead conneftion with the quantity of water it
contains. Nay, if there is any connexion, the air
feems to be lighteft when it contains moft water. In
the courfe of a long fummer’s drought, for inftance,
the mercury in the barometer will ftand at 30 inches,
or little more. If it does fo at the beginning of the
drought, it ought to afcend continually during the time
the dry weather continues; becaufe the air is all the
while abforbing water in great quantity from the furface
of the earth and fea. This, however, is known to be
contrary to faft. At fuch times the mercury does not
afcend, but remains ftationary ; and what is ftill more
extraordinary, when the drought is about to have an
end, the air, while it yet contains the whole quantity
of water it abforbed, and hath not difcharged one fingle
drop, becomes fuddenly lighter, and the mercury will
perhaps fink an inch before any rain falls. The moft
furprifing phenomenon, however, is yet to come. Af¬
ter the atmofphere has been difcharging for a number
of days fucceffively a quantity of matter 800 times hea¬
vier than itfelf, inftead of being lightened by the dif-
charge, it becomes heavier, nay fpecifically heavier,
than it was before. It is alfo certain, that very dry
11 ] DEL
air, provided it is not at the fame time very hot, is al- Deluge,
ways heavieft ; and the dried air which we are ac- '
quainted with, namely DrPrieftley’s dephlogijlicatedair,
is confiderably heavier than theairwe commonly breathe.
For thefe reafons we think the quantity of water con¬
tained in the whole atmofphere ought to be confidered
as indefinite, efpecially as we know that by whatever
agent it is fufpended, that agent muft counteradl the
force of gravity, otherwife the water would immediate¬
ly defcend ; and while the force of gravity in any fub-
ftance is counteradled, that fubftance cannot appear to
us to gravitate at all.
3. The above confiderations render it probable^ lead,
that there is in nature a quantity of w'ater fuffieient to
deluge the world, provided it was applied to the pur-
pofe. We muft next confider whether there is any na¬
tural agent powerful enough to effedluate this purpofe.
We fhall take the phrafes ufed by Mofes in their moft
obvious fenfe. The breaking up of the fountains of
the deep we may reafonably fuppofe to have been the
opening of all the paffages whether fmall or great, thro’
which the fubterraneous waters poffibly could difeharge
themfelves on the furface of the earth. The opening
of the windows of heaven we may alfo fuppofe to be
the pouring out the water, contained in the atmofphere,
thro’ thofe invifible paffages by which it enters in fuch a
manner as totally to elude every one of our fenfes, as
when water is abforbed by the air in evaporation. As
both thefe are faid to have been opened at the fame time,
it feems from thence probable, that one natural agent
was employed to do both. Now it is certain, that the
induftry of modern inquirers hath difeovered an agent
unknown to the former ages, and whofe influence is
fo great, that with regard to this world it may be
faid to have a kind of omnipotence. The agent we
mean is eledlricity. It is certain, that, by means of
it, immenfe quantities of water can be raifed to a great
height in the air. This is proved by the phenomena
of water-fpouts. Mr Forfter relates, that he happen¬
ed to fee one break very near him, and obferved a flafti
of lightning proceed from it at the moment of its
breaking. The conclufion from this is obvious. When
the ele&ric matter was difcharged from the water, it
could no longer be fupported by the atmofphere, but
immediately fell down. Though water-fpouts do not
appear in this country, yet every one muft have made
an obfervation fomewhat fimilar to Mr Forfter’s. In a
violent ftorm of thunder and rain, after every flalh of
lightning, or difeharge of electricity from the clouds,
the rain pours down with increafed violence; thus ftiew-
ing, that the cloud, having parted with fo much of its
eleftricity, cannot longer be fupported in the form of
vapour, but muft defcend in rain. It is not indeed yet
difeovered that eleCtricity is the caufe of the fufpenfion
of water in the atmofphere ; but it is certain that eva¬
poration is promoted by electrifying the fluid to Be e-
vaporated *. It may therefore be admitted as a pofii- * See Elec-
bility, that the eleCtric fluid contained in the air is the and
agent by which, it is enabled to fufpend the water f™Porct~
which rifes in vapour. If therefore the air is deprived
of the due proportion of this fluid, it iaevident that rain
muft fall in prodigious quantities.
Again, we are affured, from the moft undeniable ob¬
fervations, that ele&ricity is able to fwell up water on
the furface of. the earth. This we can make it do even
1!
DEL [ 2412 ] DEL
Oeluge. in our trifling experiments ; and much move muft the
   whole force of the fluid be fuppofed capable of doing it,
if applied to the waters of the ocean, or any others,
i See Earth- The agitation of the fea in earthquakes is a fufficient
auake. proof of this It is certain, that at thefe times there
is a difcharge of a vail quantity of ele&ric matter from
the earth into the air; and as foon as this happens,
all becomes quiet on the furface of the earth.
From a multitude of obfervations, it alfo appears, that
there is, at all times, a paflage of eleftric matter from
the atmofphere into the earth, and vice verfa from the
earth into the atmofphere. There is therefore no ab-
furdity in fuppofing the Deity to have influenced
the adtion of the natural powers in fuch a man¬
ner that for 40 days and nights the eledlric matter
contained in the atmofphere Ihould defcend into the
bowels of the earth;—if indeed there is occafion for
fuppofing any fuch immediate influence at all, fince it
is not impoffible that there might have been, from
fome natural caufe, a defcent of this matter from
the atmofphere for that time. But by whatever caufe
the defcent was occafioned, the confequence would
be, the breaking up of the fountains of the deep, and
the opening the ’windows of heaven. The water con¬
tained in the atmofphere being left without fupport,
would defcend in impetuous rains ; while the waters of
the ocean, thofe from which fouritains originate, and
thofe contained in the folid earth itfelf, would rife
from the very centre, and meet the waters which de-
fcended from above. Thus the breaking up of the
fountains of the deep, and the opening the windows of
heaven, would accompany each other, as Mofes tells us
they adlually did; for, according to him, both hap¬
pened on the fame day.
In this manner the flood would come on quietly
and gradually, without that violence to the globe which
Burnet, Whifton, and other theoriils, are obliged to
fuppofe. The abatement of the waters would enfue
on the afcent of the ele&ric fluid to where it was be¬
fore. The atmofphere would then abforb the water
as formerly; that which had afcended through the
earth would again fubfide ; and thus every thing would
return to its prittine ftate.
Thus, we think, the Mofaic account of the deluge
may reafonably enough be received as a pojf.bility, even
by the moll rigid inquirers : it remains now to take
notice of thofe proofs which have been brought for it
as a matter of fad. Thefe may be reduced to two :
1. The general confent of all nations; and, 2. The
exiftence of vail quantities of marine productions on
the tops of mountains, and under the furface of the
ground, at great diftances from the fea.—The latter
of thefe hath been moil infilled on, and till lately
was generally reckoned decifive. The obfervations,
however, of the lateil philofophers, on volcanoes, have
furniihed an evafion of this argument. Sir Wil¬
liam Hamilton firil (hewed, that volcanoes are ca¬
pable of forming mountains of very confiderable fize ;
that the fire of them lies very deep, and often below
the water of the ocean itfelf. Hence, it is eafy to fee,
how marine fubitances may be found at all depths on
thefe volcanic mountains, and yet afford no proof of
a deluge. Others have improved on this, and feem in¬
clined to fuppofe that all the mountains, nay, all the
habitable parts of the globe, were originally thrown up
by volcanic explofions from the' bottom of the ocean. Demadcsjr
But for a particular confideration ‘Of thefe matters, fee II . P
the articles Earth, Mountain, and Volcano. cmetnu^■
DEMADES, a famous Athenian, who, from be¬
ing a mariner, became a great orator, and appeafed
Philip by his eloquence, after the famous vidlory over
the Athenians at Cheronea, in the 338th year B. C.
DEMAIN, or Demesne, in its common accepta¬
tion, is ufed for the lands round a manor-houfe, occu¬
pied by the lord.
Demain, or Demefne, in law, is commonly under-
flood to be the lord’s chief manor-place, with the lands
thereto belonging, which he and his anceilors have, time
out of mind, kept in their own manual occupation.
DEMAND, in its popular fenfe, denotes a calling
for or requiring one’s due.
Demand, in law, has a more fpecial fignification,
as contradiilinguiihed from plaint: for all civil aftions
are purfued either by demands or plaints ; according
to which the purfuer is called either demandant or
plaintiff: viz. in real adlions, dctnandant; and in per-
fonal adlions, plaintiff. See Plaintiff.
Where the party purfuing is called demandant, the
party purfued is called tenant; and v:\izreplaintiff, de¬
fendant. See Defendant.
There are two kinds of demands : the one in deed,
de fado, as in every precipe : the other in law, de
jure ; fuch is entry in land, dillrefs for rent, &c.
DEMEMBRE, in heraldry, is faid of difmembered
animals, or thofe with their limbs cut off.
DEMEMBRATION, in Scots law. See Law,
N° clxxxvi. 17.
DEMESNE. See Demain.
DEMETRIA, afeftival celebrated by the Greeks
in honour of Ceres, wherein it was ufual for the devo¬
tees to lalh themfelves.
DEMETRIOWITZ, a city of the duchy ofSmo-
leniko, in the Ruffian empire, fituated upon the river
Ugra, in E. Long. 37. o. N. Lat. 53. 20.
DEMETRIUS phalereus, a celebrated oratorand
peripatetic philofopher, the fcholar of Theophraftus.
He acquired fo much authority at Athens, that he go¬
verned the city for ten years ; and ruled with fo much
wifdom and virtue, that they fet up 36 ilatues in ho¬
nour of him. By the flanders of fome malicious per-
fons, in his abfence, he was, however, condemned to
die ; and his images were pulled down : which when
Demetrius heard, .he faid, they could not pull down
that virtue for which thofe images were fet up. He
efcaped into Egypt, and was protedled by Ptolemy
Lagus. This king, it is faid, aiked his advice concern¬
ing the fucceffion of his children to the throne ; viz.
whether he ought to prefer thofe he had by Eurydice
to Ptolemy Philadelphus whom he had by Berenice ;
and Demetrius advifed him to leave his crown to the
former. This difpleafed Philadelphus fo much, that,
his father being dead, he baniflied Demetrius; who was
afterwards killed by the bite of an afp. Demetrius
compofed more works in profe and verfe than any o-
ther peripatetic of his time ; and his writings confided
of poetry, hiftory, politics, fhetoric, harangues, and
embaffies. None of them are extant except his rhetoric,
which is ufually printed among the Rhetores Seledi.
DEMETRIUS poliorcetes, that is, the Taker
of Towns, king of Macedonia, was the fon of Anti-
gonus,
DEM
Demi gonus, one of the generals and fucceflors of Alexander
II . the Great. See (Hiftory of) Macedonia.
cmocnms DEMI, a word of the fame ufe and efTedt in the
French language, with femi in the Latin and Englifh,
being formed from dimidium; and ufed, in compofi-
tion with other words, to fignify half. In words bor¬
rowed from the Latins, we ufe femi; and in thofe from
the French, we retain their demi. See Semi.
Demi-culverin, a piece of ordnance ufually 4.4-
inches bore, 2700 pound weight, ten feet long, and
carrying point blank 175 paces.
Demi-culverin of the leaf fze, is 4-J inches bore,
ten feet long, and 2000 pounds weight. It carries a
ball of 4 inches diameter, and of 9 pounds weight, and
its level range is 174 paces.
Demi-culverin of the largefi fort, is 4^ inches bore,
10y feet long, and weighs 3000 pounds weight. It
carries a ball 44- inches diameter, weighing 12 pounds
11 ounces, point blank 178 paces.
Demi-god. See Hero.
Demi-'gorge, in fortification, is that part of the
polygon which remains after the flank is raifed, and
goes from the curtin to the angle of the polygon. It
is half of the vacant fpace or entrance into a baftion.
Demi-^uaver, a note in mufic, two of which are e-
qual to a quaver.
Demi-semi-quaver, in mufic, the fliorteft note, two
of them being equal to a femi-quaver.
DEMOCRACY, from •JV®-, people, and
to command or govern; the fame with a popular go¬
vernment, wherein the fupreme power is lodged in the
hands of the people : fuch were Rome and Athens of
old; but as to our modern republics, Bafil only ex¬
cepted, their government comes nearer to ariftocracy
than democracy. See Law, n° 14. .
DEMOCRITUS, one of the greateft philofophers
of antiquity, was born at Abdera, a town of Thrace,
about the 80th Olympiad; that is, about 460 years
before Chrill. His father, fays Valerius Maximus,
was able to entertain the army of Xerxes; and Dio¬
genes Laertius adds, upon the teftimony of Herodo¬
tus, that the king, in requital, prefented him with fome
Magi and Chaldeans. From thefe Magi and Chalde¬
ans, Democritus received the firft part of his educa¬
tion ; and from them, whilft yet a boy, he learned
theology and aftronomy. He next applied to Leucip¬
pus, and learned from him the fyftem of atoms and a
vacuum. His father dying, for fo many there were,
divided the eftate. Democritus made choice of that
part which confided in money, as being, though the
lead fhare, the mod convenient for travelling; and it
is faid, that his portion amounted to above ioo talents,
which is near .20,000!. Sterling. His extraordinary
inclination for the fciences and for knowledge, induced
him to travel into all parts of the world where he hoped
to find learned men. He went to vifit the prieds of
Egypt, from whom he learned geometry ; he confulted
the Chaldeans and the Perfian philofophers; and it is
faid,' that he penetrated even into India and Ethiopia,
to confer with the Gymnofophids. In thefe travels,
he waded his fubdance ; after which, at his return, he
was obliged to be maintained.by his brother; and if
he had not given proofs of the greated underdanding,
and thereby procured to himfelf the highed honours,
and thedronged intered in his country, he would have
Vol. IV.
DEM
incurred the penalty of that law which denied the in¬
terment in the family-fepulchre to thofe who had fpent
their patrimony. After his return from travelling, he
lived at Abdera, and governed there in a mod abfolute
manner, by virtue of his confummate wifdom. The
magidrates of that city made him a prefent of 500 ta¬
lents, and eredled datues to him even in his lifetime ;
but being naturally more inclined to contemplation,
than delighted with public honours and employments,
he withdrew into folitude and retirement. Democri¬
tus inceffantly laughed at human life, as a continued
farce, which made the inhabitants of Abdera think he
was mad ; on which they fent for Hippocrates to cure
him : but that celebrated phyfician having difeourfed
with the philofopher, told the Abderians, that he had
a great veneration for Democritus ; and that, in his
opinion, thofe who edeemed themfelves the mod heal¬
thy were the mod didempered. Democritus died, ac¬
cording to Diogenes Laertius, in the 361st year before
the Chridian aera, aged 109. It is faid that he blind¬
ed himfelf, that he might meditate more profoundly on
philofophical fubjefts ; but this has little probability.
He was the author of many books, which are lod; and
from thefe Epicurus borrowed his philofophy.
DEMONSTRABLE, a term ufed in the fchools,
to fignify that a thing may be clearly proved. Thus,
it is demondrable, that the three angles of a triangle
are equal to two right ones.
DEMONSTRATION, in logic, a feries of fyllo-
gifms, all whofe premifles are either definitions, felf-
evident truths, or propofitions already edablilhed. See
Logic, n° 27. 102 —113.
DEMONSTRATIVE, in grammar, a term given
to fuch pronouns as ferve to indicate or point out a
thing. Of this number are hie, beec, hoc, among the
Latins; and this, that, tkefe, thofe, in Englifh.
DEMOSTHENES, the famous Athenian orator,
was born at Athens 381 B. C. He lod his father at
feven years of age; and was placed under the condudt
of guardians, who robbed him of his fubdance, and ne-
gle&ed his education. Demodhenes repaired this lofs
by his love of eloquence and his extraordinary abilities.
.He became the difciple of Ifocrates, Plato, and Ifaeus;
and made fuch progrefs under thofe excellent maders,
that, at 17 years of age, he pleaded againd his guar¬
dians, and caufed them to be fentenced to pay him 30
talents. This was the fird time that he didinguifhed
himfelf by his eloquence, in which he arrived at the
highed excellence ; though he fet out under the great¬
ed difadvantages. For he had an impediment in his
fpeech, which for a long time would not fuffer him to
pronounce the letter R. He had a weak voice, fliort
breath, and a very uncouth manner. However, by
dint of refolution, and infinite pains, he overcame all
thefe defefts : See Declamation, N° II. It is uni-
verlally agreed, that no orator ever fpoke with fuch
force, or had the paffions of others fo much in his
power, as Demodhenes. He could drefs a thing up
in any light he pleafed, and give it whatever colouring
bed anfwered his purpofe; and that with fuch force of
oratory, as bore down, like a thunder-bolt, all before
it. Hence Philip king of Macedon faid, his eloquence
was of more weight againd him, than all the fleets and
armies of the Athenians ; and that he had no enemy
but Demodhenes. After the death of Philip, he op-
14 C pofed
[ 2413 ]
"Arable
Demolt-
DEN
Dempfter
Demurrage
C 24H ]
DEM
pofed Alexander the Great; on which account he was
obliged to leave the city : but, after the death of that
| conqueror, he returned to Athens, where he was re¬
ceived in the moft glorious manner, and continued de¬
claiming againft the Macedonians. Antipater being
informed of this, defired the Athenians to deliver up to
him all the orators who had fpoken T.gainft him; oh
which Demofthenes withdrew into the ifle of Celauria.
Archas coming hither to feize him in behalf of Anti¬
pater, he pretended a defire to write to fome of his
friends; and fucking fome poifon he had concealed in
a pen, died 322 B. C. Many of his orations are ftill
extant, the ftyle of which is grand, fublime, and ner¬
vous; and they are all of them mafter-pieces of elo¬
quence.
DEMPSTER (Thomas), a very learned man, but
of a fingular charafter. Pie was born in Scotland, but
we do not find in what year. He went over to France,
for the fake of embracing the catholic religion ; and
taught claffical learning at Paris about the beginning
of the 17th century. Tho’ his bufinefs was to teach
fchool; yet he was as ready to draw his fword, and as
quarrelfome, as if he had been a duellill by profeffion :
and it is faid, that there fcarce pafled a day but he had
fomething or other of this kind upon his hands. This
fpirit and turn of temper drew him into many fcrapes ;
and one in particular, which obliged him to quit the
country. Grangier, principal of the College of Beau¬
vais at Paris, being obliged to take a journey, appoint¬
ed Dempfter bis fubfiitute. Dempfter caufed whip a
fcholar, in full fchool, for challenging one of his fel¬
lows to fight a duel. The fcholar, to revenge this af¬
front, Brought three gentlemen of his relations, who
were of the king’s life-guards, into the college.
Dempfter made the whole college take arms ; ham-
ftrung the three life guard-mens horfes before the col-
lege gate; and put himfelf into fuch a pbfture of de¬
fence, that the three fparks were forced to alk for quar¬
ter. He gave them their lives; but imprifoned them,
and did not releafe them for fome days. They fought
another way to revenge themfelves : they caufed an in¬
formation to be made of the life and moral behaviour
of Dempfter, and got fome witnelfes to be heard againft
him. Upon this he went over to England, where he
found refuge; but did not make any long ftay. He
went abroad again, and read ledures upon polite learn¬
ing in feveral univerfities ; in that of Nifmes particu¬
larly, where he difputed fora profeffor’s chair, and ob¬
tained it. He went to Bologna, and was profeffor
there for the remainder of his life ; and was then alfo
admitted a member of the Academy della Rotte. He
died there in September 1625, leaving behind him fe¬
veral learned works ; as Commentaries on Rojinus de A71-
tiquitatibus Romanoruin, and upon Claudian, &c. ;
four books of Epiftles; feveral dramatic pieces, and
ether poems; fome books of law; an Apparatus to
the Hiftory of Scotland; a Martyrology of Scotland;
and a Lilt of the Scottiih Writers.
DEMULCENTS, among phyficians, medicines
good againft acrimonious humours. Such are the roots
of marfti-mallows, of white lilies, of liquorice, and of
viper-grafs, the five emollient herbs, &c.
DEMURRAGE, in commerce, an allowance made
to the mafter of a (hip by the merchants, for ftaying in
a port longer than the tints firft appointed for his de¬
parture.
DEMURRER, in law, a flop put to any aftion
upon fome point of difficulty which muft be determined
by the court, before any further proceedings can be
had in the fuit.
DEN, a fyllable which, added to the names of places,
fttews them to be fituated in valleys, or near woods; as
Tenterden.
DENARIUS, in Roman antiquity, the chief filver
coin among the Romans, worth in our money about
feven-pence three farthings. As a weight, it was the
feventh part of a Roman ounce.
Denarius is alfo ufed in our law-books for an
Englifh penny.
DENBIGH-shire, a county of Wales, bounded
on the fouth by Merioneth and Montgomery fibres ;
on the north by Flintfhire, and the Irifh fea ; on the
weft by Carnarvon, and part of Merionethftbre. It is
about 40 miles long, and 21 broad. The air is whole-
fome, but (harp; the county being pretty hilly, and the
fnow lying long on the tops of the mountains. The foil
in general is barren; but the vale of Clwyd, fo called
from its being watered by that river, is a very fertile
pleafant fpot, of great extent, and well inhabited. The
chief commodities are black cattle, (beep, and goats,
rye, called here amelcorn, and lead-ore. The county
fends two members to parliament, viz. a knight for the
(hire, and a burgefs for Denbigh the capital.
Denbigh, the capital town of Denbigh-fhire in N.
Wales. It is feated on the fide of a rocky hill, on a
branch of the river Clwyd, and was formerly a place
of great ftrength, with an impregnable caftle, now de-
molifhed. It is pretty large, well built, and inhabited
by tanners and glovers, and gives the title of Earl to
the noble family of Fielding. W. Long. 3. 30. N.
Lat. 53. 15.
DENDERMOND, a handfome and flrong town
of the Auftrian Netherlands, in Flanders, with a ftrong
citadel. It was taken by the allies in 1706, and by
the French in 1745. It is furrpunded by marfhes and
fine meadows, which the inhabitants can lay under wa¬
ter when they pleafe. It is feated at the Confluence of
the rivers Dender and Schelde. E. Long. 4. 3. N.
Lat. 51. 3.
DENDRACHATES, in natural hiftory, the name
ufed by the ancients for an extremely elegant and
beautiful fpecies of agate, the ground of which is
whitifh, variegated with veins of a brighter white.
Thefe veins are beautifully difppfed in a number of va¬
rious figures; but generally in many concentric irregu¬
lar circles, drawn round one or more points. It is
common alfo, in various parts of this ftone, to find very
beautiful delineations of trees, mofres, fea-plants, and
the like, fo elegantly expreffed, that many have erro-
neoufly taken them for real plants included in the fub-
ftance of the ftone ; whence the name dendrachates.
DENDRANATOMY, a term ufed by fpme for a
defeription of the various parts of trees; as root, trunk,
branch, bark, wood, pith, flower, fruit, <fac. See
Plants, Vegetation, &c.
DENDROPHORIA, in antiquity, the carrying
of boughs or branches of trees ; a religious ceremony fo
called, becaufe certain priefts called from thence den-
dropkori, tree-bearers, marched in proceflion, carrying
the branches of trees in their bauds in honour of fome
god,
- -i
D emurreras
II, }
Dendro-M
Deneb
|l
Denmark
Name
whence de¬
rived.
DEN [ 2415 ] DEN
god, as Bacchus, Cebele, Sylvanus, &c. The college The moft probable conje&ure concerning it is that of Denmark.
of the dendrophori is often mentioned in ancient mar- Saxo-Grcnmnaticus, the moft ancient and bed Danifh
‘ bles; and we frequently fee in baflb relievos the bac- hiftorian. He derives it from Dan the fon of Humble,
chanals reprefented as men carrying little ihrubs or the firll king, and Mark, or Marc, fignifying a coun¬
branches of trees. try in feveral diale&s of the Teutonic ; according to
DENEB, an Arabic term fignifying tail, ufed by which etymology, the word Denmark fignifies the
aftronomers to denote feveral fixed ftars. Thus, deneb land, or country, of Dan.—This Dan is thought to a
elect, fignifies the bright liar in the lion’s tail. Deneb have lived about 1038 years before the Chriftian sera. Dan the
adigege, that in the fwan’s tail, <£re. Almoft all hiftorians agree that he was the fon of
DENHAM (Sir John), an eminent Englilh poet, Humble, a native of Zealand. His pofleffious and in-
the only fon of Sir John Denham, chief baron of the fluence were very confiderable, not only in Zealand,
exchequer in Ireland, and one of the lords commiffion- but in the iflands of Langland and Mona. It was his
ers there, was born in Dublin in 1615 ; but his father, courage, however, and /kill in the art of war, that in-
in 16x7, being made a baron of the exchequer in Eng- duced the inhabitants of Denmark to choofe him for
land, he received his education in that country. In their king. He was called to the afliftance of the Jut-
his youth he followed gaming more than any thing landers upon an irruption of the Saxons into their ter-
elfe; but, in 1641, publifhed a tragedy called the So- ritories, and promifed the fovereignty of the country
phy, which was much admired by the beft judges ; and, if he drove out the enemy. On this he immediately
in 1643, wrote his famous poem caWcti Cooper’s Hill; raifed an army, gained a complete vi&ory over the
which Mr Dryden pronounces will ever be the ftandard Saxons, and obliged them to leave the country; and he
of good writing for majefty of ftyle. Denham was was accordingly ele&ed king. HitW of
fent ambaflador from Charles II. to the king of Po- In fuch early ages as thefe, we are not to look for country
land ; aqd at the Reftoration, was made furveyor-ge- any authentic hiftory either of this or any other king- fabulous for
neral of his majefty’s buildings, and created knight of dom. The hiftory of Denmark, for a great number of many ages,
the Bath. On obtaining this poft, he is faid to have ages after the reign of Dan, is filled with fabulous ex-
renounced his poetry for more important ftudies ; tho’ ploits of heroes, encounters with giants, dragons, &c.
he afterward wrote a fine copy of verfes on the death One of their kings named Frotbo, who reigned about
of Cowley. He died at his office in Whitehall in T'fix years before Chrift, is faid to have conquered all
1668 ; and his works have been often fince printed. Britain, Slefwick, Ruffia, Pomerania, Holftein, &c.; an
DENIER, a fmall French copper-coin, of which aflertion which cannot eafily be credited, confidering
twelve make a fob the difficulty which fucceeding. warriors, even the
There were two kinds of deniers, the one tournois, greateft in the world, found to fubdue the inhabitants
the other parifis, whereof the latter w7as worth a fourth of thofe countries.—It is certain, however, that an-
part more than the former. ciently the kingdom of Denmark made a much more
DENIZEN, in law, an alien made a fubjedl by the confpicuous figure than it does at prefent. The Danes
king’s letters-patent; otherwife called donaifon, becaufe appear to have had a very confiderable naval force al-
“ his legitimation proceeds ex reg//, from the moft from the foundation of their empire ; and the
king’s gift.” conquefts they undoubtedly made in our ifland, are cer-
A denizen is in a kind of middle ftate between an tain proofs of their valour,
alien and a natural-born fubjeft, and partakes of both The natural enemies of the Danes were the Swedes,
of them. He may take lands by purchafe or de- Norwegians, and Saxons; efpecially the firft. With
vife„ which an alien may not: but cannot take by one or other of thefe nations almoft perpetual war was
inheritance ; for his parent, through whom he muft carried on. The kingdom was alfo often rent by civil
claim, being an alien, had no inheritable blood, and diflenfions; which the neighbouring monarchs did not
therefore could convey none to the fon : and, upon fail to take advantage of, in order to reduce the king-
a like defeft of blood, the iftue of a denizen born be- dom of Denmark under their fubjeftion. As neither
fore denization, cannot inherit to him ; but his iffue party, however, generally came off with advantage,
born after, may. A denizen is not excufed from the hiftory of thefe wars affords nothing'interefting or
paying the alien’s duty, and fome other mercantile entertaining.—One of the greateft: of the Danifh mo- 4
burthens. And>no denizen can be of the privy coun- narchs was Valdemar\. who obtained the throne in y®^Iar,•
cil, or either houfe of parliament, or have any office of x 157 ; having defeated and killed his competitor Siven, narCh, m&
truft civil or military, or be capable of any grant of after a ten years civil war. He maintained a long war
lands, 8cc. from the crown. with the Vandals, whole power he at laft entirely
DENMARK, one of the moft ancient monarchies broke, and reduced under his fubjedtion the ifland of
in Europe, comprehending the p-eninfula of Jutland, Rugen. He alfo proved vidlorious over the Norwegi-
and the iflands of Zeland, Tunen, &c. But Denmark, ans, Co that their king and queen came in perfon to
properly fo called, is only that part of Scandinavia fubmit to him. In 1165, he alfo laid the foundations
which formerly went by the name of Cimbrica Cher- of the city of Dantzic: which, though it hatji fince
fonefus, and now is Jutland. Including Hoi- become a place of fuch confequence, confifted at firft
ftein, it is bounded by the fea called the Categate on the only of a few poor fifhermens huts ; but the privileges
north ; by the Baltic on the eaft; by the river Elbe, and immunities conferred upon it by this monarch,
which feparates it from Bremen, on the fouth; and by foon proved the means of its becoming a flouriftiing
the duchy of Saxe-Lawenburg towards the fouth-eaft; city.— In 1169, he entirely fubdued the Courlanders ;
extending from 54. 40. to 58. 20. N. Lat. and, foon after, was inyefted with the duchy of Hol-
The origin of the name Denmark is very uncertain, ftein, by the emperor Frederic Barbaroffa. He is faid
14 C 2 to
DEM
Denmark, to have been poifoned by a quack medicine, given with
a defign to recover him from a diftemper with which
5 he was feized in 1182.
Power of In the year 1195, Canute, Valdemar’s fucccflbr,
Denmark caufed a mufterto be made of all the men fit to bear arms
in upj. in his dominions; and ordered each province to fit out its
proportion of {hipping, everyway equipped, and ready
for aftion. The whole force of Denmark, at that time,
confided of 670 fhips of war, befides the fquadrons fup-
. plied by vaffals, tributary dates, and allies. The num¬
ber of the land-forces is not mentioned. In the reign of
this prince, the Danifh dominions were enlarged by
the entire conqued of Stromar ; the didrifls of Lubec
and Hamburgh, formerly known by the name of iVur-
[ 2416 ]
DEM
having been deprived of part of his dominions by Val- Denmark;.;
demar, furprifed and carried off the king himfelf, and
kept him clofe prifoner for three years. The condi¬
tions on which he at lad obtained his liberty, were very p J
hard. He was obliged to pay a prodigious fum of Releafed oj-
money ; to relinquifh Holdein, Swerin, Hamburgh, ceding'pa*^
and all his poffefiions on the other fide of the Elbe; terrX-
and ladly, folemnly to fwear that he would maintain tones,
this compulfive contraft, and never take any meafures
to punifh Henry or his affociates. This treaty was
figned on the 25th of March 1226.
Befides thefe territories which the Danifh monarch
had been obliged to cede by treaty, many tributary
princes took the opportunity of his captivity, to re-
dalbingia, but now included under the general name of cover their liberty ; and among the red, the inhabitants
Holftein. He died in 1203, and was fucceeded by
Valdemar II. who proved a very great and warlike
prince. In 12 n, he founded the city of Stralfund,
oppofite to the Me of Rugen. The fame year, his
queen died in child-bed ; and in memory of her he
6 , built the cadle of Droningholm, that name importing
orVaMe-0" lhe Queen's ijland. In 1218, he undertook an expedi-
mar 11. a- ti00 againd the Livonians, having received advice that
gainft the they, aflided by the Lithuanians, Mufcovites, and o-
Livonians, ther barbarous nations, had driven from their habita¬
tions all thofe in their neighbourhood who had em¬
braced Chridianity, and taken an oath of allegiance
to the crown of Denmark. Fitting out a powerful
fleet, therefore, he immediately fet fail for that coun¬
try ; but his troops were no fooner lauded, than they
were feized with a panic, at the fight of fuch a power¬
ful army of favages as were affembled to oppofe them.
The king himfelf wasdifmayed at the unufual fpeftacle
of a whole army clothed in fkins, and refembling beads
more than human creatures. Encouraged, however,
by the bifhops who attended him, he ventured an en¬
gagement, and overthrew the Barbarians with incre¬
dible {laughter. This vi&ory was gained near the for-
trefs of Valdemar, which received its name on that
1 account.
Flouriihing How potent and flourifhing the kingdom of Den-
khTjf ,lle mark was at this time, appears from an edimate of
’k ' the revenues of the tributary provinces, thofe countries
conquered byValdemar, and the danding forces of the
whole kingdom. This account was copied by Ponta-
nus from Witfeld a writer of thofe days, who had it
from a regider kept by Valdemar’s deward. From
the provinces were daily fent in 24 lads of oats, 24 lads
of rye and half that quantity of wheat, 13 talents of
of Lubec revolted, and entered into alliance with
Albert duke of Saxony againd Valdemar. The latter,
however, was not of a difpofition to fubmit tamely to' l0 d
fuch treatment. He obtained a difpenfation from the He breaks I
Pope to break his engagements with Henry, and im- the treatyi
mediately entered Holdein at the head of a numerous
army. Here he was met by feveral German princes,
at the head of a very numerous army ; and a defperate
engagement enfued. Valdemar at fird had the advan¬
tage ; but being wounded in the eye, his troops were
at lad defeated with great daughter. It doth not ap¬
pear, that ever the king of Denmark was able to
revenge himfelf of his enemies, or to recover the
dominions he'-had lod. So far from this, he was
obliged, in 1228, to cede Lawenberg to the duke of
Saxony, who had already feized on Ratzburg and
Molna. Soon after this, his elded fon Valdemar was
accidentally killed as he was hunting, and his two other
fons married the daughters of his two greated ene¬
mies. Abel, the third fon, married the daughter of
Adolphus duke of Holdein ; and Eric, the fecond, ,
married the duke of Saxony’s daughter. Thefe mif-
fortunes are fuppofed to have hadened his death, which
happened in the month of April 1242. ,
On the death of Valdemar, the kingdom was di- Civil
vided between the two young princes ; and between between his
them a war commenced the very next year. A peace two ons’
was concluded the year following, and war resewed
the year after ; but how long it continued, we are not
informed. In 1250, Eric paid a vifit to his brother
Abel, intreating his mediation between him and the
princes of Holdein, with whom he was then at war.
Abel received him, in appearance, with great kindnefs,
and promifed that his utraod endeavours to procure a
cheefe and butter, and nine of honey; 24 oxen, 300 reconciliation fliould not be wanting; but in the mean
flieep, 200 hogs; and 600 marks of coined money.
This was the certain revenue: but to this was added
near an equal fum from adventitious circumdances;
fuch as fines, forfeitures, taxes on law-fuits and plead¬
ings, with a variety of other contingencies; the whole
amounting to above 100,000 marks a-day, or 23,-
730,000 1. per annum ; a fum in thofe days almod in¬
credible.—With this revenue were kept for condant
fervice 1400 great and fmall {hips for the king’s ufe,
each of which at a medium carried 121 foldiers; mak¬
ing the whole of the danding forces, befides garifons,
8 confid of 169,400 fighting men.
Valdemar In 1223, a very great misfortune befel Valdemar,
taken pri- notwithdanding all his power. Henry earl of Swerin,
loner. otherwife called Henry Palatine, a German prince,
time, laid a plan for having him murdered at fea : this
was effefted, and Abel became mader of the whole
kingdom.
The new king did not long enjoy the fovereignty Kingdom
he had fo wickedly obtained. He was tormented by dmded a-
hjs own confidence ; efpecially when he found, among of
his brother’s papers, one by which he was left heir to petty ty-
the whole kingdom on the deceafe of Eric, and many rants,
kind expreffions with regard to himfelf. He was at
lad killed in a battle with his own fubjefls, in 1252 ;
on account of fome taxes he intended to impofe.
From this time to the year 1333, the kingdom of
Denmark gradually declined. Ufurpers edablilhed
themfelves in different provinces ; while the kings of
Sweden did not fail to avail themfelves of the diffrac¬
ted
D E N [ 2417 ] DEN
Den mark ^ ted (late of the Danifh affairs. In I333» died Crif-
topher II. who pofTcffed only the cities of Scanderburg
in Jutland, and Neoburg in Fionia ; with fome few
other inconfiderable places, of all the hereditary do-
• minions of Denmark. Halland, Holbec, Calemburg,
and Samfoei, were held by Canute Porfius ; Schonen,
Lyftre, and Bleking, by the king of Sweden, to whom
they had been lately fold : John, earl of Wagria, had
the jurifdi6tions of Zealand, Falftre, Laaland, and Fe-
merin ; Gerhard of Jutland and Fionia ; and Lawrence
Jonea of Lang-land and Arras.
After the death of Chriftopher, an interregnum of
feven years enfued.—The firll attempt for the fove-
reignty was made by Otho, fecond fon to the late
king, who laid a fcheme for driving Gerhard out of
Jutland ; but not being able to accomplifh it, he was
taken prifoner, and clofely confined by Gerhard.—
The king of Sweden next wrote to Pope Benedift XIII.
befeeching his Holinefs to confirm to him the provin¬
ces of Schonen and others which he poffeffed ; and to
allow him to fubdue the reft of the kingdom, which
was now ufurped and rendered miferable, by a fet of
petty princes, who knew not how to govern. To in¬
fluence him the more powerfully, he alfo promifed to
hold this kingdom of the Pope ; and to pay him
the ufual tax colle&ed by the church. This requeft,
however, was refufed.—Valdemar of Slefwic, nephew
to Gerhard, then afpired to the fovereignty. He had
formerly been ele&ed king ; but had given over all
thoughts of enjoying the fovereignty, on account of
the fuperior influence of Chriftopher; but now refumed
his ambitious views, at the iniligation of his uncle.
Several of the nobility alfo call their eyes on young
Valdemar Chriftopher’s fon, now at the emperor’s
Diftreffcd court. But, while each of thefe princes were laying
date of the fchemes to aggrandife themfelves, the unhappy Danes
kingdom. were diftreged by exorbitant taxes, famine, and pefti-
lence ; the two laft, in confequence of the former. The
peafants neglefted to cultivate the lands, which they
held on a very precarious tenure ; the confequence of
this was poverty, and an unwholefome diet; and this,
co-operating with the peculiar difpofition of the air, pro¬
duced a plague, which deftroyed more than half the in¬
habitants of the country. The poor dropped down dead
on the ftreets with difeafe and hunger, and the gentry
themfelves were reduced to a ftate of wretchednefs j
yet, though the whole kingdom was evidently on the
verge of ruin, ambitious proje&s employed the great, as
if every thing had been in themoftprofoundtranquillity.
In the midft of thefe grievous calamities, Gerhard,
fovereign of Jutland, propofed to his nephew Valdemar
an exchange of territories, which he believed would
prove favourable to the defigns of the latter on the
crown. A treaty for this purpofe was actually drawn
up and figned ; but the inhabitants, notwithftanding
their diftreffed fituation, fo highly relented their being
difpofed of like cattle, from one mailer to another, that
they refufed to pay the ufual taxes. Gerhard refolved
to compel them ; and therefore led 10,000 men, whom
he had levied in Germany, into the heart of the pro-
14 vince. Providence, however, now raifed up an enemy to
Norevi^rc- D’1-3111- ^ne Nicholas Norevi, a man greatly e-
covers the fteemed for his courage, public fpirit, and prudence,
liberty of beheld with forrow the condition to which Denmark
Jutland. was reduced* He had long meditated a variety of
projedls for its relief, and at laft imagined things were Denmark,
in fuch a fituation that the whole depended on his Angle
arm. Young Valdemar, Chriftopher’s fon, had a
number of adherents in the kingdom ; his moft dan¬
gerous enemy was Gerhard ; and could he be removed,
the Jutlanders would at leaft be free from an oppreflbr,
and might choofe Valdemar, or any other they thought
proper, for their fovereign. Colledling a body of chofen
horfe, therefore, he marched in the night to Rander*
fhufen, where Gerhard had fixed his head-quarters; and
having forced open the tyrant’s quarters, immediately put
him to death. He then fled with the utmoft expedi¬
tion ; but was purfued and overtaken by a party of the
enemy’s horfe, through which he forced his way and
efcaped. Gerhard’s fons, hearing of his death, retired
into Holftein from whence they had come; leaving the
army, compofed chiefly of Holfteiners, to be cut in
pieces by the enraged peafants, who fell upon them
from every quarter.
Still, however, the Holfteiners kept pofieflion of
the citadels and fortified places, from whence Nicho¬
las refolved to diflodge them. He accordingly rai¬
fed a body of forces ; attacked and took Landen, a
caltle fituated on the river Scheme : after which he
laid fiege to Alberg; but the garrifon making an ob-
ftinate defence, he turned the liege into a blockade,
by which they were foon reduced to great extremity.
The governor fent an exprefs to the fons of Gerhard,
acquainting them with the impoffibility of his holding
out more than a few days, without being relieved. This
determined them to march to the relief of fo important ^
a place. They came up with Nicholas juft as the go- jje is kilfc-
vernor was ready to furrender, but were defeated ; ed.
though Nicholas was unfortunately killed in the en¬
gagement.
Jutland having thus regained its liberty, the reft of
the kingdom followed its example. Zealand firft o-
penly declared itfelf. Here Henry, Gerhard’s fon,
maintained feveral garrifons ; and refolved to defend
his pofleflions in fpite of all the power of the inhabi¬
tants. For this purpofe he drew together an army ;
but, in the mean time, a tumult arofe among the pea¬
fants on account of a Danilh nobleman flain by the
Holfteiners. By this the people were at laft fo irri¬
tated, that, falling upon the Holfteiners fwordin hand,
they killed 300 of them; drove the reft out of the
iftand ; andchofe Valdemar, Chriftopher’s fon, for their
fovereign.
The Danes now refumed their courage ; the lands
were cultivated, the famine and peftilence ceafed, and j6
the kingdom began to flourifh as formerly. Matters Margaret
continued in a profperous way till I3'87, when Mar-unites the
garet mounted the throne. She raifed the kingdom to
its higheft pitch of glory, as partly by her addrefs, and gwe(jen ’
partly by hereditary right, fhe formed the union of and Nor-
Calmar, by which fhe was acknowledged fovereign of way.
Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. She held her dig¬
nity with fuch firmnefs and courage, that fhe wasjuft-
ly ftiled the Semiramis of the North. Her fucceflbrs
being deftitute of her great qualifications, the union of
Calmar fell to nothing : but Norway ftill continued
annexed to Denmark. About the year 1448, the
crown of Denmark fell to Chriftian, count of Olden¬
burg, from whom theprefent royal family of Denmark
is defeended;. and, in 1536, the proteftant religion was
efta-
DEN [ 2418 J DEN
•Denmark, eftabliflied In Denmark, by that wife and politic prince
Chriftian III.
Chriftian IV. of Denmark, in 1629, was chofen for
the head of the Proteftant league, formed again ft the
houfc of Auftria : but, though brave in his own per-
fon, he was in danger of loling his dominions ; when
he was fucceeded in that command by the famous Gu-
ftavus Adolphus, king of Sweden. The Dutch ha¬
ving obliged Chriftian, who died in 1648, to lower
the duties of the Sound, his fon Frederic III. con-
fented to accept of an annuity of 150,000 florins for
the whole. The Dutch, after this, perfuaded him to
declare war againft Charles Guftavus, king of Sweden,
which had almoft coil him his crown in 1657. Charles
ftormed the fortrefs of Fredericftadt ; and in the fuc-
ceeding winter, he marched his army over the ice to
the ifland of Funen, where he furprifed the Danilh
troops, took Odenfee and Nyburg and marched over
the Great Belt to befiege Copenhagen it fell. Crom¬
well, the Engliih ufurper interpofed : and Frederic de-
17 fended his capital with great magnanimity, till the
Several pro- peace of Rofchild ; by which Frederic ceded the pro-
dedtoSwe v‘nces Halland, Bleking, and Sconia, the ifland of
Bornholm, Bahus, and Drontheim, in Norway, to the
Swedes. Frederic fought to elude thofe fevere terms ;
but Charles took Cronenburg, and once more befieged
Copenhagen by fea and land. The fteady intrepid
condudl of Frederic under thefe misfortunes, endeared
him to his fubjedls; and the Citizens of Copenhagen
made an admirable defence, till a Dutch fleet arrived
in the Baltic, and beat the Swediftr fleet. The for¬
tune of war was now entirely changed in favour of
Frederic . who fliewed on every occafion great abili¬
ties, both civil and military ; and having forced Charles
to raife the fiege of Copenhagen, might have carried
the war into Sweden, had not the Englifti fleet, under
Montague, appeared in the Baltic. This enabled
Charles to befiege Copenhagen a third time: but
Frapce and England offering their mediation, a peace
was concluded in that capital ; by which the ifland of
Bornhold returned to the Danes; but the ifland of
Rugen, Blekiug, Halland, and Schonen, remained
,8 with the Swedes.
Perpetual Though this peace did not reftore to Denmark all
tlun k'n* 0^’ ^et t^le maSnan*mous behaviour of Fre-
dom. * deric, under the moft imminent dangers, and his at¬
tention to the fafety of his fubje&s, even prefcrablylb
his own, endeared him fo much in their eyes, that they
rendered him abfolute. Frederic was fucceeded, in
1670, by his fon Chriflian V. who obliged the duke
of Holftein Gottorp to renounce all the advantages he
had gained by the treaty of Rofchild. He then reco¬
vered a number of places in Schonen ; but his army
was defeated in the bloody battle of Lunden, by
Charles XI. of Sweden. This defeat did not put an
end to the war; which Chriftian obftinately continued,
till he was defeated entirely at the battle of Land-
feroon ; and he had almoft exhaufted his dominions in
his military operations, till he was in a manner aban¬
doned by all his allies, and forced to fign a treaty on
the terms preferibed by France, in 1679. Chriftian,
however, did not deflft from his military attempts ; and
at laft he became the ally and fubfidiary of Lewis XIV.
who was then threatening Europe witli chains. Chri¬
ftian, after a vaft variety of treating and fighting with
the Holfteiners, Hamburghers, and other northern Denmwlfi
powers, died in 1699. He was fucceeded by Frede-  h
ric IV. who, like his predeceffors, maintained his pre-
tenfions upon Holftein ; and probably muft have be¬
come mafters of that duchy, had not the Englifli and
Dutch fleets raifed the fiege of Tonningen ; while the
young king of Sweden, Charles XII. who was no more
than 16 years of age, landed within eight miles of Co-
. penhagen, to sflift his brother-in-law the duke of
Holftein. Charles probably would have made him-
felf mafter of Copenhagen, had not his Daniftr ma-
jefty agreed to the peace of Travendahl, which was en¬
tirely in the duke’s favour. By another treaty con-
concluded with the States-General, Frederic obliged
himfelf to furnifti a body of troops, who were to be paid
by the confederates ; and who afterwards did great
fervice againft the French.
Notwithftanding this peace, Frederic was perpetual¬
ly engaged in wars with the Swedes; and while Charles
was an exile at Bender, he marched through Holftein
into Swedilh Pomerania ; and in the year 1712, into
Bremen, and took the city of Stade. His troops,
however, were totally defeated by the Swedes at Ga-
deibufeh, who laid his favourite city of Altena in alhes.
Frederic revenged himfelf, by feizing great part of the
ducal Holftein, and forcing the Swedifti general, count
Steinbock, to furrender himfelf prifoner, with all his
troops. In the year 1716, the fucceffes of Frederic
was fo great, by taking Tonningen and Stralfund, by
driving the Swedes out of Norway, and reducing
Wifmar and Pomerania, that his allies began to fu~
fped he was aiming at the fovereignty of all Scandina¬
via. Upon the return of Charles of Sweden from his
exile, he renewed the war againft Denmark, with a
moft embittered fpirit; but on the death of that prince,
who was killed at the fiege of Fredericflial, Frederic
durft not refufe the offer of his Britannic majefty’s me¬
diation between him and the crown of Sweden ; in con-
fequence of which, a peace was concluded at Stock¬
holm, which left him in poffeffion of the duchy of
Slefwic. Frederic died in the year 1730, after ha¬
ving, two years before, feen his capital reduced to
afties, by an accidental fire. His fon and fucceffor,
Chriftian Frederic, made no other ufe of his power, and
the advantages, with which he mounted the throne, than
to cultivate peace with all his neighbours, and to pro¬
mote the happinefs of his fubjefts, whom he eafed of
many oppreffive taxes.
In 1734, after guarantying the Pragmatic Sanc¬
tion, Chriftian fent 6000 men to the afiiftance of the
emperor, during the difpute of the fucceffion to the
crown of Poland. Though he was pacific, yet he was
jealous of his rights, efpecially over Hamburgh. He
obliged the Hamburghers to call in the mediation of
Pruffia, to aboliftr their bank, to admit the coin of
Denmark as current, and to pay him a million of fil-
ver marks. He had, two years after, viz. 1738, a
difpute with his Britannic majefty, about the little
lordftiip of Steinborft, which had been mortgaged to
the latter by the duke of Holttein Lawenburg, and
which Chriftian faid belonged to him. Some blood
was fpilt during the conteft ; in which Chriftian, it is 19
thought, never was in earneft. It brought on, how- -^n advan-
ever, a treaty, in which he availed himfelf of his Bri- [reat^widi
tannic majefty’s predile&ion for his German domi- Great iki-
nions; tain.
DEN [ 2419 ] DEN
Dsnmark. mans ; for he agreed to pay Chriftian a fubfidy of
“ : 70,000 /. Sterling a-year, on condition of keeping in
readinefs 7000 troops for the protection of Hanover :
this was a gainful bargain for Denmark. And two
years after, he feized Tome Dutch Ihips, for trading
V'ithou.t his leave, to Iceland : but the difference was
made up by the mediation of Sweden. Chriltian had
f<j great a party in that kingdom, that it was general¬
ly thought he would revive the union of Calmar, by
procuring his fon to be declared fucceffor to his then
Swedifh majefty. Some fteps for that purpofe were
certainly, taken : but whatever Chriftian’s views might
have been, the defign was fruftrated by the jealoufy
of other powers, who could not bear the thoughts of
feeing all Scandinavia fubjeS to one family. Chriltian
died in 1746, with the character of being the father
qf his people.
His fon and fucceffor, Frederic V. had, in 1743,
married the princefs Louifa, daughter to his Britannic
majefty. He improved upon his father’s plan, for the
happinefs of his people; but took no concern, except
that of a mediator, in the German war. For it was
by his intervention, that the treaty of Clofter-feven was
concluded between his royal highnefs the late duke of
Cumberland, and the French general Richlieu, Upon
the death of his firft queen, who was mother to his pre-
fent Danifh majeily, he married a daughter of the duke
of Brunfwic Wolfenbuttel; and died in 1766. He was
fucceeded by his fon Chriftian VII. his prefent Danifh
majefty* who married the princefs Carolina Matilda of
L 10 England.
Divifion of Xhe kingdom of Denmark at prefent is divided into
fix grand diflriCts or provinces; viz. t. Denmark pro-
; ' perly fo called, comprehending the iflands of Zealand,
Funen, Langlaud, Laaland, Falftria, Mona, Samfoe,
Arroe, Bornholm, Anhoult, Leffaw, and that part
of the continent called North Jutland. 2. The dutchy
of Slefwick, or South Jutland. 3. The duchy of
Holftein. 4. The earldoms of Oldenburg and Del-
menhorft. 5. The kingdom.of Norway ; and 6. Ice¬
land, with the iflands lying in the Northern Seas ; for
'vii a particular defcription of which fee thefe articles.
■Language, Tbe language of Denmark is a dialeCt of the Ten-
religion, tonic, and bears a ftrong affinity to the Norwegian
tongue; but is difagreeable to ftrangers, on account of
the drawling tone with which it is pronounced. They
have borrowed many words from the Germans ; and,
indeed, the high Dutch is ufed in common difcourfe
by the court, the gentry, and the burghers. The bet¬
ter fort likewife underftand French, and fpeak it flu¬
ently. The Lutheran dodlrine is univerfally embraced
through all Denmark, Sweden, and Norway; fo that
there is not another fedt in thefe kingdoms. Denmark
is divided into fix diocefes, one in Zealand, one.in Fu¬
nen, and four in Jutland : but the bifhops are, proper¬
ly fpeaking, no other than fuperintendants, or fninfi
inter pares. They have no cathedrals, ecclefiaftical
courts, or temporalities. Their bufinefs is to infpe£V
the do&rine and morals of the inferior clergy. The re¬
venue of the biftiop of Copenhagen amounts to about
2060 rixdollars; and this is the richeft benefice in the
kingdom. The clergy are wholly dependant on the
government. They never intermeddle, nor are em¬
ployed or confulted in civil affairs. They, neverthe-
kfs, have acquired great influence, and. ereded a fort
of fpintual tyranny over the minds of the common D nrmuk.
people, by whom they are much revered. They are,
generally fpeaking, men of exemplary lives, and fome
erudition. Their churches are. kept more clean, and
better adorned, than thofe of England : the people are
great lovers of mufic, and their organifts commonly
entertain the congregation for half an hour before or
after fervjce. The flate of literature is very low in
Denmark. There is, indeed, an univerfity at Copen¬
hagen ; but meanly endowed, and very ill fupplied with
mailers. Tafte and the belles lettres are utterly un¬
known in this country, which yet has produced fome
men of great eminence in mathematics and medicine;
fuch as Tychp Brahe, Borrichius, and the Bartho-
lines.
The conftitution of Denmark was heretofore of the Govern-
free Gothic original. The convention of the eftates, ment.
even including the reprefentatives of the boors or pea-
fants, eleded a king for his perfonal virtues, having
ftill a regard to the fon of their late monarch, whom,
however, they made no forupie of fetting alidt, if they
deemed him unworthy of the royal dignity. They
enaded laws; conferred the great offices of flate; de¬
bated all affairs relating to commerce, peace, war, and
alliances; and occafionally gave their confent to the
impofition of nectffary taxes. The king was no other
than chief magiflrate, generalifiimo, and as it were
prime minifter to .his people. His bufinefs was to fee
juftice adminiflered impartially ; to command the army
in time of war ; tp encourage induftry, religion, arts,
and fciences; and to watch over the interefts of his
fubjeds. Such was the conftitution of Denmark, till King,3 how
the year 1660, when it underwent a very ftrange and rendered
furprifing revolution. At that time peace was con- abfidu,c*
eluded with Sweden, and the nation refounded with
the clamour of mifery and difeontent. There was no¬
thing left in the public treafiiry, to pay off and dif-
band the army ; which therefore became infolent and
licentious. The common people, and even the bur¬
ghers, had been exhaufted by the long, expenfive war :
the clergy were unfatisfied with their condition and
want of importance ; and the nobility were become
proud and tyrannical. When the eftates affembled to
deliberate and redrefs the grievances of the nation, the
commons propofed that an equal tax fhould be laid up¬
on all perfons, without diftinftion, in proportion to
their circumftances. The nobles pleaded their privilege
of being exempted from all impofition. The burghers
alleged, that as the nobility engrofled all the lands and
riches in the kingdom, it was reafonable that they
fhould bear their rfiare of the common burden. Violent
difputes enfued. At length a nobleman, called Otto
Craeg> flood up, and in a tranfport of paffion told the
commons, that they neither underftood the privileges
of the nobility, who were always exempted from fuch.
impofitions, nor the condition of themfelves, who were
no other than their Jlaves. This inglorious term pro¬
duced an immediate ferment in the aflembly ; and the
hall refounded with murmurs and altercation. Nan-
fon, fpeaker of the commons, darting up in a rage of
indignation, fwore that the nobility fhould repent their
having branded the. commons with fuch an opprobrious
epithet. He had previoufly concerted the defign with
the bifhop of Copenhagen, and the court was not ig¬
norant of their intention. The clergy and burghers,
breaking
DEN [ 2420 ] DEN
mark breaking up in diforder, marched, under the aufpices
of thefe leaders, to the brewer’s hall; where, after much
debate, they agreed to make a folemn tender of their
freedom and fervices to the king, that he might be¬
come abfolute monarch of the realm, and fee the right
of hereditary fuccefiion eftablifhed in his family. Next
morning they marched in couples, each burgher being
paired with a clergyman, through the ftreets, which
■were filled with the populace, who (houted as they
paffed, to the council-hall, where the nobles had re-af-
fembled. There Nanfon, in a Ihort harangue, figni-
fied the intention of the clergy and commons, demand¬
ed the concurrence of the nobles, and threatened, that,
in cafe of a refufal, they would forthwith proceed with¬
out them to the palace. The nobles were confounded
and abafhed. They endeavoured to gain time : they
profeffed a defire of concuring with the other ftates; but
defired that an affair of fuch confeqtience might not be
precipitated. The others being deaf to their remon-
ftrances and intreaties, continued their procefiion to
the palace; where they were met by the prime minifter,
who conduced them to the hall of audience. There
the bifhop of Copenhagen, in a florid fpeech, as de¬
puty from the two orders, made a folemn tender to the
king of an abfolute and hereditary dominion ; affuring
his majefty, that he might command their purfes and
arms, to fupport a meafure fo neceflary to the welfare
of his people. The king received them gracioufly, af-
fented to the propofal, thanked them for their zeal and
confidence, and affured them they might depend upon
his royal favour and proteftion. The city-gates were
immediately fhut, that none of the fenators fhould e-
fcape: a precaution by which the nobles were fo inti¬
midated, that they fignified their readinefs to concur
with the ftep which the other two orders had taken.
Preparations were forthwith made for this ftrange in¬
auguration. Scaffolds were raifed in the open fpace
before the caftle ; and the troops and burghers recei¬
ved orders to appear in arms, under their refpedlive
officers. On the 16th day of Oftober, in the year
1660, the king, queen, and royal family, afcended an
open theatre; and placing themfelves on chairs of ftate,
under canopies of velvet, received in public the ho¬
mage of all the fenators, nobility, clergy, and com¬
mons, couched in an oath of allegiance compofed for
the purpofe. Thus the people, with a rafh and defpe-
rate hand, from motives of revenge, fomented by an
artful miniftry and ambitious clergy, refigned their li¬
berty and independence, and inverted their fovereign
with a defpotic power over their lives and fortunes.
The king of Denmark is now fo abfolute, that he not
only can impofe what tolls and taxes he fhall think
convenient; but alfo, by a maxim in the prefentju-
rifprudence of that nation, he enjoys the preroga¬
tive of explaining the law, and even of altering it oc-
4 cafionally.
, dkc. The laws of Denmark are fo concife, that the whole
body is contained in one quarto volume, written in the
language of the country. Every man may plead his
own caufe, without employing either council or attor¬
ney : but there are a few advocates for the benefit of
thofe who cannot or will not fpeak in their own de¬
fence. The proceedings are fo fummary, that a fuit
may be carried through all the courts, and finally de¬
cided, in 13 months. There are three courts in Den¬
mark, and an appeal lies from the inferior to the fupe-
rior tribunal. The lowed of thefe is, in cities and
towns, denominated the Byfoglids Court; and in the
country, the Herredsfougds. Caufes may be appealed
from this to the Landjiag, or general head-court for
the province: but the final appeal lies to the court of
High-right in Copenhagen, where the king prefides in
perfon, affifted by the prime nobility. The judges of
the two other courts are appointed by his majefty’s
letters patent, to fit and determine caufes durante be¬
ne placito. Thefe are punifhable for any mifdemean-
ours of which they may be guilty ; and when convi&ed
of having paffed an unjuft fentence, they are condemned
to make reparation to the injured party. Their falaries
are very inconfiderable, and paid out of the king’s trea-
fury, from the fines of delinquents, befides a fmall gra¬
tuity from the plaintiff and defendant when fentence is
paffed. Such is the peculiar privilege enjoyed by the
city of Copenhagen, that caufes appealed from the By¬
foglids court, inftead of paffing through the provincial
court, are tried by the burgomafter and common-coun¬
cil ; from whence they proceed immediately to the
highert court, as the laft refource. Affairs relating to
the revenue are determined in the rent-chamber of Den¬
mark, which is analogous to our court of exchequer.
To another tribunal, compofed of fome members from
this rent-chamber, from the admiralty, and college of
commerce, merchants appeal for redrefs, when their
commodities are feized for non-payment of duties. All
difputes relating to the fea are determined by the court
of admiralty, conffituted of commiflioners appointed
for thefe purpofes. The chancellary may be more
properly termed a fecretary’s office. It confifts of
clerks, who write and iffue all the king’s decrees and
citations, tranferibe papers, and, according to the di-
reftions they receive, make draughts of treaties and
alliances with other nations. The government of Den¬
mark is very commendable for the excellent policy it
maintains. Juftice is executed upon criminals with
great feverity; and fuch regulations are eftabliffied as
effediually prevent thofe outrages that are daily com¬
mitted in other countries. No man prefumes to wag
his tongue againft the government, far lefs to hatch
fchemes of treafon. All the fubjeCfs are, or feem to
be, attached to their fovereign by the ties of affe&ion.
Robbery on the high-way, burglary, coining or clip¬
ping, are crimes feldom or never heard of in Den¬
mark. The capital crimes ufually committed are theft
and manflaughter. Such offenders are beheaded very
dexterouffy with one ftroke of a fword. The execu¬
tioner, though infamous, is commonly rich; becaufe,
over and above the fun&ions of his office, he is em¬
ployed in other fcandalous occupations, which no o-
ther perfon will undertake. He, by means of his un-
derftrapper, called the pracher, empties all the jakes,
and removes from houfes, ftables, or itreets, dead dogs,
horfes, &c. which no other Dane will vouchfafe to
touch on any confideration whatfoever.
In Copenhagen there is a mailer of the police, who
fuperintends the occonomy of that city. No torches
are allowed to be carried through the ftreets of this
city, becaufe great part of the houfes are of timber,
and the wind is generally high. In lieu of flambeaux,
the court and quality ufe large round lanthorns, fixed
to the end of long poles. In a word, the mailer of
the
Denmariis
DEN [ 2421 ] DEN
Denmark, the police regulates every thing that relates to the de-
cency, good order* quiet, and (ecurity, of the capital.
The apothecaries in this kingdom are under excellent
regulations : their number at Copenhagen is reftricted
to two ; and one is allowed to every other town of im¬
portance. They are examined and appointed by the
college of phyficians, and confirmed by the king him-
felfj otherwife they cannot exercife the profeffion.
Their (hops are vifited three times a-year by the ma-
giftrates, accompanied with phyficians, who infpeft
their medicines and regulate the prices. They are ob¬
liged to keep an exaft account of every thing they
fell, to fpecify the name of the perfon who bought it,
and that of the doftor by whom it was prefcribed; fo
that accidents are prevented, and murders by poifon
eafily.difcovered.
Slavithcon- The DanUh nobility and gentry are all included in
dition of the the term noblejfe; and formerly there were no diftinc-
panifli fub‘ tions of title : but, within thefe 60 or 70 years, fame
}e s" few favourites have been dignified with the titles of count
and baron. Thefe, and thefe only, enjoy the privilege
of difpofing of their eftates by will; though-others
may make particular difpofitions, provided they have
fufficient intereft to procure the king’s approbation and
fignature. The noblefle of Denmark formerly lived at
their own feats with great magnificence; and at the
conventions of eftates met the king with numerous
and fuperb retinues: but fince he became abfolute, they
are fo impoverifhed by exorbitant taxes, that they can
hardly procure fubfiftence; and, for the moft part, live
obfcurely in fome corner of their ruined country pa¬
laces, unlefs they have intereft enough to procure fome
employment at court. They no longer inherit the fpi-
rit and virtues of their anceftors; but are become fer-
vile, indolent, oftentatious, extravagant, and oppreffive.
Their general character is a (trange compofition of
pride and meannefs, infolence and poverty. If any gen¬
tleman can find a purchafer for his eftate, the king, by
the Danifti law, has a right to one third of the pur-
chafe-money : but the lands are fo burdened with im-
pofitions that there would be no danger of an aliena¬
tion, even tho’ this reftriftion was not in force. Nay,
fome gentlemen in the Illand of Zealand have adually
offered to make a lurrender to the king of large tra&s
of very fertile land in the Ifland of Zealand, if his ma-
jefty would be pleafed to accept of them in place of
the impofitions laid on them. The reafon of this is,
becaufe, by the law of Denmark, if any eftate is bur¬
dened beyond what it can bear, the owner muft make
up the deficiency out of his other eftates, if he has any.
Hence the king generally refufes fuch offers; and fome
entlemen have been tranfported with joy when they
card that his majefty had been “ gracioufly pleafed to
accept their whole eftates.”
This oppreffion of the nobles by the king produces
in them a like difpofition to opprefs the commons; and
the confequence of all this is, that there is no part of
the world where extravagance and difiipation reigns to
fuch a degree. The courtiers maintain fplendid equi¬
pages, wear fine clothes, drink a vaft quantity of French
wine, and indulge themfelves with eating to excefs.
Such as derive money from their employments, inftead
of purchafing land in Denmark, remit their ca(h to the
banks of Hamburgh and Amfterdam. The merchants
and burghers tread in the fteps of their fuperiors: they
Vol. IV.
fpend all their gains in luxury and pleafure, afraid of Denmark,
incurring the fufpicion of affluence, and being dripped
by taxation. The peafant, or boor, follows the fame
example. No fooner has he earned a rix-dollar than he
makes hafte to expend it in brandy, left it fhould fall
into the hands of his opprefiive landlord. This lower
clafs of people are as abfolute (laves as the negroes in
the Weft Indies, and fubfift upon much harder fare.
The value of eftates is not computed by the number of
acres, but by the (lock of boors, who, like the timber,
are reckoned a parcel of the freehold; and nothing can
be more wretched than the (late of thefe boors. They
feed upon ftock-fifti, faked meats, and other coarfe diet:
there is not the lead piece of furniture of any value in
their houfes, except feather-beds, of which there is
great plenty in Denmark;* and which are ufed not only
as beds to lie on, but as blankets for covering. After
the boor has toiled like a jlave to raife the king’s taxes,
he muft pay the overplus of his toil to his needy land¬
lord. Should he improve his ground and repair his
farm-houfe, his cruel mafter will immediately tranfplant
him to a barren farm and a naked habitation, that he
may let the improved ground to another tenant at a
higher price. The peafants likewife fuftain a great deal
of damage and violence from the licentious foldiers that
are quartered in their houfes. They are moreover obli¬
ged to furnilh horfes and waggons for the royal family
and all their attendants when the king makes a pro-
grefs through the country, or removes his refidence
from one palace to another. On fuch occafions the
neighbouring boors are fummoned to afftmble with
their cattle and carriages, and not only to live at their
own expence, but to bear every fpecies of outrage from
the meaneft lacquies of thofe who attend his majefty.
The warlike fpirit of the Danes no longer fubfilts: the
common people are mean-fpirited, fufpicious, and de¬
ceitful; nor have they that talent for mechanics fo re¬
markable in fome northern nations. While the pea¬
fants are employed in their labour without doors, the
women are occupied at home in fpinning y^,rn for linen,
which is here made in great perfe&ion. n
In Denmark, all perfons of any rank above the vul- Erefs, &c-
gar drefs in the French tafte, and affe& finery; the
winter-drefs of the ladies is peculiar to the country,
very neat, warm, and becoming. The common people
are likewife remarkably neat, and pride themfelves in
different changes of linen. They are very little addic¬
ted to jollity and diverfion: their whole amufements
confift in running at the goofe on Shrove Tuefday,
and in winter in being drawn in fleds upon the ice.
They alfo feaft and make merry at weddings and fune¬
rals. With refpeft to marriage, the man and woman
frequently cohabit together on contraft long before the
ceremony is performed. The nobility and gentry pique
themfelves on fumptuous burials and monuments for the
dead: the corpfe is very often kept in a vault, or .in
the chancel of a church, for feveral years, before an op¬
portunity offers of celebrating the funeral.
The taverns in this country are poorly fupplied;
and he who diets in them muft be contented to eat in
a public room, unlefs he will condefcend to pay an ex¬
travagant price for a private apartment. The metro¬
polis is but indifferently furniftied with game. The
wild-ducks and plover are hardly eatable ; but the hares
are good, and the markets fometimes produce tolerable
14 D roebuck.
DEN 5 2422 l DEN
Denmark, roebuck. Their fea-fifh are not to be commended; but
"the rivers produce plenty of delicious.carp, perch, and
craw-filh. The gardens of the gentry are well provi-
ded with melons, grapes, peaches, and all forts of greens
23 and falads in perfeftion.
Forces liy The naval power of Denmark, formerly fo,great, is
fea and land. I10W become much, lefs confiderable. Of late, however,
commerce has confiderably increafed; a confiderable
Eaft India trade has been carried on; they have alfo
extended their commerce to the Weft Indies, where
they have fettled the ifland of St Thomas; to the coaft
of Guinea, where they maintain the fort of Chriftian-
burgh; to the Mediterranean; and to Greenland. The
navy confifts of about 30 (hips of the line ; befides fri¬
gates, bombs, tenders, and yachts. The land-forces,
including 5000 referves, which form a kind of militia,
amount to near 40,000 men, horfe, dragoons, and in¬
fantry. Thefe laft, officers as well as foldiers, confift
chiefly of ftrangers, Germans, Poles, Courlanders,
Dutch, Swedes, Scots, and Irilh. The cavalry are
generally natives.
*4 The revenue of his Daniflt majefly arifes from taxes
cvenue. own fubj^s; fr0m the duties paid by fo¬
reigners, from his own eftate, crown-lands, and con-
fifcations. The taxes are altogether arbitrary, and
therefore fluctuating ; but they are always grievous to
the fubjeCt. They commonly confift of euftoms or toll,
for export and import; of excife upon the confump-
tion of wine, fait, tobacco, and all kinds of provifipns;
of taxes upon marriages, paper, brewing, grinding, and
the exercife of different profeffions; of impofitions on
fend, poll-money, ground-rent for all houfes in Co¬
penhagen and elfewhere; of money raifed for main¬
taining fortifications, and for a portion to the king’s
daughter when ftie happens to be married; but this
feldom exceeds 100,000 rix-dollars. One confiderable
article in the revenue is the toll paid by foreign fliips
that pafs through the Sound, or Ore-Sound, (the ftrait
between Schonen and Zealand), into the Baltic, This
was originally no other than a fmall contribution, which
trading nations agreed to make for maintaining lights
at certain places, to direCt their courfe through the paf-
fage in dark and ftormy weather. At the fame time
thefe trading nations agreed, that every fhip (hould pafs
this way and pay its fliare of the expence, rather than
ufe the Great Belt, which is the other paffage, but un¬
provided with any fuch conveniency. In procefs of
time the Danes converted this voluntary contribution
into an exorbitant toll, and even exafted arbitrary fums,
in proportion to the weaknefs of the nation whofe (hips
they vifited. Thefe exaftions fometimes involved them
in quarrels with their neighbours, and the toll'was re¬
gulated- in repeated treaties.
Orders of T0 t^ie court of Copenhagen belong two orders of
knighthood:knighthood; namely, that of the elephant, and that
of Danebrugh: the badge of the former, which they
deem the moft honourable, is an elephant furmounted
with a caftle, fet in diamonds, and fufpended to a iky-
coloured watered ribbon, worn like the George in Eng¬
land. This order is conferred only on perfons of the
higheft quality, and the moft extraordinary merit. The
order of Danebrugh is beftowed as an honorary reward
upon the nobleffe of an inferior rank, who have diftin-
guilhed themfelves in the fervice. Its infignia confift
of a white ribbon with red edges, worn over the left
fhoulder, from which depends a fmall crofs of diamonds, Dennis,
and an embroidered ftar on the breaft of the coat, fur-
rounded with the motto pietate jujlitia.
DENNIS, or St Dennis, a famous town of the
Me of France, with a Benedidfine abbey, wherein are
the tombs of the kings of France, with a confiderable
treafure. E. Long. 2. 26. N. Lat. 48. 56.
Dennis (John), the celebrated critic, was the fon
of a reputable tradefman in London, and bom in the
year 1657. He received the firft branches of education
at the great fchool in Harrow on the Hill, where he
commenced acquaintance and intimacy with many
young noblemen and gentlemen, who afterwards made
confiderable figures in public affairs, whereby he laid
the foundation of a very ftrong and extenfive intereft,
which might, but for his own fault, have been of infi¬
nite ufe to him in future life. From Harrow he went
to Caius-college Cambridge ; where, after his proper
ftanding, he took the degree of bachelor of arts. When
he quitted the univerfity, he made the tour of Europe;
in the, courfe of which he conceived fuch a deteflation
for defpotifm, as confirmed him ftill more in thofe
Whig principles which he had from his infancy im¬
bibed.
On his return to England he became early acquaint¬
ed with Dryden, Wycherly, Congreve, and Southerne y
whofe converfation infpiring him with a paffion for
poetry, and a contempt for every attainment that bad
not fomething of the 6e//es If tires, diverted him from
the acquiiition of any profit-able art, or the exercife of
any profeffion. This, to a man who had not an inde¬
pendent income, was undoubtedly a misfortune: how¬
ever, his zeal for the Proteftant fucceffion having re¬
commended him to the patronage of the duke of Marl¬
borough, that nobleman procured him a place in the
cuftoms worth 1201. per annum; which heenjoyedfor
fome years, till from profufenefs and want of (eco¬
nomy, he was reduced to the neceffity of difpofing of
it to fatisfy fome very preffing, demands. By the ad¬
vice of Lord Halifax, however, be referved to himfelf*
in the fale of it, an annuity for a term of years; which
term he outlived, and was, in the decline of hi&hfe, re¬
duced to extreme neceffity.
Mr Theo. Cibber relates an anecdote of him, which
we cannot,avoid repeating, as.it is not only highly cha-
rafteriftic of the man whofe affairs we are now confi-
dering, but alfo a ftriking and melancholy inftance, a-
mong thoufands, of the diftrefsful predicaments into
which men of genius and literary abilities are perhaps
apter than any others to plunge themfelves, by paying
too flight an attention to the common concerns of life,
and their own moft important interefts. “ After that
he was worn out, (fays that author,) with age and po¬
verty, he refided within the verge of the court, to pre¬
vent danger from his creditors. One Saturday night,
he happened to faunter to a public houfe, which in a
fhort time he difcovered to be without the verge, He
was fitting in an open drinking-room, when a man of
a fufpicious appearance happened to come in. There
was fomething about the man which denoted to Mr
Dennis that he was a bailiff. This ftruck him with
a panic; he was afraid his liberty was at an end,;
he fat in the utmoft folicitude, but durft not offer to
ftir left he {hould be feized upon. After an hour or two
had paffed in this painful anxiety, at laft the clock
ftruck
DEN [ 2421 ] DEN
DennU. ftruck twelve; when Mr Dennis, in an ecftafy, cried
‘ out, addreffing hirnfelf to the fufpedted perfon, “ Now,
Sir, bailiff or no bailiff, I don’t care a farthing for
you, you have no power now.” The man was afto-
nidled at bis behaviour $ and when it was explained to
him, was fo much affronted with the fufpicion, that
had not Mr Dennis found his prote&ion in age, he
would probably have fmarted for his miilaken opinion.
A ftrong picture of the effects of fear and appr-ehen-
fion, in a temper naturally fo timorous and jealous as Mr
Dennis’s j of which the follow'ing-is a ftill more whimli-
cal inftance. In 1704, came out his favourite tragedy.
Liberty Averted; in which were fo many ftrokes on the
French nation, that he thought they were never to be
forgiven. He had worked himfelf into a perfuafion that
the king of France would infift on his being delivered
up, before he would confent to a peace: and full of
this idea of his own importance, when the congrefs was
held at Utrecht, he is faid to have w-aited on his pa¬
tron the duke of Marlborough, to defire that no fueh
article might be ftipulated. The duke told him he
really had no intereft then with the miniftry; but had
made no fuch provifion for his own fecurity, though he
could not help thinking he had done the French as
much injury as Mr Dennis himfelf. Another ftory re¬
lating to this affair is, that being at a gentleman’s
houfe on the coaft of Suffex, and walking one day on
the fea-fhore, he faw a fhip failing, as he fancied, to¬
wards him : he inftantly fet out for London, in the fan¬
cy that he was betrayed; and, congratulating himfelf on
his efcape, gave out that his friend had decoyed him
down to his houfe, to furrender him up to the French.
Mr Dennis, partly through a natural peevifhnefs
and petulance of temper, and partly perhaps for the
fake of procuring the means of fubfiftence, w'as conti¬
nually engaged in a paper-war with his cotemporaries,
whom he ever treated with the utmoft feverity : and,
though many of his obfervatidns were judicious, yet he
ufually conveyed them in language fo fcurrilous and a-
bufive, as deftroyed their intended effeft ; and as his
attacks were almoft always on perfons of fuperior abi¬
lities to himfelf, viz. Addifon, Steele, and Pope ; their
replies ufually turned the popular opinion fo greatly
againff him, that, by irritating his tefty temper the
more, it rendered him a perpetual torment to himfelf;
till at length, after a long life of viciffitudes, difappoint-
ments and turmoils, rendered wretched by indifcretion,
and hateful by malevolence, having outlived the rever-
fion of his eftate, and reduced to diftrefs, from which
his having been daily creating enemies had left him
fcarcely any hopes of relief, he was compelled to what
muff be the molt irkfome fituation that can be conceived
in human life, the receiving obligations from thofe
whom he had been continually treating ill. In the very
clofe of his days, a play was afted for his benefit at
the little theatre in the Hay-market, procured through
the united interefts of Meffrs Thompfon, Mallet, and
Pope; thelaftof whom, notwithftanding the grofsman¬
ner in which Mr Dennis had on many occafions ufed
him, and the long warfare that had fubfiffed between
them, interefted himfelf very warmly for him •; and
even wrote an occafional prologue to the play, which
was fpoken by Mr Cibber. Not long after this, viz.
on the 6th of January 1733, he died, being then in
the 77th year of his age.
Mr Dennis certainly was poffeffed of much erudition, Denomina¬
an d a confiderable lhare of genius. In profe, he is far tor
from a bad writer, w'here abufe or perfonal fcufrility Dentv,,.,s
does not mingle itfelf with his language. In verfe, he   
is extremely unequal ; his numbers being at fome times
fpirited and harmonious, and his fubjedts elevated and
judicious ; and at others, flat, harlh, and puerile.-—
As a dramatic author, he certainly deferves not to
be held in any confideration. It was juftly faid of him
by a wit, that he was the moft complete inflruftor for
a dramatic poet, fince he could teach him to diftin-
guifh good plays by his precepts, and bad ones by his
examples.
DENOMINATOR, in arithmetic, a term ufed in
fpeaking of fractions. See Arithmetic, n° 2i.
DENS can is, or Dog's-tooth, in botany. See E-
RYTHRONIUM.
Dens Leonis. See Leontodon.
DENSITY (^Bodies, is that property direftly op-
pofite to rarity, whereby they contain fuch a quantity
of matter under fuch a bulk.
A ccordingly, a body is faid to have double or triple
the denfity of another body, when, their bulk being
equal, the quantity of matter is in the one double or
triple the quantity of matter in the other.
Density of the Air, is a property that has em¬
ployed the later philofophers, fince the difeovery of
the Toricellian experiment.
It is demonltrated, that in the fame veffel, or even
in veffels communicating with each other, at the fame
diftance from the centre, the air has every where the
fame denfity. The denfity of air, ceteris paribus, in-
creafes in proportion to the comprefling powers. Hence
the inferior air is denfer than the fuperior; the denfity,
however, of the lower air is not proportional to the
weight of the atmofphere on account of heat and cold,
and other caufes perhaps which make great alterations
in denfity and rarity. However, from the elafticity of
the air, its denfity muff be always different at different
heights from the earth’s furface ; for the lower parts
being preffed by the weight of thofe above, will be
made to accede nearer to each other, and the more fo
as the weight of the incumbent &ir is greater. Hence,
the denfity of the air is greaceft at the earth’s furface,
and dtcreafes upwards in geometrical proportion to the
altitudes taken in arithmetical progreffion.
If the air be rendered denfer, the weight of bodies
in it is diminifhed ; if rarer, increafed, becaufe bodies
lofe a greater part of their weight in denfer than in
rarer mediums. Hence, if the denfity of the air be
fenfibly altered, bodies equally heavy in a rarer air, if
their fpecific gravities be confiderably different, will
lofe their equilibrium in the denfer, and the fpecifically
heavier body will preponderate. See Pneumatics.
DENTALIUM, in natural hiftory, a Ihell-fifh be¬
longing to the order of vermes teftacea. The {hell con-
fifts of one tubulous ftraight valve, open at both ends.
There are eight fpecies, diftinguifhed by the angles,
ftrias, &c. of their fhells.
DENTARIA, tooth-wort, or Tooth-violet; a
genus of the filiquofa order, belonging to the tetrady-
namia clafs of plants. There are three fpecies, all of them
hardy perennials; producing annual ftalks 12 or 18
inches high, adorned with many-lobed leaves, andfpikes
of quadrupetalous cruciform flowers of a red or purple
14 D 2 colour.
D E P
DEN [ 2424 1
Dentated colour. They delight in (hady places; and are propa-
Deodand Satec^ e>t^er by feeds, or parting the roots. The feeds
  1 may be fown in autumn, or early in the fpring, in a
fhady border of light earth; and when the plants are
three inches high, they may be planted where they are
to remain. The lime for parting the roots is in Odlo-
ber or November, or early in the fpring.
DENTATED leaf. See Botany, p. 1296.
DENTATUS (Curius), a renowned difinterefted
Roman general; whofe virtues render him more me¬
morable than even his great military reputation, flou-
riihed 272 years B. C. He was thrice conful; he
conquered the Samnites, Sabines, and Lucanians ; and
gave each citizen 40 acres of land, allowing himfelf
no more. The ambaffadors of the Samnites making
him a vifit, found him boiling turnips in a pipkin;
upon which, they offered him gold to come over to
their intereft ; but he told them, his defign was not
to grow rich, but to command thofe who were fo. He
defeated Pyrrhus near Tarentum, and received the ho¬
nour of a triumph.
DENTEX, in ichthyology. See Sparus,
DENTILES, or dentils, in archite&ure, an or¬
nament in corniches bearing fome refemblance to teeth,
particularly ufed in the Ionic and Corinthian orders.
See Architecture.
DENTIFRICE, in medicine, a remedy for the
teeth. There ate various kinds ; generally made of
earthy fubftances finely pounded, and mixed with alum,
or fome other faline fubftances : but thefe are perni¬
cious, on account of their wearing away the enamel
of the teeth ; but more efpecially by the feptic qua¬
lity with which thefe earthy fubftances are endowed.
On this account, a portion of Peruvian bark finely
pounded is now commonly added, which anfwers the
double purpofe of cleaning the teeth, and preferring
them afterwards from corruption.
DENT1LLARIA. See Plubmago.
DENTISCALPRA, in furgery, an inftrument for
fcouring yellow, livid, or black teeth ; to which being
applied near the gums, it fcrapes off the foul morbid
cruft.
DENTITION, the breeding or cutting the teeth
in children. See (hide* fubjoined to) Medicine.
DENUNCIATION, a folemn publication or pro¬
mulgation of any thing.
All veffels of enemies are law'ful prizes, after de¬
nunciation or proclamation of war. The defign of the
denunciation of excommunicated perfons, is that the
lenience may be the more fully executed by the per-
fon’s being more known.
Denunciation at the Horn, in Scots law. See
Law, Part III. N°clxvi. 14.
DENYS (the Little), a Scythian, became abbot
of'a monaftery at Rome: he was the firft who com¬
puted time from the birth of Dionyfius to Chrift, and
fixed that great event, according to the vulgar asra.
He was alfo a learnedcanon-law writer, anddied about
the year 540.
DEOBSTRUENTS, in pharmacy, fuch medicines
as open obftruftions. See Detergent.
DEODAND, in our cuftoms, a thing given or for¬
feited as it were to God, for the pacification of his
wrath in a cafe of mifadventure, whereby a Chriftian
foul comes to a. violent end, without the fault of any
reafonable creature. Deoiairdfci
As, if a horfe ftrike his keeper and kill him: if a !i |
man, in driving a cart, falls fo as the cart-wheel runs eprecai|»
over him, and preffes him to death : if one be felling a  IZi—L
tree, and gives warning to the ftanders-by to look to
themfelves,- yet a man is killed by the fall thereof: in
the firft |ilace, the horfe; in the fecond, the cart-wheel,
cart, and horfes ; and in the third, the tree, is Deo dan-
dus, “ to he given to God,” that is, to the king, to be di-
ftributed to the poor by his almoner, for expiation of
this dreadful event; though effefted by irrational,
nay, fenfelefs and dead creatures.
Onii ia qua movent ad mortem funt Deodanda.
What moves to death, or kills him dead,
Is Deodavd, and forfeited.
This law feemsto be an imitation of that in Exodus,,
chap. xxi. “ If an ox gore a man, or a woman, with
his horns, fo as they die; the ox ihall be ftoned'to death,
and his flefti not be eat; fo (hall his owner be inno¬
cent.”
Fleta fays, the Deodand is to be fold, and the price
diftributed to the poor, for the foul of the king, his
anceftors, and all faithful people departed this life.
DEPHLEGMATION, is an operation by which
the fuperabundant water of a body is taken from it;
and it is principally effedfted by evaporation or diftilla-
tion. Dephlegmation is alfo called concentration, par¬
ticularly when acids are the fubjedf. See Concen¬
tration.
DEPILATORY medicines, thofe applied in or¬
der to take off the hair : fuch are lime and orpiment
known to be, but which ought to be ufed with great
caution.
DEPONENT, in Latin grammar, a term applied
to verbs which have aftive fignifications, but paffive
terminations or conjugations, and want one of their
participles paffive.
Deponent, in the law of Scotland, a perfon who
makes a depofition. See Deposition.
DEPOPULATION, the aft of diminifhing the
number of people in any country, whether by war or
bad politics.
DEPORTATION, a fort of banifhment ufed by
the Romans, whereby fome ifiand or other place was
allotted to a criminal for the place of his abode, with
a prohibition not to ftir out of the fame on pain of
death.
DEPOSIT, among civilians, fomething that is com¬
mitted to the cuftody of a perfon, to be kept without
any reward, and to be returned again on demand.
DEPOSITARY, in law, a perfon intrufted as keep¬
er or guardian of a depofit.
DEPOSITATION, in Scots law. See Law,
N° clxxiii. 8.
DEPOSITION, in law, the teftimony given in
court by a witnefs upon oath.
Deposition alfo fignifies the fequeftring or depri¬
ving a man of fome dignity and office.
DEPRECATION, in rhetoric, a figure whereby
the orator invokes the aid and affiftance of fome one;
or prays for fome great evil or puniftiment to befal
him who fpeaks falfely, either himl’elf or his adverfary.
DEPRECATORY, or Deprecative, in theolo¬
gy, a term applied to.the manner of performing fome
ceremonies in the form of prayer.
The
D E P [ 2425 ] D E R
Depreffion The form of abfolutlon is deprecative in the Greek
II church, being conceived in thefe terms. May God ab-
Depmatns. y0U . whereas it is in the declarative form in the
Latin church, and in fome of the reformed churches,-
/ abfolve you.
DEPRESSION of the Pole. When a perfon fails
or travels towards the equator, he is faid to deprefs the
pole; becaufe as many degrees as he approaches nearer
the equator, fo many degrees will the pole be nearer
the horizon. This phenomenon arifes from the fphe-
rical figure of the earth.
DEPRESSOR, or Defrjmens, in anatomy, a name
applied to feveral mufcles, becaufe they deprefs the
parts they are faftened to.
DEPRIVATION, in the canon-law, the depofing
a bilhop, parfon, vicar, be. from his office and pre¬
ferment.
DEPTFORD, a town three miles eaft of London,
on the fouthern banks of the Thames; chiefly confi-
derable for its fine docks for building flu'ps, and the
king’s yard. E. Long. o. 4. N. Lat. 51. 30.
DEPTH, the meajfure of any thing from the fur-
face downwards.
Meafuring &/' D e p r h s the Barometer, depends on
the fame principles on which heights are meafured by
the fame inftrument. The menfuratipn of depths, being
chiefly applied to mines, is ftill more precarious than
the menfuration of heights, on account of the various
kinds of vapours with which thefe fubterranean regions
are filled. But for a particular account of thefe
difficulties, with the beft methods of obviating them,
fee the articles Barometer and Mines.
Depth of a Squadron, or Battalion, is the number
of men in a file ; which in a fquadron is three, and in
a battalion generally fix. See Squadron, File, foe.
We fay, the battalion was drawn up fix deep; the
enemies hopfe were drawn up five deep.
DEPURATION is the freeing of any fluid from
its heterogeneous matter or feculence. It is of three
kinds. 1. Decantation; which is performed by letting
the liquid to be depurated {land for fome time in a
pretty deep veflel, till the grofs fediment has fallen to
the bottom ; after which the clear fluid is poured off.
2. Defpumation; which is performed by means of the
whited of eggs, or other vifeid matter, and is alfo cal¬
led clarification. 3. Filtration. See Chemi¬
stry, n° 69.
DEPURATORY fever, a name given by Syden¬
ham to a fever which prevailed much in the years 1661,
1662, 1663, and 1664. He called it depuratory, be¬
caufe he fuppofed that nature regulated all the fymp-
toms in fuch a manner, as to fit the febrile matter, pre¬
pared by proper concodlion, for expulfion in a certain
time, either by a copious fweat, or a freer perfpira-
tion.
DEPUTATKDN, a miffion of feleft perfons out of
a company or body, to a prince or afleinbly, to treat
of matters in their name.
DEPUTY, a perfon lent upon fome bufinefs, by
fome community.
Deputy Is alfo one that exercifes an office in ano¬
ther’s right ; and the forfeiture or mifdemeanour of fuch
deputy (hall caufe the perfon whom he reprefents to
lofe his office.
DEPUTATUS, among the ancients, a name ap¬
plied to perfons Employed in making of armour; and Derbeml,
likewife to brilk adtive people, whofe bufinefs was to er )y'
take care of the wounded in engagements, and carry
them off the field.
DERBEND, a ftrong town of Afia, in Perfia, faid
to have been founded by Alexander the Great. The
walls are built with ftones as hard as marble; and near
it are the remains of a wall which reached from the
Cafpian to the Black fea. It is feated near the Caf-
pian fea, at the foot of Mount Caucafus. E. Long.
50. o. N. Lat. 42. 8.
DERBY, the capital of a county of the fame name
in England. It is thought to have received its name
from being formerly a park or flicker for deer ; and
what makes this fuppofition more probable is, that the
arms of the town conlift of a buck couchant in a park.
It is very ancient, having been a royal borough in the
time of Edward the Confeflbr. At prefent k is a neat
town, very populous, and fends two members to par¬
liament. In digging for foundations of houfes, hu¬
man bones of a monftrous fize have fometimes been
found. The trade confifts in wool, corn, malt, and
ale, of which confiderable quantities are fent to Lon¬
don. Here alfo is that curious machine for throwing
filk, the model of which Sir Thomas Lombe, at the
hazard of his life, brought from Italy. Before
that time, the Englifh merchants ufed to purchale
thrown filks of the Italians for ready money. But by
the help of this wonderful machine, one hand-mill will
twift as much filk as 50 people could do without it. It
works 73,726 yards of filk every time the water-wheel
goes round, which is thrice in a minute. The houfe-
in which it is contained, is five or fix itories high, and
half a quarter of a mile in length. When Sir Thomas’s
patent expired in 1732, the parliament was fo fenfible
of the value and importance of the machine, that they
ranted him a further recompence of 14,000!. for the
azard and expence he had incurred in introducing and
erecting it, upon condition he fliould allow an exa&
model of it to be taken. This model is depofited in
the Tower of London, in order to prevent fo curious
and important an art from being loft.—The town of
Derby is watered by a river and a brook; the latter
of which has nine bridges over it, the former only one.
W. Long. 1. 45. N. Lat. 52. 57.
DERBY-shire, a county of England, bounded on
the eaft by Nottingham-Ihire, and a part of Leicefter-
Ihire, which laft bounds it alfo on the fouth. Gn the
weft it is bounded by Stafford-fliire, and part of Che-
fliire ; and on the north by Yorkfhire. It is near 40
miles in length from fouth to north ; about 30 in
breadth on the north fide, but. on the fouth r^o more
than fix.—The air is pleafant and healthful, efpecially
on the eaft fide ; but on the weft, about the peak, it
is (harper and more fubjedt to wind and rain. The
foil is very different in different parts of the country.
In the eaft and fouth parts it is very fruitful in all kinds
of grain ; but, in the weft, beyond the Derwent, it is
barren and mountainous, producing nothing but a little
oats. There is, however, plenty of grafs in the val¬
leys, which affords pafture to a great number of ftieep.
This part of the county is called the Peak, from a
Saxon word' fignifying an eminence. Its mountains
are very bleak, high, and barren ; but extremely pro¬
fitable to the inhabitants. They yield great, quanti-
D E R
D E R [ 24'
Derehara. ties of the beft lead, antimony, iron, fcythe-ftones,
Jl . grind-ftones, marble, alabafter, a coarfe fort of cryllal,
ernrative. azure) ancj pit.coa]. Jn thefe mountains are two
remarkable caverns, named Poole's Hole, and Elden-
Hole; for a defcription of which, fee thefe articles.
DEREHAM, a town of Norfolk in England, fitu-
ated in E. Long. I. o. N. Lat. 52. 40. It is pretty
large, and the market is noted for woollen yarn.
DERHAM (Do&or William), a very celebrated
-Englilh philofopher and divine, born in 1657. In
1682, he was prefented to the vicarage of Wargrave
in Berklhire; and, in 1689, to the valuable reflory of
Upminfter in Effex ; which latter lying at a conveni¬
ent dillance from London, afforded him an opportu¬
nity of converfing and correfponding with the greateft
-virtuofos of the nation- Applying himfelf there with
great eagernefs to natural and experimental philofo-
phy, he foon became a diftinguifhed member of the
Royal Society, whofe Philofophical Tranfaftions con¬
tain a great variety of curious and valuable pieces, the
fruits of his laudable induttry. In his younger years
he publifhed his Artificial Clockmaker, which has been
often printed: and in 1711, 1712, and 1714, he
preached thofe fermons at Boyle’s le&ure which he
afterward digefted under the well-known titles of Phy-
Jico-Tkeology and AJiro-Pheology, and enriched with
valuable notes and copper-plates. The lall thing he
publifhed of his own compofition was Chrijlo-Tkeology,
a demonftration of the divine authority of the Chriltian
religion, being the fubftance of a fermon preached at
Bath in 1729. This great good man, after fpending
his life in the moft agreeable as well as improving ftu-
dy of nature, died at Upminfter in 1735; and, befide
many other works, left a valuable collediion of curiofi-
ties, particularly fpecimens of birds and infedts of this
ifland.—It may be neceffary juft to obferve, that Doc¬
tor Derham was very well fkilled in medical, as well
as in phyfical, knowledge ; and was conftantly a phy-
iician to the bodies as well as the fouls of his parifhio-
DERIVATION, in medicine, is when a humour
which cannot conveniently be evacuated at the part af-
fedied, is attradled from thence, and difcharged elfe-
where; thus, a blifter is applied to the neck to draw
away the humour from the eyes.
The doftrine of derivation and revulfion fo much
talked of by the ancients is, in their fenfe of thefe
terms, wholly exploded. By revulfion, they meant the
driving back of the fluids from one part to another.
The only rational meaning the word revulfion, as
here applied, can have, is, the preventing too great an
afflux of humours to any part, either by contradting
the area of the Veffels, or diminifhing the quantity of
what flows from them; the firft of thefe intentions is
anfwered by the application of repellents to the part;
the laft by bleeding, and other evacuations: thus, any
medicines promoting the fecrctions, may be faid to
make a revulfion; and in this fenfe derivation can only
be underftood.
Derivation, in grammar, the affinity one word has
with another, by having been originally formed from
it. See Derivative.
DERIVATIVE, in grammar, a word which is
derived from another called its Primitive. Thus,
vianhood is derived from man, deity from Deus, and
*6 )
lawyer from law. Dennetvjw
DERMESTES, in zoology, a genus of infe&s be- II. Jl
longing to the order of coleoptera. The antennae are ervii;|11’'
clavaied, with three of the joints thicker than the reft ;
the bread is convex ; and the head is infle&ed below
the breaft. There are thirty fpecies, diftinguifhed by
their colour, fisc.
DERNIER ressort. See Ressort.
DEROGATION, an aft contrary to a preceding
one, and which annuls, deftroys, and revokes it, either
in whole or in part.
DEROGATORY, a claufe importing derogation.
A derogatory claufe in a teftament, is a certain fen-
tence, cipher, or fecret charafter, which the tertator in-
ferts in his will, and of which he referves the know¬
ledge to himfelf alone, adding a condition, that no will
he may make hereafter is to be reckoned valid, if this
derogatory claufe is not inferted exprefsly and word
for word. It is a precaution invented by lawyers a-
gainft latter-wills extorted by violence, or obtained by
fuggeftion.
DERP, a town of Livonia, and capital of a palati¬
nate of the fame name, with a bifhop’s fee, and an uni-
verfity. It is fubjeft to the Ruffians, and lies near the
river Ambeck. E. Long. 31. 5:5. N. Lat. 30. 40.
DERV IS, a name given to all Mahommedan monks,
though of various orders. The moft noted among them
are the Bektafhi, the Mevelevi, the Kadri, and the
Seyah. The Bektafhi, who are allowed to marry and
live in cities and towns, are obliged, by the rules of
their order, to vifit remote lands, and to falute every
one they meet with gazel or love-fongs, and with efi-
ma or the invocation of the names of God, and hum¬
bly to wifh him profperity, which they do by repeat¬
ing the word eivallah, a folemn exclamation of the
wreftlers, by which the conquered yields the palm to
the conqueror. The Mevelevi, fo called from Meve-
lava their founder, are ufed to turn round for two or
three hours together, with fuch fwiftnefs, that you can¬
not fee their faces. They are great lovers of mufic : in
their monafteries they profefs great humility and pover¬
ty ; and when vifited, make no diftinftion of perfons :
they firft bring their guefts coffee to drink; and if the
ways have been dirty, they wafh their feet and fandals.
The Kadri, with a peculiar fuperftition, emaciate their
bodies; they go quite naked, except their thighs, and
often join hands and dance, fometimes a whole day,
repeating with great vehemence, hul bu! hul (one of
the names of God), till, like madmen, they fall on the
ground, foaming at the mouth, and running down with
fweat. The prime vizir Kupruli Achmed Pafha, think¬
ing this feft unbecoming the Mahommedan religion,
ordered it to. be fuppreffed; but, after his death, it re¬
vived, and is at prefent more numerous than ever, efpe-
cially at Conftantinople. The Seyah are wanderers ;
and though they have monafteries, y*t they often fpend
their whole life in travelling. When they are fent out,
their fuperiors impofe upon them fuch a quantity of
money or provifions, forbidding them to come back till
they have procured it and fent it to the monaftery ;
wherefore, when a Seyah comes into a town, he cries
aloud in the market-place, Ta allahfenden. See. 0 God!
give me, I pray, five thoufand crowns, or a thoufiand
vieafures of rice. Many of thefe dervifes travel over
the whole Mahommedan world, entertaining the people,
wherever
D E S [ 2427 I D E S
Dcfaguliers wherever they come, with agreeable relations of ali the
Defcei dant cur‘0^I,;‘es t^e7 ^ave met with. There are dervifes in
e ce“ ant Egypt, who live with their families, and exercife their
trades; of which kind are the dancing dervifes at Da-
mafcus. They are all diftinguifhed among themfelves
by the different forms and colours of their habits; tbofe
of Perfia wear blue; the folitaries and wanderers wear
only rags of different colours; others carry on their
heads a plume made of the feathers of a cock ; and
thofe of Egypt wear an oftagonal badge of a greeniih
white alabafter at their girdles, and a high ftiff cap
without any thing round it.
DESAGULIERS (John Theophilus), who intro¬
duced the pra&ice of reading public leftures in expe¬
rimental philofophy in the metropolis, and who made
; • feveraHmprovements in mechanics ; was the fon of the
reverend John Defaguliers, a French proteftant refu¬
gee, and was born at Rochelle in 1683. His father
brought him to England an infant; and at a proper
age placed him at Chrift-church college, Oxford:
where he fucceeded Doftor Keil in reading le&ures on
experimental philofophy at Hart Hall. yThe magni¬
ficent duke of Chandos made Do&or Defaguliers his
chaplain, and prefented him to the living of Edgware,
near his feat at Cannons; and he was afterward chap¬
lain to Frederic prince of Wales. He read leftures
with great fuccefs to the time of his death in 1749.
He communicated many curious papers printed in the
Philofophical Tranfa&ions; publifhed a valuable Courfe
of Experiviental Philofophy, in 2 vols 410.; and gave an
edition of Gregory's Elements of Catoptrics and Diop¬
trics, with an Appendix on reflecting telefcopes, 8vo.
He was a member of the Royal Society, and of feve-
ral foreign academies.
DESART, a large extent of country entirely bar¬
ren, and producing nothing. In this fenfe fome are
landy defarts; as thofe of Lop, Xamo, Arabia, and
feveral others in Alia ; in Africa, thofe of Libya and
Zara: others are ftony, as the defart of Pharan in A-
rabia Petrea.
The Desart, abfolutely fo called, is that part of
Arabia, fouth of the Holy Land, where the children
of Ifrael wandered forty years.
DESCANT, in mufic, the art of compofing in fe¬
veral parts. See Composition.
Defcant is three-fold, viz. plain, figurative, and
double.
Plain Descant is the ground-work and foundation
of all mufical compofitions, confifting altogether in the
orderly placing of many concords, anfwering to fimple
counterpoint. See Counterpoint.
Figurative or Florid Descant, is that part of an
air of mufie wherein fome difcords are concerned, as
well, though not fo much, as concords. This may be
termed the ornamental and rhetorical part of mufic, in
regard that there are introduced all the varieties of
points, fyncopes, diverfities of meafures, and whatever
is capable of adorning the compofition.
Descant Double, is when thepartsare fo contrived,
that the treble, or any high part, may be made the
bafs; and, on the contrary, the bafs the treble.
DESCARTES. See Cartes.
DESCENDANT. The iffue of a common parent,
in infinitum, are called his defendants. See article
Descent.
DESCENSION, in aftronomy, is either right or Defcenfion,.
oblique.   
Right Descension, is an arch of the equinoftial,
intercepted between the next equino&ial point and
the interfe&ion of the meridian, paffing through the.
centre of the objedt, at its fetting, in a right fphere.
CW/yac Descension, an arch of the equino&ial, in¬
tercepted between the next equinodlial point and the
horizon, paffing through the centre of the objedt, at its
fetting, in an oblique fphere.
DESCENT, in general, is the tendency of a body
from a higher to a lower place ; thus all bodies, unlefs
otherwife determined by a force fuperior to their gra¬
vity, defcend towards the centre of the earth. See
Gravity and Mechanics.
Descent, or Hereditary Succejfion, in law, is the
title whereby a man, on the death of his anceftor, ac¬
quires his eftate by right of reprefentation, as his heir
at law. An heir therefore is he upon whom the law
cafts the eftate, immediately on the death of the an¬
ceftor: and an eftate fo defending to the heir, is in
law called the inheritance.
Defcent is either lineal or collateral. The former is
that conveyed down in a right line from the grandfather
to the father, and from the father to the fon, and from
the fon to the grandfon. The latter is that fpringing
out of the fide of the line or blood ;, as from a man to
his brother, nephew, or the like.
The dodfrine of defents, or law of inheritances in
fee-fimple, is a point of the higheft importance. (See
the article Fee.) All the rules relating to purchafes,
whereby the legal courfe of defcents is broken and al¬
tered, perpetually refer to this fettled law of inheritance,
as a datum or firft principle univerfally known, and
upon which their fubfequent limitations are to work.
Thus a gift in tail, or to a man and the heirs of his
body, is a limitation that cannot be perfedlly under-
ftood, without a previous knowledge of the law of de¬
fcents in fee-fimple. One may well perceive, that this
is an eftate confined in its defcent to fuch heirs only of
the donee, as have fprung or ftiall fpring from his bo¬
dy : but who thofe heirs are, whether all his children
both male and female, or the male only, and (among
the males) whether the eldeft, youngeft, or other fon
alone, or all the fons together, ftiall be his heir ; this is a
point, that we muft refult back to the Handing law of
defcents in fee-fimple to be informed of.
And, as this depends not a little on the nature of
kindred, and the feveral degrees of confanguinity, it
will be neceffary to refer the reader to the article Gon-
sangutnity, where the true notion of this kindred or
alliance ii> blood is particularly ftated.
We (hall here exhibit a feries of rules or canons of
inheritance, with illuftrations, according to which, by
the law of England, eftates are tranfmitted from the
anceftor to the heir.
1. “ Inheritances Ihall lineally defcend to the iffue
“ of the perfon lalt a&ually feifed, in infinitum; but
“ (hall never lineally afcend.”
To underftand both this and the fubfequent rules, it
muft be obferved, that by law no inheritance can veil,
nor can any perfon be the adtual complete heir of ano¬
ther, till the anceftor is previoudy dead. Nemo eft ha¬
res viventis. Before that time, the perfon who is next
in the line of. fucceffion is called an heir apparent, or
heir
liefcent.
Bhckft.
Comment.
B E S [ 2428 ] D E S
heir prefumptive. Heirs apparent are fuch, whofe right
of inheritance is indefeafible, provided they outlive the
anceftor; as the eldeft Ton or his iflue, who muft, by
the courfe of the common law, be heirs to the father
whenever he happens to die. Heirs prefumptive are
fuch, who, if the anceftor (hould die immediately, would
in the prefent circumftances of things be his heirs ; but
whofe right of inheritance may be defeated by the con¬
tingency of fome nearer heir being born : as a brother
or nephew, whofe prefumptive fucceffion may be de-
ftroyed by the birth of a child: or a daughter, whofe
prefent hopes may be hereafter cut off by the birth of a
ion. Nay, even if the eftate hath defeended, by the
death of the owner, to fuch a brother, or nephew, or
daughter; in the former cafes, the eftate (hall be de-
vefted and taken away by the birth of a pofthumous
child; and, in the latter, it (hall alfo be totally devefted
by the birth of a pefthumous fon.
We muft alfo remember, that no perfon can be pro¬
perly fuch an, anceftor, as that an inheritance in lands
or tenements can be derived from him, unlefs he hath
had adlual feifin of fuch lands, either by his own
entry, or by the pofleffion of his own or his anceftor’s
leflee for years, or by receiving rent from a leflee of
the freehold : or unlefs he hath what is equivalent to
corporal feifin in hereditaments that are incorporeal ;
fuch as the receipt of rent, a prefentation to the church
in cafe of an advowfon, and the like. But he (hall not
be accounted an anceftor, who hath had only a bare
right or title to enter or be otherwife feifed. And
therefore all the cafes, which will be mentioned in the
prefent article, are upon the fuppofition that the de-
ceafed (whofe inheritance is now claimed) was the laft
perfon actually feifed thereof. For the law requires
this notoriety of polfeffion, as evidence that the ance¬
ftor-had that property in himfelf, which is now to be
tranfmitted to his heir. Which notoriety hath fucceed-
ed in the place of the ancient feodal inveftiture, where¬
by, while feuds were precarious, the vaffal on the de-
feent of lands was formerly admitted in the lord’s court
(as is dill the praftice in Scotland); and therefore re¬
ceived his feifin, in the nature of a renewal of his an-
ceftors grant, in the prefence of the feodal peers : till
at length, when the right of fucceflion became indefea¬
fible, an entry on any part of the lands within the
county (which if difputed was afterwards to be tried
by thofe peers) or other notorious poffelfion, was ad¬
mitted as equivalent to the formal grant of feifin, and
made the tenant capable of tranfmitting his eftate by
defeent The feifin therefore of any perfon, thus un¬
der ftood, makes him the root or dock from which all
future inheritance by right of blood muft be derived:
which is very briefly expreffed in this mz.\\m.,fcifmafa-
cit JlipiteiH.
When therefore a perfon dies fo feifed, the inheri¬
tance firft goes to his iflue: as if there be Geoffrey,
John, and Mathew, grandfather, father, and fon; and
John purchafes land, and dies; his fon Matthew (hall
fucceed him as heir, and not the grandfather Geoffrey;
to whom the land (hall never afeend, but (hall rather
efeheat to the lord.
2. “ The male iffue (hall be admitted before the fe-
“ male.”—Thus fons (hall be admitted before daugh¬
ters; or, as our male lawgivers have fomewhat un-
complaifhntly expreffed it, the worthieft of blood (hall
be preferred. As if John Stiles hath two fons, Mat¬
thew and Gilbert, and two daughters, Margaret and
Charlotte, and dies; firft Matthew, and (in cafe of
his death without iffue) then Gilbert, (hall be admit¬
ted to the fucceflion in preference to both the daugh¬
ters.
3. “ Where there are two or more inales in equal de-
“ gree, the eldeft only (hall inherit; but the females all
“ together.”—As if a man hath two fons, Matthew and
Gilbert, and two daughters, Margaret and Charlotte,
and dies; Matthew his eldeft: fon (hall alone fucceed
to his eftate, inexclufion of Gilbert thefecondfon and
both the daughters; but, if both the fons die with¬
out iffue before the father, the daughters Margaret
and Charlotte (hall both inherit the eftate as copar¬
ceners.
4. “ The lineal defeendants, in infinitum, of any per-
“ fon deceafed, (hall reprefent their anceftor; that is,
“ (hall (land in the fame place as the perfon himfelf
“ would have done, had he been living.”—Thus the
child, grandchild, or great-grandchild (either male or
female) of the eldeft fon, fucceeds before the younger
fon, and fo in infinitum. And thefe reprefentatives
(hall take neither more nor lefs, but juft fo much as
their principals would have done. As if there be two
fillers, Margaret and Charlotte ; and Margaret dies,
leaving fix daughters; and then John Stiles the fa¬
ther of the two fillers dies, without other iffue:
thefe fix daughters (hall take among them exa£lly the
fame as their mother Margaret would have done,
had (he been living ; that is, a moiety of the lands of
John Stiles in coparcenary: fo that, upon partition
made, if the land be divided into twelve parts, there¬
of Charlotte the furviving fifter (hall have fix, and her
fix nieces, the daughters of Margaret, one a-piece.
5. “ On failure of lineal defeendants, or iffue, of the
“ ptrfon laft feifed, the inheritance (hall defeend to the
“ blood of the firft purchafer; fubjefil to the three pre-
“ ceding rules.”—Thus, if Geoffrey Stiles purchafes
land, and it defeends to John Stiles his fon, and John
dies feifed thereof without iffue ; whoever fucceeds to
this inheritance muft be of the blood of Geoffrey the
firft purchafer of this family. The firft purchafer,/ter-
quifitor, is he who firft acquired the eftate to his fami¬
ly, whether the fame was transferred to him by fale,
or by gift, or by any other method, except only that
of defeent.
6. “ The collateral heir of the perfon laft feifed, muft
“ be his next collateral kinfman, of the whole blood.^
Firft, he muft be his next collateral kinfman, either
perfonally or jure reprefentationis ; which proximity is
reckoned according to the canonical degrees of con-
fanguinity: See Consanguinity. Therefore, the
brother being in the firft degree, he and his defeen¬
dants (hall exclude the uncle and his iffue, who is on¬
ly in the fecond.—Thus if John Stiles dies without
iffue, his eftate (hall defeend to Francis his brother,
who is lineally defeended from GeoffreyLStiles his next
immediate anceftor, or father. On failure of bre¬
thren, or filters, and their iffue, it (hall defeend to
the uncle of John Stiles, the lineal defendant of his
grandfather George, and fo on in infinitum.
But, fecondly, the heir need not be the neared kinf¬
man abfolutely, but only fub modo ; that is, he muft
be the neareft kinfman of the ’whole blood : for if there
be
D E S
D E S [ 2429 ]
Defcent. be a much nearer kinfman of the half b\oo&t a diftant
kinfman of the whole blood (hall be admitted, and the
other entirely excluded.—A kinfman of the whole blood
is he that is derived, not only from the fame anceftor,
but from the fame couple of anceftors. For, as every
man’s own blood is compounded of the bloods of his
refpeftive anceftors, he only is properly of the whole
or entire blood with another, who hath (fo far as the
diftance of. degrees will permit) all the fame ingredients
in the compofnion of his blood that the other hath.
Thus, the blood of John Stiles being compofed of thofe
of Geoffrey Stiles his father and Lucy Baker his mo¬
ther, therefore his brother Francis, being defcended
from both the fame parents, hath entirely the fame
blood with John Stiles; or he is his brother of the
whole blood. But if, after the death of Geoffrey, Lu¬
cy Baker the mother marries a fecond hufband, Lewis
Gay, and hath ifl'ue by him ; the blood of this iflue,
being compounded of the blood of Lucy Baker (it is
true) on the one part, but that of Lewis Gay (inllead
of Geoffrey Stiles) on the other part, it hath therefore
only half the fame ingredients with that of John Stiles ;
fo that he is only his brother of the half blood, and for
that reafon they fhall never inherit to each other. So
alfo, if the father has two fons, A and B, by diffe¬
rent venters or wives ; now thefetwo brethren are not
brethren of the whole blood, and therefore fhall never
inherit to each other, but the eftate {hall rather efcheat
to the lord.. Nay, even if the father dies, and his
lands defcend to his eldeft fon A, who enters thereon,
and dies feifed without iffue; ftill B fhall not be heir
to this eftate, becaufe he is only of the half blood to
A, the perfon laft feifed : but, had A died without
entry, then B might have inherited ; not as heir to A
his half-brother, but as heir to their common father,
who was the perfon latt actually feifed.
The rule then, together with its illuftration, a-
mounts to this, That, in order to keep the eftate of
John Stiles as nearly as poffible in the line of his pur-
chafing anceftor, it muft defcend to the iffue of the
neareft couple of anceftors that have left defcendants
behind them ; becaufe the defcendants of one anceftor
only are not fo likely to be in the line of that pur-
chafing anceftor, as thofe who are defcended from two.
But here a difficulty arifes. In the fecond, third,
fourth, and every fuperior degree, every man has ma¬
ny couples of anceftors, increaling according to the di-
ftances in a geometrical progreffion upwards, the de¬
fendants of all which refpeftive couples are (re-
prefentatively) related to him in the fame degree.
Thus, in the fecond degree, the iffue of George
and Cecilia Stiles and of Andrew and Efther Ba¬
ker, the two grandfires and grandmothers of John
Stiles, are each in the fame degree of propinquity ; in
the third degree, the refpeftive iffues of Walter and
Chriftian Stiles, of Luke and Francis Kempe, of Her¬
bert and Hannah Baker, and of James and Emma
Thorpe, are (upon the extinftion of the two inferior
degrees) all equally entitled to call themfelves the next
kindred of the whole blood to John Stiles. To which
therefore of thefe anceftors muft we firft refort, in order
to find out defcendants to be preferably called to the in¬
heritance ? In anfwer to this, and to avoid the confu-
fion and uncertainty that might arife between the feve-
ral flocks wherein the purchafing anceftor may be
Von. IV.
fought for,'   Defcent.
7. The feventh and laft rule or canon is, “ that
“ in collateral inheritances the male flocks {hall be
“ preferred to the female ; (that isr kindred derived
“ from the blood of the male anceftors {hall be admit-
“ ted before thofe from the blood of the female)—un-
“ lefs where the lands have, in fa&, defcended from a
“ female.,,—Thus the relations on the father’s fide are
admitted /» infinitum, before thofe on the mother’s fide
are admitted at all; and the relations of the father’s fa¬
ther, before thofe of the father’s mother; and fo on.
For the original and progrefs of the above canons,
the reafons upon which they are founded, and their a-
greement with the laws of other nations, the curious
reader may con full Blackfiune's Commentaries, Vol. II.
p. 208—237.
We Ihall conclude with exemplifying the rules them¬
felves by a ftior.t {ketch of the manner in which we muft
fearch for the heir of a perfon, as John Stiles, who
dies feifed of land which he acquired, and which there¬
fore he held as a feud of indefinite antiquity. See the
Table ^/Descents, on Plate LXXXVIII.
In the firft place fucceeds the eldeft fon, Matthew
Stiles, or his iffue, (n° 1.):—if his line be ^extindl,
then Gilbert Stiles and the other fons, refpe&ively, in
order of birth, or their iffue, (n° 2.) :—in default of
thefe, all the daughters together, Margaret and Char¬
lotte Stiles, or their iffue, (n° 3.)^—On failure of the
defcendants of John Stiles himfelf, the iffue of Geof¬
frey and Lucy Stiles, his parents, is called in : viz,
firft, Francis Stiles, the eldeft brother of the whole
blood, or his iffue, (n° 4.):—then Oliver Stiles, and the
other whole brothers, refpe&ively, in order of birth,
or their iffue, (n° 5.):—then the lifters of the whole
blood all together, Bridget and Alice Stiles, or their
iffue, (n° 6.)—In defeA of thefe, the iffue of George
and Cecilia Stiles, his father’s parents ; refpeft being
ftill had to their age and fex; (n° 7.):—then the iffue
of Walter and Chriftian Stiles, the parents of his pa¬
ternal grandfather, (n° 8.):—then the iffue of Richard
and Anne Stiles, the parents of his paternal grandfa¬
ther’s father, (n° 9.):—and fo on in the paternal grand¬
father’s paternal line, or blood of Walter Stiles, in infi~
nitum. In deleft of thefe, the iffue of William and Jane
Smith, the parents of his paternal grandfather’s mother,
(n° 10.):—and fo on in the paternal grandfather’s ma¬
ternal line, or blood of Chriftian Smith, in infinitum ;
till both the immediate bloods of George Stiles, the pa¬
ternal grandfather, are fpent.—Then we muft refort to
the iffue of Luke and Frances Kempe, the parents of
John Stiles’s paternal grandmother, (n° 11.):—then
to the iffue of Thomas and Sarah Kempe, the parents
of his paternal grandmother’s father, (n° 12.) ;—and
fo on in the paternal grandmother’s paternal line, or
blood of Luke Kempe, in infinitum.—In default of
which, we muft. call in the iffue of Charles and Mary
Holland, the parents of his paternal grandmother’s
mother, (n° 13.):—and fo on in the paternal grand¬
mother’s maternal line, or blood of Frances Holland,
in infinitum; till both the immediate bloods of Cecilia
Kempe, the paternal grandmother, are alfo fpent.—
Whereby the paternal blood of John Stiles entirely-
failing, recourfe muft then, and not before, be had to
his maternal relations; or the blood of the Bakers
(n° 14, 15, 16.), Willis’s (n® 17.), Thorpes (n°i8,
Defcent
Defidera-
D E S [ 2430 ] D E S
I9.)> and Whites (n0 20.); in the fame regular fuc-
ceffive order as in the paternal line.
The ftudent fhould bear in mind, that during this
. whole procefs, John Styles is the perfon fuppofed to
have been lall actually feifed of the eftate. For if ever
it comes to veil in any other perfon, as heir to John
, Stiles, a new order of fucceflion muft be obferved up¬
on the deathof fuch heir ; fince he, by his own feifin,
now becomes himfelf an anceftor, or Jlipes, and muft
be put in the place of John Stiles. The figures there¬
fore denote the order in which the feveral claffes would
fucceed to John Stiles, and not to each other: and be¬
fore we fearch for an heir in any of the higher figures,
(as n° 8.) we muft be firft affured that all the lower
claffes (from n° 1 to 7.) were extinct, at John Stiles’s
deceafe.
Descent, or Succeffion, in the law of Scotland. See
Law, Part III. N° clxxx. clxxxi.
Descent of the Crown. See Succession.
Descent of Dignities. A dignity differs from com¬
mon inheritances, and goes not according to the rules
of the common law: for it defcends to the half-blood;
and there is no coparcenerfhip in it, but the eldeft takes
the whole. The dignity of peerage is perfonal, an¬
nexed to the blood; and fo infeparable, that it cannot
be transferred to any perfon, or furrendered even to the
Crolvn : it can move neither forward nor backward,
but only downward to pofterity ; and nothing but cor¬
ruption of blood, as if the anceftor be attainted of trea-
fon or felony, can hinder the defcent to the right heir.
Descent, in genealogy, the order or fucceflion of
defcendants in a line or family ; or their diftance from
a common progenitor : thus we fay, one defcent,. two
defcents, &c.
Descent, in heraldry, is ufed to exprefs the coming
down of any thing from above ; as, a lion en defcent is
a lion with his head towards the bafe points, and his
heels towards one of the corners of the chief, as if he
were leaping down from fome high place.
DESCHAMPS (Francis), a French poet,born in
Champagne, was the author of a tragedy intitled Cato
of Utica, and a hiftory of the French theatre. He
died at Paris in 1747.
DESCRIPTION, in literary compofition, is fuch
a ftrong and beautiful reprefentation of a thing, as
gives the reader a diftinft view and fatisfadtory notion
of it. See Narration and Defcripti&n.
DESCRIPTIVE poetry. See Poetry, n° 82.
DESEADA, or Desiderada, one of the Carib-
bee iflands, fubjeft to France, lying eaftward of Gua-
daloupe.
DESERTER, in a military fefife, a foldier who,
by running away from his regiment or company, a-
bandons the fervice.
A deferter is, by the articles of war, punifhable by
death ; which, after conviction, is executed upon him
at the head of the regiment he formerly belonged to,
with his crime writ on his breaft.
DESERTION, inlaw. See Law, N° clx. 24.
DESHACHE', in heraldry, is where a beaft has
its limbs feparated from its body, fo that they ftill re¬
main on the efcutcheon, with only a fmall feparation
from their natural places.
DESIDERATUM, is ufed to fignify the definable
perfections in any art or fcience: thus, it is a defide-
ratum with the blackfmith, to render iron fufibleby a
gentle heat, and yet preferve it hard enough for ordi¬
nary ufes ; with the glafsman, and looking-glafs ma¬
ker, to render glafs malleable ; with the clock-maker, _
to bring pendulums to be ufeful where there are irre¬
gular motions, &c.
DESIGN, in a general fenfe, the plan, order, re¬
prefentation, or conftru&ion of a building, book, paint¬
ing, &c. See Architecture, Painting, Poetry,
Oratory, and History.
Design, in the manufadlories, expreffes the figures
wherewith the workman enriches his ftuff, or filk, and
which he copies after fome painter, or eminent draughtf-
man, as in diaper, damalk, and other flowered filk and
tapeftry, and the like.
In undertaking of fuch kinds of figured fluffs,’ it is
neceffary, fays Monf. Savary, that, before the firft
ftroke of the (buttle, the whole defign be reprefented
on the threads of the warp, we do not mean in1 co¬
lours, but with an infinite number of little packthreads,
which, being difpofed fo as to raife the threads of the
warp, let the workmen fee, from time to time, what
kind of filk is to be put in the eye of the fhuttle for
woof. This method of preparing the work is called
reading the defign, and reading the figure, which is per¬
formed in the following, manner : A paper is provided,
confiderably broader than the ftuff, and of a length
proportionate to what is intended to be reprefented
thereon. This they divide lengthwife, by as many black
lines as there are intended threads in the warp ; and
crofs thefe lines, by others drawn breadthwife, which,
with the former, make little equal fquares : on the pa¬
per thus fquared, the draughtfman defigns his figures,
and heightens them with colours as he fees fit. When
the defign is finifhed, a workman reads it, while ano¬
ther lays it on the fimblot.
To read the defign, is to tell the perfon who mana¬
ges the loom, the number of fquares, or threads, com-
prifed in the fpace he is reading, intimating at the
fame time, whether it is ground or figure. To put what
is read on the fimblot, is to faften little firings to the
feveral packthreads, which are to raife the threads
named; and thus they continue to do till the whole de¬
fign is read.
Every pieoe being compofed of feveral repetitions of
the fame defign, when the whole defign is drawn, the
drawer, to re-begin the defign afrefti, has nothingTo do
but to raife the little firings, with flip-knots, to the
top of the fimblot, which he had let down to the bot¬
tom : this he is to repeat as often as is neceffary till the
whole be manufactured.
The ribbon-weavers have likevvife a defign, but far
more Ample than that now defcribed. It is drawn on
paper with lines and fquares, reprefenting the threads
of the warp and woof. But inftead of lines, whereof
the figures of the former conlift, thefe are conftituted
of points only, or dots, placed in certain of the little
fquares, formed by the interfeClion of the lines. Thefe
points mark the threads of the warp that are to be rai-
fed, and the fpaces left blank denote the threads that
are to keep their fituation : the reft is managed as in
the former.
Design is alfo ufed, in painting, for the firft idea
of a large work, drawn roughly, and in little, with an
intention to be executed and finiihed in large.
In
Defign,
D E S [ 2431 ] D E S
irefigrt - In this fenfe, it is the fimple contour, or out-
I! lines, of the figures intended to be reprefented, or the
 p ' lines that terminate and circumfcribe them : fuch de-
lign is fometimes drawn in crayons, or ink, without
any fhadows at all; fometimes it is hatched, that is,
the fhadows are expreffed by fenfible outlines, ufually
drawn acrofs each other with the pen, crayon, or gra¬
ver. Sometimes, again, the fhadows are done with
the crayon rubbed fo as that there do not appear any
lines: at other times, the grains or ftrokes of the
crayon appear, as not being rubbed : fometimes the
defign is wafired, that is, the firadows are done with
a pencil in Indian ink, or fome other liquor ; and fome¬
times the defign is coloured, that is, colours are laid
on much like thofe intended for the grand work.
Design, in mufic, is juftly defined byRouffeau to be
the invention and the conduft of the fubjeft, the difpo-
fition of every part, and the general order of the whole.
It is not fufficient to form beautiful airs, and a le¬
gitimate harmony; all thefe muft be connefted by a
principal fiibjed, to which all, the parts of the work
relate, and by which they became one. Thus unity
ought to prevail in the air, in the movement, in the
character, in the harmony, and in the modulation. All
thefe muft indifpenfably relate to one common idea
which unites them. The greateft difficulty is, to re¬
concile the obfervation of thofe precepts with an ele¬
gant variety, which, if not introduced, renders the
whole piece irkfome and monotonic. Without quef-
tion the mufician, as well as the poet, and the painter,
may rifk every thing in favour of this delightful va¬
riety; if, under the pretext of contrafting, they do not
endeavour to cheat us with falfe appearances, and in-
ftead of pieces juftly and happily planned, prefent us
with a mufical minced-meat, compofed of little abor¬
tive fragments, and of characters fo incompatible, that
the whole aflembled forms a heterogeneous monfter.
Non ut placidis coeant immitia, non ut
Serpcntis avibui gcminentur, iigribui agni.
Tranflated thus:
But not that nature (houldrevers’d appear;
Mix mild with fierce, and gentle with fevere;
Profane her laws to contradiftion’s height;
Tygers with lambs, with ferpents birds unite.
It is therefore in a diftribution formed with intel¬
ligence and tafte, in a juft proportion between all the
parts, that the perfe&ion of defign confifts ; and it is
above all, in this point, that the immortal pergolefohas
fhown his judgment and his tafte, and has left fo far
behind him all his competitors. His Stabat Mater, his
Orfeo, his Serva Padrona, are, in three different fpecies of
compofition,threemafter piecesofr/e/zg^equally perfeCt.
This idea of the general defign of a work, is likewife
particularly applicable to every piece of which it con¬
fifts ; thus the compofer plans an air, a duett,-a cho¬
rus, &c. For this purpofe, after having invented his
fubjeft, he diftributes it, according to the rules of a
legitimate modulation, into all the parts where it ought
to be perceived, in fuch a proportion, that its impref-
fion may not be loft on the minds of the audience ; yet
that it may never be reiterated in their ears, without
the graces of novelty. The compofer errs in defigning
who fuffershis fubjeft to be forgot; he is ftill more cul¬
pable who purfues it till it becomes trite and tirefome.
DESPORTES (Francis), a French painter of the
18th century, was born in Champagne, in 1661 He Defpot
acquired great reputation, not only in France, but in II
England and Poland: he particularly excelled in ftill "
life. He was received into the academy of painting,  1_
made piftures for the tapeftry of the Gobelins, and
died at Paris in 1743.
DESPOT, a term fometimes ufed for an abfolute
prince. See the next article.
Under the emperors of Conftantinople, defpot was
a title of honour given to the emperor’s fons, or lons-
in-law ; as alfo to their colleagues and partners in the
imperial dignity, in the fame manner as Caefar was at
Rome. See C^sar.
DESPOTICAL, in general, denotes any thing
that is uncontrolled and abfolute ; but is particularly
ufed for an arbitrary government, where the power of
the prince is unlimited, and hi* will a law to his fub-
je&s : fuch are thofe of Turky, Perfia, and moft of
the eaftern governments ; and even thofe of Europe,
if we except the republics, our own, and the Swedifti
government.
DESPOUILLE', in heraldry, the whole cafe, /kin,
or flough of a beaft, with the head, feet, tail, and all
appurtenances, fo that being filled and fluffed it looks
like the entire creature.
DESSAW, a city of upper Saxony, in Germany,
fituated on the river Elbe, 60 miles north-weft of Dref-
den, and fubjett to the prince of Anhalt Deffaw : E.
Long. 12. 40. N. Lat. 51. 50.
DESSERT, or Desert, a fervice of fruits and
fweetmeats, ufually ferved up laft to table.
DESSICCAT1VE, orDEsiccAxivE, in pharmacy,
an epithet applied to fuch topical medicines as dry up
the humours flowing to a wound or ulcer.
DESTINIES, in mythology. See Parcje.
DESTINY, among philofophers and divines. See
Fate.
DESTRUCTION, in general, an alteration of any
thing from its natural ftate to one contrary to nature j
whereby it is deemed the fame with Corruption.
A chemical deftrudlion, or corruption, is nothing
but a refolution of the whole naturally mixt body into
its parts.
DESUDATION, in medicine, a'profufe and inor¬
dinate fweat, fucceeded by an eruption of puftules,
called fudamina, or beat-pimpler.
DESULTOR, in antiquity, a vaulter or leaper,
who, leading one horfe by the bridle, and riding ano¬
ther, jumped from the back of one to the other, as the
cuftom was after they had run feveral courfes or heats.
—This praftice required great dexterity, being per¬
formed before the ufe of either fadles or ftirrups.
The cuftom was pradlifed in the army when neceffity
required it; but chiefly amongft the Numidians, who
always carried with them two horfes at leaft for that
purpofe, changing them as they tired. The Greeks
and Romans borrowed the pradtice from them ; but
only ufed it at races, games, &c. The Sarmatas were
great mafters of this exercife, and the Huffars haVe
/till fome fmall remains of it.
DETACHMENT, in military affairs, a ‘certain
number of foldiers drawn out from feveral regiments or
companies equally, to be employed as the general thinks
proper, whether on an attack, at a fiege, or in parties
to fcower the country.
14 E 2
DETER-
Detergents
II
Deucalion.
D E U [ 2432 ] DEV
DETERGENTS, in pharmacy, fuch medicines as
are not only foftening and adhefive, but alfo, by a pe¬
culiar aftivity, conjoined with a fuitable configuration
of parts, are apt to abrade and carry along with them
fuch particles as they lay hold on in their paffage-
DETERIORATION, the impairingor rendering a
thing worfe: it is juft the reverie of Melioration.
DETERMINATION, in mechanics, fignifies much
the fame with the tendency or direction of a body in
motion. See Mechanics.
Determination, among fchool-divines, is an a<5t of
divine power, limiting the agency of fecond caufes, in
every inftance, to what the Deity predeftinated con¬
cerning them. See Predestination.
DETERSIVES, the fame with Detergents.
DETINUE, in law, a writ or a&ion that lies againft
one who has got goods or other things delivered to him
to keep, and afterwards refufes to deliver them.—In
this aftion, the thing detained is generally to be re¬
covered, and not damages; but if one cannot recover
the thing itfelf, he fiiall recover damages for the thing,
and alfo for the detainer. Detinue lies for any thing
certain and valuable, wherein one may have a property
or right; as for a horfe, cow, (heep, hens, dogs, jew¬
els, plate, cloth, bags of money, facks of corn, &c. It
muft be laid fo certain, that the thing detained may be
known and recovered: and therefore, for money out of
a bag, or corn out of a fack, &c. it lies not; for the
money or corn cannot in this cafe be known from other
money or corn ; fo that the party muft have an action
on the cafe, &c. Yet detinue may be brought for
a piece of gold of the price of 22 Ih. though not for
22 fti. in money.
DETONATION, in chemiftry, fignifies an explo-
fion with noife made by the fudden inflammation of
fome combuftible body : Such are the explofions of
gun-powder, fulminating gold, and fulminating powder.
As nitre is the caufe of moft explofions, the word de¬
tonation has been appropriated to the inflammation of
the acid of this fait with bodies containing phlogifton;
and it is frequently given to thofe inflammations of
nitrous acid which are not accompanied with explofion.
Thus nitre is faid to detonate with fulphur, with coals,
with metals; although in the ordinary method of ma¬
king thefe operations, that is, in open crucibles, and
with fmall quantities of detonating fubftances, the nitre
does not truly explode. See Nitre.
DETRANCHE, in heraldry, a line bend-wife,
proceeding always from the dexter-fide, but not from
the very angle diagonally athwart the ftiield.
DETT1NGEN, a village of Germany, in the circle
of the Upper Rhine, and in the territory of Hanau.
Here the Auftrians and the Britilh, in June 1743,
were attacked by the French, who met with a repulfe;
but as the_ allies were inferior in number, they did not
make the advantage of it they might have done. E.
Dong. 8. 45. N. Lat. 50. 8.
DEUCALION, king of Theflaly. The flood faid
to have happened in his time, (1500 B. C.), was no
more than an inundation of Theflaly, occaiioned by
heavy rains, and an earthquake that flopped the courfe
of the river Peneus where it ufually difeharged itfelf
into the fea. On thefe circumftances the fable of
Deucalion’s flood is founded.—According to the fable,
he was the fon of Prometheus. He governed his peo¬
ple with equity ; but the reft of mankind being ex¬
tremely wicked, were deftroyed by a flood, while Deu¬
calion and Pyrrha his queen faved themfelves by a-
feending mount Parnaffus. When the waters were
decreafed, they went and confulted the oracle of The¬
mis, on the means by which the earth was to be re¬
peopled ; when they were ordered to veil their heads
and faces, to unloofe their girdles, and throw behind
their backs the bones of their great mother. At this
advice Pyrrha was feized with horror: but Deucalion
explained the myftery, by obferving, that their great
mother muft mean the earth, and her bones the ftones;
when taking them up, thofe Deucalion threw over his
head became men, and thofe thrown by Pyrrha, wo¬
men.
“T
Dcvereux.
DEVENSHRING. See Devonsheering.
DEVENTER, a large, ftrong, trading, and popu¬
lous town of the United Provinces, in Overyflel, with
an univerfity. It is furrounded with ftrong walls,
flanked with feveral towers, and with ditches full of
water. It is feated on the river Ifiel, 55 miles eaft of
A.mfterdam, and 42 weft of Benthem. E. Long. 5. 8.
N. Lat. 52. 18.
DEVEREUX (Robert), earl of Effex, the fon of
Walter Devereux, vifeount Hereford, was born at Ne-
therwood in Herefordftiire, in the ye^r 15&7. He
fucceeded to the title of earl of Effex at ten years of
age ; and about two years after, was fent, by his guar¬
dian lord Burleigh, to Trinity-college in Cambridge.
He took the degree of mafter of arts in 1582, and loon
after retired to his feat at Lamplie in South-Wales.
He did not however continue long in this retreat; for
we find him, in his feventeenth year, at the court of
queen Elizabeth, whq immediately honoured him with
Angular marks of her favour. Authors feem very un-
neceffarily perplexed to account for this young earl’s
gracious reception at the court of Elizabeth. The.
reafons are obvious.: he was her relation, the fon of one
of her moft faithful fervants, the fon-in-law of her fa¬
vourite Leicefter, and a very handfome and accom*-
plilhed youth. Towards the end of (the following
year) 1585, he attended the earl of Leicefter to Hol¬
land; and gave fignal proofs of his perfonal courage
during the campaign of 1586, particularly at the battle
of Zutphen, where the gallant Sidney was mortally
wounded. On this occafion the earl of Leicefter con¬
ferred on him the honour of knight banneret.
In the year 1587, Leicefter being appointed lord
fteward of the houfehold, Effex fucceeded him in the
honourable poll of mafter of the horfe; and the year
following, when the queen affembled an army at Til¬
bury to oppofe the Spanifh invafion, Effex was made
general of the horfe, and knight of the garter. From
this time he was confidered as the happy favourite of
the queen. And, if there was any mark yet wanting
to fix the people’s opinion in that refpetft, it was Ihewn
by the queen’s conferring on him the honour of the
garter.
We need not wonder, that fo quick an elevation, and
to fo great a height, fhould affe& fo young a man as
the earl of Effex; who ftiewed from henceforwards a
very high fpirit, and often behaved petulantly enough
to the queen herfelf, who yet did not love to be con¬
trolled by her fubjefts. His eagernefs about this time
to difpute her favour with Sir Charles Blunt, afterwards
DEV [ 2433 ] DEV
Devereux. lord Montjoy and earl of Devonfhlre, coft him feme
—   blood ; for Sir Charles, thinking himfelf alfronted by
the earl, challenged him, and, after a (hort difpute,
wounded him in the knee. The queen, fo far from
being difpleafed with it, is faid to have fworn a good
round oath, that it was fit fomebody fhould take him
down, otherwife there would be no ruling him. How¬
ever, (he reconciled the rivals; who, to their honour,
continued good friends as long as they lived.
The gallant Effex however was not fo entirely cap¬
tivated with his fituation, as to become infenfible to the
allurements of military glory. In 1589, Sir John
Norris and Sir Francis Drake having failed on an ex¬
pedition againft Spain, our young favourite, without
the permiffion or knowledge of his royal miftrefs, fol¬
lowed the fleet; which he joined as they were failing
towards Lifbon, and a£ed with great refolution in the
repulfe of the Spanifh garrifon of that city. The queen
wrote him a very fevere letter on the occafion ; but (he
was, after his return, foon appeafed. Yet it was not
long before he again incurred her difpleafure, by mar¬
rying the widow of Sir Philip Sidney. In 1591, he
was fent to France with the command of 4000 men
to the affiftance of Henry IV. In 1596, he was joined
with the lord high admiral Howard in the command
of the famous expedition againft Cadiz, the fuccefs of
which is univerfally known. In 1597, he was ap¬
pointed mafter of the ordnance ; and the fame year
commanded another expedition againft Spain, called
the IJland voyage, the particulars of which are alfo well
known.
Soon after hi^ return, he was created earl marfhal of
England; and on the death of the great lord Burleigh,
in 1598, ele&ed chancellor of the univerfity of Cam¬
bridge. This is reckoned one of the laft inftances of
this great man’s felicity, who w'as now advanced too
high to fit at eafe ; and thofe who longed for his ho¬
nours and employments, very clofely applied them-
felves to bring about his fall. The firft great (hock he
received, in regard to the queen’s favour, arofe from a
warm difpute between her majefty and himfelf, about
the choice of fome fit and able perfon to fuperintend
the affairs of Ireland. The affair is related by Cam¬
den ; who tells us, that nobody was prefent but the
lord admiral, Sir Robert Cecil fecretary, and Winde-
bank clerk of the feah The queen looked upon Sir
William Knolls, uncle to Effex, as the moft proper
perfon for that charge : Effex contended, that Sir
George Carew was a much fitter man for it. When
the queen could not be perfuaded to approve his choice,
he fo far forgot himfelf and his duty, as to turn his
back upon her in a contemptuous manner; which in-
folence her majefty not being able to bear, gave him a
box on the ear, and bid him go and be harvgedi Effex,
like a blockhead, put his hand to his fword, and fwore
revenge. Where was his gallantry on this occafion ?
Could a flroke from an angry woman tinge the honour
of a gallant foldier ? This violent ftorm, however, foon
fubfided; and they were again reconciled, at leaft ap¬
parently.
The total reduction of Ireland being brought upon
the tapis foon after, the earl was pitched upon as the
only man from whom it could be expe&ed. This was
an artful contrivance of his enemies, who hoped by this
means to ruin him} nor were their expe&ations dis¬
appointed. He declined this fatal preferment as long Devereux.
as he could: but, perceiving that he fhould have no
quiet at home, he accepted it ; and his coinmiffion for
lord lieutenant paffed the great feal on the 12th of
March 1598. His enemies now began to infinuate,
that he had fought this command, for the fake of
greater things which he then was meditating; but
there is a letter of his to the queen, preferved in the
Havleian colleffions, which fhews, that he was fo far
from entering upon it with alacrity, that he looked
upon it rather as a banifhment, and a place afiigned him
for a retreat from his fovereign’s difpleafure, than a
potent government beftowed upon him by her favour.
“ To the <2>ueen. From a mind delighting in forrow ;
“ from fpirits wafted with pafiion; from a heart torn in
“ pieces with care, grief, and travail; from a man that
“ hateth himfelf, and all things elfe that keep him alive;
“ what fervice can your majefty expeft, fince any fer-
“ vice paft deferves no more than banifhment and pro-
“ feription to the curfedeft of all iflands ? It is your
“ rebels pride and fucceffion muft give me leave to ran-
“ fom myfelf out of this hateful prifon, out of my
“ loathed body ; which, if it happen fo, your majefty
“ (hall have no caufe to miflike the falhion of my
“ death, fince the courfe of my life could never pleafe
“ you.
“ Happy he could finifti forth his fate,
“ In fome unhaunted defart moft obfeure
“ From all fociety, from love and hate
“ Of worldly folk; then fhould he deep fecure.
“ Then wake again, and yield God ever praife,
“ Content with hips, and hawes, and brambleberry
“ In contemplation palling out his days,
“ And change of holy thoughts to make him merry.
“ Who, when he dies, his tomb may be a bufh,
“ Where harmlefs robin dwells with gentle thrulh.
“ Your Majefty’s exiled fervant,
“ Robert Essex.”
The earl met with nothing in Ireland but ill fuc¬
cefs and crofles ; in the midft of which, an army was
fuddenly raifed in England, under the command of the
earl of Nottingham ; no-body well knowing why, but
in reality from the fuggeftions of the earl's enemies to.
the queen, that he rather meditated an invafion on his
native country, than the reduction of the Irifh rebels.
This and other confiderations made him refolve to quit
his poft, and come over to England; which he ac¬
cordingly did without leave. He burft into her ma¬
jefty’s bed-chamber as flie was rifing, and (he received
him with a mixture of tendernefs and feverity : but (he,
foon after, thought fit to deprive him of all his em¬
ployments, except that of mafter of the horfe. He was
committed to the cuftody of the lord-keeper, with
whom he continued fix months. No fooner had he re¬
gained his liberty, than he was guilty of many extra¬
vagancies; to which he was inftigated by knaves and
fools, but perhaps more powerfully by his own paffions.
He firft determined to obtain an audience of the queen
by force. He refufed to attend the council when fum-
moned. When the queen fent the lord-keeper, the
lord chief-juftice, and two others, to know his grievan¬
ces, he confined them; and then marched with his
friends into the city, in expedlation that the people
would rife in his favour ; but in that he was difap-
pointed. He was at laft befieged, and taken in his
houfe in Efiex-ftreet j committed to the Tower; tried
by
DEV [ 2434 ] DEV
Devcreux. by bis peers, condemned, and executed. Thus did
this brave man, this favourite of his queen, this idol of
the people, fall a facrifice to his want of that diffimu-
lation, that cunning, that court-policy, by which his
enemies were enabled to effeft his ruin. He was a po¬
lite fcholar, and a generous friend to literature.
To thofe, who have not taken the trouble to confult
and compare the feveral authors who have related the
ftory of this unfortunate earl, it mull appear wonder¬
ful, if, as hath been fuggefted, he was really beloved
by queen Elizabeth, that fne could content to his exe¬
cution. Now, that (he had conceived a tender paflion
• for him, is proved beyond a doubt by Mr Walpole in
his very entertaining and in(tru6tive Catalogue of Noble
Authors.—“ I am aware,” fays that author, “ that it
is become a mode to treat the queen’s paflion for him
as a romance. Voltaire laughs at it; and obferves, that
when her ftruggle about him muft have been the great-
eft (the time of his death), (he was fixty-eight.—Had
he been fixty-eight, it is probable (he would not have
been in love with him.”— “ Whenever Eflex a&ed a fit
of ficknefs, not a day paffed without the queen’s fend¬
ing often to fee him ; and once went fq far as to fit
long by him, and order his broths and things. It is re¬
corded byr a diligent obferver of that court, that in one
of his fick moods, he took the liberty of going up to
the queen in his night-gown. In the height of thefe
fretful fooleries, there was a ma(k at Black Fryars
on the marriage of lord Herbert and Mrs Ruflel.
Eight lady-malkers chofe eight more to dance the
meafures. Mrs Fitton, who led them, went to the
queen, and wooed her to dance. Her majefty afked
what (lie was?—Affettion, (lie faid. Affeftion! fa id the
queen; Affeclipn is falfe. Were not thefe the mur¬
murs of a heart ill at eafe? Yet her majefty rofe, and
danced. She was then fixty-eight. Sure it was as
natural for her to be in love.”
Mr Walpole farther obferves, that her court and co¬
temporaries had an uniform opinion of her paflion for
* Eflex, and quotes feveral inftances from a letter writ¬
ten by Sir Francis Bacon to the earl; in which, among
other things, he advifes him to confult her tafte in his
very apparel and geftures, and to give way to any other
inclination (he may have. Sir Francis advifed the queen
herfelf, knowing her inclination, to keep the earl about
her for fociety. What Henry IV. of France thought
of the queen’s affedlion for Eflex, is evident from what
he faid to her embaflador—“ Que fa majefie ne laijfe-
roit jamais fon couftn d'Ejfex efoigner de fon cotillon."—
After his confinement, on hearing he was ill, (he fent
him word, with tears in her eyes, that if (he might with
her honour, (he would vifit him.
“ If,” fays Mr Walpole, “ thefe inftances are pro¬
blematic, are the following fo? In one of the curious
letters of Rowland White, he fays, the queen hath of
late ufed the fair Mrs Bridges ’with words and blows of
anger. In a fubfequent letter, he fays, the earl is again
fallen in love with his faireft B. It cannot chufe but come
to the queen's ears, and then he is undone."—Eflex him-
felf fays, that her fond parting with him when he fet
out for Ireland, pierced his very foul.
Probably the reader has now very little doubt as to
queen Elizabeth’s affeftion for the unfortunate Effex;
but, in proportion to our belief of the exiftence of this
affeftion, her motives for confenting to his execution
become more inexplicable. Qiieen Elizabeth had a DevereiiX;
very high opinion of her beauty and perfonal attrac- !l
tions, and probably expefted more entire adoration Devil~ ■
than the earl’s paflion for variety would fuffer him to
pay. Towards the latter end of her life, (he was cer¬
tainly an objeft of difguft. He had too much honeft
fimplicity in his nature, to feign a paflion which he did
not feel. She fooliftily gave credit to the ftories of his , ‘
ambitious projefts incompatible with her fafety ; and
was informed that he had once inadvertently faid, that
Jhe grew old and cankered, and that her mind was become
as crooked as her car cafe. If this be true, where is the
woman that would not facrifice fuch a lover to her re-
fentment?
It is faid, however, that, concerning his execution,
her majefty was irrefolute to the laft, and fent orders to
countermand it; but, confidering his obftinacy in re-
fuling to a(k her pardon, afterwards direfted that he
(hould die. It is reported, that the queen, in the height
of her paflion for the earl of Effex, had given him a
ring, ordering him to keep it, and that whatever crime
he (hould commit, (he would pardon him when he
(hould return that pledge. The earl, upon his con¬
demnation, applied to admiral Howard’s lady, his re¬
lation, defiring her, by a perfon whom (he could truft,
to return it into the queen’s own hands; but her huf-
band, who was one of the earl’s greateft enemies, and
to whom (he had imprudently told the circumftance,
would not fuffer her to acquit herfelf of the commiflion;
fo that the queen confented to the earl’s death, being
full of indignation againft fo proud and haughty a fpi-
rit, who chofe rather to die than implore her mefcy.
Some time after, the admiral’s lady fell fick, and being
near her death, (he fent word to the queen that (he had
fomething of great confequence to communicate before
(he died. The queen came to,her bed-fide, and having
ordered all her attendants to withdraw, the lady re¬
turned, but too late, the ring, defiring to be excufed
that (he did not return it fooner: on which, it is faid,
the queen immediately retired, overwhelmed with
grief.
The earl of Effex died in the thirty-fourth year of
his age; leaving by his lady, one fon and two daugh¬
ters.
DEVICE, among painters. See Devise.
DEVIL, an evil angel, one of thofe celeftial fpirits
caft down from heaven for pretending to equal himfelf
with God. The Ethiopians paint the devil white, to
be even with the Europeans who paint him black.
There is no mention of the word devil in the Old
Teftament, but only of the word Satan and Belial; nor
do we meet with it in any heathen authors, in the fenfe
it is taken among Chriftians, that is, as a creature re¬
volted from God. Their theology went no farther
than to evil genii, or dsemons.
Some of the American idolaters have a notion of
two collateral independent beings, one of whom is
good, and the other evil; which laft they imagine has
the direftion and fuperintendance of this earth, for
which reafon they chiefly worftiip him : whence thofe
that give us an account of the religion of thele favages
give out, with fome impropriety, that they worfhip
the devil. The Chaldeans, in like manner, believed
both a good principle and an evil one; which laft they
imagined was an enemy to mankind.
Ifaiah,
DEV [ 2435 ] D E U
Devil Ifaiah, fpeaking, according to fome commentators,
l| of the fall of the devil, calls him Lucifer, from his
D^r°e11- former elevation andftate gf glory: but others explain
‘  this pafiage of Ifaiah in reference to the king of Ba¬
bylon, who had been precipitated from his throne and
glory. The Arabians call Lucifer, Eblis ; which fome
think is only a diminutive or corruption of the word
Diabolus.
Devil on the Neck, a tormenting engine made of
iron, ftraitening and wincing the neck of a man, with
his legs together, in a horrible manner; fo that the
more he ftirreth in it, the ftraiter it preffeth him ; for¬
merly in ufe among the'perfecuting papifts.
DEVINCTION, in antiquity, a kind of love-charm,
deferibed by Virgil in his eighth eclogue: it confifted
in tying certain knots, and repeating a formula of
V’ords.
DEVISE, or Device, in heraldry, painting, and
fculpture, any emblem ufed to reprefent a certain fa¬
mily, perfon, aftion, or quality ; with a fuitable motto,
applied in a figurative fenfe. See Motto.
The eflence of a device confifts in a metaphorical fi-
militude between the things reprefenting and repre-
fented : thus, a young nobleman, of great courage and
ambition, is faid to have borne for his devife, in a late
caroufal at the court of France, a rocket mounted in
the air, with this motto in Italian, “ poco duri purche
nt’inalzi-," exprefiing, that he preferred a fliort life,
provided he might thereby attain to glory and emi¬
nence.
The Italians have reduced the making of devifes in¬
to an art, fome of the principal laws of which are thefe.
i. That there be nothing extravagant or monftrous in
the figures. 2. That figures be never joined which
have no relation or affinity with one another ; excep¬
ting fome whimfical unions eltablifhed in ancient
fables, which cuftom has authorifed. 3. That the hu¬
man body be never ufed. 4. The fewer figures the
better. 5. The motto (hould be every way fuitable.
Devise, in law, the a£I whereby a perfon bequeaths
his lands or tenements to another by his latt will or te-
ftament.
DEUNX, in Roman antiquity, 11 ounces, or 44 of
the Libra.
DEVOLUTION, in law, a right acquired by fuc-
ceffion from one to another.
DEVONSHEERING, a term ufed by the farmers
to exprefs the burning of land by way of manure : the
method is to cut off the turf about four inches thick,
and burn it in heaps, and then fpread the allies upon
the land. The name is probably derived from its having
been earlieft pra&ifed in Devonlhire.
DEVONSHIRE, a county of England, bounded
on the fouth by the Englilh channel, on the north by
the Briftol channel, on the call by Somerfetlhire, and
on the weft by Cornwall. It is about 69 miles long,
and 66 broad. The foil is various ; in the weftern
parts of the county it is coarfe and moorilh, bad for
Iheep, but proper for black cattle. In the northern
parts, the dry foil and-downs are well adapted to Iheep,
with numerous flocks of which they are well covered.
Tolerable crops of corn are alfo produced there when
the land is well manured. The foil of the reft of the
country is rich and fertile both in corn and pafture,
yielding alfo in fome places plenty of marie for ma¬
nuring it. In other places they pare off and burn the Devotion,
furface, making ufe of the afhes as a manure. Dr D®“t*.r^c1a'
Campbell ftyles it a rich and pleafant country ; as in nonlca •_
different parts it abounds with all forts of grain, pro¬
duces abundance of fruit, has mines of lead, iron, and
filver, in which it formerly exceeded Cornwall, though
now it is greatly inferior. On the coaft alfo they have
herring and pilchard fifheries.
DEVOTION, devotio, a fincere ardent worfhip
of the Deity. See Prayer, Adoration, Wor¬
ship, &c.
Devotion, as defined by Jurieu, is a foftening and
yielding of the heart, with an internal confolation,
which the fouls of believers feel in the pra&ice or ex-
ercife of piety. By devotion is alfo underftood certain
religious pradices, which a perfon makes it a rule to
difeharge regularly ; and with reafon, if the exaditude
be founded on folid piety, otherwife it is vanity or fu-
perftition. That devotion is vain and trifling, which
would accommodate itfelf both to God and to the
world. Trevoux.
Devotion, among the Romans, was a kind of fa-
crifice, or ceremony, whereby they cohfecrated them-
felves to the fervice of fome perfon. The ancients had
a notion, that the life of one might be ranfomed by the
death of another, whence thofe devotions became fre¬
quent for the lives of the emperors. Devotion to any
particular perfon, was unknown among the Romans
till the time of Auguftus. The very day afterfhe title
of Auguftus had been conferred upon Odavitis, Pacu-
vius, a tribune of the people, publicly declared, that
he would devote himfelf to Auguftus, and obey him at
the expence of his life, (as was the pradice among bar¬
barous nations), if he was commanded. His example
was immediately followed by all the reft ; till, at length,
it became an eftablilhed cuftom never to go to falute
the emperor, without declaring that they were devoted
to him.—Before this, the pradice of the Romans was
that of devoting themfelves to their country *. * See De-
DEUTEROCANONICAL, in the fchool-theo- ««'•
logy, an appellation given to certain books of holy
feripture, which were added to the canon after the reft;
either by reafon they were not wrote till after the com¬
pilation of the canon, or by reafon of fome difpute as
to their canonicity The word is Greek, being com¬
pounded of Jecond, and xavunxty, canonical.
The Jews, it is certain, acknowledged feveral books
in their canon, which were put there later than the
reft. They fay, that under Efdras, a great affembly
of their dodors, which they call by way of eminence
the great Jynagogue, made the colledion of the facred
books which we now have in the Hebrew Old Tefta-
ment. And they agree that they put books therein
which had not been fo before the Babylonifh captivi¬
ty ; fuch are thofe of Daniel, Ezekiel, Haggai, &c.
and thofe of Efdras and Nehemiah.
And the Romifti church has fince added others to
the canon, that were not, nor could not be, in the ca¬
non of the Jews; by reafon fome of them were not
compofed till after. Such is the book of Ecclefiafti-
cus; with feveral of the apocryphal books, as the Mac¬
cabees, Wifdom, &c. Others were added ftill later,
by reafon their canonicity had not been yet examined;
and till fuch examen, and judgment, they might be fe.t
afide at pleafure.—But fmee that church has pronoun-
DEW [ 2436 ] DEW
Deutei'o* ced as to the canonicity of thefe books, there is no
nomy more room now for her members to doubt of them,
DJw than there was for the Jews to doubt of thofe of the
ew canon of Efdras. And the deuterononical books are
with them as canonical, as the proto-canonical; the
only difference between them confxfting in this, that the
canonicity of the one was not generally known, exa¬
mined, and fettled, fo foon as that of the others.
The deuterocanonical books in the modern canon,
are the book of Either, either the whole, or at lealt
the feven lad chapters thereof. The epiftle to the
Hebrews; that of James; and that of Jude; the fe-
cond of St Peter; the fecondand third of St John ; and,-
the Revelation. The deuterocanonical parts of books,
are, in Daniel, the hymn of the three children ; the
prayer of Azariah ; the hiftories of Sufannah, of Bel
and the Dragon ; the laft chapter of St Mark ; the
bloody fweat, and the appearance of the angel, related
in St Luke, chap, xxii; and the hiftory of the adulte¬
rous woman in St John, chap, viii.
DEUTER.ONOMY, one of the facred books of
the Old Teftament; being the laft of thofe written by
Mofes : (See Pentateuch.) The word is Greek,
compounded of fecond, and lanu.
Deuteronomy was written the 40th year after the
delivery from Egypt, in the country of the Moabites
beyond Jordan ; Mofes being then in the 120th year
of his age. It contains, in Hebrew, 11 parafches,
though only 10 in the edition of the rabbins at Venice ;
XX chapters, and 955 verfes. In the Greek, Latin,
and other verfions, it contains XXXIV chapters.
The laft is not of Mofes. Some fay it was added by
Jolhua immediately after Mofes’s death; which is the
moft probable opinion. Others will have it added by
Efdras.
DEUTEROPOTMI, in Grecian antiquity, a de-
fignation given to fuch of the Athenians as had been
thought dead, and, after the celebration of the fu¬
neral rites, unexpe&edly recovered. It was unlaw¬
ful tor the deuteropotmi to enter into the temple of
the Enmenides, or to be admitted to the holy rites,
till after they were purified, by being let through the
lap of a woman’s gown, that they might feem to be
new born.
DEUTEROSIS, the Greek name by which the
Jews called their Mifchnah, or fecond law. See Misch-
DEW, a denfe, moift vapour, found on the earth
In fpring and fummer mornings, in form of a milling
rain, being colle&ed there chiefly while the fun is be¬
low the horizon.
It hath been difputed whether the dew is formed
from the vapours afcending from the earth during the
night-time, or from the defcent of fuch as have been
already railed through the day. The moft remarkable
experiments adduced in favour of the firft hypothefis
are thofe of Mr Dufay of the Royal Academy of
Sciences at Paris. He fuppofed, that if the dew a-
fcended., it muft wet a body placed low down fooner
than one placed in a higher fituation : and, if a num¬
ber of bodies were placed in this manner, the lower-
moft would be wetted firft ; and the reft in like manner,
gradually up to the top.
To determine this, he placed two ladders againft
one another, meeting at their tops, fpreading wide a-
funder at the bottom, and fo tall as to reach 32' feet Dew.
high. To the feveral fteps of thefe he faftened large “ ^
fquares of glafs like the panes of windows, placing
them in fuch a manner that they Ihould not overlhade
one another. On the trial it appeared exaftly as Mr
Dufay had apprehended. The lower furface of the
lowelt piece of glafs was firft wetted, then the upper,
then the lower furface of the pane next above it ; and
fo on, till all the pieces were wetted to the top. Hence
it appeared plain to him, that the dew confifted of the
vapours afcending from the earth during the night¬
time ; which, being condenfed by the coldnefs of the
atmofphere, are prevented from being diffipated as in
the day-time by the fun’s heat. He afterwards tried
a fimilar experiment with pieces of cloth inftead of panes
of glafs, and the refult was quite conformable to his
expe&ations. He weighed all the pieces of cloth next
morning, in order to know what quantity of water each
had imbibed, and found thofe that had been placed
lowermoft confiderably heavier than fuch as had been
placed at the top ; tho’ he owns that this experiment
did not fucceed fo perfe&ly as the former.
M. Mufchenbroek, who embraced the contrary opi¬
nion, thought he had invalidated all Mr Dufay’s proofs,
by repeating his experiments, with the fame fuccefs,
on a plane covered with fheet-lead. But to this Mr
Dufay replied, that there was no occafion for fuppo-
fing the vapour to rife through the lead, nor from that
very fpot ; but that as it arofe from the adjoining o-
pen ground, the continual fluftuation of the air could
not but fpread it abroad, and carry it thither in its a-
fcent.
But though this experiment of M. Mufchenbroek’s
is not fufficient to overthrow thofe of Mr Dufay, it
muft ftill remain dubious whether the dew rifes ox falls.
One thing which feems to favour the hypothefis of its
defcent is, that in cloudy weather there is little or no
dew to be obferved. From this M. de Luc brings an
argument in favour of the hypothefis juft now mention¬
ed. He accounts for it in the following manner.
When there are no clouds in the air, the heat of the Pb7. Tranj
inferior air and that which rifes from the earth, diffi- v°l- 1
pates itfelf into the fuperior regions ; and then the va-1131:1 a*
pours which are difperfed throughout the air, condenfe,
and fall down in dew: But, when the clouds continue,
they feparate the inferior from the fuperior part of the
atmofphere, and thus prevent the difiipation of the
heat, by which means the vapours remain fufpended.
When the fky grows cloudy, fome hours after fun-fet,
although the heat has been fenfibly diminifhed, it is a-
gain increafed ; becaufe, continuing to rife out of the
earth, it is accumulated in the inferior air. But nei¬
ther can this be reckoned a pofitive proof of the defcent
of the dew; fince we may as well fuppofe the heat of
the atmofphere to be great enough to diffipate it in its
afcent, as to keep it fufpended after its afcent through
the day.
On the other hand, its being found in greater quanti¬
ties on bodies placed low down than on fuch as are high
up, is no proof of the afcent of the dew; becaufe the
fame thing is obferved of rain. A body placed low
down receives more rain than one placed in an elevated
fituation ; and yet the rain certainly defcends from the
atmofpljere. The reafon why the dew appears firft on the
lower parts of bodies may be, that, in the evening, the
DEW [ 2437 ] DEW
T)e\v. lower part of the atmofphere is firft cooled, and confe-
quently moll difpofed to part with its vapour. It is
alfo certain, that part of the water contained in the
air may be condenfed at any time on the Tides of a
glafs, by means of cold, fo as to run down its fides in
fmall drops like dew. It feems, therefore, that this fub-
je6t is not fufficiently determined by fuch experiments
as have yet been made; nor indeed does it appear eafy
to make fuch experiments as fhall be perfectly decifive
on the matter.
Several fubftances, expofed to the fame dew, receive
and charge themfelves with it in a very different man¬
ner ; fpme more, others lefs, and fome even not at all.
The drops feem to make a fort of choice of what bo¬
dies they fhall affix themfelves to: glafs and cryftals
are thofe to which they adhere in the moft ready man¬
ner, and in the largeft quantity; but metals of all kinds
never receive them at all, nor do the drops ever adhere
to them. The reafon of this is probably becaufe metals
promote evaporation more than glafs does. Thus, if a
piece of metal and a piece of glafs are both made e-
qually moift, the former will be found to dry in much
lefs time than the latter. Hence it would feem, that
there is between metals and water fome kind of re-
pulfion: and this may be fufficient to keep off the very
fmall quantity that falls in dew; for whatever tends
to make water evaporate after it is aftually in con-
ta£l with any fubftance, alfo tends to keep the water
from ever coming into contaft with it.
Substances of a very different kind from the ufual
dew, are faid to have fometimes fallen from the at¬
mofphere. In the Phil. Tranf. we are told, that in
the year 1695 there fell in Ireland, in the provinces of
Leinfter and Munfler, for a confiderable part of the
winter and fpring, a fatty fubftance refembling butter,
inftead of the common dew. It was of a clammy tex¬
ture, and dark yellow colour; and was, from its great
refemblance, generally called deiu-butter by the country
people. It always fell in the night, and chiefly in the
moorifh low grounds; and was found hanging on the
tops of the grafs, and on the thatch of the houfes of the
poor people. It was feldom obferved to fall twice in the
fame place ; and ufually, wherever it fell, it lay a fort¬
night upon the ground before it changed colour ; but
after that it gradually dried up, and became black.
The cattle fed in the fields where it lay as well as in
others, and received no harm by it. It fell in pieces
of the bignefs of one’s finger-end ; but they were dif-
perfed fcatteringly about, and it had an offenfive fmell
like a church-yard. There were in the fame places very
ftinking'fogs during the winter, and fome people fup-
pofed this no other than a fediment from the fog. It
would not keep very long, but never bred worms.
May-’D'e.'w whitens linen and wax ; the dew of
autumn is converted into a white froft. Out of dew pu-
trified by the fun, arife divers infects, which change a-
pace from one fpecies into another : what remains is
converted into a fine white fait, with angles like thofe
of falt-petre, after a number of evaporations, calcina¬
tions, and fixations.
There is a fpirit drawn from May-dew, which has
wonderful virtues attributed to it. The method of col-
ledting and preparing it, is prefcribed by Hanneman,
phyfician at Kiel. It is to be gathered in clean li¬
nen cloths ; expofed to the fun in clofe vials; then di-
Vol. IV,
Hilled, and the fpirit thrown upon the caput mortuum;
this is to be repeated till the earth unite with the fpi- Wit~
rit, and become liquid; which happens about the fe-
venth or eiglith cohobation, or diftillation. By fuch
means you gain a very red, odoriferous fpirit. Stol-
terfoht, a phyfician of Lubec, thinks May-dew may
be gathered in glafs-plates, efpecially in (till weather,
and before fun-rife. And Etmuller is of the famefen-
timent. It might likewife be collefted with a glafs
funnel, expofed to the air, having a crooked neck to
bring the dew into a vial in a chamber. See Phil.
Tranf. n° 3. Hoffman, and others. It is apparent¬
ly from the preparation of this dew, that the brothers
of the Rofy-Crofs took their denomination *. *
DEw-Z?0r«, in country affairs, a diftemper in cattle, cructans'
being a fwelling in the body, as much as the fkin can
hold, fo that fome beafts are in danger of burfting.
This diftemper proceeds from the greedinefs of a beafl
to feed, when put into a rank pafture : but commonly
when the grafs is full of water. In this cafe the beaft
fhould be llirredup and dawn, and made to purge well:
but the proper cure is bleeding in the tail ; then take
a grated nutmeg, with an egg, and breaking the top
of the fhell, put out fo much of the white as you may
have room to flip the nutmeg into the fhell ; mix them
together, and then let fhell and all be put down the
beaft’s throat; that done, walk him up and down, and
he will foon mend.
’Dvw-JVortn. See Lumbricus.
DE WIT (John), the famous penfionary, was
born in tbzj, at Dort; where he profecuted his flu-
dies fo diligently, that, at the age of 23, he publifhed
Elementa Curvarum Linearum, one of the deepefl
books in mathematics at that time. After taking his
degrees, and travelling, he, in 1650, became penfion¬
ary of Dort, and diftingnifhed himfelf very early in the
management of public affairs. He oppofed with all
his power the war between the Englifh and the Dutch;
and when the event juflified his predi&ions, he was
nnanimoufly chofen penfionary of Holland. In this ca¬
pacity he laboured to procure a peace with Cromwell;
in which peace a fecret article was introduced by one
fide or other, for the exclufion of the houfe of Orange.
In the war with England after the king’s reftoration,
when it was thought expedient, on Opdam’s defeat and
death, that fome of their own deputies fhould command
the fleet, he was one of the three put in commiffion; and
wrote an accurate relation of all that happened during
the expedition he was engaged in, for which, at his
return, he received the folemn thanks of the States-Ge-
neral. In 1667, he eftablifhed the perpetual edidl for
abolifhing the office of Stadtholder, to fix the liberty
of the republic, as it was hoped, on a firm bafis ;
which produced feditions and tumults, that reftored the
office, on pretence that the De Wits were enemies to
the houfe of Orange, and plundered the ftate. The
penfionary begged difmiffion ftom his poft; which was
granted, with thanks for his faithful fervices. But the
invafion of the French, and the internal divifions a-
mong the Hollanders themfelves, fpread every where
terror and confufion ; which the Orange party height¬
ened, to ruin the De Wits. Cornelius, the penfionary’s
brother, was imprifoned and condemned to exile ; and
a report being raifed that he would be refcued, the mob
armed, and furrounded the prifon where the two bro-
14 F thers
De Wit
Diachylon.
D I A [ 2438 ] D I A
thers then were together,, dragged them out, barba-
roufly murdered them, hung the bodies on the gallows,
and cut them to pieces, which many of them even
broiled, and ate with favage fury. Such was the end
of one of thegreateft geniufes of his age; of whom Sir
William Temple, who was well acquainted with him,
writes with the greatefl. efteem and admiration. He
obferves, that when he was at the head of the govern¬
ment, he differed nothing in his manner of living from
an ordinary citizen. His office, for the firft ten years,
brought him in little more than 300/. and in the lat¬
ter part of his life, not above 700 /. per ann. He re-
fufed a gift of 10,000/. from the States-General, be-
caufe he thought it a bad precedent in the government
With great reafon, therefore, Sir William Temple,
fpeaking of his death, obferves, “ He was a perfon that
deferred another fate, and a better return from his
country; after 18 years fpent in their miniftry, with¬
out any care of his entertainments or cafe, and little
of his fortune. A man of unwearied induftry, inflex¬
ible conftancy, found, clear, and deep underftanding,
and untainted integrity ; fo that whenever he was blind¬
ed, it .was by the paffion he had for that which he e-
fteemed the good and intereft: of his ftate. This tefti-
mony is juftly due to him from all that were well ac¬
quainted with him; and is the more willingly paid, fince
there can be as little intereft to flatter, as honour
to reproach, the dead.”
Befides the works already mentioned, he wrote a
book containing thofe maxims of government, upon
which he afted; which will be a never-fading monu¬
ment to his immortal memory. A tranflation of it
from the original Dutch, entitled, The true intereji
and political maxims of the republic of Holland, has been
printed in London ; to the laft edition of which, in
.1746, are prefixed hiftorical memoirs of the illuftrious
brothers Cornelius and John de Witt, by John Camp¬
bell, Efq.
DEXTANS, in Roman antiquity, ten ounces,
or 44 of their libra. See Libra.
DEXTER, in heraldry, an appellation given to
whatever belongs to the right fide of a Afield, or coat
of arms : thus we fay, bend-dexter, dexter point, &c.
DEXTROCHERE, or Destrochere, in heral¬
dry, is applied to the right arm painted in a Afield,
fometimes naked ; fometimes clothed, or adorned with
a bracelet; and fometimes armed, or holding fome
moveable or member ufed in the arms.
DEY, in matters of government, the fovereign
prince of Algiers, anfwering to the bey of Tunis.
DIABETES, in phyfic, an exceffive difcharge of
urine, which comes away crude, and exceeds the quan¬
tity of liquids drank. See (the Index fubjoined to)
Medicine.
DIABOLUS. See Devil.
Diabolus Marinus. See Raia.
Diabolus Metellorum, a title given by chemifts to
Jupiter or tin, becaufe, when incorporated with other
metals, it renders them incapable of reduftion, or at
leaft very difficult to undergo that operation.
DIACAUSTIC curve, a fpecies of the cauftic
curves formed by refraftion.
DIACHYLON, in pharmacy, an emollient dige-
ftive plafter, compofed of mucilages or vifcid juices
drawn from certain plants. See Pharmacy, n° 967.
DIACODIUM, in pharmacy,
from poppy-heads. It is alfo called
conio. See Pharmacy, n° 491.
DIACOUSTICS, called alfo diaphonics, the
confideration of the properties of refra&ed found, as it
paffes through different mediums. See Acoustics.
The word is formed from the Greek per,
“ thro’,” which intimates a paffage ; and axua, Jhear,
q. d. the confideration of the paffage of the founds we
hear. See Sound.
DIADELPHIA, {‘"'i. twice, and aJfXw a bro¬
ther,} clafs the 17th in the fexual fyftem, comprehend¬
ing thofe plants which bear hermaphrodite flowers with
two fets of united ftamiua, but this circumftance muft
not be abfolutely depended on. They are the papilio-
nacei of Tournefort, the irregulares tetrapetali of Ri-
vinus, and the leguminofa of Ray. See Botany,
p. 1292. and Plate LIX.
DIADEM, in antiquity, a head-band, or fillet,
worn by kings as a badge of their royalty. It was
made of filk, thread, or wool, and tied round the
temples and forehead, the ends being tied behind, and
let fall on the neck. It was ufually white, and quite
plain ; though fometimes embroidered with gold, and
fet with pearls and precious (tones. In latter times,
it came to be twilled round crowns, laurels, &c. and
even appears to have been worn on divers parts of the
body. See Crown.—The word comes from the Latin
diadema ; of the Greek a little band encompaf-
Jing the head, of the verb cingo, “ I gird.”
Diadem, in heraldry, is applied to certain circles,
or rims, ferving to inclofe the crowns of fovereign prin¬
ces, and to bear the globe and crofs, or the flower de
luces for their creft. The crowns of fovereigns are
bound, fome with a greater, and fome with a lefs num¬
ber of diadems.-^The bandage about the heads of
Moors on (hields is alfo called diadem, in blazoning.
DI/ERESI3, in forgery, an operation ferving to
divide and feparate the part when the continuity is a
hindrance to the cure.
Diuresis, in medicine, is the confuming of the
veffels of an animal body, when from fome corroding
caufe certain paffages are made, which naturally'ought
not to have been ; or certain natural paffages are dila¬
ted beyond their ordinary dimenfions, fo that the hu¬
mours which ought fo have been contained in the vef-
fels extravafate or run out.
Diuresis, in grammar, the divifion of one fyllable
into two, which is ufually noted by two points over a
letter, as aula's inftead of aula, dijfoluenda for dijfol-
vcnda.
DLETET./E, inGrecian antiquity, a kind of judges,
of which there were two forts, the cleroti and diallac-
terii. The former were public arbitrators, chofen by
lot to determine all caufes exceeding ten drachms,
within their own tribe, and from their fentence an ap¬
peal lay to the fuperior courts.
The diaila&erii, on the contrary, were private arbi¬
trators from whofe fentence there lay no appeal, and ac¬
cordingly they always took an oath to adminifter ju-
ftice without partiality.
DIAGLYPHICE, the art of cutting or engraving
figures on metals, fuch as feals, intaglias, matrices of
letters, &c. or coins for medals. See Engraving.
DIAGNOSIS, (from ‘Wvbd'.u, to difcern or dijlin-
a fyrup prepared Diacod
^fyrupus dense- 11^
D I A [ 2439 ] D I A
Diagnoftic guijh;) the diagnotlics, or the figns of a difeafe. They
. jj are of two kinds, viz. the adjunct, and pathogno-
r>uh mcnic; the firft are common to feveral difeafes, and
' ferve only to point out the difference between difeafes
of the fame fpecies; the latter are thofe which al¬
ways attend the difeafe, and diitinguifh it from all o-
thers.
DIAGNOSTIC, in medicine, a term given to thofe
figns which indicate the prefenl date of a difeafe, its
rtature and caufe.
DIAGONAL, in geometry", a right line drawn a-
crofs a quadrilateral figure, from one angle to another,
by fome called the diameter, and by others the diame¬
tral, of the figure. See Geometry.
DI AGO R AS, furnamed the afhetft, lived in the
91ft Olympiad. He was not a native of Athens, but
he philofophifed there. He delighted in making ver-
fes, and had compofed a poem which a certain poet
dole from him. He fued the thief, who fwore it was
his own, and got glory by it. This tempted Diago-
ras to deny a Providence. The Athenians fummoned
him to give an account ofhis do&rine. He fled, and
they fet a price upon his head, promifing a reward to
any who fhould kill him; but he took (hipping, and
was cad away.
DIAGRAM, in geometry, a fcheme for explain-
^ ing and demondrating the properties of any* figure,
f ^ee Ga' whether triangle, fquare, circle, &c. *
Diagram, among ancient muficians, the fame with
the fcale of the moderns. See Scale.
DIAHEXAPLA, or Diahexapte, among far¬
riers, a compound medicine, focalled from its contain¬
ing fix ingredients', viz. birthwort and gentian roots,
juniper-berries, bay-berries, myrrh, and ivory fhavings.
It is commended for• colds, Confumptions, purfinefs,
and many other diforders in horfes.
DIAL, or Sun-dial, an inflrument fervingto mea-
fure time, by means of the fhadow of the fun. The
word is formed from the Latin dies, “ day,” becaufe
indicating the hour of the day.
Theancientsalfo called it fciathericum, from its doing
it by the fhadow.
definitions. Diai; is more accurately defined, a plane, upon
which lines are deferibed in fuch a manner, that the
fhadow of a wire, or of the upper edge of another plane,
erefted perpendicularly on the former, may fliew the
true time of the day.
The edge of the plane by which the time of the day
is found, is called the file of the dial, which muft be
parallel to the earth’s axis; and the line on which
the faid plane is ere&ed, is called the fuhfile.
The angle included between the fubltile and flile, is
called the elevation ‘or height of the file.
Thofe dials whofe planes are parallel to the plane
of the horizon, zx<t ctNizHl horizontal dials; and thofe
dials whofe planes are perpendicular to the plane of the
horizon, are called vertical or ereft dials.
Thofe ereft dials, whofe planes direftly front the
north or fouth, are called dir ell north or fouih dials ;
and all other ereft dials are called decliners, be¬
caufe their planes are turned away from the north or
fouth.
Thofe dials whofe planes are neither parallel nor
perpendicular to the plane of the horizon, are called
inclining or reclining dials, according as their planes
make acute or obtufe angles with the horizon ; and if Diai.
their planes are alfo turned afide from facing the
fouth or north, they are called declining-inclining or
declining- reclining dials.
The interfeftion of the plane of the dial, with that
of the meridian, palling through the Rile, is called
the meridian of the dial, or the hour-line of XII.
Thofe meridians, whofe planes pafs through the
ftile, and make angles of 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, and 90
degrees with the meridian of the place (which marks
the hour-line of XII.) are called hour-circles; and
their interfeftions with the plane of the dial are called
hour-lines.
In all declining dials, the fubftile makes an angle
with the hour-line of XII ; and this angle is called the
df anes of the fubfile from the meridian.
The declining plane’s difference of longitude, is the
angle formed at the interfeftion of the ftile and plane of
the dial, by two meridians ; one of which paffes thro’
the hour-line of XII, and the other through the
fubftile.
Thus much being premifed concerning dials in ge¬
neral, we lhall now proceed to explain the different
methods of their conftruftion.
If the whole earth aPcg, were tranfparent, and p|ate
hollow, like a fphere of glafs, and had its equator LXX.XIX,
divided into 24 equal parts by fo many meridian fig- 1.
femicircles, a, b, c, d, e,f, g, &-c. one of which is the
geographical meridian of any given place, as London pjj 0J)rmCI
(which is fuppofed to be at the point a;) and if which dial-
the hours of XII were marked at the equator, both ingde-
upon that meridian and the oppofite one, and all Pen<ls’
the reft of the hours in order on the reft of the meri¬
dians, thofe meridians would be the hour-circles of Lon¬
don : then, if the fphere had an opake axis, as P Ep,
terminating in the poles P and p, the lhadow of the
axis would fall upon every particular meridian and hour,
when the fun came to the plane of the oppofite meri¬
dian, and would confequently fhew the time at Lon¬
don, and at all other places on the meridian of London.
If this fphere was cut through the middle by a folid Horizouta!
plane /lBCD, in the rational horizon of London, one dial,
half of the axis E P would be above the plane, and the
other half below it; and if ftraight lines were drawn
from the centre of the plane, to thofe points where its
circumference is cut by the hour-circles of the fphere,
thofe lines would be the hour-lines of a horizontal dial
for London : for the lhadow of- the axis would fall up¬
on each particular hour-line' of the dial, when it fell
upon the like hour-circle of the fphere.
If the plane which cuts the fphere be upright, as Fig. *,
AFCG, touching the given place (London) at E,
and direftly facing the meridian of London, it Will
then become the plane of an ereft direft fouth-dial: and
if right lines be drawn from its centre E, to thofe points Vertical
of its circumference where the hour-circles of the fphere dia1'
cut it, thefewill be the hour-linesof a vertical or direft
fouth-dial for London, to which the hours are to be fet
as in the figure (contrary to thofe on a horizontal dial),
and the lower half jE/ of the axis will caft a lhadow on
the hour of the day in this dial, at the fame time that
it would fall upon the like hour-circle of the fphere, if
the dial plane was not in the way.
If the plane (ftill facing the meridian) be made to
incline, or recline, any given number of degrees, the
14 F 2 hour-
D I A I 2440 ] D I A
•Bial. hour-circles of the fphere will ftill cut the edge of the
* plane in thofe points to which the hour-lines mutt be
drawn ftraight from the centre ; and the axis of the
Inclining, fphere wl']] cafi; a fhadow on thefe lines at the refpe&ive
and'"leclin-^ours* ^ie w'^ hold, if the plane be made
ing, dials. t° decline by any given number of degrees from the
meridian toward the call or weft : provided the decli¬
nation be lefs than go degrees, or the reclination be
lefs than the co-latitude of the place: and the_axis
of the fphere will be a gnomon, or (Hie, for the dial.
But it cannot be a gnomon, when the declination is
quite 90 degrees, nor when the reclination is equal to
the colatitude; becaufe, in thefe two cafes, the axis
. has no elevation above the plane'of the dial.
And thus it appears, that the plane of every dial re-
prefents the plane of fome great circle upon the earth ;
and the gnomon of the earth’s axis, whether it be a
fmaJl wire as in the above figures, or the edge of a thin
plate, as in the common horizontal dials.
The whole earth, as to its bulk, is but a point, if
compared to its diftance from the fun-: and therefore,
if a fmall fphere of glafs be placed upon any part of
the earth’s furface, fo that its axis be parallel to the
axis of the earth, and the fphere have fuch lines upon
it, and fuch planes within it, as above defcribed; it
will Ihew the hours of the day as truly as if it were
placed at the earth’s centre, and the fhell of the earth
were as tranfparent as glafs.
But becaufe it is impoffible to have a hollow fphere
of glafs pcrfedUy true, blown round a folid plane ; or
Fig. r, 2. if it was, we could not get at the plane within the glafs
to fet it in any given pofition ; we make ufe of a wire-
fphere to explain the principles of dialing, by joining
24 femi-circles together at the poles, and putting a thin
fiat plate of brafs within it.
Dialing by A cominon globe of 12 inches diameter, has gene-
the com- Ta]ly 24 meridian femicircles drawn upon it. If fuch
firial globe a elevated to the latitude of any given place,
and turned about until one of thefe meridians cut the
horizon in the north point, where the hour of XII is
fuppofed to be marked, the reft of the meridians will
cut the horizon at the refpe&ive diftances of all the o-
ther hours from XII. Then if thefe points of diftance
be marked on the horizon, and the globe be taken out
of the horizon, and a flat board or plate be put into its
place, even with the furface of the horizon; and if
ftraight lines be drawn from the centre of the board,
to thofe points of diftance on the horizon which were
cut by the 24 meridian femicircles; thefe lines will be
the hour-lines of a horizontal dial for that latitude, the
edge of whofe gomon muft be in the very fame iitua-
tion that the axis of the globe was, before it was taken
out of the horizon : that is, the gnomon muft make an
angle with the plain of the dial, equal to the latitude
of the place for which the dial is made.
If the pole of the globe be elevated to the co-lati¬
tude of the given place, and any meridian be brought
to the north point of the horizon, the reft of the me¬
ridians will cut the horizon in the refpe&ive diftances
of all the hours from XII, for a direft fouth dial, whofe
gnomon muft be an angle with the plane of the dial,
equal to the co-latitude of the place ; and the hours
muft be fet the contrary way on this dial to what they
*r« on the horizontal.
But if your globe have more than 24 meridian femi¬
circles upon it, you muft take the following method Dial. ®fi
for making horizontal and fouth dials.
Elevate the pole to the latitude of your place, and To con-
turn the globe until any particular meridian (fuppofe *
the firft) comes to the north point of the horizon, and ^ait
the oppofite meridian will cut the horizon in the fouth.
Then, fet the hour-index to the uppermoft XII on its
circle ; which done, turn the globe weft ward until 15
degrees of the equator pafs under the brafen meridian,
and then the hour-index will be at I (for the fun
moves 15 degrees every hour), and the firft meridian will
cut the horizon in the number of degrees from the
north point, that I is diftant from XII. Turnon,
until other 15 degrees of the equator pafs under the
brafen meridian, and the hour-index will then be at II,
and the firft meridian will cut the,horizon in the num¬
ber of degrees that II is'diftant from XII: and fo, by ,
making 15 degrees of the equator pafs under the bra¬
fen meridian for every hour, the firft meridian of the
globe will cut the horizon in the diftances of all the
hours from XII to VI, which is juft go degrees’; and
then you need go no farther, for the diftances of XI,
X, IX, VIII, VII, and VI, in the forenoon, are the
fame from XII, as the diftances of I, II, III, IV, V,
and VI, in the afternoon : and thefe hour-lines conti¬
nued through the centre, will give the oppofite hour
lines on the other half of the dial.
Thus, to make a horizontal dial for the latitude of
London, which is 514- degrees north, elevate the north
pole of the globe 514- degrees above the north point
of the horizon; and then turn the globe, until the firft;
meridian (which is that of London on the Engliftiter-
reftrial globe) cuts the north point of the horizon, and
fet the hour-index to XII at noon.
Then turning the globe we ft ward until the index
points fucceffively to I, II, III, IV, V, and VI, in the
afternoon, or until 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, and go degrees
of the equator pafs under the brafen meridian, you will
find that the firft meridian of the globe cuts the hori¬
zon in the following numbers of degrees from the north
towards the eaft, viz. iif-, 24^, 38A-,. 534, anc^
90; which are the refpe&ive diftances of the above
hours from XII upon the plane of the horizon.
To transfer thefe, and the reft of the hours, to a Plate
horizontal plane, draw the parallel right lines a c and LXXXlX. j
d b, upon that plane, as far from each other as ^ 3- (,
is equal to the intended thicknefs of the gnomon
or ftile of the dial, and the fpace included between
them will be the meridian or twelve o’clock line on
the dial. Crofs this meridian at right angles with
the fix o’clock line and fetting one foot of your
compaffes in the interfe&ion a, as a centre, deferibe
the quadrant g e with any convenient radius or open¬
ing of the compaffes : then, fetting one foot in the in-
terfe&ion bt as a centre, with the fame radius de¬
feribe the quadrant/^, and divide each quadrant into
go equal parts or degrees, as in the figure.
Becaufe the hour-lines are lefs diftant from each other
about noon, than in any other part of the dial, it is
beft to have the centres of thefe quadrants at a little di¬
ftance from the centre of the dial- plane, on the fide op-
fite to XII, in order to enlarge the hour-diftances
thereabouts, under the fame angles on the plane. Thus,
the centre of the plane is at C, but the centres of the
quadrants are at a and b.
Lay
D I A [ 2441 ] D I A
Dial. Lay a ruler over the point h (and keeping it there
— for the centre of all the afternoon hours in the quadrant
LXXXIX f draw the hour-line of I through 1 i-f degrees in
the quadrant; the hourdine-of II, through aq^degrees;
of III, through 38-1V degrees ; MI, through 53^;
3- and V, through 71 : and becaufe the fun rifes about
-four in the morning, on the longed days at London,
continue the hour-lines of IV and V in the afternoon
( through the centre b to the oppofite fideof the dial.—
This done, lay the ruler to the centre a of the quadrant
eg; and through the like divifions or degrees of that
.quadrant, viz. 1J-*-, 24-3-, 38XV, 53x» and 7ITV, draw
the forenoon hour-lines of XI, X, IX, VIII, and VII;
and becaufe the fun fets not before eight in the even¬
ing on the longed days, continue the hour-lines of VII
and VIII in the forenoon, through the centre to
VII and VIII in the afternoon ; and all the hour-lines
will be finifhed on this dial} to which the hours may
be -fet, as in the figure.
Lattly, through 5 ix degrees of either quadrant, and
from its centre, draw the right line a £ for the hypa-
thenufe or axis of the gnomon a g i‘, and from g, let
fall the perpendicular^/, upon the meridian line a/,
and there will be a triangle made, whofe Tides are ag,
g /, and / a. If a plate fimiiar to this triangle be made
as thick as the diftance between the lines a c and b d,
and fet upright between them, touching at a and b,
its hypothenufe a g will be parallel to the axis of the
world, when the dial is truly fet; and will call a flia-
dow on the hour of the day.
N. B. The trouble of dividing the two quadrants
may be faved, if you have a fcale with a line of chords
upon it, fuch as that on the top of Plate XC.: for
if you extend the compaffes from o to 60 degrees of
the line of chords, and with that extent, as a radius,
defcribethe two quadrants upon their refpeftive centres,
the above diilances may be taken with the compaffes
upon the line, and fet off upon the quadrants,
fig. 4. To make an ereft dire£l foutb dial. Elevate the
An -weft P°le t0 tf'e co-latitude of your place, and proceed
ilmth dial, in all refpefls as .above taught for the horizontal
dial, from VI in the morning to VI in the after¬
noon ; only the hours muft be rtverfed, as in the figure;
and the hypoth.enufe;^ of the gnomon agf, mull make
an angle with the dial-plane equal to the co-latitude
of the place. As the fun can (bine no longer on this
dial than from fix in the morning until fix in the even¬
ing, there is no occafion for having any more than rz
hours upon it.
Eieftde- 7s make an ereH dial, declining from the fouth to-
jln& <wards the eajl or swejl. Elevate the pole to the latitude
of your place, and fcrew the quadrant of altitude to
the zenith. Then, if your dial declines towards the
eaft, (which we (hall fuppofe it to do at prefent), count
in the horizon the degrees of declination, from the eaft
point towards the north, and bring the lower end of
the quadrant to that degree of declination at which the
reckoning ends. This done, bring any particular me¬
ridian of your globe (as fuppofe the firft meridian) di-
reftly under the graduated edge of the upper part of
the brazen meridian, and fet the hour to XII at noon.
Then, keeping the quadrant of altitude at the degree
of declination in the horizon, turn the globe eaftward
on its axis, and obferve the degrees cut by the firft
meridian in the quadrant of altitude (counted from the
zenith) as the hour-index comes to XI, X, IX, &<;. in Did.
the forenoon, or as 15, 30, 45, <bc. degrees of the e- '"
quator pafs under the brazen meridian at thefe hours LXXxiX.
refpedtively; and the degrees then cut in the quadrant
by the firft meridian, are the refpedlive diftances of the
forenoon hours from XU on the plane of the dial.—
Then, for the afternoon hours, turn the quadrant of
altitude round the zenith until it comes to the degree
in the horizon oppofite to that where it was placed be¬
fore ; namely, as far from the weft point of the hori¬
zon towards the fouth, as it was fet at firft from the
eaft point towards the north ; and turn the globe weft-
ward on its axis, until the firft meridian comes to the
brazen meridian again, and the hour-index to XII:
then, continue to turn the globe weftward, and as the
index points to the afternoon hours I, II, III, <bc. or
as 15, 30, 45, degrees of the equator pafs under
the brazen meridian, the firft meridian will cut the
quadrant of altitude in the refpeftive number of de¬
grees from the zenith that each of thefe hours is from
XII on the dial. -And note, that when the firft me¬
ridian goes off the quadrant at the horizon in the fore¬
noon, the hour-index Ihews the time when the fun will
come upon this dial; and when it goes off the qua¬
drant in the afternoon, the index will point to the time
when the fun goes off the dial.
Having thus found all the hour-diftances from XII,
lay them down upon your dial-plane, either by dividing
a femicircle into two quadrants of 90 degrees each (be¬
ginning at the hour-line of XII), or by the line of
chords, as above dire&ed.
In all declining dials, the line on which the ftile or
gnomon Hands (commonly called thefubjlile-line) makes
an angle with the twelve o’clock line, and falls among
the forenoon hour-lines, if the dial declines towards the
eaft ; and among the afternoon hour-lines, when the
dial declines towards the weft;.; that is, to the left hand
from the twelve o’clock line in the former cafe, and to
the right hand from it in the latter.
To find the diftance of the fubftile from the twelve
o’clock line ; if your dial declines from the fouth to¬
ward the eaft, coqnt the degrees of that declination in
the horizon from the eaft point toward the north,’ and
bring the lower end of the quadrant of altitude to that
degree of declination where .the reckoning ends: then,
turn the globe until the Grft meridian cuts the horizon
in the like number of degrees, counted from the fouth
point toward the eaft ; and the quadrant and firft me¬
ridian will then crofs one another at right angles; and
the number of degrees of the quadrant, which are in¬
tercepted between the firft meridian and the zenith, is
equal to the diftance of the fubftile line from the twelve
o’clock line; and the number of degrees of the firft
meridian, which are intercepted between the quadrant
and the north pole, is equal to the elevation of the ftile
above the plane of the dial.
If the dial declines weftward from the fouth, count
that declination from the eaft point of the horizon to¬
wards the fouth, and bring the quadrant of altitude to
the degree in the horizon at which the reckoning ends;
both for finding, the forenoon hours, and diftance of the
fubftile from the meridian : and for the afternoon hours,
bring the quadrant, to the oppofite degree in the hori¬
zon, namely, as far from the weft towards the north,
and then proceed in all refpe&s as above.
Thus,
Dial.
Plate
LXXXIX
me: hod
for con-
firufting
dials.^
rig 5.
D I A
[ 2442 ]
D I A
Thus, we have finllhed our declining dial; and in fo
doing, we made four dials, viz.
1. A north dial, declining eaftward by the fame
number of degrees. 2. A -north dial, declining the
fame number weft. 3. A fouth dial, declining eaft.
And, 4, A fouth dial declining weft. Only, placing
the proper number of hours, and the ftile or gnomon
refpeftively, upon each plane. For (as above-men*
tioned) in the fouth-weft plane, the fubftilar-line falls
among the afternoon hours ; and in the fouth-eaft, of
the fame declination, among the forenoon hours, at
equal diftances from XII. And fo all the morning
hours on the weft decliner will be like the afternoon
hours on the eaft decliner : the fouth-eaft decliner will
produce the north-weft decliner; and the fouth-weft
decliner, the north-eaft decliner, by only extending the
hour-lines, ftile and fubftile, quite through the centre:
the axis of the ftile (or edge that cafts the ftiadow on
the hour of. the day ) being in all dish whatever paral¬
lel to the axis of the world, and confequently pointing
towards the north pole-of the heaven iiv north latitudes,
and toward the fouth pole in fouth latitudes. *
Biit becaufe every one who would like to make a
dial, may perhaps not be provided with a globe to affift
him, and ma'y probably not underhand the method of
of doing it by logarithmic calculation ; we ftiali (hew how
to perform it by the plain dialing lines, or fcale of la¬
titudes and hours ; fuch as thofe on the top of Plate
XC. and which may be had on fades commonly fold
by the mathematical inftrument makers.
This is the eafieft of all mechanical methods, and by
much the beft, when the lines are truly divided: and
not only the half hours and quarters may be laid down
by all of them, but every fifth minute by mod, and e-
very fingle minute by thofe where the line of hours is a
foot in length.
Having drawn your double meridian line a b, c d,
on the plane intended for a horizontal dial, and crof-
fed it at right angles by the fix o’clock line f e (as
in fig- 3.) take the latitude of your place with the
compaftes, in the fcale of latitudes, and fet that ex¬
tent from c to 5, and from a \.o f, on the fix o’clock
line : then, taking the whole fix hours between the
points of the compaffes in the fcale of hours, with
that extent fet one foot in the point c, and let the other
foot fall where it will upon the meridian line c d, as at d.
Do the fame from f to b, and draw the right lines e d
and fb, each of which will be equal in length to the
whole fcale of hours. This done, fetting one foot of
the compafles in the beginning of the fale at XII, and
extending the other to each hour on the fcale, lay off
thefe extents from d to e for the afternoon hours, and
from b to/Tor thofe of the forenoon : this will divide
the lines d e and b f\\\ the fame manner as the hour-
fale is divided at I, 2, 3, 4, and 6; on which the
quarters may alfo be laid down, if required. Then,
laying a ruler on the point c, draw the firft five hours
in the afternoon, from that point, through the dots at
the numeral figures 1,2, 3, 4, 5, on the line d e; and
continue the lines of 1III and V through the centre c
to the other fide of the dial, for the like hours of the
morning: which done, lay the ruler on the point a, and
draw the laft five hours in the forenoon through the
dots 5, 4, 3,2, 1, on the lineyi,- continuing the hour-
lines of VII and VIII through the centre a to the 0-
ther fide of the dial, for the like hours of the evening; Dial,
and fet the hours to their refpeiftive lines, as in the fi- piTte ® ;
gure. Laftly, make the gnomon the fame way as LXXXIX.J ?!
taught above for the horizontal dial, and the whole will
be finifhed.
To make an eredl fouth-dial, take the co-latitude of
your place from the fcale of latitudes, and then proceed
in all refpefts for the hour-lines, as in the horizontal
dial; only reverfing the hours, as in fig. 4. and making
the angle of the (tile’s height equal to the co-latitude.
But, left the.young dialift (hould have neither globe
nor wooden fale, we (hall now (hew him how he may
make a dial without any of thefe helps. Only, if he
has not a line of chords, he muft divide a quadrant in¬
to 90 equal parts or degrees for taking the proper angle
of the (tile’s elevation ; which is eafily done.
With any opening of the compaffes, as Z L, de- Fig- <*• 1
fcribe the two femicircles L F k and L g>_k, upon
the centres Z and z, where the fix o’clock line crof-
fes the double meridian line* and divide each femicircle
into 1*2 equal parts, beginning at L, (though, ftri&ly
fpeaking, only the quadrants from Z, to the fix o’clock Horizontal '
Hue need be divided ;) then conneft the divifions which dial,
are equidiftant from L, by the parallel lines KM, IN,
HO, GP, and F£K Draw FZ for the hypothenufe of
the (tile, making the angle FZE equal to the latitude
of your place; and continue the line FZ to R. Draw
the line Rr parallel to the fix o’clock line, and fet off
the diftance a K from Z to V, the diftance b I from Z ,(
to X, c H from Z to W, d G from Z to T, and e F
from Z to S. Then draw the lines Ss, Ft, W’w, Xx,
and Ty, each parallel to Rr. Set off the diftance jT’
from a lo 11, and from /"to 1; the diftance xX from b
to 10, and from ^ to 2; wW from c to 9, and from h
to 3; tF from d to 8, and from / to 4; sS from e to 7,
and from n to 5. Then laying a ruler to the centre Z,
draw the forenoon hour-lines through the points 11,
10, 9, 8, 7; and laying it to the centre z, draw the
afternoon lines through the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ; con- ]
tinning the forenoon lines of VII and VIII through
the centre Z, to the oppofite fide of the dial, for the
like afternoon hours ; and the afternoon lines III I and
V through the centre z, to the oppofite fide, for the
like morning hours. Set the hours to thefe lines as in
the figure, and then eredl the ftile or gnomon, and the
horizontal dial will be finiftied.
To conftrudl a fouth dial, draw the line FZ, making
an angle with the meridian Z L equal to the co-latitude
of your place; and proceed in all refpecls as in the a-
bove horizontal dial for the fame latitude, reverfing the
hours as in fig. 4. and making the elevation of the gno¬
mon equal to the co-latitude.
Perhaps it may not be unacceptable to explain the
method of conftrufting the dialing lines, and fome o-
thers; which is as follows.
With any opening of the compaffes, as F X, ac- Dialing
cording to the intended length of the fcalc, defcribe lines, how
the circle yZ Z> C .8, and crofs it at right angles by conftrufted.
the diameters CEX and DEB. Divide the qua¬
drant X B firft into 9 equal parts, and then each1 pjatc xc>
part into 10; fo (hall the quadrant be divided in¬
to 90 equal parts or degrees. Draw the right line
X F B for the chord of this quadrant; and fetting one
foot of the compaffes in the point FI, extend the other
to the feveral divifions of the quadrant, and transfer
thefc
D I A [ 2443 ] D I A
Dial. thefe divifions to the line AFB by the arcs jo, io»
“ ~ 20, 20, and this will be a line of chords, divided
atc ' ' into 90 unequal parts ; which, if transferred from the
line back again to the quadrant, will divide it equally.
It is plain by the figure, that the diftance from A to
60 in the line of chords, is juft equal to AE, the ra¬
dius of the circle from which that line is made ; for if
the arc 60, 60 be continued, of which A is the centre,
it goes exactly through the centre E of the arc AB.
And therefore, in laying down any number of de¬
grees on a circle, by the line of chords, you muft firft
open the compaffts fo, as to take in juft 60 degrees up¬
on that line, as from ^to 60: and then, with that ex¬
tent, as a radius, deferibe a circle, which will be exactly
of the fame fize with that from which the line was di¬
vided : which done, fet one foot of the compaffes in the
beginning of the chord line, as at A, and extend the
other to the number of degrees you want upon the line;
which extent, applied to the circle, will include the
like number of degrees upon it-
Divide the quadrant CD into 90 equal parts, and
from each point of divifion draw right lines, as i, k, /,
fcc. to the line CE; all perpendicular to that line, and
parallel to D E, which will divide E C into a line of
fines ; and although thefe are feldom put among the
dialing lines on a fcale, yet they affift in drawing the
line of latitudes. For if a ruler be laid upon the point
D, and over each divifion in the line of fines, it will di¬
vide the quadrant CB into 90 unequal parts, as Ba,
Bb, isc. (hewn by the right lines 10a, 20b, 30c, fee.
drawn along the edge of the ruler. If the right line
BC be drawn, fubtending this quadrant, and the near-
eft diftances Ba, Bb, Be, &c. be taken in the compaf¬
fes from B, and let upon this line in the fame manner
as directed for the line of chords, it will make a line of
latitudes BC, equal in length to the line of chords AB,
and of an equal number df divifions, but very unequal
as to their lengths.
Draw the right line DGA, fubtending the quadrant
Dsl; and parallel to it, draw the right line r s, touch¬
ing the quadrant DA at the numeral figure 3. Divide
this quadrant into fix equal parts, as 1,2, 3, &c. and
through thefe points of divifion draw right lines from
the centre E to the line r s, which will divide it at the
points where the fix hours are to be placed, as in the
figure. If every fixth part of the quadrant be fubdi-
vided into four equal parts, right lines drawn from the
centre through thefe points of divifion, and continued
to the line r s, will divide each hour upon it into quar-
* ters.
In Fig. 2. we have the reprefentation of a por¬
table dial, which may be eafily drawn on a, card, and
t dialer, a carried in a pocket-book. The lines ad, ab, and be
ml. of the gnomon, muft be cut quite through the card;
and as the end a b of the gnomon is raifed occafionally
above the plane of the dial, it turns upon the uncut line
cd zs on a hinge. The dotted line AB muft be flit
quite through the card, and the thread C muft be put
through the flit, and have a knot tied behind, to keep
it from being eafily drawn out. On the other end of
this thread is a fmall plummet D, and on the middle of
it a fmall bead for/hewing the hour of the day.
To reftify this dial, fet the thread in the flit right
againft the day of the month, and. ftretch the thread
from the day of the month over the angular point where
the curve-lines meet at XII; then fhift the bead to Did.
that point on the thread, and the dial will be re&i- piate Xc.
fied.
To find the hour of the day, raife the gnomon (no
matter how much or how little) and hold the edge of
the dial next the gnomon towards the fun, fo as the up-
permoft edge of the /hadow of the gnomon may juft
cover the Jhado'iu-line; and the bead then playing freely
on the face of the dial, by the weight of the plummet,
will /hew the time of the day among the hour-lines, as
it is forenoon or afternoon.
To find the time of fun-rifing and fetting, move the
thread among the hour-lines, until it either covers fome
one of them, or lies parallel betwixt any two; and then
it will cut the time of fun-rifing among the forenoon
hours, and of fun-fetting among the afternoon hours,
for that day of the year to which the thread is fet in
the fcale of months.
To find the fun’s declination, ftretch the thread from
the day of the month over the angular point at XII,
and it will cut the fun’s declination, as it is north or
fouth, for that day, in the proper fcale.
To find qn what days the fun enters the figns : when
the bead, as above redified, moves along any of the
curve-lines which have the figns of the zodiac marked
upon them, the fun enters thofe figns on the days
pointed out by the thread in the fcale of months.
The conftrudion of this dial is very eafy, efpecially
if the reader compares it all along with fig. 3. as he
reads the following explanation of that figure.
Draw the occult line AB parallel to the top of Fig. 3.
the card, and crofs it at right angles with the fix
o’clock line ECD; then upon C, as a centre, with
the radius C A, deferibe the femicircle AE L, and
divide it into 12 equal parts (beginning at AJ, as
Ar. As, &c. and from thefe points ofdivifion draw the
hour-lines r, s, t, u, v, E, *w, and x, all parallel to the
fix o’clock line EC. If each part of the femicircle be
fubdivided into four equal parts, they will give the half-
hour lines and quarters, as in fig. 2. Draw the right¬
line ASDo, making the angle SAB equal to the lati¬
tude of your place. Upon the centre A deferibe the
arch RST, and fet off upon it the arcs SR and ST,
each equal to 234- degrees, for the fun’s greateft decli¬
nation ; and divide them into 234- equal parts, as in
fig. 2. Through the interfedlion D of the lines isCZ)
and ADo, draw the right line FDG at right angles to
ADo. Lay a ruler to the points A and R, and draw
the line ARF through 234- degrees of fouth declination
in the arc SR; and then laying the ruler to the points
A and T, draw the line ATG through 234 degrees of
north declination in the arc ST: fo /hall the lines ARF
and ATG cut the line FDG in the proper length for
the fcale of months. Upon the centre D, with the ra¬
dius DF, deferibe the femicircle FoG; which divide
into fix equal parts, Fm, inn, no, &c. and from thefe
points of divifion draw the right lines mb, ni, pk, and
ql, each parallel to oD. Then fetting one foot of the
compafles in the point F, extend the other to A, and
deferibe the arc AZH for the tropic of py : with the
fame extent, fetting one foot in G, deferibe the arc
AEO for the tropic of .25. Next fetting one foot in
the point h, and extending the other to A, deferibe the
arc ACI for the beginnings of the figns ££ and ^ ;
and with the fame extent, fetting one foot in the point
D I A [24
Dial- /, defcribe the arc AN for the beginnings of the figns
~ U and Q.. Set one foot in the point /, and having
Plate XC. extended the other to A, defcribe the arc AK for the
beginnings of the figns X and tTt; and with the fame
extent, fet one foot in k, and defcribe the arc AM for
the beginnings of the figns ^ and Then fetting
one foot in the point D, and extending the other to A,
defcribe the curve AL for the beginnings of ‘Y’ and ■£±1;
and the figns will be finifhed. This done, lay a ruler
from the point A over the fun’s declination in the arch
RST; and where the ruler cuts the line FDG, make
marks; and place the days of the months right againft
thefe marks, in the manner (hewn by fig. 2. Laftly,
draw the (hadow-line parallel to the occult line
AB; make the gnomon, and fet the hours to-their re-
fpe&ive lines, as in fig. 2. and the dial will be finilh-
ed.
An univer- There are feveral kinds of dials, which are called
fal dial. univerfal, becaufe they ferve for all latitudes. Of thefe,
the beft is Mr Pardie’s, which confifts of three prin¬
cipal parts ; the firft whereof is called the horizon-
Fig-4- tal plane (A), becaufe in pra&ice it mud be paral¬
lel to the horizon. In this plane is fixed an upright
pin, which enters into the edge of the fecond part
BD, called the meridional plane ; which is made of
two pieces, the lowed whereof (B) h called the qua¬
drant, becaufe it contains a quarter of a circle, di¬
vided into 90 degrees; and it is only into this part,
near B, that the pin enters. The other piece is a fe-
micircle (DJ adjuded to the quadrant, and turning in
it by a groove, for raifing or depreffing the diameter
{EF) of the femicircle, which diameter is called the
axis of the injirument. The third piece is a circle (G),
divided on both fides into 24 equal parts, which are the
hours. This circle is put upon the meridional plane fo,
that the axis (EF) may be perpendicular to the circle,
and the point C be the common centre of the circle,
femici'rcle, and quadrant. The draight edge of the
femicircle is chamfered on both fides to a (harp edge,
which paffes through the centre of the circle. On one
fide of the chamfered part, the fird fix months of the
year are laid down, according to the fun’s declination
for their refpeftive days, and on the other fide the lad
fix months. And againd the days on which the fun
enters the figns, there are draight lines drawn upon the
femicircle, with the characters of the figns marked up¬
on them. There is a black line drawn along the middle
of the upright edge of the quadrant, over which hangs
a thread (H), with its plummet (I), for levelling the
indrument. N. B. From the twenty-third of Sep¬
tember to the twentieth of March, the upper furface of
the circle mud touch both the centre C of the femi¬
circle, and the line of 'y and and from the twen¬
tieth of March to the twenty-third of September, the
lower furface of the circle mud touch that centre and
line.
To find the time of the day by this dial. Having
fet it on a level place in fun-fhine, and adjuded it by
the levelling fcrews k and /, until the plumb-line hangs
over the black line upon the edge of the quadrant, and
parallel to the faid edge ; move the femicircle in the
quadrant, until the line of qp and (where the circle
touches) comes to the latitude of your place in the
quadrant: then turn the whole meridional plane BD,
with its circle G, upon the horizo'ntal plane A, until
14 J D 1 A ..
the edge of the (hadow of the circle falls precifely on D ial.
the day of the month in the femicircle; and then the
meridional plane will be due north and fouth, the axis plate XC.
EF will be parallel to the axis of the world, and will
cad a (hadow upon the true time of the day, among
the hours on the circle.
N. B. As, when the indrument is thusre&ified, the
quadrant and femicircle are in the plane of the meri¬
dian, fo the circle is then in the plane of the equinoc¬
tial. Therefore, as the fun is above the equinoftial in
fummer (in northern latitudes') , and below it in winter;
the axis of the femicircle will cad a fhadow on the
hour of the day, on the upper furface of the circle,
from the 26th of March to the 23d of September :
and from the 23d of September to the 20th of March
the hour of the day will be determined by the fhadow
of the femicircle, upon the lower furface of the circle.
In the former cafe, the (hadow of the circle falls upon
the day of the month, on the lower part of the dia¬
meter of the femicircle ; and in the latter cafe, on the
upper part.
The method of laying down the months and figns Fig. 5.
upon the femicircle is as follows. Draw the right-line
ACB, equal to the diameter of the femicircle ADB,
and crofs it in the middle at right angles with the line
ECD, equal in length to ADB ; then EC will be the
radius of the circle FCG, which is the fame as that of
the femicircle. Upon E, as a centre, defcribe the •
circle, FCG, on which fet off the arcs Ch and Ci, each
equal to 234- degrees, and divide them accordingly in¬
to that number, for the fun’s declination. Then lay¬
ing the edge of a ruler over the centre E, and alfo over
the fun’s declination for every fifth day of each month
(as in the card-dial) mark the points on the diameter
AB of the femicircle from a tog, which are cut by the
ruler ; and there place* the days of the months accord¬
ingly, anfwering to the fun’s declination. This done,,
fetting one foot of the compaffes in C, and extending
the other to a or g, defcribe the femicircle abodefg;
which divide into fix equal parts, and through the points
of divilion draw right lines, parallel to C D, for the be¬
ginning of the fines (of which one half are on one fide
of the femictrcle, and the other half on the other), and
fet the charafters of the figns to their proper lines, as
in the figure.
Having (hewn how to make fun dials by the afiift-
ance of a good globe, or of a dialing fcale, we (hall'
now proceed to the method of conftruftingdials arith¬
metically ; which will be more agreeable to thofe who
have learned the elements of trigonometry, becaufe globes
and fcales can never be fo accurate as the logarithms in
finding the angular diftances of the hours. Yet, as a
globe may be found exaft an enough for fome other re-
quifites in dialing, we (hall take it in occafionally.t
The conftruftion of ftin-dials on all planes whatever,
may be included in one general rule : intelligible, if
that of a horizontal dial for any given latitude be well
underftood. For there is no plane, however obliquely
fituated with refpedt to any given place, but what is
parallel to the horizon of fome other place ; and there¬
fore, if we can find that other place by a problem on
the terreftrial globe, or by a trigonometrical calculation,
and conftruft a horizontal dial for it; that dial applied
to the plane where it is to ferve, will be a true dial
for that place. Thus, an erett diredt fouth dial in
Dial.
■ Plate XC.'
Fig.fi.
D I A [ 2445 ] D I A
Sli degrees north-latitude, would be a horizontal dial
on the fame meridian, 90 degrees fouthwardof 514 de¬
grees north-latitude : which falls in with 384- degrees
of fouth latitude. But if the upright plane declines from
facing the fouth at the given place, it would ftill be a
horizontal plane 90 degrees from that place, but fora
different longitude, which would alter the reckoning
of the hours accordingly.
CASE I.
1. Let us fuppofe, that an upright plane at Lon¬
don declines 36 degrees weftward from facing the fouth;
and that' it is required to find a place on the globe, to
whofe horizon the faid plane is parallel; and alfo the
difference of longitude between London and that place.
Redlify the globe to the latitude of London, and
bring London to the zenith under the brafs meridian ;
then that point of the globe which lies in the horizon
at the given degree of declination (counted weftward
from the fouth point of the horizon) is the place at
which the abovementioned plane would be horizontal.
 Now, to find the latitude and longitude of that
place, keep your eye upon the place, and turn the globe
eaftward, until it comes under the graduated edge of
the brafs meridian : then, the degree of the brafs me¬
ridian that Hands direftly 6ver the place, is its latitude;
and the number of degrees in the equator, which are
intercepted between the meridian of London and the
brafs meridian, is the place’s difference of longitude.
Thus, as the latitude of London is degrees
north, and the declination of the place is 36 degrees
weft ; elevate the north pole 51-4 degrees above the ho¬
rizon, and turn the globe until London comes to the
zenith, or under the graduated edge of the meridian ;
then count 36 degrees on the horizon weftward from
the fopth point, and make a mark on that place of the
globe over which the reckoning ends, and bringingthe
mark under the graduated edge of the brafs meridian,
it will be found to be under 30!: degrees in fouth lati¬
tude : keeping it there, count in the equator the num¬
ber of degrees between the meridian of London and
the brafen meridian (which now becomes the meridian
of the required place) and you will find it to be 42!;.
Therefore an upright plane at London, declining 36
degrees weftward from the fouth, would be a horizon¬
tal plane at that place, whofe latitude is 304 degrees
fouth of the equator, and longitude 42^- degrees weft
of the meridian of London.
Which difference of longitude being converted into
time, is 2 hours 51 minutes.
The vertical dial declining weftward 36 degrees at
London, is therefore to be drawn in all refpeifts as a
horizontal dial for fouth latitude 30^: degrees ; fave
only, that the reckoning of the hours is to anticipate
the reckoning on the horizontal dial, by 2 hours 51
minutes : for fo much fooner will the fun come to the
meridian of London, than to the meridian of any place
whofe longitude is 42^ degrees weft from London.
2. But to be more exaft than the globe will fhew
us, we fhall ufe a little trigonometry.
Let NjE S IV be the horizon of London, whofe
zenith is Z, and P the north pole of the fphere ;
and let Z ^ be the pofition of a vertical plane at
* The co-fine of 36. o. or of R9. f The co-fine of 5
t The co-tangent of 36.0. or of DW.
Z, declining weftward from S (the fouth) by an
angle of 36 degrees ^ on which plane an ereft dial
for London at Z is to be defcribed. Make the femi-
diameter ZD perpendicular to Zh ; and it will cut the
horizon in D, 36 degrees weft of the fouth S. Then
a plane, in the tangent HD, touching the fphere in
D, will be parallel to the plane Zh; and the axis of
the fphere will be equally inclined to both thefe planes.
Let WQE be the equinoctial, whofe elevation above
the horizon of Z (London) is 384 degrees; and PRD
be the meridian of the place D, cutting the equinoctial
in R. Then it is evident, that the arc RD is the lati¬
tude of the place D (where the plane Zh would be ho¬
rizontal) and the arc TJ^is the difference of longitude
of the planes Zh and DH.
In the fpherical triangle JVDR, the arc IVD is given,
for it is the complement of the plane’s declination from
S to fouth; which complement is 540 (viz. 90°—36°:)
the angle at R, in which the meridian of the place D
cuts the equator, is a right angle ; and the angte RIVD
meafures the elevation of the equinoCtial above the ho¬
rizon of Z, namely, 384- degrees. Say therefore. As
radius is to the co-fine of the plane’s declination from
the fouth, fo is the co-fine of the latitude of Z to the
fine of RD the latitude of D : which is of a different
denomination from the latitude of Z, becaufe Z and
D are on different fides of the equator.
As radius to.doooo
To co-fine 36° o’ = R^_ 9.90796
So co-fine 510 30'=: i£Z 9.79415
To fine 30° 14’ = DR (9.70211) = the lat. of
D, whofe horizon is parallel to the vertical plane Z h
at Z.
N. B. When radius is made the firft term, it may
be omitted ; and then by fubtraCting it mentally from
the fum of the other two, the operation will be (hor-
tened. Thus, in the prefent cafe.
To the logarithmic fine of WR—* 540 9.90796.
Add the logarithmic fine of RD=\ 38° 30'9.79415.
Their fum—radius - - 9.70211
gives the fame folution as above. And we (hall keep
to this method in the following part of this article.
To find the difference of longitude of the places D
and Z, fay. As radius is to the co-fine of 384-degrees,
the height of the equino&ial at Z, fo is the co-tangent
of 36 degrees, the plane’s declination, to the co-tangent
of the difference of longitudes. Thus,
To the logarithmic fine of * 51? 30' 9.89354
Add the logarithmic tang, of f 54° o’ 10.13874
Their fum—radius - - - - - 10.03228
is the neareft tangent of 470 8'= WR ; which is the
co-tangent of 420 ^2' — R^_, the difference of longi¬
tude fought. Which difference, being reduced to
time, is two hours 514 minutes.
3. And thus having found the exaft latitude and
longitude of the place D, to whofe horizon the vertical
plane at Z is parallel, we fhall proceed to the conftruc-
tion of a horizontal dial for the place D, whofe lati¬
tude is 30° 14' fouth ; but anticipating the time at D by
two hours 51 minutes (negle&ing thej^ min.in practice)
14 G becaufe
1. 30. or of if^Z. * The co-fine of 38. 30. or of/TD/i.
D I A
becaufe D is fo far weftward in longitude from the me-
“ ridian of London ; and this will be a true vertical dial
Didljf
at London, declining weftward 36 degrees.
Affume any right line CSL, for the fubfttle of the
dial, and make the angle KCP equal to the latitude of
the place (viz. 30° 14'.) to whofe horizon the plane
of the dial is parallel; then CRP will be the axis
of the ftile, or edge that cafts the (hadow on the
hours of- the day, in the dial. This done, draw
the contingent line E§>_, cutting the fubftilar line
at right angles in K; and iromK make KR perpen¬
dicular to the axis CRP. Then KG (~KR) being made
radius, that is, equal to the chord of 6o° or tangent
of 450 on a good fe&or, take 420 52' (the difference
of longitude of the places Z and D) from the tangents,
and having fet it from Kto. Af, draw CM for the hour¬
line of XIL Take AW, equal to the tangent of an
angle lefs by 15 degrees than KM; that is, the tan¬
gent of 2 70 52': and through the point A7-draw CN for
the hour-line of I. The tangent of t2° 52' (which is
150 lefs than 270 32'), fet off the fame way, will give
a point between K and N, through which the hour¬
line of II is to be drawn. The tangent of 2Q 8; (the
difference between 450 and 42 0 52') placed on the other
fide of CL, will determine the point through which
the hour-line of III is to be drawn : to which 2° 8',
if the tangent of 150 be added, it will make 170 8';
and this fet off from K towards J^.on the line E^_,
2446 ] D X A
their declination and obliquity of their planes to the
horizon. Plate Xc :
CASE II.
7. If the plane of the dial not only declines, but alfo
reclines, or inclines. Suppofe its declination from front¬
ing the fouth S be equal to the arc SD on the horizon; Fig 1
and its reclination be equal to the arc Dd of the verti¬
cal circle DZ: then it is plain, that if the quadrant of
altitude ZdD on the globe cuts the point D in the ho¬
rizon, and the reclination is counted upon the quadrant
from D to d; the interfe&ion of the hour circle PRd,
with the equinoftial JVQE, will determine Rd, the la¬
titude of the‘place d, whofe horizon is parallel to the
given plane Zh at Z.; and A will be the difference in
longitude of the places at d and Z.
Trigonometrically thus: let a great circle pafs thro’
the three points IV, d, E; and in the triangle IFDd, .
right-angled at D, the fides JVD and Dd are given ;
and thence the angle DJFd is found, and fo is the hy-
pothenufe JVd. Again, the difference, or the fum, of
DIVd and DIVR, the elevation of the equinodial above
the horizon of Z, gives the angle dWR ; and the hy-
pothenufe of the triangle JVRd was juft now found ;
whence the lides Rd and IVR are found, the former be¬
ing the latitude of the place d, and the latter the com¬
plement of R£>_, the difference of longitude fought.
Thus, if the latitude of the place Z be 520 io' north;
will give the point for the hour-line of IV: and fo of the declination SD of the plane Zh (which would be
the reft.—The forenoon hour-lines are drawn the fame
way, by the continual addition of- the tangents 150,
30°, 450, &c. to 420 52' (=:the tangent of KM) for
the hours of XI, X, IX, &c. as far as neceffary ; that
is, until there be five hours on each fide of the fubftile.
The fixth hour, accounted from that hour or part of
the hour on which the fubftile falls, will be always in
a line perpendicular to the fubftile, and drawn through
the centre C.
4. In all ereft dials, CM, the hour-line of XII, is
perpendicular to the horizon of the place for which the
dial is to ferve; for that line is the interfe&ion of a
vertical plane with the plane of the meridian of the
place, both which are perpendicular to the plane of the
horizon: and any line HO, or ho, perpendicular to CM,
will be a horizontal line on the plane of the dial, along
which line the hours may be numbered ; and CM be¬
ing fet perpendicular to the horizon, the dial will have
its true pofition.
5. If the plane of the dial had declined by an equal
angle toward the eaft, its defeription would have dif¬
fered only in this, that the hour-line of XII would have
fallen on the other fide of the fubftile CL, and the line
HO would have a fubcontrary pofition to what it has
in this figure.
6. And thefe two dials, with the upper points of
their ftiles turned toward the north pole, will ferve for
other two planes parallel to them ; the one declining
from the north toward the eaft, and the other from the
north toward the weft, by the fame quantity of angle.
The like holds true of all dials in general, whatever be
horizontal at d) be 36°, and the reclination be 15°,
equal to the arc Dd\ the fouth latitude of the place*/,
that is, the arc Rd, will be 150 9'; and R§>_, the dif¬
ference of the longitude, 36° 2'. From thefe data,
therefore, let the.dial (fig. 2.) be deferibed, as in the
former example.
8. There are feveral other things requifite in the
pra&ice of dialing ; the chief of which Ihall be given
in the form of arithmetical rules, fimple and eafy to
thofe who have learned the elements of trigonometry.
For in pradlical arts of this kind, arithmetic fltould be
ufed as far as it can go ; and feales never trufted to,
except in the final conftru&ion, where they are abfo-
lutely neceffary in laying down the calculated hour-di-
ftances on the plane of the dial.
Rule I. To find the angles which the hour-lines on any
dial make with the fuhftile.
To the logarithmic fine of the given latitude, or of
the ftile’s elevation above the plane of the dial, add the
logarithmic tangent of the hour * diitance from the me¬
ridian, or from the + fubftile; and the fum minus radius
will be the logarithmic tangent of the angle fought.
For KC is to KM in the ratio compounded of the p, f yr
ratio of KC to KG (=KR) and of KG to KM\ which fig. 7.
making-tTA' the radius 10,000000, or 10,0000, or 10,
or 1, are the ratio of 10,000000, or of 10,0000, or
of to, or of 1, to KGX.KM.
Thus, in a horizontal dial, for latitude 510 30', to
find the angular diftanee of XI in the forenoon,, or I
the afternoon, from XII:
To
* That is, of 15, 30, 45, 60, 750, for the hours of I, II, III, IIII, V, in the afternoon; and XI, X, IX, VIII,
VII, in the afternoon. . f In all horizontal dials, and eredt north or Fouth dials, the fubftile and meridian
arc the fame: but in all declining dials, the fubftile line makes an angle with the meridian.
Pla^c. ^XC.
Dial.
Plate XC.
% 7-
pfPlate XCI.
Pg- *•
D I A [ 2447 ] D I A
To the logarithmic fine of 510 30' 9*89354 £
Add the logarithmic tang, of 150 o' 9.42805
The fum — radius is - - - - 9.32159=^6
logarithmic tangent of 11° 50 , or of the angle which
the hour-line of XI or I makes with the hour of XII.
And by computing in this manner, with the fine of
the latitude, and the tangents of 30, 45, 60, and 75®,
for the hours of II, III, IIII, and V in the afternoon;
or of X, IX, VIII, and VII in the forenoon; you will
find their angular diftances from XII to be 240 18',
38° 3r, 530 35', and 710 6'; which are all that there is
pccafion to compute for. And thefe diftances may
be fet off from Xll by a line of chords; or rather, by
taking 1000 from a fcale of equal parts, and fel¬
ting that extent as a radius from C to XII; and
then, taking 209 of the fame parts (which, are the
natural tangent of ii°50/), and fetting them from
XII to XI and to I, on the lineal?, which is perpendi¬
cular to C XII; and fo for the reft of the hour-lines,
which, in the table of natural tangets, again ft the above
diftances, 316451, 782, 1355, and 2920, of fuch equal
parts from Xll, as the radius C XII contains 1000.
And, laftly, fet off 1257 (the natural tangent of
510 30') for the angle of the ftile’s height, which is
equal to the latitude of the place.
Rule II. The latitude of the place., the fun's declina¬
tion, and his hour-difance from the meridian, being
given, to find (i.) his altitude; (2.) his azimuth.
i. Let d be the fun’s place, dR his declination ;
and, in the triangle PZ;/, P^ the fum, or the differ¬
ence, of dR, and the quadrant PR, being given by the
fuppofition, as alfo the complement of the latitude PZ,
and the angle dPT,, which meafures the horary diftance
of </ from the meridian; we (hall (by Cafe 4. of Keill’s
oblique fpheric Trigonometry) find the bafe Zd, which
is the fun’s diftance from the zenith, or the comple¬
ment of his altitude.
And (2.) As fine 7jd; fine Pd : : fine dPT. : dZP,
or of its fupplement DZS, the azimuthal diftance from
the fouth.
Or the practical rule may be as follows.
Write sd for the fign of the fun’s altitude, L and /
for the fine and co-fine of the latitude, D and d for the
fine and co-line of the fun’s declination, and //for the
fine of the horary diftance from VI.
Then the relation ol H \o A will have three varie¬
ties.
1. When the declination is toward the elevated pole,
and the hour of the day is between XII and VI; it is
A-LDfi-Hld, and H-
2. When the hour is after VI, it is A=LD—Hid,
and
Id
3. When the declination is toward the deprefled pole,
we have A—Hid—LD, and Hczd+HL
Id
Which theorems will be found ufeful, and expedi¬
tious enough for folving thofe problems in geography Dial,
and dialing, which depend on the relation of the fun’* T™
altitude to the hour of the day. fig3^.
EXAMPLE I.
Suppofe the latitude of the place to be 514- degrees
north: the time five hours diftant from XII, that is,
an hour after VI in the morning, or before VI in the
evening ; and the fun’s declination 20° north. Required
the fun's altitude ?
Then to log. L = log. fin. 510 30' 1.89354*
add log. Z> = log. fin. 20° o' 1.53405
Their fum 1.42759 gives
LD=logarithm of 0.267664, in the natural lines.
And, to log.//= log. fin. f 15® o' 1.41300
add $ loS- 7 = ,0£’ fm- $ 3 8° o' 1.79414
£log. d— log. fin. || 70° o' 1.97300
Their fum 1.18015 gives
///</=logarithm of 0.151408, in the natural fines.
And thefe two numbers (0.267664 and 0.151408)
make 0.419072 = //; which, in the table, is the near-
eft natural fine of 24° 47', the fun’s altitude fought.
The fame hour-diftance being affumed on the other
fide of VI, then ZD — Hid is 0.116256, the fine of
6° 4q'4-; which is the fun’s altitude at V in the morn¬
ing, or VII in the evening, when his north declina¬
tion is 20°.
But when the declination is 20° fouth (or towards*
the depreffed pole) the difference Hid—L D becomes
negative ; and thereby Ihews, that, an hour before VI
in the morning, or paft VI in the evening, the fun’s
centre is 6° 40/^- below^the horizon.
EXAMPLE II.
From the fame data, to find the fun’s azimuth.
If H, L, and D are given, then (by par. 2. of
Rule II.) from H having found the altitude and its
complement Zd\ and the arc Pd (the diftance from
the pole) being given; fay, As the co-fine of the al¬
titude is to the fine of the diitance from the pole, fo is
the fine of the hour-diftance from the meridian to the
fine of the azimuth diftance from the meridian.
Let the latitude be 510 30' north, the declination
150 9' fouth, and the time II h. 24 m. in the after¬
noon, w'hen the fun begins to illuminate a vertical wall,
and it is required to find the pofition of the wall.
Then, by the foregoing theorems, the complement
of the altitude will be 8i° 32'4-, and Pd the diftance
from the pole being lop0^', and the hofary diftance
from the meridian, or the angle d P Z., 36°.
To log. fin. 740 51' - 1.98464
Add. log. fin. 36° o' - 1.76922
And from the fum - T*75386
Take the log. fin. 8i0 32'4 - 1*99525
Remains
350, the azimuth diftance fought.
14 G 2
i.7586i=log.fin.
When
X In which cafe, the radius CK is fuppofed to be divided into 100000 equal parts. * Here we con-
fider the radius as unity, and not 10.00000, by Which, inftead of the index 9, we have —r, as above; which is of no
farther ufe than making the work a little ealier. f The diftance of one hour from VI. § The
co-latitude of the place. || The co-declination of the fun.
Dial.
D I A [ 2448 ] D I A
When the altitude is given, find from thence the
Plate xcT k£,ur> at,d proceed as above.
This praxis is of fingular ufe on many occafions ; in
Ending the declination of vertical planes more exa&ly
than in the common way, efpecially if the tranfits of
the fun’s centre are obferved by applying a ruler with
fights, either plain or teldfcopical, to the wall or
plane whofe declination is required.— In drawing a
meridian line, and finding the magnetic variation.— In
finding the bearings of places in terreftrial Purveys ; the
tranfits ofthe fun over any place, or his horizontal di-
ilance from it, being obferved, together with the alti¬
tude and hour. —And thence determining fmall diffe¬
rences of longitude. —In obferving the variations, at
fea, &c.
Of the double Horizontal Dial; and the Babylonian and
Italian Dials.
To gncmonic projection, there is fometimes ad¬
ded a fereographic projection of the hour-circles, and
the parallels of the fun’s declination, on the fame ho¬
rizontal plane ; the upright fide of the gnomon being
Hoped into an edge, ‘ftanding perpendicularly over the
centre of the proje&ion : fo that the dial, being in its
due pofition, the fhadow of that perpendicular edge is
a vertical circle paffing thro’ the fun, in the flereogra-
phic proje&ipn.
The months being duly marked on this dial, the fun’s
declination, and the length of the day at any time, are
had by infpedtion (as alfo his altitude, by means of a
fcale of tangents.) But its chief property is, that it may
be placed true, whenever the fun fhines, without the
help of any other inftrument.
Let d be the fun’s place in the ftereographic projec-
ffig. x. tion, x dy z the parallel of the fun’s declination, Z d
a vertical circle through the fun’s centre, P d the
hour-circle ; and it is evident, that the diameter NS of
this projeftion being placed duly north and fouth, thefe
three circles will pafs through the point d. And there¬
fore, to give the dial its due pofition, we have only
to turn' its gnomon toward the fun, on a horizontal
plane, until the hour on the common gnomonic pro-
jeftion coincides with that marked by the hour-circle
P d, which paffes through the interfeftion of the fha¬
dow Z d with the circle of the fun’s prefent declina¬
tion.
The Babylonian and Italian dials reckon the hours,
not from the meridian, as wjth us, but from the fun’s
rifing and fetting. Thus, in' Italy, an hour before
fun-fet is reckoned the 23d hour ; two hours before
fun-fet the zzd hour; and fo of the reft. And the
fhadow.that marks them on the hour-lines, is that of
the point of a ftile. This occafions a perpetual varia¬
tion between their dials and clocks, which they muft
correft from time to time, before it arifes to any fen-
fible quantity, by fetting their clocks fo much fafteror
flower. And in Italy, they begin their day, and re¬
gulate their clocks, not from fun-fet, but from about
mid-twilight, when the Ave-Maria is faid ; which
corredts the difference that would otherwife be between
the clock and the dial.
The improvements which have been made in all forts
of inftrumcnts and machines for meafuring time, have
rendered fuch dials of little account. Yet, as the theo¬
ry of them is ingenious, and they are really, in fome
refpefts, the bed contrived of any for vulgar ufe, a Dial. | .
general idea of their defcription may not be unaccep- piate x-Ctlr v
table. ae | '
Let fig. 3. reprefent an eredl diredt fouth wall, on
which a Babylonian dial is to be drawn, fhewing the
hours from fun-rifing; the latitude of the place, whofe
horizon is parallel to the wall, being equal to the angle
KCR. Make, as for a common dial, KG=KR (which
is perpendicular to CK) the radius of the equinodtial
and draw RS perpendicular to C K for the ftile
of the dial; the fhadow of whofe point R is to mark
the hours, when <S P is fet upright on the plane of the
dial.
Then it is evident, that, in the contingent line
the fpaces K 1, K 2, K3, &c. being taken equal to
the tangents of the hour-diftances from the meridian,
to the radius K G, one, two, three, &c. hours after
fun-rifing, on the equinodlial day ; the fhadow of the
point R will be found, at thefe times, refpedlively in
the points 1, 2, 3, &c.
Draw, for the like hours after fun-rifing, when the
funis in the tropric of Capricorn vy V, thelik;ecom-
morf lines CD, CE, CF, &c. and at thefe hours the
fhadow of the point R will be found in thofe lines re-
fpedtively. Find the fun’s altitudes above the plane of
the dial at thefe hours; and with their co-tangents Sd,
S e, S f, &c. to radius S P,~defcribe arcs interfedling
the hour-lines in the points d, e,f, &c. fo fhall the right
lines \ d, le, $f. See. be the lines of I, II, III, &c.
hours after fun-rifing.
The conftrudtion is the fame in every other cafe; due
regard being had to the difference of longitude of the
place at which the dial would be horizontal, and the
place for which it is to fervei and likewife, taking care
to draw no lines but what are neceffary ; which may be
done partly by the rules already given for determining
the time that the fun fhines on any plane ; and partly
from this, that on the tropical days, the hyperbola de-
feribed by the fhadow of the point R limits the extent
of all the hour-lines.
Of the right placing of dials, and having a true meridi¬
an line for the regulating of clocks and watches.
Th£ plane on which the dial is to reft being duly
prepared, and every thing neceffary for fixing it, you
may find the hour tolerably exaft by a large equinoc¬
tial ring-dial, and fet your watch to it. And then the
dial may be fixed by the watch at your leifure.
If you would be more exadt, take the fun’s altitude
by a good quadrant, noting the precife time of obfer-
vation by a clock or watch. Then compute the time
for the altitude obferved; and fet the watch to agree
with that time, according to the fun. A Hadley’s
quadrant is very convenient for this purpofe : for by
it you may take the angle between the fun and his
image refle&ed from a bafon of water ; the half of
which angle, fubtra&ing the refraftion, is the alti¬
tude required. This is beft done in fummer ; and the
nearer the fun is to the prime vertical (the eaft or weft
azimuth) when the obfervation is made, fo much the
better.
Or, in fummer, take two equal altitudes of the fun
in the fame day; one any time between 7 and 10 in
the morning, the other between 2 and 5 in the after¬
noon ; noting the moments of thefe two obfervationa
by
D 1 A
D I A [ 2449 ]
Dial, by a clock or watch : and if the watch fhews the ob-
  fervations to be at equal diftances from noon, it agrees
exa&ly with the fun : if not, the watch muft be cof-
refted by half the difference of the forenoon and after¬
noon intervals; and then the dial may be fet true by
the watch.
Thus, for example, fuppofe you had taken the fun’s
altitude when it was 20 minutes paft VIII in the morn-
ning by the watch; and found, by obferving in the af¬
ternoon, that the fun had the fame altitude 10 minutes
before IIII; then it is plain, that the watch was 5 mi¬
nutes too faft for the fun : for 5 minutes after XII is
the middle time between VIII h. 20 m. in the morn¬
ing, and. III. h. 50 m. in the afternoon ; and there¬
fore, to make the watch agree with the fun, it muft be
fet back five minutes.
meridian g00d meridian line, for regulating clocks or watch-
es, may be had by the following method.
Make a round hole, almoft a quarter of an inch dia¬
meter, in a thin plate of metal; and fix the plate in the
top of a fouth window, in fuch a manner, that it may
recline from the zenith at an angle equal to the co-lati¬
tude of your place, as nearly as you can guefs : for then
the plate will face the fun diredtly at noon on the equi-
nodtial days. Let the fun fhine freely thro’ the hole in¬
to the room; and hang a plumb line to the ceiling of the
room, at leaft five or fix feet from the window, in fuch
a place as that the fun’s rays, tranfmitted through the
hole, may-fall upon the line when it is noon by the
clock; and haying marked the laid place on the ceil¬
ing, take away the line.
Having adjufted a Aiding bar to a dove-tail groove,
in a piece of wood about x'8 inches long, and fixed a
hook into the middle of the bar, nail the wood to the
above-mentioned place on the ceiling, parallel to the
fide of the room in which the window is ; the groove
and bar being towards the floor. Then, hang the
plumb-line upon the hook in the bar, the weight or
plummet reaching almoft to the floor ; and the whole
will be prepared for farther and proper adjuftment.
This done, find the true folar time by either of the
two laft methods, and thereby regulate your clock.
Then, at the moment of next noon by the clock, when
the fun ftiines, move the fliding-bar in the groove, un¬
til the fhadow of the plumb-line bifedts the image of
the fun (made by his rays tranfmitted thro’the hole)
on the floor, wall, or on a white fcreen placed on the
north-fide of the line; the plummet or weight at the
end of the line hanging freely in a pail of water placed
below it on the floor.—But becaufe this may not be
quite corredt for the firft time, on account that the
plummet will not fettle immediately, even in water ; it
may be farther corvedled on the following days, by the
above method, with the fun and clock ; and fo brought
to a very great exadtnefs.
N-. B. The rays tranfmitted through the hole, will
caft but a faint image of the fun, even on a white
fcreen, unlefs the room be fo darkened that no fun-
Ihine may be allowed to enter but what comes
through the fmall hole inthe plate. And always, for
fome time before the obfervation is made, the plum¬
met ought to be immerfed in ajar of water, where it
may hang freely; by which means the line will foon
become fteady, which otherwife would be apt to con¬
tinue fwinging.
din Univerfal Dial,Jben.ving the hours of the day by a ter- - . ....
ref rial globe, and by the Jhadonus offever a l gnomons,
at the fame time : together ’with a.11 the places of the ,
earth nvhich are then enlightened by the fun; and thofe
to ’which the fun is then rifing, or on the meridian, or
fitting.
This dial is made of a thick fquare piece of wood’ PlateXCIL
or hollow metal. The fides are cut into femicircu-
lar hollows, in which the hours are placed ; the ftile
of each hollow coming: out from the bottom there¬
of, as far as the ends of the hollows projedt. The
corners are cut out into angles, in the infides of
which the hours are alfo marked; and the edge of
the end of each fide of the angle ferves as a ftile for
calling a lhadow on the hours marked on the other
fide.
In the middle of the uppermoft fide, or plane,
there is an equinodtial dial; in,the centre whereof an
upright wire is fixed, for calling a lhadow on the hours
of that dial, and fupporting a fmall terreftrial globe on
its top.
The whole dial Hands on a pillar, in the middle of a
round horizontal board, in which there is a compafs
and magnetic needle, for placing the meridian llile to¬
ward the fouth. The pillar has a joint with a quadrant
upon it, divided into 90 degrees (fuppofed to be hid
from fight under the dial in the figure) forfeiting it to
the latitude of any given place.
The equator of the globe is divided into 24 equal
parts, and the hours are laid down upon it at thefe parts.
The time of the day may be known by thefe hours,
when the fun Ihines upon the globe.
To re&ify and ufe this dial, fet it on a level table, or
foie of a window, where the fun Ihines, placing the
meridian ftile due fouth, by means of the needle; which
will be, when the needle points as far from the north
fleur-de-lis toward the weft, as it declines weftward, at
your place. Then bend the pillar in the joint, till the
black line on the pillar comes to the latitude of your
place in the quadrant.
The machine being thus rectified, the plane of its
dial-part will be parallel to the equator, the wire or axis
that fupports the globe wall be parallel to the earth’s
axis, and the north pole of the globe will point toward
the north pole of the heavens.
The fame.hour will then be ftiewn in feveral of the
hollows, by the ends of the ftiadows of their refpeftive
ftiles : the axis of the globe will caft a (hadow on the
fame hour of the day, in the equino6lial dial, in the
centre of which it is placed, from the 20th of March to
the 23d of September; and, if the meridian of your
place on the globe be fet even with the meridian (tile,
all the parts of the globe that the fun fhines upon, will
anfwer to thofe places of the real earth which are then
enlightened by the fun. The places where the fliade
is juft coming upon the globe, anfwer to all thofe pla¬
ces of the earth to which the fun is then fetting; as the
places where it is going off, and the light coming on,
anfwer to all the places of the earth where the fun is
then rifing. And daftly, if the hour of VI be marked
on the equator in the meridian of your place (as it is
marked on the meridian of London in the figure) the
divifion of the light and fliade on the globe will fliew
the time of the day.
The
Dial.
when the fun’s Dial*
D I A [ 2450 ] D I A
The northern (tile of the dial (oppofite to the
fouthern or meridian one) is hid from fight in the fi-
ure, by the axis of the globe. The hours in the
ollow to which that ftile belongs, are alfo fuppofed
to be hid by the oblique view of the figure: but they
are the fame as the hours in the front-hollow. Thofe
alfo in the right and left hand femicircular hollows are
inoftly hid from fight ; and fo alfo are all thofe on the
fides next the eye of the four acute angles.
The conftmftion of this dial is as follows :
On a thick fquare piece of wood, or metal, draw the
lines ac and b d, aS far from each other as you intend
for the thicknefs of the fiile abed-, and in the fame
manner, draw the like thicknefs of the other three
ftiles, «fg h, ikl vi, n 0 p q, all handing out¬
right as from the centre.
With any convenient opening of the compaffes, as
a A, (fo as to leave proper ttrength of fluff when K1 is
equal to aA), fet one foot in a, as a centre, and with
the other foot defefibe the quadrantal arc Ac. Then,
without altering the compafies, fet one foot in £ as a
centre, and with the other foot deferibe the quadran?
dB. All the other quadrants in the figure mull be
deferibed in the fame manner, and with the fame open¬
ing of the compaffcs, on their centres e f, i k, and
ji 0; and each quadrant divided into fix equal parts,
for as many hours, as in the figure; each of which
parts mult be fubdivided into 4, for the half-hours and
quarters.
At equal diflances from each corner, draw the right
lines Ip and Kp, Lq and Mq, Nr and 0 r, Ps and
Qj ; to form the four angular hollows Ip K, L q M,
NrO, jand P s making the diftances between the
tips of thefe hollows, as IK, L M, NO, and P §>_,
each equal to the radius of the quadrants; and leaving
fufficient room within the angular points /’grand/, for
the equinoctial in the middle.
To divide the'infides of thefe angles properly for the
hour-fpaces thereon, take the following method.
Set one foot of the compaffes in the point I, as a
centre, and open the other to K; and with that open¬
ing deferibe the arc Kt: then, without altering the
compaffes, fet one foot in K, and with the other foot
deferibe the arc It. Divide each of thefe arcs, from
/ and K to their interfeClion at t, into four equal parts;
and from their centres I and K, through the points of
divifion, draw the right lines / j, 74, /g, 76, 7/;
and K2, K 1, K K w, and they will meet the
fides Kp and Ip ak the angle IpK where the hours
thereon muff be placed. And thefe hour-fpaces in the
arcs mull be fubdivided into four equal parts, for the
half hours and quarters.—Do the like for the other
three angles, and draw the dotted lines, and fet the
hours in the infides where thofe lines meet them, as
in the figure: and the like hour-lines will be paral¬
lel to each other in all the quadrants and in all the
angles.
Mark points for all thefe hours on the upper fide ;
and cut out all the angular hollows, and the quadrantal
ones quite through the places where their four gno¬
mons muft ftand; and laydown the hours on their in¬
fides, (as in Plate XCII.), and fet in their gnomons,
which muft be as broad as the dial is thick; and this
breadth and thicknefs muft be large enough to keep
the lhadows of the gnomons from ever falling quite
out at the fides of the hollows, even
declination is at the greateft.
Laftly, draw the equino&ial dial in the middle, all
the hours of which are equidiftant from each other:
and the dial will be finifhed.
As the fun goes round, the broad end of the fliadow
of the ftile acbd will (hew the hours in the quadrant.
Ac, from fun-rife till VI in the morning; the fhadow
from the end M will fhew the hours on the fide Lq
from V to IX in the morning; the ftiadow of the ftile
efg h in the quadrant Dg (in the long days) will fhow
the hours from fun-rife till VI in the morning; and
the fliadow of the end N will fhew the morning-hours,
on the fide 0 r, from III to VII.
Juft as the fhadow of the northern ftile abed goes oft
the quadrant Ac, the fhadow of the fouthern ftile i klm
begins to fall within the quadrant FI, at VI in the
morning; and fhews the time, in that quadrant, from
VI till XII at noon; and fiom noon till VI in the
evening in the quadrant mE. And the fhadow of the
end 0, fhews the time from XI in the forenoon till III
in the afternoon, on the fide rN; as the fhadow of the
end P {hews the time from IX in the morning till I
o’clock in the afternoon, on the fide §>j.
At noon, when the fhadow of the eaftern ftile efgb
goes off the quadrant hC (in which it fhevved the time
from VI in the morning till noon, as it did in the qua¬
drant gD from fun-rife till VI in the morning) the
fhadow of the weftern ftile nopq begins to enter the
quadrant Hp; and fhews the hours thereon from XII
at noon till VI in the evening; and after that till fun-
fet, in the quadrant qG: and the end j^cafts a fhadow
on the fide Ps from V in the evening till IX at night,
if the fun be not fet before that time.
The fhadow of the end 7 fhews the time on the fide
Kp from III till VII in the afternoon ; and the fhadow
of the ftile abed fhews the time from VI in the evening
till the fun fets.
The fhadow of the upright central wire, that fup-
ports the globe at top, fhews the time of the day, in
the middle or equinoftial dial, all the futnmer half-year,
when the fun is on the north fide of the equator.
DIALECT, an appellation given to the language
of a province, in fo far as it differs from that of the
whole kingdom. The term, however, is more parti¬
cularly ufed in fpeaking of the ancient Greek, whereof
there were four dialefts, the Attic, Ionic, TEolic, and
Doric, each of which was a perfed language in its
kind, that took place in certain countries, and had pe¬
culiar beauties.
In Great Britain, befides the grand diverfity of Eng-
lifh and Scotch, almoft every county has a dialed of its
own, all differing confiderably in pronunciation, accent,
and tone, although one and the fame language.
DIALECTICS, in the literary hiftory of the an¬
cients, that branch of logics which taught the rules
and modes of reafoning. See Logic, Part III.
DIALIA, in antiquity, facrifices performed by the
flamen dialis. See Flamen.
DIALING, the art of drawing dials, on any given
plane, or on the furface of any given body. See
Dial.
The Greeks and Latins called this art gnomonica and
fciatherica, by reafon it diftinguifhes the hours by the
fhadow of a gnomon. Some call it photo-fciatherica,
by
T)oms.
:n° 1.
Plate XCH.
POBIS.
D I A [ 2451 ] D I A
Dialing, by reafon the hours are foitietimes (hewn by the light
  of the fun. Laftly, others call it horologiography.
The antiquity of dials is beyond doubt. Some at¬
tribute their invention to Anaximenes Milefius; and
others to Thales. Vitruvius mentions one made by
the ancient Chaldee hiftorian Berofus, on a reclining
plane, almoft parallel to the eqnino&ial. Ariftarchus
Samius invented the hemifphericaLdial. And there
were fome fpherical ones, with a' needle for a gnomon.
The difcus of Ariftarchus was an horizontal dial, with
its limb raifed up all around, to prevent the fhadows
ftretching too far.
But it was late ere the Romans became acquainted
with dials. The firft fun-dial at Rome was fet up by
Papirius Curfor, about the year of the city 460 ; be¬
fore wiiich time, fays Pliny, there is no mention of any
account of time but by the fun’s rifing and fetting : it
was fet up at or near the temple of Quirinus, but went
ill. About 30 years after, M. Valerius Meffala being
conful, brought out of Sicily another dial, which he fet
up on a pillar near the roftrum ; but for want of its
being made for that latitude, it could not go true.
They made ufe of it 99 years; till Martius Philippus
fet up another more exact.
But there feem to have been dials among the Jews
much earlier than any of thefe. Witnefs the dial of
Ahaz; who began to reign 400 years before Alexan¬
der, and within 12 years of the building of Rome;
mentioned by Ifaiah, chap, xxxviii. verfe 8-
The firft profefled writer on dialing is Claviuswho
demtmftrates all, both the theory and the operations,
after the rigid manner of the ancient mathematicians;
but fo intricately, that few, we dare fay, ever read them
all. Dechales and Ozanam give much eafier demonftra-
tions in their dear/e/, and Wolfius iahis Elements. M.
Picard has given a new method of making large dials,
by calculating the hour-lines; and Mr de la Hire, in
his Dialing, printed in 1683, a geometrical method of
drawing hour-lines from certain points determined by
obfcrvation. Eberhardus Welperus, in 1625, pub-
lilhed his Dialing, wherein he lays down a method of
drawing the primary dials on a very eafy foundation.
The fame foundation is defcribed at length by Seba-
ftian Munfter, in his Rudiinenta IVla them a tic a, pub-
liftred in 1551. Sturm ins, in 1672, publiftied a new
edition of Welperus’s Dialing, with the addition of a
whole fecond part, about inclining and declining dials,
&c. In 1708, the fame work, with Sturmius’s addi¬
tions, was republiftied with the addition of a fourth
part, containing Picard’s and de la Hire’s methods of
drawing large dials. Paterfon, Michael, and Muller,
have each wrote on dialing, in the German tongue ;
Coetfrus in his Horolegiographia Plana, printed in 1689 ;
Gauppenius, in his Gnomtmica Mechanic a; Bion, in
his Ufe of Mathematical Injlrutnents; and the late inge¬
nious Mr Fergufon, in his Selett Leftnres. See the
article Dial.
DiAUNG-Z/ffe/, or Scales, are graduated lines,
placed on rules, or the edges of quadrants, and other
inftruments, to expedite the conftruaion of dials. See
Dial, p. 2442, col. 2. and Plate XC.
T)ia\.ikg-Sphere, is an inftrument made of brafs,
with feveral femicircles Aiding over one another, on a
moving horizon, to demonftrate the nature of the doc¬
trine of fpherical triangles, and to give a true idea of
the drawing of dials on all manner of planes. Dialing
Dialing, in a mine, called alfo Plumming, is the . II
ufing of a compafs (which they call dial), and a long Dtal°gue-.
line, to know which way the load, or vein of ore in¬
clines, or where to fhift an air-ihaft, or bring an adit
to a defired place.
DIALIS, in antiquity, a Latin term fignifying
fomt thing that belongs to Jupiter.—The word is form¬
ed from Awf, the genitive of 3<vr, 'Jupiter.
Flamen Dialis. See Flamen.
DIALITHA, in the writings of the ancients, a
word ufed to exprtfs the elegant ornaments of the
Greeks and Romans, compofed of gold and gems.
They alfo called thele, lithocolla, “cemented ftones or
gemsthe gold being in this cafe as a cement to hold
the ftones together. They wore bracelets and other
ornamental things about their habits thus made ; and
their cups and table-furniture, for magnificent treats,
were of this kind. The green ftones were found to
fucceed beft of all in thefe things; and the emerald,
and greenifh topaz, or, as we call it, chryfolite, were
moft in efteem for this purpofe. This ufe of the ftones
explains what Pliny very often fays of them in his de
fcription: Nihil jucundius aurum dccet, “ Nothing
becomes gold better:” this he fays of the green topaz
or chryfolite ; and this and many other like paflages
have greatly perplexed the critics, who did not hit up¬
on this explication.
DIALOGISM, in rhetoric, is ufed for the folilo-
quy of perfons deliberating with themfelves. See So¬
liloquy.
DIALOGUE, in matters of literature, a converfa-
tion between two or more perfons, either by writing
or by word of mouth.
Conipofition and Style of Written Dialogue. As the
end of fpeeeh is converfation, no kind of writing can
be more natural than dialogue, which reprefents this.
And accordingly we find it was introduced very early,
for there are feveral inftancesof it in the Mofaic hif-
tory. The ancient Greek writers alfo fell very much
into it, efpecially the philofophers, as the moft conve¬
nient and agreeable method of communicating their
fentiments and infliuftions to mankind. And indeed
it feems to be attended with very coniiderahle advan¬
tages, if well and judicioufly managed. For it is ca¬
pable to make the drieft fubjedfs entertaining and plea-
fant, by its variety, and the different ciiaradfcrs of the
fpeakers. Befides, things may be canvafltd more mi¬
nutely, and many leffer matters, which ferye to clear
up a fubjeft, may be introduced with a better grace,
by queftions and anfwers, objections and replies, than
can be conveniently done in a continued difeourfe.
There is likewife a further advantage in this way of
writing, that the author is at liberty to choofe his
fpeakers : And therefore, as Cicero has well obferved,
when we imagine, that we hear perfons of an eftabliflred
reputation for wifdom and knowledge talking together,
it neceflarily adds a weight and authority to the dif¬
eourfe, and more clofely engages the attention. The
fubjeft-matter of it is very entenfive. For whatever is
a proper argument of difeourfe, public or private, fe-
rious or jocofe ; whatever is fit for wife and ingenious
men to talk upon, either for improvement or diverfion ;
is fuitable for a dialogue.
From this general account of the nature of dialogue^
it
D E S [ 2452 ] D E S
Dialogue, it is eafy to perceive what kind of ftyle befl fuits it.
'Its affinity with Epistles, ffiews there ought to be no
great difference between them in this refpeft. Indeed,
fome have been of opinion, that it ought rather to fink
below that of an epiftle, becaufe dialogues fiiould in
all refpefts reprefent the freedom of converfation ;
whereas, epiftles ought fometimes to be compofed with
care and accuracy, efpecially when written to fuperiors.
But^ there feems to be little weight in this argument,
fince the defign of an epiftle is to fay the fame things,
and in the fame manner, as the writer judges would
be mod fit and proper for him to fpeak, if prefent.
And the very fame thing is defigned in a dialogue,
with refpedt to the feveral perfons concerned in it.
Upon the whole, therefore, the like plain, eafy, and
fimple ftyle, Anted to the nature of the fubjeft, and
the particular characters of the perfons concerned,
feems to agree to both.
But as greater ikill is- required in writing dialogues,
than letters ; we (hall give a more particular account
of the principal things neceffary to be regarded in
their compofition, and illullrate them chiefly from
Cicero’s excellent Dialogues concerning an orator.—A
dialogue, then, confifts of two parts ; introduction,
and the body of the difcourfe.
1. The introduction acquaints us with the place, time,
perfons, and occafion, of the converfation. Thus Ci¬
cero places the fcene of his dialogues at Craffus’s coun¬
try feat; a very proper recefs, both for fuch a debate,
and the parties engaged in it. And as they were per¬
fons of the firft rank, and employed in the greateft af¬
fairs of (late, and the difcourfe held them for two days;
he reprefents it to have happened at the time of a fef-
tival, when there was no bufinefs done at Rome, which
gave them an opportunity to be abfent.
And becaufe the greateft regard is to be had in the
choice of the perfons, who ought to be fuch as are
well acquainted with the fubjeft upon which they dif¬
courfe ; in thefe dialogues of Cicero, the two principal
difputants are Craffus and Antony, the greafeft orators
of that age, and therefore the moft proper perfons to
difpute upon the qualifications neceffary for their art.
One would think it fcarce neceffary to obferve, that
the conference (hould be held by perfons who lived at
the fame time, and fo were capable to converfe toge¬
ther. But yet, fome good writers have run into the
impropriety of feigning dialogues between perfons who
lived at diftant times. Plato took this method, in
which he has been followed by Macrobius. But others,
who have been willing to bring perfons to difcourfe
together, who lived in different ages, without fuch in-
confiftency, have wrote dialogues of the dead. Lucian
has made himfelf moft remarkable in this way. As to
the number of perfons in a dialogue, they may be more
or lefs : fo many, as can conveniently carry on a con¬
verfation without diforder or confufion, may be ad¬
mitted. Some of Cicero’s dialogues have only two,
others three or more, and thofe concerning, an orator
feven. And it is convenient they (hould all, in fome re-
fpects, be perfons of different chara&ers and abilities ;
which contributes both to the variety and beauty of
the difcourfe, like the different attitude of figures in
a pr&ure. Thus in Cicero’s dialogues laft mentioned,
Craffus excelled in art, Antony principally for the force
of his genius, Catullus for the purity of his ftyle, Sce-
vola for his (kill in the law, Caefar for wit and humour; Dialogue. !h
and though Sulpitius and Cotta, who were young men, “ T
were both excellent orators, yet they differed in their
manner. But there (hould be always one chief per-
fon, who is to have the main part of the cenverfationy
like the hero in an epic poem or a tragedy, who ex¬
cells the reft in a&ion ; or the principal figure in a
picture, which is moft confpicuous. In Plato’s dia¬
logues, this is Socrates j and Craffus, in thofe of Ci¬
cero above mentioned.
It is ufual, likewife, in the introduAion, to acquaint
us with the occafion of the difcourfe. Indeed this is
not always mentioned ; as in Cicero’s dialogue of the
parts of oratory, where the fon begins immediately
with defiring his father to inftruft him in the art. But
it is generally taken notice of, and moft commonly re-
prefented, as accidental. The reafon of which may
be, that fuch difcourfes appear moft natural; and
may likewife afford fome kind of apology for the
writer in managing his different characters, fince the
greateft men may be fuppofed not always to fpeak with
the utmoft exaftnefs in an accidental converfation.
Thus Cicero, in his dialogues concerning an orator,
makes Craffus occafionally fall upon the fubjeCt of o-
ratory, to divert the company from the melancholy
thoughts of what they had been difcourfing of before,
with relation to the public dKbrders, and the dangers
which threatened their country. But the introduftion
ought not to be too long and tedious. Mr Addifon
complains of this fault in fome authors of this kind.
“ For though, as he fays, fome of the fineft treatifes
of the moft polite Latin and Greek writers are in dia¬
logue, as many very valuable pieces of French, Italian, * I
and Englifti, appear in the fame drefs ; yet in fome of
them there is fo much time taken up in ceremony, that,
before they enter on their fubjeA, the dialogue is half
over,”
2. We come now to the body of the difcourfe, in which
fome things relating to the perfons, and others to the
fubjedt, are proper to be remarked.
And as to the perfons, the principal thing to be at¬
tended to, is to keep up a juftnefs of character thro’
the whole. And the diftinft charafters ought to be
fo perfectly obferved, that from the very words them-
felves it may be always known who is the fpeaker.
This makes dialogue more difficult than (ingle defcrip-
tion, by reafon of the number and variety of charac¬
ters which are to be drawn at the fame time, and each
of them managed with the greateft propriety. The if
principal fpeaker (hould appear to be a perfon of great
fenfe and wifdom, and bed acquainted with the fub-
jeCt. No queftion ought to be allied him, or objection
ftarted to what he fays, but what he (hould fairly an-
fwer. And what is faid by the reft (hould principally
tend to promote his difcourfe, and carry it through in
the moft artful and agreeable manner. Where the ar¬
gument is attended with difficulties, one other perfon
or more may be introduced, of equal reputation, or near
it, but of different fentiments, to oppofe him and main¬
tain the contrary fide of the queftion. This gives op¬
portunity for a thorough examination of the point on
both fides, and anfwering all objections. But if the
combatants are not pretty equally matched, and ma- (
fters of the fubjeCt, they will treat it but fuperficrally.
And through the whole debate, there ought not to be
dialogue.
D I A [ 24c; ] r> I A
the leaft wrangling, peeviihnefs, orobftinacy; nothing
but the appearance of good-humour and good breeding,
the gentleman and the friend, with a readinefs to fubmit
to convidlionjand the force of truth, as the evidence fliall
appear on one fide or the other. In Cicero, thefe two
chara&ers are Craffus and Antony. And from them
Mr Addifon feems to have taken his Philander and
Cynthio, in his Dialogues upon the ufefulnefs of ancient
medalsy which are formed pretty much on Cicero’s
plan. Where younger perfons are prefent, or fuch
who are not equally acquainted with the fubje&, they
fhould be rather upon the inquiry than difpute : And
the queftions they afk fhould be neither too long, nor
too frequent; that they may not too much interrupt
the debate, or appear over talkative before wifer and
more experienced perfons. Sulpitius and Cotta fuftain
this charadter in Cicero, and Eugenius in Mr Addifon.
And it is very convenient there fhould be one perfon
of a witty and jocofe humour, to enliven the difcourfe
at proper feafons, and make it the more entertaining,
efpecially when the dialogue is drawn out to any con-
fiderable length. Caefar has this part in Cicero. And
in Mr Addifon, Cynthio is a perfon of this turn, and
oppofes Philander in a merry way. Mr Addifon’s fub-
je& admitted of thfs ; but the ferioufnefs and gravity
of Cicero’s argument required a different fpeaker for
the jocofe part. Many perfons ought not to fpeak im¬
mediately one after another. Horace’s rule for plays is;
To crowd the ftage is odious and abfurd.
Let no fourth a£tor ffrive to fpeak a word.
Though Scaliger and others think a fourth perfon may
fometimes be permitted to fpeak in the fame fcene with¬
out confufion. However, if this is not commonly to be
allowed upon the ftage, where the aftors are prefent,
and may be diftinguifhed by their voice and habit;
much lefs in a dialogue, where you have only their
names to diftinguifh them.
With regard to the fubjeft, all the arguments fhould
appear probable at leaft, and nothing be advanced
which may feem weak or trivial. There ought alfo to
be an union in dialogue, that the difcourfe may not
ramble, but keep up to the main defign. Indeed, fhort
and pleafant progreffions are fometimes allowable for
the eafe and entertainment of the reader. But every
thing fhould be fo managed, that he may ftill be able
to carry on the thread of the difcourfe in his mind, and
keep the main argument in view, till the whole is fi-
nifhed. The writers of dialogue have not confined
their difcourfes to any certain fpace of time; but ei¬
ther concluded them with the day; or broke off when
their fpeakers have been tired, and reaffumed them
again the next day. Thus Cicero allows two days for
his three dialogues concerning an orator; but Mr Ad¬
difon extends his to three days, allowing a day for
each. Nor has the fame method always beenobferved
in compofing dialogues. For fometimes the writer,
by way of narrative, relates a difcourfe which paffed
between other perfons. Such are the dialogues of Ci¬
cero and Mr Addifon laft mentioned, and many others
both of the ancients and moderns. But, at other times,
the fpeakers are introduced in perfon, as talking to
each other. This, as Cicero obferves, prevents the
frequent repetition of thofe words, he /aid, and he
replied; and by placing the hearer, as it were, in the
converfation, gives him a more lively reprefentation of
Vol. IV.
the difcourfe, which makes it the more affe&ing. And
therefore'Cicero, who wrote his dialogue of old age in
this manner, in which Cato, who was then in years, „
largely recounts the fatisfa&ions of life which may be
enjoyed in old age, tells his friend Atticus, he was
himfelf fo affedted with that difcourfe, that when he
reviewed it fometimes, he fancied they were not his
own words, but Cato’s. There are fome other dialogues
of Cicero, written in the fame way ; as that Of friend'
Jhip, and Of the parts of oratory. And both Plato and
Lucian generally chofe this method.
Dialogue, in dramatic compofition. See Poetry,
chap. ii. 22, 23.
DI ALTHAEA, in pharmacy, an unguent much
ufed as a refolvent; fo called from Althaea, or marfh-
mallows, which is the principal ingredient in it.
DIALYSIS, in grammar, a mark or chara&er,
confifting of twro points, •*, placed over two vowels of
a word, in order to feparate them, becaufe otherwife
they would make a diphthong, as Mofdic, &c.
DIAMASTIGOSIS, in Grecian antiquity, a fo-
lemnity at Sparta in honour of Diana Orthia, wherein
the children of the moft diftinguilhed families were
wont to flafh and tear each others bodies with rods be¬
fore the altar of the goddefs: the parents of the chil¬
dren being always prefent, ufed to animate and excite
them not to give the leaft fign of pain or concern; and
indeed fo great was the bravery and refolution of the
boys, that feldom or never any cry or groan was heard
to proceed from them, tho’ they frequently whipped
one another to death. The defign of this cuftom was
to fortify the children betimes, and harden them againft
wounds, bruifes, &c.
DIAMETER, in geometry, a right line palling
thro’ the centre of a circle, and terminated at each fide
by the circumference thereof. See Geometry.
DIAMOND, in natural hiftory, a genus of precious
ftones, of a fine pellucid fubftance, of great hardnefs,
feldom fouled by any admixture- of earthy or other
coarfe matter, fufceptible of elegant tinges from metal¬
line particles, giving fire with fteel, not fermenting
with acid menftruums, and of one fimple and perma¬
nent appearance in all lights.
Diamonds are the hardeft and moft brilliant of all
ftones. They are either hexagonal prifms, terminated
by eight-fided points or pyramids ; or they are flat, or
cubical, or rounded. Whether this difference of form
be original, or adventitious, has not been determined.
The firft kind are the beft and hardeft ; and may there¬
fore have preferved their original form againft acci¬
dents better than the others, efpecially than thofe which
are rounded, which are faid to be leaft hard, and con-
fequently moft liable to have their forms altered by at¬
trition. Diamonds are faid to confift of laminae or
plates, and probably they have fome uniform texture ;
becaufe lapidaries find that they may be poliflied much
more eafily in one than in any other diredlion. This
ftone becomes luminous in the dark, by expofure du¬
ring a certain time to the rays of the fun ; by heating
it in a crucible ; by plunging^ it in boiling water ; or
by rubbing it with a piece of glafs. By fri&ibn it
acquires an eleftrical property, by which it attrafts
the fubftance ufed for foils, called black mafic, and
other light matters. The author of the Chemical Dic¬
tionary fays, that diamonds are refraftory in the fire,
14 H and
Dialthxa
Diamond.
Diamond.
* Philof.
Tranfac.
no 3S6.
D I A
[ 2454 ]
D I A
and even apyrous. Neverthelefs, experiments have been
made, which prove that diamonds are capable of being
diflipated, not only by the collected heat of the fun,
but alfo by the heat of a furnace. Mr Boyle fays,
that he perceived certain acrid and penetrating exha¬
lations from diamonds expofed to fire. A diamond by
expofure to a concave fpeculum, the diameter of which
was 40 inches, was reduced to an eighth part of its
weight *. In the GiornaU de Letterati d' Italia, tom.
viii. art. 9. we may read a relation of experiments
made on precious ftones, by order of the grand duke
of Tufcany, with a burning lens, the diameter of which
was two thirds of a Florentine ell, near the focus of
which was placed another fmaller lens. By thefe ex¬
periments we find, that diamonds were more altered by
folar heat than moil of the other precious Hones, al¬
though not the leaft appearance of a commencing fu-
iion was obfervable. A diamond weighing 30 grains,
thus expofed during 30 feconds, loft its colour, luftre,
and tranfparency, and became of an opake white. In
five minutes, bubbles appeared on its furface ; foon af¬
terwards it burft into pieces, which were difiipated ;
and the fmall fragment which remained was capable of
being crulhed into fine powder by the prdfure of the
blade of a knife. Neither the addition of glafs, flints,
fulphur, metals, or fait of tartar, prevented this dilfi-
pation of diamonds, or occafioned any degree of fufion.
By this heat rubies were foftened, and loft fome of
their colour, but preferved their form and weight. By
addition of a third lens, a further degree of fufion was
given to rubies. Even then rubies could not be made
to unite with glafs. By having been expofed to this
heat, the furface of the rubies which had fuffered fu-
fion, loft much of their original hardnefs, and were
nearly as foft as cryftal. But their internal parts,
which had not been fufed, retained their hardnefs. E-
meralds by this heat were rendered white, or of various
rolours, and foon afterwards were fufed. They were
found to have loft part of their weight, and to be ren¬
dered lefs hard and brittle.
Experiments were alfo made by order of the empe¬
ror Francis I. on precious ftones ; from which we find,
that diamonds were entirely diffipated by having been
expofed in crucibles to a violent fire of a furnace du¬
ring 24 hours; while rubies by the fame heat were not
altered in weight, colour, or polifh. By expofing dia¬
monds during two hoars only at a time, the following al¬
terations produced on them by fire were obferved. Firft,
they loft theirpolifh; then they were fplit into thin plates;
and, laftly, totally diflipated. By the fame fire, eme¬
ralds were fufed. See Magajin de Hambourg, tom. xviii.
The a&ion of fire on diamonds has, notwithftanding
the above mentioned experiments, been lately doubted
in France; and the queftion has been agitated by feve-
ral eminent chemifts with much intereft, and numerous
experiments have been made which throw fome light
on the fubjeft. M. D’Arcet found, not only that dia¬
monds included in porcelain crucibles clofe, or covered
with perforated lids, and expofed to the long and in-
tenfe heat of a porcelain furnace, were perfectly difli¬
pated ; but alfo, that thefe ftones could in a few hours
be totally volatilifed with a much inferior degree of
heat, by expofing them in a coppel, under the muffle
of an eflay-furnace. In this latter experiment, he ob-
ferved that the diffipation was gradual, and that it was
effefted by a kind of exfoliation. The diflipation of piamoni ont
diamonds expofed in coppels was confirmed by M. Mac-
quer ; who further obferved, that the diamonds were, •
before the diflipation began, rendered, by the fire,
brilliant and fliining, as it were, with a phofphoric
light. In order to determine whether the diflipation
of diamonds was adtuaily effected by their redudfioti
into vapour, or by a combuftion or other effedt of air
upon them, Meflrs Lavoifier, Macquer, and Cadet, ex¬
pofed diamonds to intenfe heat in an earthen retort,
during feveral hours, but without any other effedt than
that their polifh was deftroyed, and about ^thof their
weight diminifhed. M. Mitouard put diamonds in a
tobacco-pipe filled with pounded charcoal and accu¬
rately clofed with lute. He further fecured the dia¬
monds from accefs of air or flame, by placing the to¬
bacco-pipe in a crucible, to which another crucible was
inverted and carefully luted. The diamonds, thus fe-
eluded from external air, having been expofed to thc
molt intenfe heat which could be excited in a well con-
ftrudied furnace, were not thereby altered ordiminiffl-
ed. M. Mitouard was induced to believe, that the
charcoal conduced to the prefervation of diamonds not
merely by excluding the air, but by fome peculiar pro¬
perty, which he fuppofes may be the fame'as that by
which this fubftance defends metals from deftruftion by
fire. He was confirmed in his opinion, by obferving
that diamonds were not preferved from the a&ion of
fire by furrounding them with powder of chalk and
of calcined hart ft om, and including them in clofe vef-
fels, fo well as when the charcoal had been employed.
Some chemifts even thought that the perfect exclufion
of air alone was fufficient to preferve diamonds, and
doubted whether the balls and crucibles of porcelain
employed by M. D’Arcet had excluded the air with
fufficient accuracy. Indeed, in one of M. D’Arcet’s
own experiments, a diamond included in a ball of por?
celain had refilled the adlion of fire. In order to af-
certain this queftion, M. Cadet expofed diamonds in
covered and luted crucibles to the violent heat of a forge
during two hours ; by which operation the diamonds
loft only -rj-th part of their weight. He infers, that
the deftruftion of diamonds by fire in open veflels is
not a true volatilization; but merely an exfoliation,
caufed by the fire expanding the air contained between
the thin plates of which thefe ftones, confift and that
by this exfoliation or decrepitation thefe plates are re¬
duced to fo fine a powder as to efcape obfervation.
M. D’Arcet objefled againft the experiments of his
adverfaries, that they were not of fufficient duration to
decide againft his, which had lafted feveral days. He re¬
newed and multiplied his experiments, which confirmed
him in his opinion of the volatilifation of diamonds in
veflels perfectly clofed; and that this effeft of fire on
diamonds is not a mere exfoliation or mechanical fepa-
ratlon of the plates of which thefe Hones confift, he in¬
fers from the parts of the diamonds pervading the moft
folid porcelain crucibles without being perceptible, and
from the luminous appearance firft noticed by M. Mac¬
quer, and which was afterwards obferved by M. Roux
to be an a&ual flame.
Diamonds are found only in the Eaft Indies, and in
Brafil in South America; but the Oriental diamonds
are preferable to the Brafilian ones. The diamond
mines are found only in the kingdoms of Golconda,
Vifapour,
D I A [ 2455 ] D I A
Diamond. ViTapour, Bengal, and the Ifland of Borneo. There
" are four mines, or rather two mines and two rivers,
whence diamonds are drawn. The mines are, i. That
of Raolconda, in the province of Carnatica, five days
journey from Golconda, and eight from Vifapour. It
has been difcovered about 200 years. 2. That of Ga-
ni, or Coulour, feven days journey from Golconda eaft-
wardly. It was difcovered 140 years ago by a peafant,
who digging in the ground found a natural fragment
of 25 cara&s. 3. That of Soumelpour, a large town
in the kingdom of Bengal, near the Diamond-mine.
This is the moft ancient of them all: it Ihould rather be
called that of Goual, which is the name of the river, in
the fand whereof thefe ftones are found. Laftly, the
fourth mine, or rather the fecond river, is that of Suc-
cudan, in the ifland of Borneo.
DiAMOND-j^Jf/Be of Raolconda.—In the neighbour-
!' • hood of this mine the earth is fandy, and full of rocks
and copfe. In thefe rocks are found feveral little
veins of half and fometimes a whole inch broad, out
of which the miners, with a kind of hooked irons,
draw the fand, or earth, wherein the diamonds are ;
breaking the rocks when the vein terminates, that the
track may be found again, and continued. When a
fufficient quantity of earth or fand is drawn forth, they
walh it two or three times, to feparate the ttones there¬
from. The miners work quite naked, except for a
thin linen cloth before them ; and befides this pre¬
caution, have likewife infpedlors, to prevent their con¬
cealing of ftones: which, however, maugre all this
care, they frequently find means to do, by watching op¬
portunities when they are not obfcrved, and fwallow-
ing them down.
Diamond-of Gani or Coulour.—In this mine
are found a great number of ftones from xo to 40 ca-
radls, and even more ; and it was here that famous dia¬
mond of Aureng-Zeb the Great Mogul, which before
it was cut weighed 793 cara&s, was found. The
ftones of this mine are not very clear; their water is
ufually tinged with the quality of the foil; being black
where that is marlhy, red where it partakes of red,
fometimes green and yellow, if the ground happen to
be of thofe colours. Another defeft of fome confe-
quence is a kind of greaiinefs appearing on the dia¬
mond, when cut, which takes off part of its luftre.
—There are ufually no lefs than 60,000 perfons, men,
women, and children, at work in this mine.
When the miners have found a place where they in¬
tend to dig, they level another fomewhat bigger in the
neighbourhood thereof, and inclofeit with walls about
two foot high, only leaving apertures from fpace to
fpace, to give paffage to the water. After a few fu-
perftitious ceremonies, and a kind of feaft which the
mafter of the mine makes for the workmen, to encourage
them, every one goes to his bufinefs, the men digging
the earth in the place firft difcovered, and the women
and children carrying it off into the other walled
round. They dig 12 or 14 foot deep, and till fuch
time as they find water. Then they ceafe digging ;
and the water thus found ferves to wafh the earth two
or three times, after which it is let out at an aperture
referred for that end. This earth being well walhed,
and well dried, they fift it in a kind of open fieve, or
riddle, much as we do corn in Europe ; then thralh it,
and fift it afre/h ; and laftly, fearch it well with the
hands to find the diamonds. They work naked as in Diartiem!,
the mine of Raolconda, and are watched after the like '
manner by infpeftors.
Diamond-of Soumelpour, or river Goual.—
Soumelpour is a large town built all of earth, and co¬
vered with branches of cacao-trees: the river Goual
runs by the foot thereof, in its palfing from the high
mountains towards the fouth to the Ganges, where it
lofes its name. It is from this river that all our fine dia¬
mond points, or fparks, calledwa/ara/a re brought.
They never begin to feek for diamonds in this river till
after the great rains are over, that is, after the month
of December ; and they ufually even wait till the water
is grown clear, which is not before January. The fea-
fon at hand, eight or ten thoufand perfons, of all ages
and fexes, come out of Soumelpour and the neighbour¬
ing villages. The moft experienced among them fearch
and examine the fand of the river, going up it from
Soumelpour to the very mountain whence it fprings. A
great fign that there are diamonds in it, is the finding
of thofe ftones which the Europeans call thunder-Jloncs.
When all the fand of the river, which at that time is
very low, has been well examined, they proceed to
take up that wherein they judge diamonds likely to be
found; which is done after the following manner: They
dam the place round with Hones, earth, and fafcines, and
lading out the water, dig about two foot deep : the
fand thus got is carried into a place walled round on
the bank of the river. The reft is performed after the
fame manner as at Coulour, and the workmen are
watched with equal ftrittnefs.
DiAMOND-/lf/«e in the ifland of Borneo, or river of
Succudan.—We are but little acquainted with this
mine; the queen who reigns in that part of the ifland
not allowing ftrangers to have any commerce in thefe
ftones : though there are very fine ones to be bought
at Batavia, brought thither by ftealth. They were
anciently imagined to be fofter than thofe of the other
mines; but experience fhews, they are in no refpeft in¬
ferior to them.
Befide thefe four diamond-mines, there have been
two others difcovered ; one of them between Coulouf
and Raolconda, and the other in the province of
Carnatica ; but they were both clofed up almoft as foon
as difcovered : that of Carnatica, becaufe the water
of the diamonds was always either black, or yellow;
and the other, on account of their cracking, and flying
in pieces when cut and ground.
The diamond, we have already obferved, is the
hardeft of all precious ftones. It can only be cut and
ground by itfelf and its own fubftance. To bring it
to that perfe&ion which augments its price fo confi-
derably, they begin by rubbing feveral againft each
other, while rough ; after having firft glued them to
the ends of two wooden blocks, thick enough to be
held in the hand. It is this powder thus rubbed off the
ftones, and received in a little box fot.the purpofe, that
ferves to grind and polifh the ftones.
Diamonds are cut and polifhed by means of a mill,
which turns a wheel of foft iron fprinkled over with
diamond-duft mixed with oil of olives. The fame
dutt, well ground, and diluted with water and vine¬
gar, is ufed in the fawing of diamonds ; which it
performed with an iron or brafs wire, as fine as a
hair. Sometimes, in lieu of fawing the diamonds, they
14 H 2 cleave
D I A
D I A C 2456 ]
Diamond, cleave them, efpecially if there be any large (hivers
    therein. But the Europeans are not ufually daring or
expert enough to run the rifque of cleaving, for fear of
breaking.
The fined diamonds are thofe of a complexion like
that of a drop of pure water. Itislikewife a valuable pro¬
perty if they are of a regular form and truely made ; as
alfo, that they be free from ftains, fpots, fpecks, flaws,
and crofs veins. If diamonds are tinftured yellow,
blue, green, or red, in a high degree, they are next
in efteem ; but if they are tinctured with thefe colours
only in a low degree, the value of them is greatly di-
miniftied. There are alfo diamonds of other com¬
plexions ; fuch as brown, and thofe of a dark hue:
the firft refembling the browned fugar-candy, and the
latter duiky iron. In the Philofophical Commerce of
Arts, Dr Lewis tells us of a black diamond that he
himfelf had feen. At a didance, it looked uniformly
black; but, on clofer examination, appeared in fome
parts tranfparent, and in others charged with foulnefs,
on which the black hue depended.
The firjl ‘water in diamonds means the greated pu¬
rity and perfection of their complexion, which ought
to be that of the pured water. When diamonds fall
fhort of this perfection, they are faid to be of the fe-
corid or third water, &c. till the done may be proper¬
ly called a coloured one ; for it would be an impro¬
priety to fpeak of an imperfeCtly coloured diamond, or
one that has other defects, as a done of a bad water
only.
Mr Boyle has obferved, from a perfon much con-
verfant in diamonds, that fome of thefe gems, in their
rough date, were much heavier than others of the fame
bignefs, efpecially if they were cloudy or foul; and
Mr Boyle mentions one that weighed 84- grains, which,
being carefully weighed in water, proved to an equal
bulk of that liquor as 2^- to 1. So that, as far as
could be judged by that experiment, a diamond weighs
not thrice as much as water : and yet, in his table of
fpecific gravities, that of a diamond is faid to be to
water as 3400 to 1000; that is, as 3^ to 1; and there¬
fore, according to thefe two accounts, there ihould be
fome diamonds whofe fpecific gravity differs nearly ■£•
from that of others- But this is a much greater dif¬
ference than can be expefted in two bodies of the fame
fpecies ; and indeed, on an accurate trial, does not
prove to be the cafe with diamonds. The Brafil dia¬
monds differ a little in weight one from another, and
greatly vary from the ftandard fet by Mr Boyle for the
fpecific gravity of this gem in general; two large dia¬
monds from that part of the world being carefully
weighed, one was found as 3518, the other as 3521,
the fpecific gravity of water being reckoned 1000.
After this, ten Eaft India diamonds were chofen out
of a large parcel, each as different from the other
in fhape, colour, &c. as could be found. Thefe
being weighed in the fame feales and water with the
former, the lighteft proved as 3512, the heavieft as
3525, ftill.fuppofing the water to be 1000.—Mr Elli-
cot, who made thefe experiments, has drawn out a table
of their feveral differences, which is done with great
care and accuracy ; and, taking in all the common va¬
rieties in diamonds, may ferve as a general rule for their
mean gravity and differences.
In air.
Water - - -
Crains.
1° I. A Brazil diamond, fine? , .21.
water, and rough coat $ J ’* ->
2. Ditto, fine water, rough? gg 2I
coat, - - S’
3. Ditto, fine bright coat 10,025
4. Ditto, fine bright coat 9,560
c. An Eaft India diamond, ? ^ 0
pale blue - - j26’^
6. Ditto, bright yellow - 23,33
7. Ditto, very fine water, ? ,.
t * t . . f 2O«0o
bright coat - - i
8. Ditto, very bad water,? 2o 28
honeycomb coat - 3 •
9. Ditto, very hard bluifh caft 22,5
10. Ditto, very foft, good ? ^ ^
water - - $ 5
11. Ditto, a very large red? 0
foulnefs in it - - j 2^+8°
12. Ditto, foft, bad water 29,525
13. Ditto, foft, brown coat 26,535
14. Ditto, very deep green?
coat - - 3 ?
gravity.
OOO
3*18
14,59°
l6,I
l6,:
l8»230l35,4’
21,140
18,990
18,080
66.16
63.16
7»l?o 3511
6,8303501
18,945
16,710
14,800
3512
3524
3525
35 *9
35*5
3525
3521
35*6
The mean fpecific gravity of the Brafil dia¬
monds appears to be - - - 3513
Of the Eatt India diamonds - - - 3519-
The mean .of both - - - - 3517
Therefore if any thing is to be concluded as to the
fpecific gravity of the diamond, it is, that it is to wa¬
ter as 3517 to 1000.
For the valuation of diamonds of all weights, Mr
Jefferies lays down the following rule. He firft fup-
pofes the value of a rough diamond to be fettled at 2I.
per carat, at a medium; then to find the value of dia¬
monds of greater weights, multiply the fquare of their
weight by 2, and the produA is the value required:
is. G- to find the value of a rough diamond of two ca¬
rats ; 2X2=4, the fquare of the weight; which, multi¬
plied by two, gives 81. the true value of a rough dia¬
mond of two carats. Bor finding the value of manu-
fadlured diamonds, he fuppofes half their weight to be
loft in manufaAuring them ; and therefore, to find their
value, we muft multiply the fquare of double their
weight by 2, which will give their true value in pounds.
Thus, to find the value of a wrought diamond weigh¬
ing two carats ; we firft find the fquare of double the
weight, viz. 4X4=16; then 16X2=32. So that the
true value of a wrought diamond of two carats is 32 b
—On thefe principles Mr Jefferies has conftruAed tables
of the price of diamonds from 1 to 100 carats.
Diamonds are commonly found but of very final!
fixes. The largeft ever feen was brought from Brafilj
and is in the poffeffion of the king of Portugal. It
weighs 124 ounces, and has been valued at upwards of
50 millions fterling. By fome fkilful lapidaries, how¬
ever, this ft one is only reckoned to be a topaz; in which
cafe, its value muft be prodigioufly diminifhed. The
largeft oriental diamond in the world belongs to the
great Mogul. It weighs 279 carats. According ta
the computation of M.Tavernier, this diamond is worth
779,2441. Ster. but by the tables of Mr Jefferies above-
mentioned,
D I A [ 2457 ] D I A
ji Diamond, mentioned, its value is only 624,962 1.
   Brilliant Diamond, is that cut in faces both at top
and bottom; and whofe table, or principal face at top,
is flat. To make a complete fquare brilliant, if the
rough diamond be not found of a-fquare figure, it mull
be made fo; and if the work is perfectly executed, the
length of the axis will be equal to the fide of the fquare
bafe of the pyramid.—Jewellers then form the table
and collet by dividing the block, or length of the axis,
into 18 parts. They take x|- from the upper part,
and t-j- from the lower. This gives a plane at ^ dif-
tance from the girdle for the table; and a fmaller plane
at diftance for the collet; the breadth of which will
be f of the breadth of the table. In this Hate the Hone
is faid to be a complete fquare table diamond.—The
brilliant is an improvement on the table-diamond, and
•was introduced within the laft century, according to
Mr Jefferies.—To render a brilliant perfect, each cor-
||; ner of the above defcribed table-diamond iriuft be
fhortened by of its original. The corner ribs of
the upper fides muft be flattened, or run towards the
centre of the table ^-Jefs than the fides ; the lower part,
which terminates in the girdle, muft; be of one fide
of the girdle; and each corner rib of the under fides
muft be flattened at the top, to anfwer the above flat¬
tening at the girdle, and at bottom muft be i of each
fide of the collet.
The parts of the fmall work which completes the
brilliant, or the ftar and /kill facets, are of a triangular
figure. Both of thefe partake equally of the depth of
the upper fides from the table to the girdle; and meet
in the middle of each fide of the table and girdle, as
alfo at the corners. Thus they produce regular lozen¬
ges on the four upper fides and corners of the ftone.
The triangular facets, on the under fides, joining to
the girdle, muft be half as deep again as the above fa¬
cets, to anfwer to the collet part.—The ftone here de¬
fcribed is faid to be a full-fubjlanced brilliant.—If the
ftone is thicker than in the proportion here mentioned,
it is faid to be an over-’weightedbrilliant.—If the thick-
nefs is lefs than in this proportion, it is called a fpread-
brilliant.—The beauty of brilliants is diminiihed from
their being either over-weighted or fpread. The true
proportion of the axis, or depth of the ftone to its fide,
is as 2 to 3.—Brilliants are diftinguiftied into fquare,
round, oval, and drops, from the figure of their refpec-
tive girdles.
Cornijh Diamond, a name given by many people to-
the cryftals found in digging the mines of tin in Gorn-
wal. Thefe cryftals are of the nature of the Kerry-
ftone of Ireland, but fomewhat inferior to it: they are
ufually bright and clear, except towards the root,
where they are coarfe and foul, or whitifh. They are
ufually found in the common form of an hexangular
column terminated at each end by a hexangular pyra^
mid.
/Js/e-DiAMOND is one that is quite flat underneath,
with its upper part cut in divers little faces, ufually tri¬
angles, the uppermoft of which terminate in a point.—
In rofe-diamonds, the depth of the ftone from the bafe
to the point muft be half the breadth of the diameter
of the bafe of the ftone. The diameter of the crown
muft be £ of the diameter of the bafe. The perpendi¬
cular, from the bafe to the crown, muft be -f of the
diameter of the ftone. The lozenges which appear in
all circular rofe-diamonds, will be equally divided by Diamond
the ribs that form the crown ; and the upper angles or D;ant|iera
facets will terminate in the extreme point of the ftone, 
and the lower in the bafe or girdle.
Rough Diamond, is the ftone as nature produces it
in the mines.
A rough diamond muft be chofen uniform, of a good
fhape, tranfparent, not quite white, and free of flaws
and Ihivers. Black, rugged, dirty, flawey, veiny (tones,
and all fuch as are not fit for cutting, they ufe to pound
in a fteel mortar made for that purpofe; and when pul¬
verized, they ferve to faw, cut, and polifti the reft.
Shivers are occafioned in diamonds by this, That the
miners, to get them more eafily out of the vein, which
winds between two rocks, break the rocks with huge
iron levers, which (hakes, and fills the ftone with
cracks and Ihivers. The ancients had two miftaken
notions with regard 'to the diamond: the firft, that it
became foft, by deeping it in hot goat’s blood ; and
the fecond, that it is malleable, and bears the hammer.
Experience (hews us the contrary; there being no¬
thing capable of mollifying the hardnefs of this (tone;
though its hardnefs be not fuch, that it will endure be¬
ing (truck at pleafure with the hammer.
TWc-Diamond. See Brilliant Diamond.
Diamond, in the glafs-trade, an inftrument ufed for
fquaring the large plates or pieces ; and, among gla¬
ziers, for cutting their glafs.
Thefe fort of diamonds are differently fitted up. That
ufed for large pieces, as looking-glaffes, &c. is fet in
an iron ferril, about two inches long, and a quarter of
an inch in diameter ; the cavity of the ferril being fil¬
led up with lead, to keep the diamond firm : there is
alfo a handle of box, or ebony, fitted to the ferril, for
holding it by.
Diamond, in heraldry, a term ufed for expreffing
the black colour in the atchievements of peerage.
Guillim does not approve of blazoning the coats of.
peers by precious (tones inftead of metals and colours;
but the Englilh pra&ice allows it. Morgan fays the
diamond is an emblem of fortitude.
DIANA, the goddefs of hunting, in heathen my¬
thology, was the daughter of Jupiter and Latona. She
is called Hecate in hell, Diana on earth, and Phoebe in
heaven. She was famous for her chaftity. Her temple
at Ephefus was one of the feven wonders of the world.
It was burnt the fame day that Alexander the Great
was born,. by Eroftratus, from no other motive but to
perpetuate his name.
DIANAS arbor, or Arbor Lun^:, in chemiftry,
the beautiful cryftallizations of filver, diffolved in aqua
fortis, to which fome quickfilver is added: and fo cal¬
led from their referobling the trunk, branches, leaves,
&c. of a tree. See Chemistry, n° 198.
DIANDRIA, (from t‘c, twice, and a man)
the name of the fecond clafs in Linnteus’s fexual fyftem,
confiding of hermaphrodite plants; which, as the
name imports, have flowers with twofiamina or male
organs.
The orders in this clafs are three, derived from the
number of ftyles or female parts. Mod plants with
two (lamina have one ftyle; asjeffamy, lilac, privet,
veronica, and baftard alaternus: vernal grafs has two
ftyles ; pepper, three.
DIANTHERA, in botany, a genus of the mono-
gynia,
D I A [ 2458 j D I A
Diairthus. gynia order, belonging to the diandria clafs of plants,
for which there is no Englilh name.—There is only-
one fpecies, a native of Virginia and other parts of
North America. It is a low herbaceous plant, with a
perennial root, fending out upright (talks a foot high,
garnifhed with long narrow leaves of an aromatic odour,
Handing clofe to the (talks; from the fide of the (talks
the footftalks of the flowers are produced, fudaining
fmall fpikes of flowers.—This plant is very difficult to
be preferved in Britain; for though it is hardy enough
to live in the open air, it is very fubjedt to rot in winter.
It may be propagated by feeds fown on a gentle hot¬
bed ; and in the winter the plants mult be kept in a
dry ffove.
DIANTHUS, CnOVE - GILL If LOWE R, CARNATION,
pink, sweet-william, &c.; a genus of the digynia or¬
der, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants.—There
are a great number of fpecies; but not more than four that
have any confiderable beauty as garden-flowers, each
of which furnifhes fome beautiful varieties, r. The
caryophyllus, or clove-gilliflower, including all the va¬
rieties of carnation. It rifes with many (hort trailing
(hoots from the root, garniihed with long, very nar¬
row, evergreen leaves; and amidll them upright (len¬
der flower-dalks, from one to three feet high, emitting
many fide-lhoots; all of which, as well as the main
ffalk, are terminated by large folitary flowers, having
(hort oval fcales to the calix, and crenated petals. The
varieties of this are very numerous, and unlimited in
the diverflty of flowers. 2. The deltoides, or common
pink, rifes with numerous (hort leafy (hoots crowning
the root, in a tufted head clofe to the ground, clofely
garniflied with fmall narrow leaves ; and from the ends
of the (hoots, many ere& flower-(talks from about 6 to
15 inches high, terminated by folitary flowers of dif¬
ferent colours, (ingle and double, and fometimes finely
variegated. This fpecies is perennial, as all the varie¬
ties of it, commonly cultivated, alfo are. 3. The Chi-
nenfis, Chinefe, or Indian pink, is an annual plant with
upright firm flotver-ftalks, branching eredt on every
fide, a foot or 15 inches high, having all the branches
terminated by folitary flowrers of different colours and
variegations, appearing from July to November. 4.
The barbatus, or bearded dianthus, commonly called
f'wcet-’william. This rifes with many thick leafy (hoots,
crowming the root in a clufter clofe to the ground ;
garniflied with fpear-fliaped evergreen leaves, from half
an inch to two inches broad. The ftems are upright
and firm, branching ereft two or three feet high, ha¬
ving all the branches and main ftem crowned by nu¬
merous flowers in aggregate clufters of different colours
and variegations.
Culture. Though the carnations grow freely in al-
moft any garden earth, and in it produce beautiful
flowers, yet they are generally fuperior in that of a
light loamy nature : and of this kind of foil the florifts
generally prepare a kind of compoft in the following
manner, efpecially for thofe fine varieties which they
keep in pots. A quantity of loamy earth muft be
provided, of a light fandy temperature, from an up¬
land or dry palture-field or common, taking the top
fpit turf and all, which muft be laid in a heap for a
year, and turned over frequently. It muft then be
mixed with about one third of rotten dung of old hot¬
beds, or rotten neats dung, and a little fea-fand, form¬
ing the whole Into a heap again, to lie^hree, four, or D'a
fix months, at which time it will be excellent for ufe ;
and if one parcel or heap was mixed with one of thefe
kinds of dungs, and another parcel with the other, it
will make a change, and may be found very beneficial
in promoting the fize of the flowers. This compoft,
or any other made ufe of for the purpofe, (hould not
be lifted, but only well broken with the fpade and
hands.—When great quantities of carnations are re¬
quired, either to furnifh large grounds, or for market,
or when it is intended to faife new varieties, it is eafily
cffe&ed by fowing fome feed annually in fpring, in
common earth, from which the plants will rife abun¬
dantly. Several good varieties may alfo be expe&ed
from the plants of each fowing; and poffibly not one
exaftly like thofe from which the feed was faved. The
(ingle flowers are always more numerous than the double
ones; but it is from the latter only that we are to fe-
left our varieties. The feafon for fowing the feed, is
any time from the 20th of March to the 15th of April*
—The plants generally come up in a month after flow¬
ing : they muft be occafionaliy weeded and watered till
July, when they will be fit for tranfplanting into the
nurfery beds. Thefe beds muft be made about three
feet wide, in an open fituation ; and taking advantage
of moift weather, prick the plants therein four inches
afunder, and finifh with a gentle watering, which re¬
peat occafionally till the plants have taken good root.
Here they muft. remain till September, when they will
be fo well advanced in growth as to require more room;
and (hould then have their final tranfplantation into
other three feet wide beds of good earth, in rows 9 inehea
afunder, where they are to be placed in the order of
quincunx. Here they are to remain all winter, until
they flower, and have obtained an increafe of the ap¬
proved varieties of doubles by layers ; and until this
period, all the culture they require is, that if the win¬
ter (hould prove very fevere, an occafional (belter of
mats will be of advantage. In fpring, the ground muft
be loofened with a hoe ; they muft be kept clear from
weeds; and when the flower-(talks advance, they are to
be tied up to (ticks, efpecially all thofe thatpromife by
their large flower-pods to be doubles.
The only certain method of propagating the double
varieties is by layers. The proper parts for layers are
thofe leafy (hoots ariling near the crown of the root,
which, when about five, fix, or eight inches long, are
of a proper degree of growth for layers. The general
feafon for this work is June, July, and the beginning
of Auguft, as then the (hoots will be arrived at a pro¬
per growth for that operation; and the fooner it is
done after the (hoots are ready, the better, that they
may have fufficient time to acquire ftrength before win¬
ter: thofe laid in June and July will be fit to take off
in Auguft; and September, fo will form fine plants in
the month of Oftober. The method of performing
the work is as follows.— Firft provide a quantity of
fmall hooked (licks for pegs. They muft be three or
four inches long, and their ufe is to peg the layers
down to the ground. Get ready alfo in a barrow a
quantity of light, rich mould, to raife the earth, if ne-
ceffary, round each plant, and provide alfo a (harp pen¬
knife. The work is begun by dripping off all the
leaves from the body of the (hoots, and (hortening
thofe at top an inch or two evenly. Then choofing a
nr
D I A [ 2459 ] D I A
piamhus. llrong joint on the middle of the /hoot or thereabouts,
R and on the back or under fide thereof, cut with the
penknife the joint half-way through, dire&ing your
knife upward fo as to flit the joint up the middle, al-
moft to the next joint above, by which you form a
kind of tongue on the back of the /hoot; ohfcrving
that the fwelling flcinny part of the joint remaining at
the bottom of the tongue muft be trimmed off, that
nothing may obftruft the iffuing of the fibres; for the
layers always form their roots at that part. This done,
loofen the earth about the plant; and, if neceflary, add
fome fre/h mould, to raife it for the more ready recep¬
tion of the layers ; then with your finger make a hol¬
low or drill in the earth to receive the layer; which,
bend horizontally into the opening, railing the top up¬
right, fo as to keep the gafh or flit part of the layer
open; and, wkh one of the hooked flicks, peg down
the body of the layer, to fecure it in its proper place
and pofition, ftill preferving the top ertif, and the flit
open, and draw the earth over it an inch or two,
bringing it clofe about the ereft part of the /hoot; and
when all the Ihoots of each plant are thus laid, give
dire&ly fome water to fettle the earth clofe, and the
work is finilhed. In dry weather the waterings muft
be often repeated, and in five or fix weeks the layers
will have formed good roots. They muft then be fe-
parated with a knife from the old plant, gently raifed
out,of the earth with the point of a knife or trowel in
order to preferve the fibrous roots of the layers as en¬
tire as poffible; and when thus taken up, cut off the
naked llicky part at bottom clofe to the root, and trim
the tops of the leaves a little. They are then ready
for planting either into beds or pots. In November
the fine varieties in pots (hould be moved to a funny,
fheltered, fituation for the winter; and if placed in a
frame, to have occafional protection from hard froft, it
will be of much advantage. In the latter end of Fe¬
bruary, or fome time in March, the layers in the fmall
pots, or fuch as are in beds, Ihould be tranfplanted
with balls into the large pots, where they are to re¬
main for flower. To have as large flowers as poflible,
curious florifts clear off all fide-fhoots from the flower-
ftem, fuffering only the main or top buds to remain
for flowering. When the flowers begin to open, at¬
tendance fhould be given to aflift the fine varieties, to
romote their regular expanfion, particularly the largelt
inds called burjlers, wbofe flowers are fometimes three
or four inches diameter. Unlefs thefe are aflifted by
art, they are apt to burft open on one fide, in which
cafe the flower will become very irregular therefore,
attending every day at that period, obterve, as foon as
the calix begins to break, to cut it a little open, at two
other places in the indenting at top with narrow-point¬
ed fciffars, and hereby the more regular expanfion of
the petals will be promoted ; obferving, if one fide of
any flower comes out fafter than another, to turn the
pot about, that the other fide of the flower may be
next the fun, which will alfo greatly promote its re¬
gular expanfion. When any fine flower is to be blown
as large and fpreading as poffible, florifts place fpread-
ing paper collars round the bottom of the flowers, on
which they may fpread their petals to the utmoft ex¬
panfion. Thefe collars are made of ftiff, white paper,
cut circular, about three or four inches over, having a
hole in the middle to receive the bottom of the flower.
and one fide cut open to admit it. This is to be pla- Diapafon
ced round the bottom of the petals in the infide of the
calix, the leaves of which are made to fpread flat for uiarr oe3’
its fupport: the petals muft then be drawn out and
fpread upon the collar to their full width and extent;
tiie longeft ones undermoft, and the next longeft upon
thefe; and fo on; obferving that the collar muft no
where appear wider than the flower; and thus a car¬
nation may be rendered very large and handfome.
Thefe direftions will anfwer equally well for the
propagation of the pinks and fweet-williams, tho’ nei¬
ther of thefe require fuch nicety in their culture as the
carnations.
DIAPASON, in mufic, a mufical interval, by which
moft authors who have wrote on the theory of mufic,
ufe to exprefs the octave of the Greeks.
Diapason, among the mufical inftrument-makers,
a kind of rule or fcale whereby they adjuft the pipes
of their organs, and cut the holes in their hautboys,
flutes, &c. in due proportion for performing the tones,
femitones, and concords, juft.
Diapason-D/tff.v, in mufic, a kind of compound
concord, whereof there are two forts ; the greater,
which is in the proportion of 10-3 ; and the leffer, in
that of 16-5.
Diapason Diapente, in mufic, a compound confo-
nance in a triple ratio, as 3-9. This interval, fays
Martianus Capella, confills of 9 tones and a femitone;
19 femitones, and 38 diefes. It is a fymphony made
when the voice proceeds from the firft to the twelfth
found.
Diapason Diatejfaron, in mufic, a compound con¬
cord founded on the proportion of 8 to 3. To this in¬
terval Martianus Capella allows 8 tones and a femi¬
tone; *7 femitones, and 34 diefes. This is when the
voice proceeds from its firft to its eleventh found. The
moderns would rather call it the eleventh*
Diapason Ditone, in mufic, a compound concord,
whofe terms are as 10-4, or as 5-2.
Diapason Semiditone, in mufic, a compound con¬
cord, whofe terms are in the proportion of 12-5.
DIAPEDESIS, in medicine, a tranfudation of the
fluids through the fides of the veffels that contain them,
occafioned by the blood’s becoming too much attenu¬
ated, or the pores becoming too patent.
DIAPENTE, in the ancient mulic, an interval
marking the fecond of the concords, and with the dia-
teffaron an o&ave. This is what in the modern mufic
is called a fifth.
DIAPHANOUS, an appellation given to all tranf-
parent bodies, or fuch as tranfmit the rays of light *. * C/-
DIAPHORESIS, in medicine, an elimination of
the humours in any part of the body thro’ the pores
of the fliin. See Perspiration.
DIAPHORETICS, among phyficians, all medi¬
cines which promote perfpiration.
DIAPHRAGM. See Anatomy, n° 370.
DIAPORESIS, a figure in oratory, expreffing the
uncertainty of the fpeaker how he /hall proceed in his
difcourfe.
DIARBECK, or Diarbeker, the modern name
of the province of Mesopotamia in Turky in Afia.
DIARRHOEA, or Looseness, in medicine, is
a frequent and copious evacuation of liquid excrement
by ftool. See (the Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
DIAR-
Diarthrofis
BIG I 2460 ] DIG
DIARTHROSIS. See Anatomy, n° 2. c.
DIARY, among traders, denotes a day-book, con¬
taining the proceedings of one day.
DIACHISM, among muficians, denotes the diffe¬
rence between the comma and enharmonic diefis, com¬
monly called the letfer comma.
DIASCORDiUM, in pharmacy, a celebrated
compofition, fo called from fcordium, one of its ingre¬
dients. See Pharmacy, n° 888.
DIASTOLE, among phyficians, fignifies the dila¬
tation of the heart, auricles, and arteries ; and (lands
oppofed to the systole, or contra&ion of the fame
parts. See Anatomy, n° 388.
Diastole, in grammar, a figure in profody where¬
by a fyllable naturally (hort is made long. Such is the
firft fyllable of Priamides in the following verfe of
Virgil: Atqtie hie Priamides ! nihil o tibi, amice, reliBum.
DIASYRMUS, in rhetoric, a kind of hyperbole,
being an exaggeration of fome low, ridiculous thing.
DIATESSARON, among ancient 'muficians, a
concord, orharmonical interval, compofed of a greater
tone, a lefs tone, arid one greater femitone: its pro¬
portion in numbers is as 4 : 3.
DIATONICK, in mufic, (compounded of two
Greek words, viz. the prepofition <?'*, fignifying a tran-
fition from one thing to another, and the fubftantive
importing a given degree of tenfion or mufical
note), is indifferently applied to a fcale or gammut, to
intervals of a certain kind, or to a fpecies of mufic,
whether in melody or harmony, compofed of thefe in¬
tervals. Thus we fay the diatonick feries, a diatonick
interval, melody or harmony. As the diato¬
nick fcale forms the fyftem of diatonick mufic, and con-
fids of diatonick intervals, it will be neceflary, forun-
derdanding the former, that we (hould explain the lat¬
ter. See Interval.
DIATRAGACANTH, in pharmacy, a name ap¬
plied to certain powders, of which gum tragacanth is
the chief ingredient. See Pharmacy, n° 825, b.
DIAUGOPH'RAGMIA, in natural hidory, a ge¬
nus of fofiils of the order of feptariae, whofe partitions,
or fepta, confid of fpar with an admixture of crydal.
Qf this genus there are three fpecies. 1. A red kind,
with brownifh yellow partitions. 2. A brownifh yel¬
low kind, with whitidi partitions. 3. A bluiffi-white
kind, with draw-coloured partitions.
DIBBEE, or Dibber, a fimple but ufeful imple¬
ment in gardening, ufed for planting out all forts of
young plants, &c.
DIBBLING wheat. See Wheat.
DICE, among gameders, certain cubical piece* of
bone or ivory, marked with dots on each of their faces,
from one to fix, according to the number ef faces.
Sharpers have feveral ways of falfifying dice. t. By
flicking a hog’s bridle in them, fo as to make them run
high or low, as they pleafe. 2. By drilling, and load¬
ing them with quickfilver: which cheat is found out
by holding them gently by two diagonal corners ; for
if falfe, the heavy fides will turn always down. 3. By
filing and rounding them. But all thefe ways fall far
(hort of the art of the dice-makers ; fome of whom are
fo dexterous this way, that your (harping gameders
will give any money for'them.
Dice formerly paid 5 s. every pair imported, with an
additional duty of 4 s. gT|4 d- for every 20 s. value up¬
on oath ; but are now prohibited to be imported.
DICiEARCHUS, a fcholar of Aridotle, compo¬
fed a great number of books which were much edeem-
ed. Cicero and his friend Pomponius Atticus valued
him highly. He wrote a book to prove, that men dif¬
fer more mifehieffrom one another, than from all evils
befide. And the work he compofed concerning the
republic of Lacedaemon was extremely honoured, and
read every year before the youth in the affembly of the
ephori. Geography was one of his principal dudies,
on which fcience there is a fragment of a treatife of hi*
dill extant, and preferved among the Vetsris gcogra-
phia feriptores minores.
DICHOTOMY, a term ufed by adronomers for
that phafis or appearance of the moon, wherein (he is
bife&ed, or (hews juil half her di(k. In this fituation
the moon is faid to be in a quadrate afpedt, or to be in
her quadrature.
Dichotomy, in botany. See Botany, p. 1298.
DICKER, in old writers, denotes the quantity of
ten hides of (kins, whereof 20 made a lad: alfo 10pair
of gloves, ten bars of iron, and the like, are fometimes
exprefled by the term dicker.
DICKINSON( Edmund),a celebrated Engliffi phy-
fician and chemid, born in 1624. He dudied and
took his degrees at Merton-college, Oxford; and in
1655 publilhed there his Delphi Phosnicizantes, &c. a
mod learned piece, in which he attempted to prove
that the Greeks borrowed the dory of the Pythian A-
pollo, and all that rendered the oracle at Delphos fa¬
mous, from the Holy Scriptures, and the book of
Jolhua in particular: a work that procured him great
reputation both at home and abroad. He pra&ifed
phyfic firfl at Oxford; but removing to London in
1684, his good fortune in recovering the earl of Ar¬
lington from a dangerous ficknefs, procured his pro¬
motion to be phylician in ordinary to Charles II. and
to his houfehold. As that prince underdood and loved
chemidry, Dr Dickinfon grew into great favour at
court; and was continued in his appointments under
James II. After the abdication of his unfortunate
mader, being then in years, and afflidled with the
done, he retired from praSice, and died in 1707. He
publifhed many other things, particularly Phyfica ve-
tus is vera., &c. containing a fyflem of philofophy
chiefly framed on principles colle&ed from the Mpfaic
hidory.
DICTAMNUS, white dittany, or Fraxinella ;
a genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the de-
candria clafs of plants. There is only one fpecies. It
hath thick, penetrating, perennial roots, colle&ed into
a head at top, fending up eredl ffalks annually, two or
three feet high, garnilhed with pinnated alternate
leaves, of three or four pair of oblong did lobes, ter¬
minated by an odd one; and the dalks crowned by
long, pyramidal, loofe fpikes of flowers, of white,
red, and purple colours. They are very ornamental
plants, and fucceed in any of the common borders.
The dittany which grows in Crete, Dalmatia, and the
Morea, forms an article in the materia medica. The
leaves, which are the only parts ufed, are imported
from Italy. The bed fort are well covered over with
a thick white down, and now' and then intermixed
with purpliffi flowers. In fmell and tade they fome-
what refemble lemon-thyme, but have more of an aro¬
matic
Dic*arc|ii •
!
BIG [ 2461 ] DIG
TJitVator matlc flower, as well as a greater degree of pungency;
when frefli they yield a confiderable quantity of an ex-
  * cellent effential oil.
DICTATOR, in- the policy of the ancient Ro¬
mans, a magillrate inverted with fovereign and even
arbitrary power.
He had power of life and death ; alfo to raife and
dilhand troops, make war or peace, and that without
the confent either of the fenate or people,-or being ac¬
countable for his proceedings. He was elected by one
of the confuls in the night time, on the frontiers of
the commonwealth, and nowhere elfe ; and the ordi¬
nary duration of his office was only for fix months,
during which time all other magiftracies ceafed, the
trihunefliip excepted. Whenever he appeared in public,
he was-attended by 24 li&ors, or double the number
allowed a conful. However, notwithftanding all this
power, he could not go out of Italy, or even ride
on horfeback during a march, without leave from the
people.
This office was accounted the fafeguard of the com¬
monwealth for 400 years together; till Sylla and Cx-
far, by afiuming the title of perpetual diftators, con¬
verted it into tyranny, and rendered the very name o-
dious.
DICTION, the phrafe, elocution, or flyle of a wri¬
ter or fpeaker. See Oratory, n° 99—121.
DICTIONARY, in its original acceptation, is the
arranging all the words of a language according to the
order of the alphabet, and annexing a definition or ex¬
planation to each word. When arts and fciences began
to be improved and exteinded, the multiplicity of tech¬
nical terms rendered it neceflary to compile dictionaries
cither of fcience in general, or of particular fciences,
according to the views of the compiler.
Dictionary of the Englijh Language. The only
attempt which has hitherto been made towards form¬
ing a regular dictionary of the Englilh language, is
that of the learned Dr Samuel Johnfon. But altho’ it
is executed in a mafterly manner, yet as it cannot be
expeCted that an undertaking of this nature could be
brought to per/eCtion by one man, we fhall venture to
fuggert a few cireomftances which, if duely attended
to, may perhaps be of fome utility.
The dtfign of every dictionary of language, is to
explain, in the mod accurate manner, the meaning of
every word ; and to rtiow the various ways in which it
can be combined with others, in as far as this tends to
alter its meanings The dictionary which does this in
the molt accurate manner, is the moft complete. There¬
fore the principal ftudy of a lexicographer ought to be,
to difcover a method which will be bell adapted for that
purpofe. Dr Johnfon, with great labour, has col¬
lected the various meanings of every word, and quoted
the authorities but, would it not have been an im¬
provement if he had given an accurate definition of
the precife meaning of every word; pointed out the
way in which it ought to be employed with the
greateft propriety; fhowed the various deviations from
that original meaning, which euftom had fo far efta--
blirtied as to render allowable^ and fixed the precife
limits beyond which it could not be employed with¬
out becoming a vicious expreffion ? With this view, it
would have been neceflary to exhibit the nice di-
rtin&ions that take place between words which are
Vet. IV.
nearly fynonymous. Without this, many words cart t>Aionar.-,
only be defined in fuch a manner, as that they muft
be confidered as exaftly fynonymous. We omit gi¬
ving any quotations from Johnfon, to point out thefe
defeCts ; and (hall content ourfelves with giving a
few examples, to fhow how, according to our idea, a
dictionary of the Englilh language ought to be com¬
piled.
IMMEDIATELY, adv. of time.
t. Inftantly, without delays Always employed to
denote future time, and never part. Thus, we may
fay, I muill come immediately ; but not, lam im¬
mediately come from fuch a placet See Presently.
2. Without the intervention of any caufe or event ;
as oppofed to ftiediately.
PRESENTLY, adv. of time.
1. Inftantly, without delay. ExaCtly fynonymous
with immediately; being never with propriety em¬
ployed to denote any thing but future time.
2. Formerly it was employed to exprefs prefent
time. Thus, The houfe prefently pojfejfed by fuch
a one, was often ufed: but this is now become a
vicious expreffion; and we ought to fay, The houfe
pojfejfed at prefent. It differs from hntnediatcly in
this, that even in the moft corrupt phrafes it never
can denote part time*
FORM.yki/?. The external appearance of any ob-
jeCt, when confidered only with refpeCt to ihape
or figure. This term therefore, in the literal
fenfe, can only be applied to the objefts of the
fight and touch ; and is nearly fynonymous with
figure: but they differ in fome refpeCIs. Form
may be employed to denote more rude and unfi-
niftied ftiapes ; figure, thofe which are more per-
feCl and regular. Form can never be employed
without denoting matter ; whereas figure may be
employed in the abftraA : thus, we fay a fquare
or a triangular but not a fquare or triangu¬
lar form. And in the fame manner we fay, the.
figure of a houfe : but we muft denote the fub-
ftance which forms that figure, if we ufe the
word form; as, a cloud of the form of a houfe.
See. See Figure.
2. In contrail to irregularity, or confufion. As
beauty cannot exift without order, it is by a fi¬
gure of fpeech employed to denote beauty, order,
&c.
3., As form refpeds only the external appearance
of bodies, without regard to their internal qua¬
lities, it is, by a figure of fpeech, employed in
eontraft to thefe qualities, to denote empty fhow,
without effential qualities. In this fenfe it is
often taken when applied to religious ceremonies*
&c.
4. As form is employed to denote the external ap¬
pearance of bodies ; fo, in a figurative fenfe, it is
applied to reafoning, denoting the particular mode
or manner in which this is conducted; as, the
form of a fyltogifm, Stc.
5. In the fame manner it is employed to denote the
particular mode of procedure eftabliftted in courts
of law ; as, the forms of lain, religion. See.
6. Form is fometimes, although improperly, ufed
to denote the different circumftances of the fame
body ; as, mater in a fluid of a folid form* But
14 1 ■» as
DIG [ 246.
Di&ionary. as th;s p^rafe regards the internal qualities ra¬
ther than the external figure, it is improper; and
ought to be, 'water in a fluid or a fotid Jiate.
7. But when bodies of different kinds are compared
with one another, this term may be employed to
denote other circumftanees than fhape or figure :
for we may fay, a juice exfuding from a tree in
the form of <wax or refln; although, in this cafe,
the confiftenee, colour, &c. and not the exter¬
nal arrangement of parts, conftitutes the refem-
blance.
8. From the regular appearance of a number of per-
fons arranged in one long feat, fuch perfons fo
arranged are fometimes called a form; as, a form
of/indents, &c. And,
9. By an eafy tranfition, the feat itfelf has alfo ac¬
quired that name.
GREAT, adj. A relative word, denoting large-
nefs of quantity, number, &c. ferving to aug¬
ment the value of thofe terms with which it is
combined, and oppofed to fmall or little. The
principal circumftatrees in which this word can be
employed, are the following :
1. When merely /'^animate obje&s are confidered
with regard to quantity, great is with propriety
employed, to denote that the quantity is confi-
derable ; as, a great mountain, a great houfe, &c.
and it is here contrafted with fmall. TNhzn great
is thus employed, we have no other word that is
exa&ly fynonymous.
2. When inanimate objefts are confidered with re¬
gard to their extent, this term is fometimes em¬
ployed, although with lefs propriety ; as, a great
plain, a great field, &c. And in this fenfe it is
nearly fynonymous with large; and they are of¬
ten ufed indiferiminately, but with fome differ¬
ence of meaning: for, as large is a term chiefly
employed to denote extent of fuperficies, and as
great more particularly regards the quantity of
matter ; therefore, when large is applied to any
objeft which is not merely fuperficial, it denotes
that it is the extent of furface that is there meant
to be confidered, without regard to the other di-
menfions; whereas when the term great is em¬
ployed, it has a reference to the whole contents.
If, therefore, we fay, a large houfe, or a large
river, we exprefs that the houfe, the river, have
a furface of great extent, without having any ne-
ceffary connexion with the fize in other refpedts.
But if we fay, a great houfe, or a great river, it
at once denotes that they have not only a large
furface, but are alfo of great fize in every re-
fpeft.
g-. Great, when applied to the human fpecies, never
denotes the fize or largenefs of body, but is ap¬
plied folely to the qualities of the mind. Thus,
when we fay, that Socrates was a great man, we
do not mean that he was a man of great fize, but
that he was a man who excelled in. the endow¬
ments of the mind. The terms which denote
largenefs of fize in the human body are, big, bulky,
huge, &c.
4. Great is fometimes applied to the human fpecies,
as denoting high rank. In this cafe it is oftener
ufed in the plural number than otherwife^ Thus
] DIG
we fay fimply, the great, meaning the whole body Di£tio
of men in high ftation, as oppofed to mean. It
fhould feldom be employed in this fenfe, as it
tends to confound dignity of rank with elevation
of mind.
5. As this is a general term of augmentation, it may
be joined with all nouns which denote quantity,
quality, number, excellence, or defefts ; or fuch as
imply praife, blame, anger, cotitempt, or any other
affe&ion of the mind.
6. It is employed to denote every ftep of afeending
or defeending confanguinity ; as, great-grandfa¬
ther, great-grandfon, &c.
HIGH. ad/. Exalted in a perpendicular direftion
at a diftance from the furface of the earth. Op¬
pofed to low.
1. High is a term altogether indefinite, and is em¬
ployed to exprefs the degree of elevation of any
inanimate body. Thus, we fay, a high moun¬
tain, a high houfe, fleeple, tower, pillar, &c. Nor
is there any other word that can here be confi¬
dered as fynonymous; lofty being employed on¬
ly to denote a very eminent degree of elevation.
2. To exprefs the perpendicular elevation of vege¬
tables, either high or tall may be employed, as
being in this cafe nearly fynonymous. We may
therefore fay, a high or tall tree, a high or tall
majl, 8cc. : but with this difference between thefe
two expreffions, that tall can be more properly
applied to thofe that are much elevated and. of
fmall dimenfions ; and high, to fuch as are more
bulky, and of greater fize.
3. The perpendicular height of man can never be
expreffed by the word high ; tall being here the
proper exprefiion. And altho’ high is fometimes
ufed to exprefs the height of other animals, yet it
feems to be an improper expreffion. See Tall.
4. High, when applied to the human fpecies, al¬
ways refers to the mind ; and denotes haughtinefs,
Jiatelinefs, pride, See. ; and, when combined with
the exprefiions of any energy of the mind, it de¬
notes that in a higher degree. In this fenfe, it
is oppofed to meannefs, abjeflnef ; and humility.
5. As this is an indefinite term, tending to denote
any thing that is elevated above us, it may be com¬
bined with almoft every noun which admits of this
elevation. And as obje&s high above us are al¬
ways out of our reach, it is in a metaphorical
fenfe ufed to denote any thing that feems to be a-
bove the ordinary condition of mankind; or thofe
qualities or endowments of mind that are not ea-
fily acquired : as, dignity or elevation of fentiment;
dignity of rank ; acutenefs in reafoningon difficult
fubjefis; pride, haughtinefs, or any other quality
which feems beyond the ordinary level of man¬
kind ; dearnefs of price. See.
6. In the fame manner we apply this term to time ;
which having a metaphorical refemblance to a ri¬
ver flowing on with an unceafing current thro*
all fucceflive ages, any thing of remote antiquity
is denoted by the term high.
7. Likewife thofe degrees of latitudes far removed
from the line, where the pole becomes more ele¬
vated.
8. And to fome particular crimes,, as being at¬
tended.
DIG [ 2463 ] DIG
D'ftionarv tended with peculiar degrees of guilt; as, high
pT treafon.
TALL. atlj. Something elevated to a confiderable
degree in a perpendicular dire&ion. Oppofed to
, low.
1. This term is chiefly employed to exprefs the
height of man, and other animals; and is applied
to denote the height of the body only, without
having any reference to the mind. When ap¬
plied to man, no other word can be fubftituted
in its ftead: when applied to other animals,
high is fometimes coniidered as nearly fynony-
mous. See High.
2. It is likewife employed to denote the perpendi¬
cular height of vegetables; and in this cafe, it is
nearly fynonymous with high. See High.
3. It can in no cafe be employed to exprefs the
height of merely inanimate objedls ; as we can ne¬
ver fay tallJiecple, tower, or pillar, but a high
Jleeple, &c. For the diftin&ions in thefe cafes,
fee High.
LONG. adj. A relative term, denoting the diflance
between the extremes of any body, which is ex¬
tended more in one of its geometrical dimenfions
than another. Oppofed to Jhort.
1. This term may be applied to all inanimate ob¬
jects, of whatever kind, whofe dimenfions in one
way exceeds the other, and when not in an eredt
poilure, whatever be the other circumftances at¬
tending them ; whether it relates to fuperficies a-
lone, or to folid bodies ; whether thefe be bound¬
ed or open, ftraight or crooked, flexible or rigid,
or in any other circumllanees whatever s thus we
fay, a long or Jhort line, a long or Jhort ridge,
Jlreet, ditch, rope, chain, Jlaff, See. But it is to
be obferved, that although long is in the flri£l
fenfe only oppofed to Jhort; yet as it expreflfes
the extenfion of matter in one of its geometrical
proportions, it is often contrafted by thofe words
which exprefs the other proportions when we
mean only to deferibe the feveral proportions;
as, a table long and broad. And as thefe feveral
dimeniions are expreffed by different words, ac¬
cording to the various forms, modifications, and
circumftances, in which bodies are found, there¬
fore it is in this fenfe contrafted by a great di*
verfity of terms: as, a long and broad or wide,
narrow ax Jh ait, Jlreet or lane; a long and thick,
or fmall, rope, chain, Jlaff, &c. For the diftinc-
tions in thefe cafes, fee Broad, Wide, &c.
2. Objedls neceffarily fixed in an ere£t pofition can
never have this term applied to them; and there¬
fore we cannot fay a long, but a high, tower or
Jleeple. And for the fame reafon, while trees are
growing and fixed in an erett pofition, we cannot
apply this term to them; but when they are fell¬
ed and laid upon the ground, it is quite proper
and neceffary. Thus, we do not fay a long, but
a tall or high tree, while it is growing ; but we
fay a long, not a tall, log of wood: and in the fame
manner we fay a tall mafi, when it is fixed in the
fhip; but a long najl, while it lies upon the
beach. See Tall and High.
3. Thofe vegetables which are of a tender pliant na¬
ture, or fo weak as not to be able to retain a fixt
pofition, being confidered as of a middle nature Bidionary*
between erefl and proftrate bodies, admit of ei- ~ ^
ther of the terms long, tall, or high; as, a long
or tall ruff or willow wand, or a long, .tall, or
high Jlalk of corn. See High and Tall.
4. The parts of vegetables, when confidered as di*
ftiiift from the whole, even when growing and
erefl, aflume the term long: for we do not fay a .
tall, but a long, ffoot of a tret; and a tree with a
long fern, in preference to a tree with a high fern.
5. For the fame reafon, a ftaff, and pole, even when
fixed in a perpendicular dire&ion, aflfume the word
long, in preference to tall or high. '
6. With regard to animals, the general rule is.ap-
plied, without any exceptions: tall, and not long,
being employed to denote the height of the hu¬
man body, when in an ere& pofture; and long,
and not tall, to denote its length when in an in¬
cumbent fituation. Long, applied to all other a-
nimals which do not walk ereft, always denotes
their greateft length in a horizontal pofition from
head to tail.
7. In a figurative fenfe, it denotes, with regard to
time, any thing at a great diftance from us.
8. As alfo, any thing that takes up much time be¬
fore it is finifhed; as, a long difeturfe, a protrac¬
ted note in muff, &c.
BROAD, adj. The diftance between the two near-
eft lides of any body, whofe geometrical dimen¬
fions are large* in one direftion than in another;
and has a reference to fuperficies only, and never
to the folid contents. Oppofed to narrow.
1. Broad, in the ftri&eft acceptation, is applied to
denote thofe bodies only whofe fides are altoge¬
ther open and unconfined; as, a broad table, a
broad wheel. Sec.: and in thefe cafes it is invariably
contrafted by the word narrow; nor is there any
other word which in thefe cafes can be confidered
as fynonymous with it, or ufed in its ftead.
2. When any objeft is in fome fort bounded on the
fides, although not quite clofed up, as a road,
ftreet, ditch, &c. either broad or wide may be
employed, but with fome difference of fignifica-
tion; broad being moft properly ufed for thofe
that are more open, and wide for thofe which are
more confined: nor can this term be ever applied
to fuch objedls as are clofe bounded all around,
as a houfe, a church, &c. wide being here em¬
ployed. For the more accurate diftinftionfc in
thefe cafes, fee the article Wide.
WIDE. adj. A term employed to denote relative
extent in certain circumftances. Oppofed to nar¬
row and fir ait.
1. This term is in its proper fenfe applied only to
denote the fpace contained-within any body clofed
all round on every fide; as a houfe, gate, &c.: and
differs from broad in this, that it never relates to
the fuperficies of folid obje£ls, but is employed to
exprefs the capacioufnefs of any body which con*
taineth vacant fpace ; nor can capacioufnefs in this
fenfe be expreffed by any other word but wide.
2. As many bodies may be confidered either with
refpe£t to their capacioufnefs, or fuperficial ex¬
tent ; in all thefe cafes, either the term broad or
wide may be ufed; as, a broad or wide Jlreet or
14 I 2 ditch.
DIC [ 2464 ] DIG
Dictionary. ditch, &c. but with a greater or lefs degree of
" propriety, according to the circumftances of the
obje&, or the idea we wifh to convey. In a ftreet
where the houfes are low and the boundaries o-
pen, or in a ditch of fmall depth and large fuper-
ficies, as this largenefs of fuperficies bears the
principal proportion, broad would be more pro¬
per : but if the houfes are of great height, or the
ditch of great depth, and capacioufnefs is the prin¬
cipal property that affects the mind, we would
naturally fay a wide ftreet or ditch; and the fame
may be faid of all fimilar cafes. But there are fome
cafes in which both thefe terms are applied, with
a greater difference of meaning; thus we fay, a
broad or a wide gate: But as the gate is employ¬
ed to denote either the aperture in the wall, or
the matter which clofes that aperture, thefe terms
are each of them ufed to denote that particular
quality to which they are generally applied-; and
as the opening itfelf can never be confidered as a
fuperficies, the term wide, in this cafe, denotes
the diftance between the fides of the aperture ;
while, on the contrary, broad denotes the extent
of matter fitted to clofe that aperture; nor can
thefe two terms in any cafe be fubftituted for-one
another.
3. As a figurative expreflion, it is ufed as a cant
phrafe for a miftake; as, you are wide of the mark ;
that is, not near the truth.
NARROW, adj. A relative term, denoting a pro¬
portional fmallnefs of diftance between the fides of
the fuperficies of plain bodies. Oppofed to broad.
t. As this is only applied to fuperficies, it is exaft-
ly contrafted by broad, and is applied in all cafes
where the term broad can be ufed, (fee Broad) ;
and in no other cafe but as a contraft to it, ex¬
cept the following.
2. It fometimes is employed to deferibe the fmall¬
nefs of fpace circumfcribed between certain boun¬
daries, as oppofed to wide, and nearly fynonyroous
with Jlrait; as we fay a wide or a narrow houfe,
church. See. For the neceffary diftin&ions here,
fee the article Strait.
3. In a figurative fenfeit denotes parfimony, poverty,
confinedfentimenti. See.
■STRAIT, adj. A relative term, denoting the ex¬
tent of fpace in certain circumftances. Oppofed
to wide-, fee Wide.
•1. This term is employed, in its proper fenfe, to de¬
note only fpace, as contained between furrouud-
ing bodies in fuch circumftances as to denote fome
degree of confinement; and is exa&ly oppofed to
wide: as, a wideor a fir ait gate-. Sec. See Wide.
a. So necefiary is it that the idea of confinement
fhould be conne&ed with this word, that in all
thofe cafes where the fpace contained is large, as
in a church or houfe, we cannot exprefs a fmaller
proportional width by this term. And as we have
no other word to exprefs fpace in thefe circum¬
ftances, we have been obliged to force the word
narrobv from its natural fignification, and make
it exprefs this. See Narrow.
3. In fome particular cafes, narrower Jlrait maybe
employed to the fame objeft; as, a narrow or a
Jlrait lane: but 'tiere Jlrait is never employed but
where an idea of confinement is fuggefted, and Diftionaiy.
where it is exa&ly contrafted to wide; nor can
narrow be employed but in fuch circumftances
where broad would be a perfect contraft to it.
Therefore thefe two terms may be always em¬
ployed in the fame circumftances as thofe which
contraft them may be. For an account of which,
fee Wide.
3. The term Jlrait is likewife in a peculiar manner
ufed to denote the fmallnefs of the internal dia¬
meter of thofe fmall bodies which are fitted to re¬
ceive or contain others, as any kind of bag, tube,
body-cloaths, mortoifes, and others of the fame
kind; and in all thefe cafes this term may be em¬
ployed to denote the fmallnefs of their leffer dia¬
meter, and never the term narrow. But in cer¬
tain circumftances the word tight may be fubfti¬
tuted for it. See Tight.
4. Strait, in a figurative fenfe, denotes any fort of
confinement of fentiment or-difpofition.
TIGHT, adj. A term employed in certain circum¬
ftances to denote the internal capacity of particu¬
lar bodies. Nearly fynonymous with Jlrait.
This term is confined entirely to denote the fmall¬
nefs of the internal dimenfions of fuch objeffs as
are formed to cover or to receive or contain other
folid bodies, and can be employed in no other cafe.
And although it agrees within always de¬
noting confinement, and by being applicable to
■the fame fpecies of objefb, yet it differs in the
following refpefts: 1. If there be any difference
of the diameter of the objefts to which the term
Jlrait can be applied, it always has reference to
the fmaller ; yet tight may be applied to any
fort of confinement, whether it regards the length
or breadth. 2. Strait can be applied to all bo¬
dies of capacity when of fmall diameter, without
any fort of reference to the nature of the fub-
fiance which it may be capable of containing.
For we can fay a Jlrait bag, a Jlrait fie eve, a
Jlrait mortoije, a Jirait gate, &c. whereas tight
can only he applied to any body when it is con¬
fidered as having reference to another body wdiich
is intended to be contained in it, and is pinched
for want of room. Thus, we fay, the fieeve of a
coat is too tight for the arm, the mortoife is too tight
for the tenon. Sec.; but we cannot fay, the bag, or
the gate, is too tight, becaufe thefe are fitted to re¬
ceive any fort of obje&s. And hence it happens,
that, in many cafes, the dimenfions of the fame
body may be expreffed by tight or Jlrait when
■eonfidered in different circumftances. Thus, we
may fay, this fieeve is too fruit, when we look at
-a coat when, lying on the table, and confider its
proportions; but it is not till w’e have tried it up¬
on the arm that it is intended to cover, that we
call it tight. And we may fay, a gate is too fruit,
or too tight: but in the firft cafe we confider it as
being too confined for admitting objefts to pafs
through it; and in the laft, as being too confined
with refped to the leaves that are to (hut the a-
•perture, not allowing them fpace to move wuth
freedom.
Thefe examples may ferve to give fome idea of ;the
plan of an Englifti Diftionary compofed upon philofo-
phic$
DIG i 2465 ] DIG,
pionary. phical principles: But, befides the circumftances above
enumerated, there are many others which would re¬
quire particular attention in the execution of a work of
this kind. In the Englilh language, a great variety of
terms occur, which denote matter under certain gene¬
ral forms or circumftances, without regarding the mi¬
nute diverfities that may take place ; as the vtord. cloth,
which denotes matter as manufa&ured into a particu¬
lar form, including under it all the variety of fluffs ma-
nufaftured in that particular way, of whatever mate¬
rials, colours, texture, or finenefs, they may be. The
fame may be laid of wood, iron, yarn, and a great va¬
riety of terms of the fame nature, fome of which can¬
not affume any plural; while others admit of it in all
cafes, and others admit or refufe it according to the
different circumftances in which they arc confidered.
In a didionary, therefore,- all this variety of cafes
ought to be clearly and diftinftly pointed out under
/ , each particular article: this is the more neceffary, as
fome of thefe words have others formed from them,
which might be readily miftaken for their plurals, al-
tho’ they have a very different fignification; nscloaths,
which does not denote any number of pieces or differ¬
ent kinds of cloth, but wearing apparel. .The follow¬
ing example will illuftrate this head.
WOOD./a£. A folid fubftance, of which the trunks
and branches of trees oonfift-
1. This term is employed to denote thefolfd parts of
vegetables of all kinds, in whatever form or cir¬
cumftances they are found. Nor does this term
admit of plural with propriety, unlefs in the cir-
eumftances after-mentioned: for we fay, many
different kinds of wood, in preference to many kinds
of woods; or, we fay, oak, ajb, or elm wood, not
woods.
2. But where we want to contrail wood of one qua¬
lity or country with that of another, it admits of
a plural: for we fay, white woods are in general
fofter than red; or Weft-Indian woods are in ge¬
neral of greater fpecific gravity than the European
-woods: But unlels where the colour, or fome qua¬
lity which diftinguifhes it from growing wood, is
mentioned, this plural ought as much as poffible
to be avoided, as it always fuggefts an idea of
growing wood.
3. Wood likewife denotes a number of trees growing
near one another; being nearly fynonymous with
foreft: See Forest. In this fenfe it always ad¬
mits of a plural .; as, 7~e woods and wilds whofe
folitary gloom, &c.
A Dictionary cannot be reckoned complete without
explaining obfolete words; and if the terms of the fe¬
deral provincial dialeCts were likewife given, it would
be of great utility: nor would this take much time ;
■becaufe a number of thefe words need no other expla¬
nation than to mark along with them the words which
had come in their place, when there happened to be
one perfectly'fynonymous: and in thofe cafes where
the fame idea could not be expreffed in modern lan¬
guage without a periphrafis, it would be of ufe to ex¬
plain them diftinCtly; fb that, when a writer found
himfelf at a lofs for a term, and obliged to fearch for
■one beyond the boundsof our own language, he might
-take one of thefe, when he found that it was expreffive
and energetic, in preference to another drawn from a
foreign language. This would at leaft have one good Dfttiouary-
effeCt: it would make our language more' fixed and
liable; not to fay more accurate and precife, than by
borrowing from foreign languages. The following
examples may fevve to give fome idea of the manner
of treating this part of the work.
MOE, or mo. adj. An obfolete term, Hill employed
in the Scotch dialed, and by them pronounced
mae; denoting a greater number, and nearly fy¬
nonymous with more: but it differs in thisrefpeCl,
that, in the Scotch dialed, mac and mair (En-
glilh, more) are each employed in their diftind
fphere, without encroaching upon one another;
mae being employed to denote number, but never
quantity or quality; and mair, to denote quan¬
tity and quality, but never number: thus they fay
mae, not mair, apples, men, &c. and they fay mair,
not mae, cloth, earth, courage. See. See Mair.
Both of thefe terms are fupplied by the word
more; which, in the Englilh language, is applied
indiferiminately to denote quantity, quality, a«d
number. See More.
TH1R. pron. Obfolete'; Hill employed in the Scotch
dialed: the plural of this; and contrafted to
thefc, in the fame manner as that is X.o this.
As there is no word in the Englilh language equi¬
valent to this, we thus Ihew the manner in which
it is employed. In the Englilh language we fay,
that ftone or houfe, pointing at one at a diftance,
is larger or more commodious than this ftone or this
houfe, which is fuppofed to be at hand. In the
fame manner, in the Scotch dialed, they fay, thefe
(or, as it is pronounced, thae) ftones are whiter
than thirftones; denoting, that the former are at
a diftance, and the latter at hand. And, in the
fame manner, it is invariably applied to denote
any prefent objed in the plural number, as op-
pofed to thefe: as thefe or thir apples, as at hand
or at a diftance ; thefe or thir trees. See.; but ne¬
ver in the lingular number, as it is always this or
that tree, houfe. See.
As the Englilh language is fo exceedingly irregular
in the pronunciation, the fame letter in the fame fitua-
■tion often aHuming founds totally different in different
words, it is impoffible to eftablilh any genera] rules on
this fubjed, which do not admit of many exceptions:
therefore, a didionary is the bell means of afeertaining
and pointing out the proper pronunciation of words.
For, if the writer firft pointed out all the different
founds that the fame letter could-ever be made to ex-
prefs, and afiigned to every particular found which
each letter could be made to affume, a particular mark,
which was appropriated to denote that particular found
of the letter whenever it occurred ; by placing thefe
■particular marks above the letters in the didionary,
the found of each letter would be pointed out in ail
cafes with the utmofl. certainty. It would be impof¬
fible for us to illuftrate this by examples, without firft
■afeertaining all the founds of each letter; which would
lead us into a difeuffion too long for this place; and
this is at prefent the more unneceflary, as the public
have been long in expedation of a didionary, by a
very able hand, in which this particular will be at¬
tended to.
We lhall only further obferve, that, befides having
the
D I D
IMftionary the accented fyllable of every word properly diftinguifh-
.11 ed in a didionary to affift in the pronunciation, the
Didelphis. jTnglifh language requires another eflential improve¬
ment, viz. the ufe of accents to diftinguifh the mean¬
ing of 'words and phrafes\ which, although it is not (b
properly confined to a lexicographer, yet it is not quite
without his fphere. Tims the word as admits of two
very different founds, as well as diffefent fighifications;
as in this example, “ Cicero was nearly as eloquent
as Demofthenes:” in which the firfi: as is pronounced
afs, and the laft is pronounced az. Now, it often hap¬
pens, that, in reading, the particular way in which it
ought to be underftood is not pointed out by the con¬
text, till after the word itfelf is pronounced, which has
an equal chance at leall of being pronounced wrong;
whereas,if itwerealways accented when employed in the
one fenfe, and not in the other, it would free the reader
from this perplexity. There are other cafes in which
the ufe of proper accents in writing would be of great
confequence; as at the beginning of a fentence, when
it was put as a queftion, or ufed ironically, &c. the
want of which every one mult have obferved. But as
this does not fo properly belong to the lexicographer
as the grammarian, we flrall here take no further no¬
tice of it.
The above examples, we hope, will be fufficicnt to
give the reader feme idea of the plan that we would
propofe ; and enable him to determine, whether or not
a dictionary, executed upon this plan, would convey
to his mind a more perfeft knowledge of the Englilh
language, than thofe dictionaries that have been hi¬
therto publilhed. Thefe examples were given rather
with a view to (how the manner in which a work of
this kind might be conducted, than as perfeCt and un¬
exceptionable explanations of the feveral articles there
enumerated ; and therefore we did not think it necef-
fary to produce any authorities, although we are fen-
lible that they would be requifite in a work of this
kind.
DICTYS (Cretenfis), a very ancient hiftorian, who
ferving under Idomeneus king of Crete in the Trojan
war, wrote the hiftory of that expedition in nine books;
and Tzetzes tells us, that Homer formed his Iliad up¬
on the plan of that hiftory. It is however maintained,
that the Latin hiftory of Didlys which we have at pre-
fent is fpurious.
DIDACTIC, in the fchools, fignifies the manner
of fpeaking, or writing, adapted to teach or explain
the nature of things.
Didactic Poetry. See Poetry, n° 69, &c.
DIDAPPER, in ornithology. See Colymbus.
DIDELPHIS, or oppossum, in zoology; age-
mis of quadrupeds belonging to the order of ferae, the
chara&ers of which are thefe : they have ten fore-teeth
in the upper jaw, and eight in the under one. The
dog-teeth are long ; the tongue is fomewhat ciliated ;
and they have a pocket formed by a duplicature of the
Ikin of the belly, in which the dugs are included.
There are fix fpecies. 1. The marfupiah's, with a
long (harp-pointed nofe ; large, round, naked, and
very thin ears ; final], black, lively, eyes ; long ftiff
hairs on each fide the nofe, and behind the eyes : the
hind part of the neck^nd back covered with hair two
inches long ; the bottoms of a yellowifh white, middle
part blasL, ends whitifti: the fides covered with hair
D I D
of a dirty and duiky colour; the belly with foft, woolly, Didtlp i
dirty whit& hair : the tail, for near three inches, clothed 1 r
with long hairs like thofe on the back ; the reft of the j
tail covered with finall feales. The tail of this animal
has a difagreeable appearance, looking like the body \
of a fnake, and has the fame prehenfile quality with
that of fome monkeys; the body is round and pretty |
thick, the legs (hort: on the lower part of tthe belly
of the female is a large pouch, in which the teats are I
lodged, and where the young (belter as foon as they 1 |
are born. The length of the body is J 6 or 17-inches ;
that of the tail 14.—This creature inhabits many parts ^ ^ i
of America and the Eaft Indies. It is very deitruc- l x.xxk
tive to poultry, and fucks the blood without eating fig. 7< i
the flefti ; it feeds alfo on roots and wild fruits, and is
very aftive in climbing trees. It hunts eagerly after
birds and their nefts ; and will hang fufpended from
the branches of a tree by its tail; then, by Twinging j
its body, it will fling itfelf among the trees that grow
in the neighbourhood. It walks very (low; and when
purfued and overtaken, will feign itfelf dead. It is
not eafily killed, being as tenacioifs of life as a cat.
When 'the female it about to bring forth, (he makes a
thick nett of dry grafs in fome clofe bu(h at the foot
of a tree ; and brings four, five, or fix, young at a time.
As foou as the young are brought forth, they take
(belter in thepouch or falfe belly ; and fallen fo clofely
to the teats, that they cannot he feparated without
difficulty. They are blind, naked, and very fmall, j
when new-born, and refemble fetufes : it is therefore j
neceffary that they ffiould continue in that falfe belly, '
till they attain proper (Length and fight; and are pre- j
pared to undergo what may be called a fecond birth.
After this they run into the pouch as into an afylum \
in time of danger ; and the parent carries them about ,!
with her. During the time of this fecond geftation,
the female (hews an exceffive attachment to her young, j
and will fuffer any torture rather than allow' this re¬
ceptacle to be opened ; for (he has the power of open¬
ing or clofing it by the affiftance of fome very ftrong
mufcles. The fleffi of the old animal is very good, like
that of a fucking pig: the hair is dyed by the Indian
women, and wove into garters and girdles : the fkin is
very fetid.
2. The murina, hath the face and upper parts of
the body of a tawny colour; the belly yellowifti white
the tail (lender, and covered with minute feales to the /
very rump : the length from the nofe to the tail, about
fix inches and a half; the tail of the fame length : the
female wants the falfe belly of the former ; but on the
lower part the flein forms on each fide a fold, between
which the teats are lodged. It inhabits the hot parts
of South America; agrees with the others in its food
manners, and the prehenfile power of its tail. It brings
from 10 to 14 young ones at a time : they affix them-
felves to the teats as foon as they are born, and re¬
main attached like inanimate things, till they attain
growth and vigour to ffiift a little for themfelvcs.
3. The Mexican oppoffum, is of an affi-colour on
the head and upper parts of the body : the belly and
legs whitilh : the tail long and pretty thick, varied
with brown and yellow ; it is hairy near an inch from
its origin, the reft naked : the length from the nofe to
the tail, about feven inches and a half; of the tail,
more than 11.— It inhabits the mountains of Mexico,
and
[ 2466 ]
DID [ 2467 ] DIE
s and lives in trees, where it brings forth its young:
when in any fright, they embrace the parent clofely ;
’ the tail is prehenfile, and ferves inftead of a hand.
4. The (hort-tailed opofluna, hath the back of a dull
red, and the belly of a paler colour ; the tail fcarce half
the length of the body, thick at the bafe, and gradually
leffening towards the end : no falfe belly. It inhabits
South America : the young adhere to the teats as foon
as born. Seba fays, it lives in woods, and brings from
' 9 to iz young ones at a time.
5. The oppoffum of Surinam, hath the upper part
of the body reddifh, mixed with a light afh-colour and
yellow : the under-parts are of a dirty yellowifli white ;
the bottom of the tail is covered with hair, for near
two inches and a half; the reft naked : the length from
the nofe to the tail near nine inches ; the tail ten. It
inhabits Surinam, and perhaps may be the fpecies cal¬
led by the colonifts the cane-rat; which is fojicltruc-
tive to the fugar-canes.
6. The dorfigera, or merian oppoflum, hath the
head and upper part of the body, of a yellowifh
brown colour ; the belly white, and tinged with
yellow ; the tail very long and flender, and, except at
the bafe, quite naked.—It is a native of Surinam, and
burrows under ground : it brings five or fix young at
a time, which follow their parent: On any apprehen-
fion of danger, they all jump on her back; and, twilling
their tails round her’s, fire immediately runs with them
into her hole.
DIDO, the daughter of Belus king of Tyre, and
the wife of Sichasus. To avoid the tyranny of her bro¬
ther Pygmalion, who had put her hufband to death, file
fled into Africa, where file built Carthage, 882 B. C.
At length Hiarbas, king of the .Getuli, having de¬
manded her in marriage, and threatening, in cafe of
refufal, to make war on the Carthagenians, Dido
caufed a pile to be erefted, and after having facrificed
victims, as if to appeafe the manes of her hufband, af-
cended the pile, and ftabbed herfelf with a poinard in
fight of the people. From this aftion file obtained the
name of Dido, or the Refolute Woman, file being before
called Elifa.—Virgil makes her cotemporary with
tineas, and his chronology is juflified by Sir Ifaac
Newton ; while other learned men maintain that
./Eneas was never either in Carthage or Italy, and that
he lived above 300 years before Dido.
DIDUS, or dodo, in ornithology, a genus belong¬
ing to the order of gallinae. The bill is contrafted in
the middle by two tranfverfe rugae ; each mandible is
infle&ed at the point ; and the face is bare behind the
eyes. The body is blackifii and cloudy ; the tail is
very fiiort, and the upper part of the bill red- It is a
native of India ; and is incapable of flying, becaufe the
wings are not furniflied with feathers fufficient for that
purpofe.
DIDYMUS of Alexandria, an ecclefiaftical writer
of the fourth century ; who, though he is faid to have
loft his eyes at five years of age, when he had fcarcely
learned to read, yet applied fo earneftly to ftudy, that
he attained all the philofophic arts in a high degree,
and was thought worthy to fill the chair in the famous
divinity-fchool at Alexandria. He was the author of
a great number of works: but all we have now remain¬
ing, are a Latin tranflation of his book upon the Holy
Spirit, in the works of St Jerome who was the tranf-
lator; fhort ftri&ures on the Canonical epiftles ; and
a book againft the Manichees.
DIDYNAMIA, (from twice, and^v^'c power),
the name of the 14th clafs in Linnaeus’s fexual method ;
confifting of plants with hermaphrodite flowers, which
have four ftamina or male organs, two of which are
long and two ftiort. See Botany, p. 1292, and Plate
LIX. fig. 14.
DIEMERBROEK (Ifbrand), a learned profeflbr
of phyfic and anatomy at Utrecht, was born at Mont-
fort, in Holland, in 1609, where he acquired great
reputation by his lectures and his praftice ; and died
at Utrecht, in 1674. wrote a treatife on the
plague, which is efteemed; and feveral learned works
in anatomy and medicine; which were printed at Ut¬
recht in 1685, in folio.
DIEPPE, a handfome fea-port town of France, in
Hpper Normandy, in the territory of Caux; with a
good harbour, an old caftle, and two handfome moles.
The parilh-cburch of St James is an elegant ftrudture ;
and there is a tower from which, in fine weather, the
coaft of England may be feen. The principal trade
confifts in herrings, whitings, mackerel, ivory', toys,
and laces. It was bombarded by .the Englifh in 1694,-
and it is not now fo confiderable as it was formerly.
It is feated at the mouth of the river Argues, in E.
Long. 1.9/ N. Lat. 49. 55.
DIES marchite was the day of congrefs, or meet¬
ing of the Englifh and Scots, annually appointed to be
held on the marches or borders, in order to adjuft all
difierences’between them.
DIESIS, in mufic, is the divifion of a tone lefs than
a femitone ; or an interval confifting of a lefs or im-
perfeft femitone.
Diefis is the fmalleft and fofteft change or inflexion
of the voice imaginable : it is called a faint, exprefitd
thus X, by a St Andrew’s crofs, or faltier.
DIET, in medicine, according to fome, compre¬
hends the whole regimen, or rule of life, with regard
to the fix nori-naturals ; air, meats, and drinks, fieep,
and watching, motion and reft, pafilons of the mind,
retentions and excretions. Others reftrain the term of
diet, to what regards eating and drinking, or folid a-
liments and drinks. See Food.
The natura! conftitution of the body of man is
fuch, that it can eafily bear fome changes and irre¬
gularities, without much.injury: had it been other-
wife, we ftiould be almoft conftantly put out of order
by every flight caufe. This advantage arifes from-
thofe wonderful communications of the inward parts,
whereby, when one part is afftdled, another comes im¬
mediately to its relief.
Thus, when the body is too full, nature caufes eva¬
cuations through fome of the outlets: and for this rea-
fon it is, that difeafes from inanition are generally more
dangerous than from repletion ; becaufe we can more
expeditioufly diminifh than increafe the juices of the
body. Upon the fame account alfo, though temperance
be beneficial to all men, the ancient phyficians advifed
perfons in good health and their own mafters, to in¬
dulge a little now and then, by eating and drinking
more plentifully than ufual. But, of the two, intem¬
perance in drinking is fafer than in eating : and if a
perfon has committed excefs in the latter, cold water
drank upon a full ftomach will help digeftion; to which.
Didy
D
D I .E f 2468 1 DIG
31et. It will be of fervice to add lemon juice, or elixir of vi-
   triol. If he has eaten high feafoned things, rich fauces,
&c. then let him fit up for fome little time, and after¬
wards fleep. But if a man happen to be obliged to
faft, he ought to avoid all laborious work. From
fatiety it is not proper to pais dire£Hy to (harp hun¬
ger, nor from hunger to fatiety i neither will it be fafe
to indulge abfolute reft immediately after exceffive la¬
bour, nor fuddenly fall to hard work after long idle-
nefs. In a word, therefore, all changes in the way of
living flvould be made by degrees.
The fofter and milder kinds of aliment are proper
for children, and for youth the ftronger. Old people
ought to leflen the quantity of their food, and increafe
that of their drink: but yet fome allowance is to be
made for cuftom, efpecially in the colder climates like
ours ; for as in thefe the appetite is keener, fo is the
digeftion better performed. Mead's Manila <b Pra;-
cepta.
PiiiLT-Drinks, a form in phyfic, including all the
medicated wines, ales, and wheys, ufed in chronic cafes.
They require a courfe or continuation to anfwer any
intention of moment.
Diet af Appearance, in Scots law, the day to which
a defender is cited to appear in court; and every other
day to which the court fhall afterwards adjourn the
eonfideration of the queftion.
Diet, or Dye-T, in matters of policy, is ufed for the
general affembly of the ftates or circles of the empire
of Germany, and of Poland, to deliberate and concert
meafures proper to be taken for the good of the pub¬
lic.
The general diet of the empire is ufually held at
Ratifbon : it conlills of the emperor, the nine ele&ors,
and the ecclefiaftical princes; viz. the archbilhops,
biftiops, abbots, and abbefles; the fecular princes,
who are dukes, marquifes, counts, vifcounts, or ba¬
rons ; and the reprefentatives of the imperial cities. It
meets on the emperor’s fukimons, and any of the
princes may fend their deputies thither in their ftead.
The diet makes laws, raifes taxes, determines diffe-
v rences between the feveral princes and ftates, and can
relieve the fubjedfs from the oppreffions of their fove-
reigns.
The diet of Poland, or the affembly of the ftates,
confifted of the fenate and deputies, or reprefentative of
every palatinate or county and city; and ufually met
every two years, and oftener upon extraordinary occa-
fions, if fummoned by the king, or, in his abfence, by
the archbifttop of Gnefna. The general diet of Po¬
land fat but fix weeks, and often broke up in a tu¬
mult much fooner: for one diffenting voice prevented
their pafling any laws, or coming to any refolutions on
what was propofed to them from the throne. Switzer¬
land has alfo a general diet, which is ufually held every
year at Baden, and reprefents the whole Helvetic bo¬
dy : it feldom lafts longer than a month. Befides this
general diet, there are diets of the prpteftant can¬
tons, and diets of the catholic ones : the firft affemble
at Araw, and are convoked by the canton of Zurich;
the Tecond at Lucern, convoked by the canton of that
name.
DIETETIC, denotes fomething belonging to diet,
but particularly that part of phyfic which treats of this
fubjetf. See Diet, Food, and Drink.
DIETS, a town in the circle of the Upper Rhine in i>ia i
Germany, fituated on the river Lohn, twenty miles |
north of Mentz, and fubject to the houfe of Naffau- lg 7
Orange. E. Long. 7. 40. N. Lat. 50. 28.
DIEU et mon droit, i. e. God and my right, the ;
motto of the royal, arms of England, firft affumed by
king Richard I. to intimate that he did not hold his :
empire in vaffalage of any mortal.
It was afterwards taken up by Edward III. and ]
was continued without interruption to the. time of the
late king William, who ufed the motto viain-tieri-
dray, though the former was ftill retained upon the ;
great feal. After him queen Anne ufed the motto ,
Semper eadctn, which had been before ufed by queen i
Elizabeth ; but ever fince queen Anne, Dieu et mon <
droit continues to be the royal motto.
DIFFERENCE, in mathematics, is the remainder, 1
■when one number or quantity is fubtracted from an- j
other.
Difference, in logic. See Logic, n° 20—24.
Difference, in heraldry, a term given to a Cer¬
tain figure added to coats of arms, ferving to diftin-
guifti one family from another; and to (hew how dif- i
tant younger branches are from the elder or principal ,
branch.
DIFFERENTIAL, diEferentiale, in the high¬
er geometry, an infinitely fmall quantity, or a particle I
of quantity fo fmall as to be lefs than any affignablc
one. It is called a differential, or differential quantity, \
becaufe frequently confidered as the difference of two
quantities ; and, as fuch, is the foundation of the differ
rential calculus : Sir Ifaac Newton, and the Englifh,
call it a moment, as being eonfidered as the momentary
increafe of quantity. See Fluxions.
DIEXAHEDRIA, in natural hiftory, a genus of
pellucid and cryftalliform fpars, compofed of two pyra¬
mids, joined bale to bafe, without any intermediate j
column; the diexahedria are dodecahedral, or compo¬
fed of two hexangular pyramids.
DIFFUSE, an epithet applied to fuch writings as ;
are wrote in a prolix manner. Among hirtorians, Sat-
luft is reckoned fententions, and Livy diffufe. Thus |
alfo among the orators, Demofthenes is clofe and con-
cife ; Cicero, on the other hand, is diffufe.
DIFFUSION, the difperfion of the fubtile effluvia
of bodies into a kind of atmofphere all round them.
Thus the light diffufed by the rays of the fun, iffues all
round from that amazing body of fire.
DIGASTRICUS, in anatomy, a mufcle of the
lower jaw, called alfo Biventer.
DlGBY (Sir Kenelm), became very illuftrious in
the 17th century for his virtue and learning. He was
defccnded of an ancient family in England. His great¬
grandfather, accompanied by fix of his brothers, fought
valiantly at Bofworth-field on the fide of Henry VII.
againft the ufurper Richard III. His father, Everard,
fuffered himfelf to be engaged in the gun-powder plot
againft king James I. and for that crime was behead¬
ed. His fon wiped off that ftain, and was reftored to
his eftate. Ring Charles I. made him gentleman of
the bed-chamber, commiffioner of the navy, and go¬
vernor of the Trinity-houfe. He granted him letters of
reprifal againft the Venetians, by virtue whereof he
took feveral prizes with a fmall fleet which he com¬
manded. He fought the Venetians near the port of
Scan-
DIG [ 2469 ] DIG
»igfey Scanderoon, and bravely made bis way through them
!i with his booty. He was a great lover of learning,
geftive. an(j tranflate(i feveral authors into Englifh ; and his
“ Treatife of the Nature of Bodies and the Immorta¬
lity of the Soul,” difcovers great penetration and ex-
tenlive knowledge. He applied to chemiftry; and
found out feveral ufeful medicines, which he gave freely
away to people of all forts, efpecially to the poor. He
diftinguilhed himfelf particularly by his fympathetic
' powder for the cure of wounds at a diftance ; his dif-
courfe concerning which made a great noife for a while.
He had conferences w'ith Hes Cartes about the nature
of the foul.
In the beginning of the civil wars, he exerted him¬
felf very vigordufly in the king’s caufe; but he was
afterwards imprifoned, by the parliament’s order, in
Winchefter houfe, and had leave to depart thence in
1643. He afterwards compounded for his edate, but
was ordered to leave the nation; when he went to
France, and was fent on two embaffies to pope Inno¬
cent X. from the queen, widow to Charles I. whofe
chancellor he then was. On the reftoration of Charles
II. he returned to London; where he died in 1665,
aged 60.
This eminent perfon was, for the early pregnancy
of his parts, and his great proficiency in learning, com-'
pared to the celebrated Picus de Mirandola, who was
one of the wonders of human nature. His knowledge,
though various and extenfive, appeared to be greater
than it really was; as he had all the powers of elocu¬
tion and addrefs to recommend it. He knew how to
fhine in a circle of ladies, or philofophers ; and was as
much attended to when he fpoke on the moft trivial fub-
je&s, as when he fpoke on the moft important. It is
laid that one of the princes of Italy, who had no child,
was defirous that his princefs fhould bring him a fon
by Sir Kenelm, whom he efteemed a juft model of per-
feftion.
DIGEST, in matters of literature, a colle&ion of
the decifions of the Roman lawyers properly digefted,
or arranged under diftinft heads, by vrrder of the em¬
peror Juftinian. It conftitutes the firft part or volume
of the civil law.
DIGESTION, in medicine, is the difiblution of the
aliments into fuch minute parts as are fit to enter the
la&tal veffels, and circulate with the mafs of blood.
See Anatomy, n° 366—369.
Digestion, in chemiftry, is an operation which con-
fifts in expofing bodies to a gentle heat, in proper vef¬
fels, and during a certain time. This operation is ve¬
ry ufeful to favour the adtion of certain fubftances up¬
on each other; as, for example, of well calcined, dry,
fixed alkali upon reftified fpirit of wune. When thefe
two fubftances are digefted together in a matrafs, with
a gentle fand-bath heat, the fpirit of wine acquires a
yellow-reddilh colour, and an alkaline quality. The
fpirit would not fo well acquire thefe qualities by a
flronger and fhorter heat.
fTrfw/c/" Digestion, a difeafe attended with pain
and a fenfe of weight, with eruftations and copious
flatulencies from corrupt humours in the ftomach.
DIGESTIVE, in medicine, fuch remedies as
ftrengthen and increafe the tone of the ftomach, and
afiift in the digeftion of foods. To this clafs belong
all ftomachics and ftrengtheners or corroborants.
Vol. IV.
DIGGING, among miners, is appropriated to the
operation of freeing any kind of ore from the bed or
ftratum in which- it lies, where every ftroke of their.
tools turns to account r1 in contradiftin&ion to the o-
penings made in fearch of fuch ore, which are called
hatches, or ejfay-hatches; and the operation itfelf, tra¬
cing of mines, or hatching.
When a bed of ore is difcovered, the beele-m^n, fo
called from the inftrument they ufe, which is a kind of
pick-ax, free the ore from the foffils around it; and the
fliovel-men throw it up from one Ihamble to another,
till it reaches the mouth of the hatch.
In fome mines, to fave the expence as well as fatigue
of the Ihovel-men, they raife the ore by means of a
winder and two buckets, one of which goes up as the
other comes down.
DIGIT, in aftronomy, the twelfth part of the dia¬
meter of the fun or moon, ufed to exprefs the quan¬
tity of an eelipfe. Thus an eclipfe is laid to be of fix
digits, when fix of thefe parts are hid.
Digits, or Monades, in arithmetic, fignify any in¬
teger under 10; as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
Digit is alfo a meafure taken from the breadth of
the finger. It is properly ^ of an inch, and contains
the meafure of four barley-corns laid breadth-wife.
DIGITALIS, fox-glove ; a genus of the angio-
fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants.—There are fix fpecies; five of which are har¬
dy, herbaceous, biennial and perennial plants, and the
fixth a tender ftirubby exotic. The herbaceous fpecies
rife two or three feet high, crowned with fpikes of yel¬
low iron-coloured or purple flowers. The flirubby
fort rifes five or fix feet high, having fpear-lhaped rough
leaves, four or five inches long, and half as broad; the
branches being all terminated with flowers growing in
loofe fpikes.—All the fpecies are eafily raifed by feeds.
—An ointment made of the flowers of purple fox¬
glove and May-butter, is much commended by fome
phyficians for fcrophulous ulcers which run much and
are full of matter. Taken internally, this plant is a vio¬
lent purgative and emetic; and is therefore only to be
adminifteredtorobuft conftitutions. The country people
in England frequently ufe a deco&ion of it with poly¬
pody of the oak in epileptic fits. In Italy, fox-glove
is efteemed an excellent vulnerary.
DIGITATED, among botanifts. See Botany,
p.1297.
DIGLYPH, in archite&ure, a kind of imperfedl
triglyph, confole, or the like; with twm channels or
engravings, either circular or angular.
DIGNE, an epifcopal town of Provence in France,
famous for the baths that are near it. It is feated on
a river called Marderic,- in E. Long. 5. 27. N. Lat.
44. 5.
DIGNITARY, in the canon law, a perfon who
holds a dignity, that is, a benefice which gives him
fome pre-eminence over mere priefts and canons. Such
is a bifhop, dean, arch-deacon, prebendary, &c.
DIGNITY, as applied to the titles of noblemen, fig-
fies honour and authority. And dignity may be di¬
vided into fuperior and inferior; as the titles of duke,
earl, baron, &c. are the higheft names of dignity; and
thofe of baronet, knight, ferjeant at law, &c. the low-
ell. Nobility only can give fo high a name of dignity
as to fupply the want of a furname in legal proceed-
14 K jngs j
Digging
1.
Dignity.
DIG [ 2470 ] DIG
Dignity, ings ; and aS the omiffion of a name of dignity maybe
~ pleaded in abatement of a writ, &c. fo it may be where
a peer who has more than one name of dignity, is not
named by the Mod Noble. No temporal dignity of
any foreign nation can give a man a higher title here
than that of esquire.
Dignity, in the human charadter, the oppofite of
Meannefs.
Man is endued with a sense of the worth and ex¬
cellence of his nature : he deems it more perfedt than
that of the other beings around him ; and he perceives
that the perfection of nis nature confifls in virtue, par-
F.ltments of ticularly in virtues of the higheft rank. To exprcfs
Critkifm. ljlat fenfej t]ie tertn dignity is appropriated. Further,
to behave with dignity, and to refrain from all mean
adtions, is felt to be, not a virtue only, but a duty: it
is a duty every man owes to himfelf. By adting in
that manner, he attradts love and elteem : by adting
meanly, or below himfelf, he is difapproved and con¬
temned.
This fenfe of the dignity of human nature, reaches
even our pleafures and amufements. If they enlarge
the mind by raifing grand or elevated emotions, or if
they humanize the mind by exercifing our fympathy,
they are approved as fuited to the dignity of our na¬
ture : if they eontradt the mind by fixing it on trivial
objedts, they are contemned as not fuited to the dig¬
nity of our nature. Hence, in general, every occupa¬
tion, whether of ufe or amufement, that correfponds to
the dignity of man, is termed manly; and every occu¬
pation below his nature, is termed ehildijh.
To thofe who lludy human nature, there is a point
which has always appeared intricate : How comes it
that generofity and courage are more efteemed, and be¬
llow more dignity, than good-nature, or even juftice ;
though the latter contribute more than the former to
rivate as well as to public happinefs.? This quellion,
luntly propofed, might puzzle even a philofopher;
but, by means of the foregoing obfervations, will eafily
be folved. Human virtues, like other objedts, obtain
ta rank in our eftimation, not from their utility, which
Is a fubjedl of refledlion, but from the diredl impreffion
they make on us. Juftice and good-nature are a fort
of negative virtues, that fcarce make any impreffion but
when they are tranfgrcfied: courage and generofity,
on the contrary, producing elevated emotions, enliven
greatly the fenfe of a man’s dignity, both in himfelf
and in others ; and for that reafon, courage and gene¬
rofity are in higher regard than the other virtues men¬
tioned : we defcribe them as grand and elevated, as of
greater dignity, and more praife-worthy.
This leads 113 to examine more diredlly emotions and
paffions with refpedl to the prefent fubjedt : and it will
not be difficult to form a fcale of them, beginning with
the meaneft, and afeending gradually to thofe of ,the
highefl rank and dignity. Pleafure felt as at the or¬
gan of fenfe, named corporeal pleafure, is perceived to
be low; and when indulged to excefs, is perceived al-
fo to be mean : for that reafon, perfons of any delicacy
diflemble the pleafure they take in eating and drink-
ing-_ The pleafures of the eye and ear, having no or¬
ganic feeling, and being free from any fenfe of mean¬
nefs, are indulged without any ffiame : they even rife
to a certain degree of dignity when their objedls are
grand or elevated. The fame is the cafe of the fym-
pathetic paffions: a virtuous perfon behaving with for- Dignity in
titude and dignity under cruel misfortunes, makes a ‘f
capital figure; and the fympathifing fpedlator feels ,
in himfelf the fame dignity. Sympathetic diftrefs at
the fame time never is mean: on the contrary, it is a-
greeable to the nature of a focial being, and has gene¬
ral approbation. The rank that love poflefies in the
fcale, depends in a great meafure on its objeft: it pof-
fefles a low place when founded on external properties
merely; and is mean when beftowed on a perfon of in¬
ferior rank without any extraordinary qualification ;
but when founded on the more elevated internal pro¬
perties, it affumes a confiderable degree of dignity.
The fame is the cafe of friendihip. When gratitude
is warm, it animates the mind; but it fcarce rifes to
dignity. Joy beftows dignity when it proceeds from
an elevated caufe.
If we can depend upon induftion, dignity is not a
property of any difagreeable paffion : one is flight, an¬
other fevere ; one depreffes the mind, another animates
it; but there is no elevation, far lefs dignity, in any of
them. Revenge, in particular, though it enflame and
fwell the mind, is not accompanied with dignity, not
even with elevation : it is not however felt as mean or
groveling, unlefs when it takes indirect meafures for
gratification. Shame and remorfe, though they fink
the fpirits, are not mean. Pride, a difagrceable paf¬
fion, beftows no dignity in the eye of a fpedator. Va¬
nity always appears mean ; and extremely fo where
founded, as commonly happens, on trivial qualifica¬
tions.
We proceed to the pleafures of the underftanding,
which poffefs a high rank in point of dignity. Of this
every one will be fenfible, when he confiders the im¬
portant truths that have been laid open by fcience;
fuch as general theorems, and the general laws that
govern the material and moral worlds. The pleafures
of the underftanding are fuited to man as a rational and
contemplative being, and they tend not a little to en¬
noble his nature; even to the Deity he ftretcheth his
contemplations, which, in the difcovery of infinite
power, wifdom, and benevolence, afford delight of the
moft exalted kind. Hence it appears, that the fine
arts, ftudied as a rational fcience, afford entertainment
of great dignity; fuperior far to what they afford as a
fubjedl of tafte merely.
But contemplation, howeverlnitfelf valuable, is chief¬
ly refpe&ed as fubfervient to a&ion; for man is intended
to be more an active than a contemplative being. He
accordingly (hows more dignity in aftion than in con¬
templation : generofity, magnanimity, heroifm, raife
his charader to the higheft pitch ; thefe belt exprefe
the dignity of his nature, and advance him nearer to
divinity than any other of his attributes.
Having endeavoured to affign the efficient caufe of
dignity and meannefs, by unfolding the principle on
which they are founded, we proceed to explain the final
caufe of the dignity or meannefs beftowed upon the
feveral particulars above-mentioned, beginning with
corporeal pleafures. Thefe, as far as ufeful, are, like
juftice, fenced with fufficient fandions to prevent their
being negleded : hunger and third are painful fenfa-
tions; and we are incited to animal love by a vigorous
propenfity : were corporeal pleafures dignified over and
above with a place in a high clafs, they would infal-
DIG [2,
M Dignity UMy overturn the balance of the mind, by outweighing
'1 . Il . the focial afifedtions. This is a fatisfadtory final caufe
B ‘-'"la. for refufing to thefe pleafures any degree of dignity:
and the final caufe is not lefs evident of their meannefs,
when they are indulged to excefs. The more refined
pleafures of external fenfe, conveyed by the eye and
the ear from natural objedls and from the fine arts, de-
ferve a high .place in our efteem, becaufe of their fin-
gular and extenfive utility: in fome cafes they rife to a
confiderable dignity; and the very loweft pleafures of
the kind are never efteemed mean or groveling. The
pleafure arifing from wit, humour, ridicule, or from
what is (imply ludicrous, is ufeful, by relaxing the
mind after tiie fatigue of more manly occupation: but
the mind, when it furrenders itfelf to pleafure of that
kind, lofes its vigour, and finks gradually into floth.
The place this pleafure occupies in point of dignity, is
adjufted to thefe views; to make it ufeful as a relaxa¬
tion, it is not branded with meannefs; to prevent its
ufurpation, it is removed from that place but a (ingle
degree : no man values himfelf for that pleafure, even
during gratification ; and if it have engroffed more of
his time than is requifite for relaxation, he looks back
with fome degree of (hame.
In point of dignity, the focial emotions rife above
the felfifh, and much above thofe of the eye and ear :
man is by his nature a focial being; and to qualify
him for fociety, it is wifely contrived, that he (hoald
value himfelf more for being focial than felfifh.
The excellency of man is chiefly difcernible in the
great improvements he is fufceptible of in fociety :
thefe, by perfeverance, may be carried on progreffive-
ly, above any afiignable limits ; and even abftra&ing
from revelation, there is great probability, that the
progrefs begun here will be completed in fome future
(late. Now, as all valuable improvements proceed
from the exercife of our rational faculties, the Author
of oitr nature, in order to excite us to a due ufe of
thefe faculties, hath afligned a high rank to the
pleafures of the underftanding : their utility, with re-
fpedt to this life as well as a future, intitles them to
that rank.
But as aftion is the aim of all our improvements,
virtuous adlions juflly poflefs the higheft of all the
ranks. Thefe, we find, are by nature diftributed in¬
to different clafles, and the firft in point of dignity af-
figned to aftions that appear not the firft in point of
ufe : generofity, for example, in the fenfe of mankind
is more refpeAed than juftice, though the latter is un¬
doubtedly more eflential to fociety ; and magnanimity,
heroifm, undaunted courage, rife ftill higher in our
efteem: The reafon of which is explained above.
Dignitv, in compofition. See Oratory, n° 48.
DIGON, an ancient, handfome, rich, and very
confiderable town of France ; capital of Burgundy,
and of the Digonois; with a parliament, bifhop’s fee,
a mint, an univerfity, academy of fciences, an abbey,
and a citadel : mod part of the churches and public
ftrudlures are very beautiful, and in one of the fquares
there is an equeftrian ftatue of Lewis XIV. It is
feated in a very pleafant plain between two fmall ri¬
vers, which produces excellent wine. E. Long. 5. 7.
N. Lat. 47. 19.
DIGRESSION. See Oratory, n°37.
DIGYNIA, (from be fw/Ve, and ym a •woman).
71 ] DIM
the name of an order or fecondary divifion in each of Dike
the firft; 13 claffes, except the gth, in Linnaeus’s fexual ^
method ; confiding of plants, which to the claffic cha- imgn lon
rafter, whatever it is, add the eircumftance of having
two ftyles or female organs.
DIKE, a ditch, or drain, made for the paflage of
waters.—The word feems formed from the verb, to dig\
tho’ others choofe to derive it- from the Dutch, diik, a
dam, fea-bank, or wall.
Dike, or Dyke, alfo denotes a work of done, tim¬
ber, or fafeines, raifed to oppofe the entrance or paf-
fage of the waters of the fea, a river, lake, or the like.
—The word comes from the Flemifh dyk, or diik, a
heap of earth to bound or (tern the water. Junius
and Menage take the Flemifti to have borrowed their
word from the Greek «uW/. Guichard derives
it from the Hebrew daghah.
Dikes are ufually elevations of earth, with hurdles of
flakes, ftones, and other matters.
The dike of Rochel is made with veffels faftened to
the bottom. The dikes of Holland are frequently
broke through, and drown large trafts of land.
DILAPIDATION, in law, a wafteful deftroying
or letting buildings, efpecially parfonage-houfes, &c.
run to decay, for want of neceflary reparation. If the
clergy negleft to repair the houfes belonging to their
benefices, the biftiop may fequefter the profits thereof
for that purpofe. And in thefe cafes, a profecution
may be brought either in the fpiritual court, or at com¬
mon law, againft the incumbent himfelf, or againft his
executor or adminiftrator.
DILATATION, in phyfics, a motion of the parts
of any body, by which it is fo expanded as to occupy
a greater fpace. This expanfive motion depends upon
the elaftic power of the body ; whence it appears that
dilatation is different from rarefaftion, this laft being
produced by the means of heat.
DILATATORES, in anatomy, a name given to
feveral mufcles in the human body. See Akatomy*
ruble of the Mufcles.
DILEMMA, in logic, an argument equally con-
clufive by contrary fuppofitions *. *See£sjiV„
DILIGENCE, in Scots law, fignifies either that n0l00,I°I*
care and attention which parties are bound to give, in
implementing certain contrafts or trufts, and which va¬
ries according to the nature of the contraft ; as to
which, fee Law, N° clxi. 12, 13. clxxiii. 8. & clxxxi.
18. Or it fignifies certain forms of law, whereby the
creditor endeavours to operate his payment, either by
affefting the perfon or eftate of the debtor; ibid.
N° clxxi. clxxii,
DILL, in botany. See Anethum.
DILLEMBURG, a town of Germany, in Wet-
teravia, and capital of a county of the fame name.
It is fubjeft to a prince of the houfe of Naflau, and is
filuated in E. Long. 8. 24. N. Lat. 50. 45.
DILLENGEN, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Suabia, with an univerfity, and where the bifliop of
Augfburg refides. It is feated near the Danube, in
E. Long. 11. 35. N. Lat. 48-. 38.
DILUTE. To dilute a body is to render it liquid j
or, if it were liquid before, to render it more fo, by
the addition of a thinner thereto. Thefe things thus
added, are called diluents, or dilators.
DIMENSION, in geometry, is either length*
14 K 2 breadth*
DIO [ 2472 1 DIO
Diminution breadth, or thicknefs : hence, a line hath one dimen-
Ij fion, viz% length ; a fuperficies two, viz. length and
1Q' breadth ; and a body, or folid, has three, viz. length,
breadth, and thicknefs.
DIMINUTION, in archite&nre, a contra&ion
of the upper part of a column, by which its diameter
* aCe y*rc^‘ is made lefs than that of the lower part *.
DIMINUTIVE, in grammar, a word formed
from fome other, to foften or diminifh the force of
it, or to fignify a thing is little in its kind. Thus,
cellule is a diminutive of celU globule of globes hillock
of hill.
DINGWEL, a parliament-town of Scotland in the
fhire of Rofs, feated on the frith of Cromarty, 15 miles
weft of the town of Cromarty. Near it runs the river
Conel, famous for producing pearls. W. Long. 4. 15.
N. Lat. 57. 45.
DINNER, the meal taken about the middle of the
day.—The word is derived from the French di[ner>
which Du Cange derives from the barbarous Latin
difnare. Henry Stephens derives it from the Greek
and will have it wrote Menage dedu¬
ces it from the Italian dcjinare, to dine ; and that from
the Latin dejinere, to leave off work.
It is generally agreed to be the moft falutary to
make a plentiful dinner, and to eat fparingly at fupper.
This is the general praftice among us. The French,
however, in imitation of the ancient Romans, defer
their good cheer to the evening ; and Bernardinus Pa-
ternus, an eminent Italian phyfician, maintains it to be
the moft wholefome method, in a treatife exprefsly on
the fubjeft.
The grand Tartar emperor of China, after he has
dined, makes publication by his heralds, that he gives
leave for all the other kings and potentates of the
earth to go to dinner; as if they waited for his leave.
DINOCRATES, a celebrated architeil of Mace¬
donia, who rebuilt the temple of Ephefus, when burn¬
ed by Eroftratus, with much more magnificence than
before. Vitruvius informs us that Dinocrates propofed
to Alexander the Great to convert mount Athos into
the figure of a man, whofe left hand ftiould contain a
walled city, and all the rivers of the mount flow into
his right, and from thence into the fea ? He alfo con¬
ceived a fcheme for building the dome of the temple of
Arfinoe at Alexandria, of loadftone; that Ihould by
its attraftion uphold her iron image in the centre, fuf-
-pended in the air ! Projefts which at leaft (hewed a vaft
extent of imagination.
DIO cassius, a famous Greek hiftorian, a na¬
tive of Nicea, a city of Phrygia, was governor of Per-
gamus and Smyrna, and commanded in Africa and
Pannonia. In the year 229, he was raifed by Alexan¬
der Severus to the dignity of conful; but not being a-
greeable to the troops, was obliged to retire to the
place of his birth, where he ended his days. He com-
pofed a Roman Hiftory in Greek, a part of which on¬
ly has been handed down to us. He is accufed of par¬
tiality againft Pompey, Cicero, Seneca, and feveral
other great men. He is chiefly efteemed for the
fpeeches he puts into the mouths of Agrippa and Me-
casnas, when Auguftus advifed with them whether he
Ihould preferve the empire, or reftore the ancient go¬
vernment.
Dio Chryfoftom, that is, Golden Mouth, a cele¬
brated orator and philofopher of Greece, in the firft Dicceft
century, was born at Prufa in Bithynia. He attempted , II
to perfuade Vefpafian to quit the empire ; was hated Dlocle
by Domitian ; but acquired the efteem of Trajan.
This laft prince'took pleafure in converfing with him,
and made him ride with him in his triumphal cha¬
riot. There are ftill extant, 80 of Dio’s orations, and
fome other of his works: the bed edition of which is
that of Hermand Samuel Raimarus, in 1750, in folio.
DIOCESE, or Diocess the circuit, or extent of
the jurifdi&ion of a Bishop.—The word is formed
from the Greek Siot^na-^, goverrcnent, adminiftration ;
formed of Jiontta, which the ancient gloflaries render
adminijlro, moderor, ordino : hence Sicwo-h tvs ^okicc,
the adminiftration or government of a city.
Diocese is alfo ufed in ancient authors, &c. for
the province of a metropolitan.
Dioccejh, t‘otx.n<nc, was originally a civil government,
or prefecture, conapofed of diverfe provinces.
The firft divifion of the empire into diocefes is ordi¬
narily afcribed to Conftantine ; who diftributed the
whole Roman (late into four, viz. the diocefe of Italy,
the diocefe of Illyria, that of the eaft, and that of A-
frica. And yet, long time before Conftantine, Strabo,
who wrote under'Tiberius, takes notice, lib. xiii. p. 432.
that the Romans had divided Afia into diocefes; and
complains of the confufion fuch a divifion occafioned
in geography, Afia being no longer divided by peo¬
ple, but by diocefes, each whereof had a tribunal, or
court, where juftice was adminiftered. Conftantine,
then, was only the inftitutor of thofe large diocefes,
which comprehended feveral metropoles and govern-
ments ; the former diocefes only comprehending one
jurifdidtion or diftridl, or the country that had refort
to one judge, as appears from this paflage in Strabo,
and (before Strabo) from Cicero himfelf, lib. iii. ef>i/h
adfamil. 9. and lib. xiii. ep. 67.
Thus, at firft a province included divers diocefes;
and afterwards a diocefe came to comprife divers pro¬
vinces. In after-times the Roman empire became di¬
vided into XIII diocefes or prefedlures; though, in¬
cluding Rome, and the fuburbicary regions, there were
XIV. Thefe XIV diocefes comprehended 120 pro¬
vinces : each province had a proconful, who refided in
the capital or metropolis ; and each diocefe of the em¬
pire had a conful, who refided in the principal city of
the diftrift.
On this civil conftitution, the ecclefiaftical one was
afterwards regulated : each diocefe had an ecclefiafti¬
cal vicar, or primate, who judged finally of all the
concerns of the church within his territory.
At prefent there is fome further alteration : for dio¬
cefe does qot now fignify an affemblage of divers pro¬
vinces ; but is limited to a (ingle province under a me¬
tropolitan, or more commonly to the (ingle jurifdic-
tion of a bifhop.
Gul. Brito affirms diocefe to be properly the terri¬
tory and extent of a baptifmal or parochial church;
whence divers authors ufe the word to fignify a Ample
parifti. See Parish.
DIOCLES1AN, the Roman emperor: (te [Hijlory
of) Rome. His bloody perfecution of the Chriftians
forms a chronological a:ra, called the ara of Diode-
fan, or of the martyrs. It was for a long time in
ufe in theological writings, and is ftill followed by
the
DIO [ 2473 ] DIO
Biofhhe- the Copts and Abyffinians. It commenced Aug. 20th,
dria A> D. 284.
•Diodon. DIOCTAHEDRIA, in natural hiftory, a genus of
  pellucid and cryftalliform fpars, compofed of two octan¬
gular pyramids, joined bafe to bafe, without any inter¬
mediate column. Of thefe fome have long pyramids,
others fhort and lharp-pointed ones, and others fhoit
and obtufe-pointed ones ; the two former fpecies being
found in the Hartz-foreft, and the laft in the mines of
Cornwall.
DIODON, or sun-fish, in ichthyology, a genus
belonging to the order of amphibia nantes.
There are three fpecies, 1. The oblong fun-fifh
grows to a great bulk: one examined by Sylvianus
was abve 100 pounds in weight; and Dr Borlafe men¬
tions another taken at Plymouth in 1734, that weighed
' 500. In form it refembles a bream or fome deep fifli
cut off in the middle. The mouth is very fmall, and
contains in each jaw two broad teeth, with fharp edges.
The eyes are little; before each is a fmall femilunar
aperture ; the peCtoral fins are very fmall, and placed
behind them. The colour of the back is dulky, and
dappled ; the belly filvery t between the eyes and the
peCtoral fins are certain ftreaks pointing downwards.
The Ik in is free from fcales.
When boiled, it has been obferved to turn into a
glutinous jelly, refembling boiled ftarch when cold,
and ferved the purpofts of glue on being tried on pa¬
per and leather. The meat of this filh is uncommon¬
ly rank: it feeds on fhell-fifh.
There feems to be no fatisfa&ory reafon for the old
Engliih name. Care mult be taken not to confound
* See Squa-h with the fun-fifh of the Irilh *, which differs in all
Im. refpeCts from this.
2. The mola, or fhort fun-fifh, differs from the for¬
mer, in being much fhorter and deeper. The back and
the anal fins are higher, and the aperture to the gills
not femilunar, but oval. The fituation of the fins are
the fame in both.
Both kinds are taken on the weftern coafts of this
kingdom, but in much greater numbers in the warmer
parts of Europe.—Mr Brunnich informs us, that be¬
tween Antibes and Genoa', he fa-w one of this fpecies
lie afleep on the furface of the water: a failor jumped
overboard,.and caught it.
See Plate 3* bvigatus, or globe, is common to Europe
I.XXXVI. and South Carolina. As yet only a fingle fpecimen
% 8. has been difcovered in our feas ; taken at Penzance in
Cornwall. The length was one foot feven :.thelength
of the belly,, when diftended, one foot; the whole cir¬
cumference in that fituation two feet fix. The form of
the body is ufually oblong; but when alarmed, it has
the power of inflating the belly to a globular fhape of
great fize. This feems defigned as a means of defence
againft fifh of prey : as they have lefs means of laying
hold of it; and are befides terrified by the numbers of
fpines with which that part is armed, and which are
capable of being ere&ed on every part. The mouth is
fmall: the irides white, tinged with red: the back
from head to tail almoft ftraight, or at leafl very flightly
elevated ; of a rich deep blue colour. It has the pec¬
toral, but wants the ventral fiiis: the tail is almoft even,
divided by an angular proje&ion in the middle; tail
and fins brown. The belly and fides are white, fha-
greened or wrinkled j and befet with innumerable fmall
fliarp fpines, adhering to the fkin by four proceffes. Diodorus
DIODORUS siculus, a celebrated hiftorian, un-
der Julius Caefar and Auguftus, was thus named from 10genes-
his being a native of Agyrium in Sicily. He fpent
50 years in compofing his Bibljotheca Hijlorica; and
travelled into the places he defcribes, for perfect infor¬
mation. This important work, which he compofed in
Greek, contained 40 books, of which there are only 15
remaining. The ftyle is clear and neat, and veryfuit-
able to hiftory. The beft edition is that of Amfter-
dam, 1745, in two volumes, folio.
DIOECIA, (from <t<r twice, and o'*'* a houfe or
habitation) two houfes. The name of the 22d clafsin
Linnaeus’s fexual method, confifting of plants, which
having no hermaphrodite flowers, produce male and
female flowers on feparate roots. Thefe latter only
ripen feeds; but require for that purpofe, according to
the fexualifts, the vicinity of a male plant; or the af-
perfion, that is, fprinkling, of the male dull. From
the feeds of the female flowers are raifed both male and
female plants. The plants then in the clafs dicecia are
all male and female; not hermaphrodite, as in the great¬
er number of clafles; nor with male and female flowers
upon one root, as in the clafs monoecia of the fame au¬
thor. See Botany, p. 1-292.
DIOGENES of Apollonia, in the ifland of Crete,
held a confiderable rank among the philofophers who
taught in Ionia before Socrates appeared at Athens.
He was the fcholar and fuccefibr of Anaximenes, and in
fome meafure rectified his matter’s opinion concerning
air being the caufe of all things. It is faid, that he
was the firft who obferved that air was capable of con-
denfation and rarefaftion. He pafled for an excellent
philofopher, and died about the 450th year before the
Chriftian sera.
Djogf.nes the Cynic, a famous philofopher, was
the fon of a banker of Sinope in Pontus. Being ba-
nilhed with his father for coining falfe money, he retired
to Athens, where he ftudied philofophy under Antif-
thenes. He added new degrees of antterity to thefeft
of the Cynics, and never did any philofopher carry fo
far a contempt for the conveniencies of life. He was
one of thofe extraordinary men who run every thing to
extremity, without excepting even reafon itfelf; and
who confirm the faying, that “ there is no great ge¬
nius without a tintShtre of madnefs.” He lodged in a
tub ; and had no other moveables befides his ftaff, wal¬
let,, and wooden bowl, which laft he threw away on
feeing a boy drink out of the hollow of his hand. Fie
ufed to call himfelf a vagabond, who had neither houfe
nor country ; was obliged to beg, was ill clothed, and
lived from hand to mouth: and yet, fays vElian, he took
as much pride in thefe things as Alexander could in the
conqueft of the world. He wa,s not indeed a jot more
humble than thofe who are clothed in rich apparel, and
fare fumptuoufly every day. He looked down on all
the world with fcorn; he fmagifterially cenfured all
mankind, and thought himfelf unqueftionably fuperior
to all other philofophers. Alexander one day paid him
a vifit, and made him an offer of riches or any thing
elfe: but all that the philofopher requefted of him
was, to ttand from betwixt the fun and him. As if
he had faid, “ Do not deprive me of the benefits of
nature, and I leave to you thofe of fortune.” Th? con¬
queror was fo affedfted with the vigour and elevation of
DIO [ 2474 ] DIO
Diogenes, his foul, as to declare, that “ if he was not Alexander,
Dbniedea. jjg wou]d choofe to be Diogenes that is, if he was
' not in pofleflion of all that was pompous and fplendid
in life, he would, like Diogenes, heroically defpife it.
Diogenes had great prefence of mind, as appears from
his fmart fayings and" quick repartees; and Plato feems
to have hit off his true charafter when he called him a
Socrates run mad. He fpent a great part of his life at
Corinth, and the reafon of his living there was as fol¬
lows : As he was going over to the ifland of JEgina, he
was taken by pirates, who carried him into Crete, and
there expofed him to fale. He anfwered the crier,
who afked him what he could do, that “ he knew how
to command men t’’ and perceiving a Corinthian who
was going by, he (hewed him to the crier, and faid,
“ Sell me to that gentleman, for he wants a mafter.”
Xeniades, for that was the Corinthian’s name, bought
Diogenes, and carried him with him to Corinth. He
appointed him tutor to his children, and entrufted him
alfo with the management of his houfe. Diogenes’s
friends being defirous of redeeming him, “ You are
fools, (faid he) ; the lions are not the flaves of thofe who
feed them, but they are the fervants of the lions.” He
therefore plainly told Xeniades, that he ought to obey
him, as people obey their governors and phyficians.
Some fay, that Diogenes fpent the remainder of his
life in Xeniadesrs.family ; but Dion Chryfoftom aflerts
that he paffed the winter at Athens, and the fummer
at Corinth. He died at Corinth when he was about
90 years old: but authors are not agreed either as to
the time or manner of his death. The following ac¬
count, Jerom fays, is the true one. As he was going
to the Olympic games, a fever feized him in the way;
upon which he lay down under a tree, and refufed the
aflillance of thofe who accompanied him, and who of¬
fered him either a horfe or a chariot. “ Go you to
the games, (fays he), and leave me to contend with my
illnefs. If I conquer, I will follow you : If I am con¬
quered, I (hall go to the lhades below.” He difpatch-
ed himfelf that very night; faying, that “ he did not
fo properly die, as get rid of his fever.” He had for
his difeipks Oneficrites, Phocion, Stilpo of Megara,
and feveral other great men. His works are loft.
Diogenes Laertiut, from Laerta in Cilicia where
he was born, was an hiftorian in the time of Antoni¬
nus the philofopher. He is reputed to have been an
epicurean ; and wrote ten books of “ The lives of the
philofophers,” which are ftill extant: they were in-
feribed to a learned lady, as he intimates in his life of
Plato.
DIOMEDEA, in ornithology, a genus belonging
to the order of anferes. The bill is ftrait; the fupe-
rior mandible is crooked at the point, and the lower
one is truncated ; the noftrils are oval, open, a little
prominent, and placed on the ikies. There are two
fpecies, viz. 1. The exulans, has pennated wings, and
three toes on each foot. It is the albatros of Edwards ;
and is found in the ocean betwixt the tropics, and at
the Cape of Good Hope. It flies pretty high, feeds
upon flying-fiih, and is about the fize of a pelican.
2. The demerfa, has no quill-feathers on the wings ;
and the feet have four toes, connefted together by a
membrane. It is the black penguin of Edwards, about
the fize of a goofe, and is found at the Cape of Good
Hope.
DIOMEDES, king of Etolia, the fon of Tydeus, D:ome<
and the moll valiant of the Grecian heroes, next to A- ^.Jl^
chilles and Ajax, fignalized himfelf at the fiege of ,
Troy againft Aineas and Heftor, and carried off the
Palladium.
DIONiS (Peter), afamous furgeon, born at Paris,
difttnguiflied himfelf by his Ikill in his profeffion, and
by his works, the principal of which are, 1. A courfe
of operations in furgery ; 2. The anatomy of man ;
and, 3. A treatife on the manner of affifting women in
child-birth. He died in 1718.
DIONiEA MirsciPULA, or Venus's Fly-trap, in bo¬
tany, a newly difeovered fenfitive plant.
Every one fkilled in natural hiftory knows, that the
mimofas, or fenfitive plants, clofe their leaves, and
bend their joints, upon the lealt touch: and this has
aftonifhed us ; but no end or defign of nature has yet
appeared to us from thefe furpriitng motions : they
foon recover themfelves again, and their leaves are ex¬
panded as before. But the plant we are now going
to deferibe, (hews that nature may have fome view to¬
wards its nourilhment, in forming the upper joint of
its leaf like a machine to catch food : upon^he middle
of this, lies the bait for the unhappy infe6l that becomes
its prey. Many minute red glands that cover its inner
furface, and which perhaps difeharge fome fweet liquor,
tempt the poor animal to tafte them ; and the inftant
thefe tender parts are irritated by its feet, the two lobes
rife up, grafp it fall, lock the two rows of fpines to-
§ ether, and fqueeze it to death. And further, left the
rong efforts for life, in the creature thus taken, fhould
ferve to difengage it, three fraall ereft fpines are fixed
near the middle of each' lobe among the glands, that
effeftually put an end to all its druggies. Nor do the
lobes ever open again, while the dead animal continues
there. But it is neverthelefs certain, that the plant
cannot diftrnguifh an animal from a mineral fubftance;
for, if we introduce a ftraw or a pin between the lobes,
it will grafp it full as fall as if it was an infedft.—The
plant is one of the monogynia order, belonging to the
decandria clafs. It grows in America, about 35 deg,
N. Lat. in wet fliady places, and flowers in July and
Auguft. The largeft leaves' are about three inches long,
and an inch and half acrofs the lobes i the glands ©f thofe
expofedto thefun areof a beautiful red colour; but thofe
in theftiadeare pale, andinclining to green. The roots
are fquamous, fending forth but few fibres, and are
perennial. The leaves are numerous, inclining to bend
downwards, and are placed in a circular order; they
are jointed and fucculent; the lower joint, which is a
kind of ftalk, is flat, longifh, two-edged, and inclining to
heart-fhaped. In fome varieties they are ferrated on the
edges near the top. The upper joint confifts of two
lobes ; each lobe is of a femi-oval form, with their mar¬
gins furniftied with lliff hairs like eye-brows, which
embrace or lock in each other when they clofe : this
they do when they are inwardly irritated. The upper
furfaces of thefe lobes are covered with fmall red glands;
each of which appears, when highly magnified, like a
compreffed arbutus berry.—Among the glands, about
the middle of each lobe, are three very fmall eredt fpines.
When the lobes inclofe any fubftance, they never open
again while it continues there. If it can be flioved
out fo as not to ftrain the lobes, they expand again;
but if force is ufed to open them, fo ftrong has nature
formed
DIO [ 2475 ] DIO
[Dionsea formed the fprlng of their fibres, that one of the lobes Dionysius (Halicarnafienfis), a celebrated hiflo-Dionyfius,
II will generally fnap off rather than yield. The ftalk is rian, and one of the moft judicious critics of anti- Dl0Phantus
pionyfins. ai,out f]X inches high, round, fmooth, and without quity, was born at Halicarnaffus ; and went to Rome
leaves; ending in a fpike of flowers. The flowers are after the battle of Aftium, where he (laid 22 years,
milk- white, and ftand on footftalks, at the bottom of under the reign of Auguftus. He there compofed in
which is a little painted braclea or flower leaf. The Greek, his Hiftory of the Roman Antiquities, in 20
foil in which it grows, as appears from what comes books, of which the firft j 1 only are now remaining,
about the roots of the plants when they are brought There are alfo ftill extant feveral of his critical works,
over, is a black, light, mould, intermixed with white The bed edition of the works of this author is that of
fand, fuch as is ufually found in our moorilh heaths. Oxford, in 1704, in Greek and Latin, by Dr Hudfon.
Being a fwamp plant, a north-eaft afpe£t will be prt>- Dionysius, a learned geographer, to whom is at-
pereft for it at firft, to keep it from the direft rays of tributed a Periegefis, or Survey of the Earth, in Greek
the fun ; and in winter, till we are acquainted with verfe. Some fuppofe that he lived in the time of Au-
what cold weather it can endure, it will be neceffary guftus; but Scaliger and Saumafius place him under
to ftielter it with a bell-glafs, fuch as is ufed for me- the reign of Severus, or Marcus Aurelius. He wrote
Ions. This ftiould be covered with draw or a mat, in many other works, but his Periegefis is the only one
hard frofts. By this means feveral of thefe plants have we have remaining ; the beft and moft ufeful edition
been preferved through the winter in a very vigorous of which is that improved with notes and illuftrations
ftate. Its fenfitive quality will be found in proportion by Hill.
to the heat of the weather, as well as the vigour of Dionysius (Areopagita), was born at Athens, and
the plant. Our fummers are not warm enough to ri- educated there. He went afterwards to Heliopolis in
pen the feed ; or poffibly we are not yet fufficiently Egypt 5 where, if we may believe fome writers of his
acquainted with the culture of it. In order to try fur- life, he faw that wonderful eclipfe which happened at
ther experiments on its fenfitive powers, fome of the our Saviour’s pailion, and was urged by fome extraor-
plants might be placed in pots of light moorifh earth, dinary impulfe to cry out, Aut Deus patitur, aut cum
and placed in pans of water, in an airy ftove in fum- patiente dolet; “either God himfelf fuffers, or condoles
mer; where the heat of fuch a fituation, being like with him who does.” At his return to Athens he was
that of its native country, will make it furprifingly ele&ed into the court of Areopagus, from whence he
a&ive. derived his name of Areopagite. About the year 50
DIONYSIA, in Grecian antiquity, folemnities in he embraced Chriftianity; and, as fome fay, was ap-
honour of Bacchus, fometimes called by the general pointed firft bilhop of Athens by St PauL Of his con-
name of Orgia ; and by the Romans Bacchanalia, and verfion we have an account in the 17th Chapter of the
Libcralia. See Bacchanalia and Bacchus. Adis of the Apoftles.—He is fuppofed to have fuffered
DIONYSIAN period. See Astronomy, 00308. martyrdom ; but whether under Domitian, Trajan, or
DIONYSIUS I. from a private fecretary became Adrian, is not certain. We have nothing remaining
general and tyrant of Syracufe and all Sicily. He was under his name, but what there is the greateft reafon
likewife a poet; and having, by bribes, gained the tra- to believe fpurious.
gedy-prize at Athens, he indulged himfelf fo immo- DIOPHANTUS, a celebrated mathematician of A»
derately at table from excels of joy, that he died of lexandria, reputed to have been the inventor of algebra,
the debauch, 386 B. C. but fome authors relate that he When he lived, is not known ; fome have placed him
was poifoned by his phyficians. before Chrift, and fome after, with equal uncertainty.
Dionysius II. (his fon and fuccefibr) was a grea- Hewrote 13 books of arithmetic; which, the aftrono-
ter tyrant than his father; his fubje&s were obli- mer Regiomontanus tells us, are ftill preferved in MSS.
ged to apply to the Corinthians for fuccour ; and Ti- in the Vatican library : Meziriac’s edition of feven of
moleon, their general, having conquered the tyrant, he thefe books has been ieveral times reprinted, with notes
fled to Athens, where he was obliged to keep a fchool and illuftrations.
for fubfiftencc. He died 343 B. C.
DIOPTRICS,
r|^HAT part- of Optics which treats of the laws of
-t refraction, and the effe&s which the reflation of
fight has in vifion. The word is originally Greek,
formed of J<«,/er, “through,” and I fee*
As this and the other branches of Optics are fully
treated under the colle&ive name, we fhallhere, 1. Juft
give a fummary of the general principles of the branch,
in a few plain aphorifms, with fome preliminary defini¬
tions; and, 2. Prefent our readers with a fet of enter¬
taining experiments illuftrative of, or dependent upon,
thofe principles.
DEFINITIONS.
1. When a ray of light palling out of one medium
into another of a different denfity, is turned from that
ftraight line in which it would otherwife proceed into
one of a different direction, it is faid to be refracted.
Thus the rays AB, AC, &c. by pafling out of air into pjate
the glafsBGC, are turned from their natural courfe into XCIIJ.
that of BE, CF, &c. and are therefore faid to be re- fig. *.
fra&ed by the lens BGC.
2. Any fpherical tranfparent glafs, that converges
or diverges the rays of light as they pafs through it,
is called a km.
3. Of lenfes there are five forts ; 1. Aplane or Angle
convex lens, which is plane on one .fide, and convex on
the other; as AZ, fig. 3. 2. A double convex lens,
as B. 3. A plano-concave lens, that is, plane on one
fide
2476
Plate
XCIII.
Fig. 13.
Fig. 13.
Fig. 4.
DIOPTRICS.
fide and concave on the other, as C. 4. A double
concave, as D. And, 5. A menifcus, which is convex
on one fide and concave on the other, as E.
4! The point C, round which the fpherical furface
of a lens, as AZ, is defcribed, is called its centre ; the
the line XY, drawn from that centre perpendicular to
its two furfaces, is the axis; and the point V, to which
the axis is drawn, is the vertex of that lens.
5. When the rays of light that pafs through a fingle
or double convex lens are brought into their fmalleft
compafs, that point is the focus of the lens.
6. In optical inftruments, that lens which is next the
objeft is called the ohjett-glafs ; and that next the eye,
the eye glafs.
7. The diftaace between the line AE, and the per¬
pendicular EF, is called the angle of incidence ; and
the diftajice between the line BD, and the perpendi¬
cular EF, is called the angle of refrafiion.
APHORISMS.
r. A ray of light palling obliquely out of one me¬
dium into another that-is denfer, will be refra&ed to¬
ward the perpendicular ; as the ray AB, by palling
out of air into glafs, is refra&ed into B F, inclined to the
perpendicular A F. On the contrary, a ray palling
out of a denfer into a rarer medium, will be refracted
from the perpendicular ; as the ray B C, palling out
of the glafs G H into air, is refracted into D I,
2. The angles of incidence and refraction, when
the lines that contain them are all equal, will have a
determinate proportion to each other, in the fame me¬
diums : which between air and water will be as 4 to 3 ;
between air and glafs, as 3 to 2, nearly ; and in other
■mediums in proportion to their denfities.
3. When an objeCt is viewed through a glafs whofe
■two furfaces are parallel, it will appear of its natural
dimenfions ; its fituation only being a fmall matter al¬
tered, in proportion to the thicknefs of the glafs, and
the obliquity of the rays.
4. All the rays of light, whether diverging, paral¬
lel, or converging, that fall on a fingle or double con¬
vex lens, will meet in a focus behind the glafs : and the
difiance of that focus will be greateft. in diverging, and
leaft in converging, rays.
5. When parallel or converging rays fall on a fingle
or double concave lens, they will diverge behind it. If
they be diverging at their incidence, they will become
more fo by palling through it.
6. When an objeft is viewed thro’ two convex len-
fes, its apparent length, or diameter, will be to its real
length, as the diftance of the focus of the objeft-glafs
is to that of the eye-glafs.
By thefe, and the foregoing aphorifms we are en¬
abled to account for the various effefts of dioptric
machines, as refrafting telefcopes, microfcopes, the ca¬
mera obfeura, &c. See Optics.
ENTERTAINING EXPERIMENTS.
I. Optical illujions.
On the bottom of the velfel ABCD, place three
pieces of money, as a Ihilling, a half-crown, and
crown ; the firft at E, the fecond at F, and the laft at
G. Then place a perfon at H, where he can fee no
further into the velfel than I; and tell him, that by
pouring water into the veflel you will make him fee
three different pieces of money ; bidding him obferve
carefully whether any money goes in with the water.
Here you mull obferve to pour in the water very
gently, or contrive to fix the pieces, that they may not
move out of their places by its agitation.
When the water comes up to K, the piece at E will
become vifible ; when it comes up to L, the pieces at
E and F will appear ; and when it rifes to M, all the
three pieces will be vifible.
From what has been faid of the refra&ion of light,
the caufe of this phenomenon will be evident: for while
the vefiel is empty, the ray HI will naturally proceed
in a firaight line : but in proportion as it becomes im-
merfed in water, it will be neceffarily refracted into the
feveral direftions NE, OF, PG, and confequently the
feveral pieces muft become vifible.
II. Optical Augmentation.
Take a large drinking glafs of a conical figure, that
is fmall at bottom and wide at top; in which put a
dulling, and fill the glafs about half full with water:
then place a plate on the top of it, and turn it quick¬
ly over, that the water may not get out. You will
then fee on the plate, a piece of the fize of a half
crown ; and fomewhat higher up, another piece of the
fize of a (hilling.
This phenomenon arifes from feeing the piece thro’
the conical furface of the water at the fide of the glafs,
and through the flat furface at the top of the water,
at the fame time: for the conical furface dilate* the
rays, and makes the piece appear larger; but by the
flat furface the rays are only refra&ed, by which the
piece is feen higher up in the glafs, but ftill of its na¬
tural fize. That this is the caufe will be further evi¬
dent by filling the glafs with water; for as the {hilling
cannot be then feen from the top, the large piece only
will be vifible.
III. Optical Sultraftioiu
Against the wainfeot of a room fix three fmall
pieces of paper, as A, B, C, at the height of your
eye; and placing yourfelf diredly before them, {hut
your right eye and look at them with the left; when
you will fee only two of thofe papers, fuppofe A and
B: but altering the pofition of your eye, you will then
fee the third and one of the firft, fuppofe A; and by
altering your pofition a fecond time, you will fee B
and C ; but never all three of them together.
The caufe of this phenomenon is, that one of the
three pencils of rays that come from thefe objefts, falls
conftantly on the optic nerve atT) ; whereas to pro¬
duce diftinA vilion, it is neceffary that the rays of light
fall on fame part of the retina E, F, G, H. We fee
by this experiment, one of the ufes of having two eyes;
for he that has one only, can never fee three obje&s
placed in this pofition, nor all the parts of one obje&
of the fame extent, without altering the fituation of
his eye.
IV. Alternate Illufion.
With a convex lens of about an inch focus, look
attentively at a filver feal, on which a cipher is engra¬
ved. It will at firft; appear cut in, as to the naked eye;
but if you continue to obferve it fome time, without
changing
DIOPTRICS.
changing your fituation, it will feem to be in relief,
and the lights and {hades will appear the fame as they
die! before. If you regard it with the fame attention
hill longer, it will again appear to be engraved: and
fo on alternately.
If you look off the feal for a few moments, when
you view it again, inftead of feeing it, as at firft, en¬
graved, it will appear in relief. If, while you are turn¬
ed toward the light, you fuddenly incline the feal,
while you continue to regard it, thofe parts that feem-
ed to be engraved will immediately appear in relief:
and if, when you are regarding thefe feeming promi¬
nent parts, you turn yourfelf fo that the light may fall
on the right hand, you will fee the {hadows on the
fame fide from whence the light comes, which will ap¬
pear not a little extraordinary. In like manner the
fhadows will appear on the left, if the light fall on that
fide. If, inftead of a feal, you look at a piece of money,
thefe alterations will not be vifible, in whatever fitua¬
tion you place yourfelf.
It has been fufpefted that this illufion arifes from
the fituation of the light: and in fa£, “ I have ob-
ferved, (fays M. Guyot, from whom this article is ta¬
ken) that when I have viewed it with a candle on the
right, it has appeared engraved; but by changing the
light to the left fide, it has immediately appeared in
relief.” It ftill, however, remains to be explained,
why we fee it alternately hollow and prominent, with¬
out changing either the fituation or the light. Perhaps
it is in the fight itfelf that we muft look for the caufe
of this phenomenon j and this feems the more proba¬
ble, as all thefe appearances are not difcernable by all
perfons.
V. The Camera Obfcttra, or Dark Chatnber.
Make a circular hole in the (butter of a window,
from whence there is a profpeft of the fields, or any
@ther objedt not too near; and in this hole place a con¬
vex glafs, either double or fingle, whofe focus is at the
diftancc of five or fix feet (a). Take care that no
light enter the room but by this glafs : at a diftance
from it, equal to that of its focus, place a pafteboard,
covered with the whiteft paper; which fhould have a
black border, to prevent any of the fide rays from di-
fturbing the pifture. Let it be two feet and a half
long, and 18 or 20 inches high: bend the length of it
inwards, to the form of part of a circle, whofe diame¬
ter is equal to double the focal diftance of the glafs.
Then fix it on a frame of the fame figure, and put it
on a moveable foot, that it may be eafily fixed at that
exa& diftance from the glafs where the obje&s paint
Vol. IV.
(a) The diftance (hould not be lefs than three feet; for if it be, the images will he too fmall, and there will not be
fuffkient room for the fpetftators to ftand conveniently. On the other hand, the focus {hould never be more than ij
or ao feet, for then the images will be obfeure, and the colouring faint. The beft diftance is from 6 to xz feet.
(b) This inverted pofition of the images may be deemed an imperfection, but it is eafily remedied: for if you ftand
above the board on which they are received, and look down on it, they will appear in their natural pofition: or if
you ftand before it, and, placing a common mirror agaipft your breaft in an oblique direction, look down in it, you
will there fee the images ereCt, and they will receive an additional luftre from the reflection of the glafs; or place two
lenfes, in a tube that draws out; or, laftly, if you place a large concave mirror at a proper diftance before the picture,
it will appear before the mirror, in the air, and in an ereCt pofition.
(c) There is another method of making the dark chamber; which is by a fcioptric ball, that is, a ball of wood,
through which a hole is made, in which hole a lens is fixed : this ball is placed in a wooden frame, in which it turns
freely round. The frame is fixed to the hole in the fliutter; and the ball, by turning about, anfwers, in great part,
the ufe of the mirror on the outfide of the window. If the hole in the window' be no bigger than a pea, the objects
will be reprefented without any lens, though by no means fo diftinCtly, or wdth fuch vivid colours.
(d) When the fun is direCtly oppofite to the hole, the lens will itfelf be fufficient: or by means of the mirror on the
outride of the window, as in Experiment V. the lens will anfwer the purpofe at any time.
themfelves to the greateft perfe&ion. When it is thus
placed, all the objeCts that are in the front of the win- _
dow will be painted on the paper, in an inverted pofi-
tio'n (b), with the greateft; regularity and in the mofl:
natural colours.
If you place a moveable mirror without the win¬
dow; by turning it more or lefs, you will have on the
paper all the objects that are on each fide of the win¬
dow (c).
If inftead of placing the mirror without the window
you place it in the room, and above the hole (which
muft then be made near the top of the (hutter), you
may receive the reprefentation on a paper placed hori¬
zontally on a table; and draw, at your leifure, all the
objefts that are there painted.
Nothing can be more pleafing than this experiment,-
efpecially when the obje&s are ftrongly enlightened by
the fun: and not only land-profpefts, but a fea-port,
when the water is fomewhat agitated, or at the fetting
of the fun, prefents a very delightful appearance.
This reprefentation affords the moft perfeft model
for painters, as well for the tone of colours, as that
degradation of (hades, occafioned by the interpofition
of the air, which has been fo juftly expreffed by fome
modern painters.
It is neceffary that the paper have a circular form >
for otherwife, when the centre of it was in the focutf
of the glafs, the two fides would be beyond it, and
confequently the images would be confufed. If the
frame were contrived of a fpherical figure, and the
glafs were in its centre, the reprefentation would be
ftill more accurate. If the objeft without be at the dl
ftance of twice the focal length of the glafs, the image
in the room will be of the fame magnitude with the
objeft.
The lights, {hades, and colours, in the camera ob-
feura, appear not only juft, but, by the images being re ¬
duced to a fmaller compafs, much ftronger than in na¬
ture. Add to this, that thefe pi&ures exceed all others,
by reprefenting the motion of the feveral objects: thus
we fee the animals walk, run, or fly; the clouds float
in the air; the leaves quiver; the waves roll, &c.; and
all in ftri& conformity to the laws of nature. The bed
fituation for a dark chamber is dire&ly north, and the
beft time of the day is noon.
VI. To Jhonu the Spots on the Sun's Difk, by its Image
in the Camera Obfcura.
Put the objeft-glafs of a 10 or 12 foot telefcope
into the fcioptric ball, and turn it about till it be di¬
rectly oppofite to the fun (d). Then place the.pafte-
14 L board.
2477
Plate
XCIIL
2478
Plate board, mentioned in the laft experiment, in the focus
of the lens; and you will fee a clear bright image of
the fun, of about an inch diameter, in which the fpots
on the fun’s fnrface will be exa&ly defcribed.
As this image is too bright to be feen with pleafure
by the naked eyej you may view it thro’ a lens wbofe
focus is at fix or eight inches diftance ; which at the
fame time that it prevents the light from being offen-
five, will, by magnifying both the image and the
fpots, make them appear to greater advantage.
VII. To magnify fmall Objects by means of the Sun’s
Rays let into a Dark Chamber.
Let the rays of light that pafs through the lens in
the fhutter be thrown on a large concave mirror, pro¬
perly fixed in a frame. Then take a flip or thin plate
of glafs; and flicking any fmall obje& on it, hold it
in the incident rays, at a little more than the focal di-
ftance from the mirror 4 and you will fee, on the op-
pofite wall, amidft the refle&ed rays, the image of that
object, very large, and extremely clear and bright.
This experiment never fails to give the fpe&ator the
bigheft fatisfa&ion.
VIII. The Portable Camera Obfcura.
The great pleafure produced by the camera obfcura
in the common form, has excited feveral to render it
more univerfally ufeful by making it portable ; eafily
fixed on any fpot, and adapted to every profpedf. We
Ihall not here examine the merits of the various forts
that have been invented ; but content ourfelves with
deferibing one that may have fome advantages not to
be found in others, and which appears to be the inven¬
tion of M. Guyot.
fig Let ABCD be a frame of wood, of two feet long
and about 20 inches wide ; let its four fides be two
inches and a half thick, and firmly joined together. In
a groove formed in this frame place a plate of clear
glafs, E; and if the upper fide of the glafs were con¬
vex, it would be ftill better. To each of the corners
of this frame join a leg,> with a hinge, that it may.
turn up under the table. To the under part of the
frame join four pieces of light wood,, as H, which mud
alfo have hinges to fold up; and obferve, that when
they are let down, as in- the figure, they muft clofely
join, by means of hooks, it being quite necefiary that
no light enter the box. For this reafon, the infide of
the box fliould be lined with black cloth.
To that juft defcribed, there muft be added a fmaller
box M, in which muft be an inclined mirror N, and in
one of its fides a moveable tube O, five or fix inches-
long. This tube muft be furnifhed with a convex glafs,
the focus of which, by the refle&ion of the mirror,
muft: reach the glafs E in the frame. There muft alfo
be a covering of black fluff, in form of a tent, to place
over the top of the frame, by means of four little poles
that go into holes in the corners of it. There muft be
an opening to this tent on the fide A B, by a curtain
to be drawn up; and which you are to let down over
you, when you place yourfelf under it; that no light
may enter. The three other fides fhould hang down
fome inches over the frame.—This camera is, indeed,
fomething more cumberfome than thofe that have been
hitherto invented; and yet, if properly made, it will not
weigh more than from 20 to 2j pounds. On the other
c s.
hand, it is much more convenient; for as the coloured. Pk'<»
rays of obje&s paint themfelves on the bottom of the *
glafs in the frame, you may draw them without ha¬
ving your hand between the rays and their image.
When you have placed the frame on a fpot a little
elevated* that nothing may intercept the rays from
falling on the glafs in the tube, you fix, a flieet of tranf-
parent varnifhed paper on the glafs in the frame, by
means of wax at its corners. Then placing yourfelf
under the curtain, you. trace on the paper all the out¬
lines of the obje&s there reprefented; and if you think,
fit, you may alfo mark the extent of the ftiadows. If
you want only the outlines, you may lay a thin plate
of glafs on that in the frame, and. trace the flrokes
with a pencil and carmine. After which you muft dip
a- (heet of paper in wat£r, without making it too wet;
and fpreading it lightly oyer that glafs, you will have
the impreftion of the defign there drawn..
Note, By each of thefe methods you will have the
objects either in their natural pofition, or reverfed;.
which will be an advantage when the defign is to be
engraved, and you would have it then appear in the
natural pofition. In ufing this machine, you fliould:
make choice of thofe objedfs on which the fun then,
ftiines, as the appearance of the fliadows add greatly
to the beauty of the defign. There are, however, cir-
cumftances in which it is to be avoided, as when you.
would paint a rifing or fetting fun,. &c..
IX. The Magic Lantern.
This very remarkable machine, which is now known,
over all the world, caufed great aftonifhment at its ori¬
gin. It is ftill beheld with pleafing admiration; and.
the fpe&ator very frequently contents himfelf with
wondering at its effedhs, without endeavouring to in-
veftigate their caufe. The invention of this ingenious
illufion is attributed to the celebrated P. Kircher, who
has publiftied* on various fciences, works equally learn¬
ed,. curious, and entertaining. Its defign is to repre-
fent at large, on a cloth or board, placed in the dark,
the images of fmall objedls, painted with tranfparent
colours on plates of glafs.
The conftru&ion is as follows. Let ABCD be a Fig. 7;
tin box, eight inches high, ten long, and. fix wide (or
any other fimilar dimeufions). At the top muft be a
funnel E, of four inches in diameter, with a cover F,
which, at the fame time that it gives a.paffage to the
fmoke, prevents the light from coming out of the box..
On the fide A C there is a door, by which is adjuft-
ed a concave mirror, G, of metal or tin, and of five
inches diameter; being part of a fphere whofe diame¬
ter is 18 inches. This mirror muft be fo difpofed
that it- may be puflied forward or drawn back by
means of the handle H, that enters the tin tube I,,
which is foldered to the door. In the middle of the
box muft: be placed a low tin lamp K, which is to be
moveable. It fliould have three or four lights,-that
muft be at the height of the focus of the mirror G.
In the fide BD, and oppofite to the mirror, there muft
be an aperture of three inches wide and two inches and
a half high; in which is to be fixed a convex glafs L,
of the fame dimenfion, whofe focus muft be from four
inches and a half to five inches, fo that the lamp may
be placed both in its focus, and in that of the concave
mirror.
D I O P T R I
On
DIOPTRICS.
2479
R* On the fame fide is to be placed a piece of tin MN,
£H;  of four inches and a half fquarc, having an opening at
7. the fideb of about four inches and a half high, and a
quarter of an inch wide. Through this opening or
roove are to pafs the glafTes,on which are painted the
gures that are to be feen on the cloth. In this tin
piece, and oppofite to the glafs L, let there be an aper¬
ture of three inches and a quarter long, and two inches
and a quarter high ; to which muft be adjufted a tube
O, of the fame form, and fix inches long. This tube
is to be |ixed into the piece M N. Another tube, fix
inches long, and moveable, mull enter that juft men-
fnentioned, in which muft be placed two convex lenfes,
P and that of P may have a focus of about three
inches ; and that of which is to be placed at the ex¬
tremity of the tube, one of 10 dr 12 inches. Thedi-
flance between thefe glaffes is to be regulated by their
foci. Between thefe glaffes there muft be placed a
pafteboard R, in which is an aperture of an inch wide,
and 4-5ths of an inch high. By placing this tube far¬
ther in or out of the other, the images on the cloth
\Vill appear larger or fmaller.
From what has been faid of the preceding machines,
the conftruftion of this will be eafily underftood. The
foci of the concave mirror, and the lens L, meeting in
the flame of the lamp, they together throw a ftrong
light on the figures painted on the glaffes that pafs
through the groove M N, -and by that means render
their colours diftinil on the cloth. The rays from
thofe glaffes palling through the lens P are collected
by the aperture in the pafteboard R, and conveyed to
the lens by which they are thrown on the cloth.
The lantern being thus adjufted, you muft provide
plates of clear glafs, of 12 or 15 inches long, and three
inches wide, which are to be placed in thin frames,
that they may pafs freely through the groove MN,
after being painted in the manner we mall now de-
fcribe.
Method of Painting the Glaffes for the La ntern.
Draw on a paper the fubjeft you defire to paint,
and fix it at each end to the glafs. Provide a varnilh
with which you have mixed fome black paint; and with
a fine pencil draw on the other fide of the glafs, with
very light touches, the defign drawn on the paper. If
you are defirous of making the painting as perfect as
poffible, yon Ihould draw fome of the outlines in their
proper colours, provided they are the ftrongeft tints of
thofe colours that are ufed. When the outlines are
dry, you colour the figures with their proper tints or
degradations. Tranfparent colours are moft proper
for this purpofe, fuch as carmine, lake, Pruffian blue,
verdigris, &c. and thefe muft be tempered with a
ftrong white varnilh, to prevent their peeling off. You
are then to lhade them with black mixed with the fame
varnilh, or with biftre, as you find convenient. You"
may alfo leave ftrong lights in fome parts, without any
colours, in order to produce a more Unking effeft.
Obferve, in particular, not to ufe more than four or
five colours, fuch as blue, red, green, and yellow. You
fhould employ, however, a great variety of tints, to
give your painting 3 more natural air; without which
they will reprefent vulgar objefts, which are by no
means the more pleafing becaufe they are gawdy. vrnr
When the lamp in this lantern is lighted, and, by  ‘
drawing out the tube to a proper length, the figures
painted on the glafs appear bright and well defined,
the fpedlator cannot fail of being highly entertained
by the fucceflion of natural or grotefque figures that
are painted on the glaffes. This piece of optics may
be rendered much more amufing, and at the fame time
more marvellous, by preparing figures to which diffe¬
rent natural motions may be given (e), which every
one may perform according to his own tafte; either by
movements in the figures themfelves, or by painting
the fubjedl on two glaffes, and paffing them at the fame
time through the groove, as will be feen in the next
experiment.
X. To reprefent a Tempefl by the Magic Lantern.
Provide two plates of glafs, whofe frames are fo
thin that they'may both pafs freely through the groove
M N, at the fame time, (fig. 7.)
On one of thefe glaffes you are to paint the appear¬
ance of the fea, from the flighteft agitation to the moft
violent commotion. Reprefenting from A to B a calm ;
from B to C a fmall agitation, with fome clouds; and 3
and fo on to F and G, which ftiould exhibit a furious
ftorm. Obferve, that thefe reprefentations are not to
be diftinft, but run into each other, that they may form
a natural gradation: remember alfo, that great part
of the effeft depends on the perfeflion of the painting,
and the pi&urefque appearance of the defign.
On the other glafs you are to paint veffels of diffe¬
rent forms and dimenfions, and in different diredlions, p.
together with the appearance of clouds in the tempef- 9'
tuous parts.
You are then to pafs the glafs ftowly through the
groove ; and when you come to that part where the
ftorm begins, you are to move the glafs gently up and
down, which will give it the appearance of a fea that
begins to be agitated: and fo increafe the motion, till
you come to the height of the ftorm. At the fame
time you are to introduce the other glafs with the fhips,
and moving that in like manner, you will have a natu¬
ral reprefentation of the fea, and of fliips in a calm
and in a ftorm. As you draw the glaffes flowly back,
the tempeft will feem to fubfide, the fky grow clear,
and the (hips glide gently over the waves.—By means
of two glaffes difpofed in this manner you may like-
wife reprefent a battle, or fea-fight, and numberlefs
other fubjefls, that every one will contrive according
to his own tafte. They may alfo be made to reprefent
fome remarkable or ludicrous a&ion between different
perfons, and many other amufements that a lively ima¬
gination will eafily fuggeft.
XI. The Nebulous Magic Lantern.
The light of the magic lantern, and the colour of
images, may not only be painted on a cloth, but alfo
reflected by a cloud of fmoke.
Provide a box of wood or pafteboard AB, of about Fig. ic,
four feet high, and of fever) or eight inches fquare at
bottom, but diminiihing as it afeends, fo that its aper¬
ture at top is but fix inches long, and half an inch
wide. At the bottom of this box there muft be a door
H L 2 that
(e) There are in the Philofophical Efiays of M. Mufchenbroek, different methods of performing all thefe
movements, by fome mechanical contrivances that arc not difficult to execute.
various
D I O P 1
that fliuts quite cfofe, 1)7 which you are to place in the
box a chafing-dilh with hot coals, on which is to be
thrown incenfe, whofe fmoke goes out in a cloud at
the top of the box. It is on this cloud that you are
to throw the light that comes out.of the lantern, and
which you bring into a fmaller compafs by drawing
out the moveable tube. The common figures will here
ferve. It is remarkable in this reprefentation, that the
motion of the fmoke does not at all change the fi¬
gures ; which appear fo confpicuous, that the fpedtator
thinks he can grafp them with his hand.
Note, In this experiment feme of the rays palling
through the fmoke, the reprefentation will be much lefs
vivid than on the cloth ; and if care be not taken to
reduce the light to its fmalleft focus, it will be ftill
more imperfedi.
XII. To produce the appearance of a Phantom, upon a
pedeftal placed on the middle of a table.
Inclose a common fmall magic lantern in a box
A B C D, that is large enough to contain alfo an in¬
clined mirror M; which mull be moveable, that it may
refledt the cone of light thrown on it by the lantern,
in fuch a manner that it may pafs out at the aperture
made in the top of the box. There fhould be a flap
with hinges to cover the opening, that the infide of the
box may not be feen when the experiment is not ma¬
king. This aperture Ihould likewife be oval, and of a
fize adapted to the cone of light that is to pafs thro’
it. There mufl; be holes made in that part of the box
which is over the lantern, to let out the fmoke; and
over that part muft be placed a chafing-dilh of an ob¬
long figure, and large enough to hold feveral lighted
coals. This chafing-dilh may be inclofed in a painted
tin box of about a foot high, and with an aperture at
top fomething like fig. 10. It Ihould Hand on four Ihort
feet, to give room for the fmoke of the lamp to pafs
out. There mull alfo be a glafs that will afcend and
defcend at pleafure in the vertical groove ab. To this
glafs let there be fixed a cord, that, going over a pul¬
ley c, pafies out of the box at the fide C D, by which
the glafs may be drawn up, and will defcend by its own
weight. On this glafs may be painted a fpedlre, or
any other more pleafing figure. Obferve that the fi¬
gures mull be contra&ed in drawing, as the cloud of
Jmoke does not cut the cone of light at right angles,
and therefore the figures will appear longer than they
do on the glafs.
After you have lighted the lamp in the lantern, and
put the mirror in a proper direflion, you place the box
or pedellal ABCD on a table; and putting the cha¬
fing-dilh in it, throw fome incenfe in powder on the
coals. You then open a trap-door, and let down the
glafs flowly; and when you perceive the fmoke dimi-
iiilh you draw up the glafs, that the figure may dif-
appear, and Ihut the trap-door. This appearance will
occafion no fmall furprife, as the fpe&re will feem to
rif? gradually out of the pedellal, and on drawing up
the glafs will difappear in an inftant. Obferve, that
when you exhibit this experiment, you mull put out
all the lights in the room; and the box Ihould be pla¬
ced on a high table, that the fpe&ators may not per¬
ceive the aperture by which the light comes out. Tho’
(f) In the decorations, the clouds and the palaces of 1
Ifcend; earthly palaces, gardens, &c. enter at the fides.
/ R I C S.
we have mentioned a fmall magic lantern, yet the 1
whole apparatus may be fo enlarged, that the pban-
tom may appear of a formidable fize.
XIII. The Magical Theatre.
Bv making fome few additions to the magic lantern
with the fquare tube, ufed in Experiment ix. various
fcenes, chara&ers, and decorations of a theatre, may
be reprefented in a lively manner. In this experiment
it is quite neceflary to make the lantern much larger
than common, that the objefts painted on the glalfes,
being of a larger fize, may be reprefented with greater
precifion, and confequently their feveral characters
more ftrongly marked.
Let there be made a wooden box ABCD, a foot Fig-
and a half long, 15 inches high, and 10 wide. Let it be
placed on a Hand EF, that mull go round it, and by
which it may be fixed with two fcrews to a table.
Place over it a tin cover, as in the common lantern.
Make an opening in its two narroweft fides; in one of
which place the tube H, and in the other the tube I;
let each of them be fix inches wide, and five inches
high; in each of thefe tubes place another that is
moveable, in order to bring the glaffes, or concave
mirror, that are contained in them, to a proper diftance.
In the middle of the bottom of this box place a tin
lamp, M; which mull be moveable in a groove, that it
may be placed at a proper diflance with regard to the
glafles and mirror; this lamp Ihould have five or fix
lights, each of them about an inch long. At the be¬
ginning of the tube H, toward the part N, make an
opening of an inch wide, which mult crofsit laterally:
another of three quarters of an inch, that mull crofs it
vertically, and be nearer the box than the'firll; and a
third of half an inch, that mull be before the firft. The
opening made laterally mult have three or four grooves,
the fecond two, and the third one: that different fub-
je£ts of figures and decorations may be paffed, either
fidewife, afcending, or defcending, fo that the fcenes
of a theatre may be the more exactly imitated (f).
Inclofe thefe grooves between two convex rectangular
glaffes, of fix inches long, and five inches high, and
of about 20 inches focus; one of which mull be pla¬
ced at O, and the other toward P. Have another tube
Q^of about a foot long, which mull enter that marked
H; and at its outward extremity place a lens of about
15 inches focus. There mull alfo be a third tube R,
four inches long, into which that marked I is to enter;
to the exterior end of this adjull a concave mirror,
whofe focus mull be at feven or eight inches from its
reflecting furface.
The magic lantern being thus adjulled, nothing
more is neceffary than to provide glaffes, painted with
fuch fubjeCts as you would reprefent, according to the
grooves they are to enter. The lamp is then to be lighted; •
and placing a glafs in one of the groves, you draw out
the moveable tubes till the objeCt paints itfelf on a
cloth to the mod advantage: by which you determine
the dillance of the lantern, and the fize of the image.
You then make a hole in the partition of that fize, and
fix in it a plate of clear glafs, over which you palle a
very thin paper, which mull be varnilhed, that it may
be as tranfparent as polSble.
On
he gods fliould defcend; caves and infernal palaces Ihould
Plate
XCHt.
DIOPTRICS.
On this paper are to be exhibited the images of all
thofe objects, that, by pafiing fucceffively through the
grooves, are to reprefent a theatric entertainment. The
exhibition wijl be very agreeable; becaufe the magic
lantern being concealed behind the partition, the caufe
of the illufionxannot by any means be difeovered.
In order to rtiow more clearly in what manner a fub-
je£ of this fort fhould be painted, and the glaffes dif-
pofed, we will here make choice of the fiege of Troy
for a theatric fubjeft; in which will be found all the
incidents neceffary to the exhibition of any other fub-
Jeft whatever.—In the firft a£t, the theatre may repre¬
fent, on one fide, the ramparts of Troy; toward the
iiack part, the Grecian camp ; and at a further diltance,
the fea, apd the ille of Tenedos. We will fuppofe the
time to be that when the Greeks feigned to raife the
fiege; and embarked, leaving behind them the wooden
horfe, in which were contained the Grecian foldiers.—
0.n a glafs, therefore, of the fame width with the aper¬
ture made in the fide AC of the box, you are to paint
a deep blue curtain, lightly charged with ornaments,
quite tranfparent. This glafs is to be placed in the firft
vertical groove ; fo that by letting it gently down, its
image may appear to rife in the fame manner as the
curtain of a theatre. All theglafies that are to afeend
ordefeend muft be bordered with thin pieces of wood,
and fo exa&ly fill the grooves, that they may not Aide
down of themfelvee.—You muft have feveral glafies of
a proper fnte to pafs through the horizontal grooves,
and of different lengths according to the extent of the
fubjedl. You may paint, on the firft, the walls of Troy.
On the fecond, the Grecian camp. On the third, the
fea, the ifte of Tenedos, and a ferene iky. On the
fourth, the Grecian troops by detached figures. On
the fifth, other troops, difpofed in battalions, and pla¬
ced at a diflance. On the fixth, divers veffels, which
as the glafs advances in the groove diminifh in fize. On
the feventh, the Wooden horfe and Sinon. On the
eighth, Trojan men and women.
Thefe glaffes being properly painted, you place in
the horizontal groove* the firft, fecond, third, and
fourth. Then draw up the curtain, by letting down
the glafs on which it is painted, and draw away gently
the fourth glafs, and after that the fecond; then ad¬
vance, very gently, the fifth, that reprefents the em-
barkment, and pafs it quite through. Next pafs, the
oppofite way, the fixth, which reprefents the Grecian
fleet. The obje&s painted on the fourth, fifth, and
fixth, quite difappearing, you are to advance the fe¬
venth, on which is painted the wooden horfe; and at
the fame time the eighth, where the Trojans will ap¬
pear to draw the horfe into the city. The curtain is
then to be, let down, that you may withdraw the feenes
of the firft aft, and place in the grooves thofe that are
to compofe the fecond.—In the fecond aft may be re-
prefented the interior part of the city of Troy: on one
fide may be feen the wooden horfe, and in the back
part the temple of Pallas. The glaffes for this aft may
be painted in the following manner.—On the firft,
may be palaces and houfes, reprefenting the infide of
a city. On the fecond, the temple of Pallas in the
centre, with a clear night and the moon. In the front
may be feen the wooden horfe, that the Trojans have
placed hear the temple of Pallas. On the third, a troop
of Greeks, with Sinon at their head, who are going
to open the gates of the city to the Grecians. On the
fourth, different troops of armed Greeks; painted on
a long glafs, to afford variety. On the fifth, feveral
troops of Trojans. On the fixth, various appearances
of fire and fmoke, fo difpofed, that, this glafs being
drawn up above the others, the objefts painted on the
firft glafs may appear in a conflagration.
Before you draw up the curtain, you ftiould place
the firft and fecond glaffes. You then pafs the whole
third glafs flowly ; a little after, the fourth, on which
are painted the different bodies of armed Greeks; and
at the fame time, from the oppofite fide, the fixth glafs,
that reprefents the Trojan troops; obferving to move
them flowly both in advancing and retreating, to imi¬
tate a combat (g). Then draw up, by degrees, the
fixth, on which are painted the fire, flame, and fmoke,
fo that the palaces and houfes painted on the firft glafs
may appear to take fire gradually, and at laft prefent
a general conflagration. After having reprefented thefe
incidents with the greateft attention, you let fall the
curtain to prepare u>r the third aft. In this may be
reprefented the infide of Priam’s palace; where is feen
an altar, round which feveral Trojan princeffes appear,
who have fled thither for fafety.— On the firft glafs
may be painted the palace. On the fecond, a view of
the back part of the palace, with the altar. On the
third, Priam with feveral Trojan men and women. On
the fourth, Pyrrhus, and a troop of Greeks. On the
fifth, the fame aftors, with the palace in flames. On
the fixth, a conflagration.—The two firft glaffes which
are to be drawn up, fhould be placed before you raife
the curtain. Then pafs the third; next advance the
fourth, which being drawn up, difeovers on the fifth
the palace in flames; then drawing up the fixth, let
down the firft, that the palace may appear entirely de*
ftroyed by the conflagration.
The fourth aft may reprefent the environs of Troy,
with a diftant profpeft of the fea. The firft and third
glaffes of the firft aft may be here ufed; to which may¬
be added a third, reprefenting Eneas bearing his fa¬
ther Anchifes, followed by his fon lulus, and fome
Trojans. With this glafs may be reprefented the
flight of the Trojans, and the embarkment of Eneas ;
with another glafs, on which are painted certain vef¬
fels.—To this aft the following feenes may be added.
The cave of zEolus; the back part of the cave; JEo-
lus; the winds; Juno in ker chariot.
The fifth aft ftiould reprefent the open fea, with the
fleet of Eneas failing for Italy.—On the firft glafs
muft be painted the fea, as in the tenth Exper. or
elfe the waves ftiould be imitated by another glafs un¬
der the firft:. On the fecond, the Trojan fleet. On
the third, Neptune in his car. On the fourth, the pa¬
lace of Jupiter. On the fifth, the infide of the palace;
the gods affembled in council; with Venus, obtaining
leave of Jupiter for Eneas to land in Italy.—After ha¬
ving placed the firft glafs, that reprefents a calm fea,
the curtain is raifed, and the fecond feene is advanced,
which contains the Trojan fleet. The firft: is then
brought forward, to reprefent a violent tempeft : then
railing the third glafs, Neptune appears, who com¬
mands
(g) He that moves the glaffes, feeing the effed they produce, is the better able to render the reprefentation as na¬
tural as poffible.
2481
Plate
XCIIT.
£482 D I O P T Pv I G S.
tnands the waves to "be ftiil, which is done by making not appear mixed with them, which will be the cafe if
the tempeft fubfide by degrees. The fleet then advan¬
ces, and pafles over the whole theatre: prefentlyafter
the fourth and fifth fcenes defcend, that reprefent O-
lympus, and finifh the exhibition.
Note, We muft here repeat, that if you would re¬
prefent a fubjeft of this fort to advantage, it is quite
neceffary that the glaffes be well painted : and thofe
that are to be in front, fliould be in ftronger and more
opaque colours, that the images of thofe behind may
D I G
JMofcorea DIOSCOREA, in botany, a genus of the hexan-
(j dria order, belonging to the dioecia clafs of plants, for
Diofma. which there is no EnglHh name. There are eight fpe-
cies, of which the only remarkable one is the bulbi-
fera or yam. This hath triangular winged ftalks, which
trail upon the ground, and extend a great way : thefe
frequently put out roots from their joints as they lie
upon the ground, by which the plants are multiplied.
The roots are eaten by the inhabitants of both the In¬
die's ; and are particularly ferviceable in the Weft In¬
dia iflands, where they make the greateft part of the
negroes food. The plant is fuppofed to have been
brought from the Eaft to the Weft Indies; for it has
never been obferved to grow wild in any part of Ame¬
rica ; but in the ifland of Ceylon, and on the coaft of
Malabar, it grows in the woods, and there are in thofe
places a great variety of forts. It is propagated by
cutting the root in pieces, obferving to preferve an eye
in each, as is praftifed in planting potatoes. One
plant will produce three oe four large toots. The Ikin
of thefe roots is pretty thick, rough, unequal, covered
with many ftringy fibres or filaments, and of a violet
colour approaching to black. The infide is white, and
of the confiftence of red beet. It refembles the pota-
toe in its mealinefs, but is of clofer texture. When
raw, the yams are vifcous and clammy : when foafted
orboiled, they afford very nourifliing food; and are of¬
ten preferred to bread by the inhabitants of the Weft
Indies, on account of their lightnefs, and facility of di-
geltion. When firft dug out of the ground, the roots
gre placed in the fun to dry: after which, they are ei¬
ther put into fand, dry garrets, or calks; where, if
kept from moifture, they may be preferved whole years,
without being fpoiled, or diminilhed in their good-
nefs. The root commonly weighs two or three pounds;
though fome yams have been found upwards of 20
pounds weight.
DIOSCOR1DES (Pedacius), a phyfician of Anax-
arba, fince named Cafaria, in Cilicia ; lived in Ne¬
ro’s reign, and compofed feven books de Materia
Medica.
DIOSMA, African spirjea; a genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. There are nine fpecies; of which the moft re¬
markable are the hirfuta, with narrow hairy leaves y and
the oppofitifolia, with leaves placed in the form of a
crofs. The firft is a very handfqme Ihrub, growing to the
height of five or fix feet: the ftalks are of a fine coral
colour: the leaves come out alternately on every fide
of the branches, and are narrow-pointed and hairy :
the flowers are produced in fmall clufters at the end of
the flioots, and are of a white colour. They are fuc-
ceeded by ftarry feed-veffels having five corners; in each
they are all equally tranfparent. The glaffes fhould
alfo be of different lengths; that, fome being placed be¬
fore the others are drawn away, their extremities may
not be perceived.
The larger thefe fubje&s are reprefented, the better
effeft they will have : the front of the theatre fhould
appear to be about three feet wide; and if fome parts
of the figures were moveable, it would ftiil add to the
variety of the entertainment.
D I O
of which corners is a cell, containing one fmooth, {hi- DiofmJ
ning, oblong, black feed : tbefe feed-veffels abounds |j
wuth a refin which emits a grateful fcent, as doth alfo Diph-I
the whole plant. — The fecond fpecies rifes to the height thong, j
of three or four feet: the branches are {lender, and
produced from the ftem very irregularly; the leaves
are placed crofs-ways"; the flowers are produced at the
ends of the branches, between the leaves: the plants
continue a long time in flower, and make a fine ap¬
pearance when they are intermixed with other exotics
in the open air. Both fpecies are propagated by cut¬
tings ; which may be planted during any of the fum-
mer-months in pots, and plunged into a moderate hot¬
bed, where they ftiould be (haded from the fun, and
frequently watered. In about two months they will
have taken root; when each (hould be tranfplanted in¬
to a fmall pot where they are to remain ; but during
winter, like moft other exotic plants, they muft; be
preferved in a green-houfe.
DIOSPYROS, the Indian date-plumb; a ge¬
nus of the dicecia order, belonging to the polygamia
clafs of plants. There are two fpecies. t. The lotus
is fuppofed to be a native of Africa, from whence it
was tranfplanted into feveral parts of Italy, and alfo in- • j
to the fouth of France. The fruit of this tree is fup¬
pofed to be the lotus with which Ulyffes and his com¬
panions were inchanted. In the warm parts of Eu¬
rope this tree grows to the height of 30 feet. In the
botanic garden at Padua, there is one very old tree
which has been defcribed by fome of the former bo-
tanifts under the title of guaiaxum patavinum. This
tree produces plenty of fruit every year ; from the feeds
of which many plants have been raifed. 2. The vir^
giniana, pifhanim, perfimon, or pitchumon plumb, is
a native of America, but particularly of Virginia and
Carolina. The feeds of this fort have been frequen'. >
ly imported into Britain, and the trees are common in
fnany nurferies about London. It rifes to the height
of 12 or 14 feet; but generally divides into many irre¬
gular trunks near the ground, fo that it is very rare to
fee a handfome tree of this fort. Though plenty of
fruit is produced on thefe trees, it never comes to perfec¬
tion in this country. In America the inhabitants pre¬
ferve the fruit till it is rotten, as is pra&ifed with med¬
lars in England ; when they are efteemed very plea-
fant. Both fpecies are propagated by feeds: and the
plants require to be treated tenderly while young; but
when they are grown up, they refift the greateft cold
of this country.
DIPHTHONG, in grammar, a double vowel, or
the mixture of two vowels pronounced together, fo
as to make one fyllable.
The Latins pronounced the two vowels in their diph¬
thongs
y^.2.
DtVISIBILITr.
 B E
DIOPTEICB.
C^r. /^. D
DIP [ 2483 ] DIP
IDiploe thongs ae or se, oe or ce, much as we do ; only that
II the one was heard much weaker than the other, tho’ the
tics113* d,T‘h°n was ma^e whh all the delicacy imaginable.
. Diphthongs, with regard to the eyes, are diltinguiihed
[from thofe with regard to the ears: In the former, ei¬
ther the particular found of each vowel is heard in the
pronunciation ; or the found of one of them is drown¬
ed ; or, laftly, a new found, different from either, re-
fults from both : the firft of thefe only are -real diph¬
thongs, as being fuch both to the eye and ear. Diph¬
thongs with regard to the ear are either formed of
two vowels meeting in the fame fyllable, or whofe
founds are feverally heard ; or of three vowels in the
fame fyllable, which only afford two founds in the pro¬
nunciation.
Englilh diphthongs, with regard to the eye and
ear, are <?/, au, ea, es, oi, 00, ou. Improper Englilh
diphthongs, with regard to the eye only, are aa}ea,eo,
eu, ie, ei, oa, oe, tie, ui.
DIPLOE, in anatomy, the foft meditullium, or
medullary fubftance, which lies between the two la¬
minae of the bones of the cranium.
DIPLOMA. See Diplomatics.
In a peculiar fenfe, it is ufed for an iiiftrument or li¬
cence given by colleges, focieties, &c. to a clergyman
to exereife the minilt'erial fundtion, or to a phylician
to praftife the profeffion, &c. after paffing examina¬
tion, or admitting him to a degree.
DIPLOMATICS, the fcience of diplomas, or of
Iklfuld’s ancient literary monuments, public documents, &c. It
iUments. does not, however, nor can it, abfolutely extend its re¬
fear ches to antiquity; but is chiefly confined to the
middle age, and the firft centuries of modern times.
For though the ancients were accuftomed to reduce
theircontradls and treaties into writing; yet they gra¬
ved them on tables, or covered them over with wax, or
brafs, copper, ftone, or wood, &c. And all that in the
firft ages were not traced on brafs or marble, has pe-
rifhed by the length of time, and the number of de-
ftrudlive events.
1. The wox&diploma fignifies,. properly, a letter or
epiftle, that is folded in the middle, and that is not
open. But, in more modern times, the title has been
given to all ancient epiftles, letters, literary monu¬
ments, and public documents, and to all thofe pieces of
writing which the ancients called Sytigrapha, Chirogra-
pha, Codicilli, &c. Is the middle age, and in the di¬
plomas themfelves, thefe writings are called Litterce<,
Pr&cepta, Placita, Chart# indicula, Sigilla, and Bulla;
as alfo Panchart#, Pantdchart#, Tradori#, Defcriptio-
nes<i &c. The originals of thefe pieces are named
Jixamplaria, ox Autograph a. Chart# authentic#, Origi-
nalia, See. and the copies, Apographa, Copt#, Particu-
l#, and fo forth. The colle&ians that have been made
of them, are called Chartaria and Chartulia. The place
where thefe papers and documents were kept, the an¬
cients named Scrinia, Tahularium, or JErarium, words
that-were derived from the tables of brafs, and, accord¬
ing to the Greek idiom, Archeium or Archivum.
2. In order to underftand the nature of thefe ancient
papers, diplomas, and manuferipts, and to diftinguifh
the authentic from the counterfeit, it is neceffary to
know that the paper of the ancients came from Egypt,
and was formed of thin leaves or membranes, taken
from the branches of a tree named Papyrus, or BibJum
JEgyptiacum, and which were pafted one over the o- Diploma-
ther with the dime of the Nile, and were preffed and tics‘
polifhed with a pumice-ftone. This paper was very
fcarce; and it was of various qualities, forms, and
prices, which they diftinguifhed by the names of charta
hieratica, luria, augujla, amphitheatrica, faitica, ta-
nirica, emporetica, &c. They cut this paper into fquare
leaves, which they pafted one to the other, in order to
make rolls of them : from whence an entire book was
called from volvendo; and the leaves of which
it confifted, pagin#. Sometimes, alfo, they pafted the
leaves all together by one of their extremities, as is now
pradtifed in binding ; by this method they formed the
back of a book, and thefe the learned call codices. They
rolled the volume round a ftick, which they named uvi~
bilietts; and the two ends that came out beyond the’
paper, cornua. The title, wrote on parchment, in
purple chara&ers, was joined to th^ laft Iheet, and
ferved it as a cover. They made ufe of all forts of
firings or ribbands, and even fometimes of locks, to
clofe the book ; and fometimes alfo it was put into a
cafe. But there is not now to be found, in any library
or cabinet whatever, any one of thefe volumes. We
have been affured, however, by a traveller, that he had
feen feveral of them in the ruins of Herculaneum ; but
fo damaged, the paper fo ftiff and brittle, by the length
of time, that it was impoflible to unrol them, and con-
fequently to make any ufe of them ; for on the firft
touch they fell into ftiatters. We fhall fpeak hereafter
of thofe books they call codices.
3. We are ignorant of the precife time when our
modern paper was invented; and when they began to
make ufe of pens in writing, inftead of the ftalks of
reeds. The ink that the ancients ufed,- was not made
ofvitriol and galls, like the modern, but of foot. Some¬
times alfo they wrote with red ink made of vermilion;
or in letters of gold; on purple or violet parchment. It
is not difficult for thofe whofe apply themfelves to this
ftudy, to diftinguifh the parchment of the ancients
from that of the moderns, as well as their ink and va¬
rious exterior chara&ers : but that which beft diftin-
guilhes the original from the counterfeit, is the writing
or charadler itfelf; which is fo diftin&ly different from
one century to another, that we may tell with certain¬
ty, within about 40 or 50 years, when any diploma
was written. There are two works which furnifh the
cleareft lights on this matter, and which may> ferve as
fure guides in the judgments we may have occafion to
make on what are called ancient diplomas. The one
is the celebrated treatife on the Diplomatic, by F.
Mabilkm ; and the other, the firft volume of the Chro-
nicon Gotvicenfe. We there find fpecimens of all the
charatfters, the flourilhes, and different methods of wri¬
ting, of every age. For thefe matters, therefore, we
mult refer our readers to thofe authors; and ffiall here
only add, that,
4. All the diplomas are wrote in Latin, and confe-
quently the letters and charafters have a refemblance
to each other: but there are certain ftrokes of the pen
which diftinguilh not only the ages, but alfo the diffe¬
rent nations ; as the writings of the Lombards, French,
Saxon, &c. The letters in the diplomas are alfo ufual-
ly longer, and not fo ftrong as thofe of manuferipts.
There has been alfa introduced a kind of court-hand,
of a very difproportionate length, and the letters of
which.
DIP [ 2484 ] DIP
Diploma- winch are called Exiles litter#, crif[># ac protraftiores.
tics. The firft i;ne 0f the diploma, the fjgnature of the fo-
vereign, that of the chancellor, notary, &C. are ufually
wrote in this character.
5. The fignature of a diploma confifts either of the
fign ®f the crofs, or of a monogram or cipher, compo-
fed of the letters of the names of thofe who fubfcribed
it. The initial letters of the name, and fometimes alfo
the titles, were placed about this crofs. By degrees
the cuftom changed, and they invented other marks;
as for example, the fign of Charlemagne was thus:
R
A
V
1.
They fometimes added alfo the dates and epoch of
the fignature, the feafts of the church, the days of the
calendar, and other like matters. The fuccefiive cor¬
ruption of the Latin language, the ftyle and ortho¬
graphy of each age, as well as their different titles and
forms; the abbreviations, accentuation, and punftua-
tion, and the various methods of writing the diph¬
thongs ; all thefe matters united, form fo many cha-
radters and marks by which the authenticity of a di¬
ploma is to be known.
6. The feal annexed to a diploma was anciently of
white wax, and artfully imprinted on the parchment
itfelf. It was afterward pendent from the paper, and
inclofed in a box or cafe, which they called bulla.
There are fome alfo that are ftamped on metal, and
even on pure gold. When a diploma bears all the
charadters that are requifite to the time and place where
it is fuppofed to be written, its authenticity is not to
be doubted: but, at the fame time, we cannot examine
them too fcrupuloufly, feeing that the monks and
priefts of former ages have been very adroit in making
of counterfeits ; and the more, as they enjoyed the
confidence of princes and ffatefmen, and were even
fometimes in poffeffion of their rings or feals.
7. With regard to manufcripts that were wrote be¬
fore the invention of printing, it is neceffary, (1.) to
know their nature, their effential qualities, and matter;
(2.) to be able to read them freely, and without error;
(3.) to judge of their antiquity by thofe chara&ers
which we have juft mentioned with regard to the di¬
plomas; and, (4.) to render them of ufe in the fcien-
ces. As there are fcarce any of the ancient codes now
remaining, (fee par. 2.) wrote on the Egyptian paper,
or on wood, ivory, &c. we have only to confider thofe
that are written on parchment or vellum (membraneos),
and fuch as are wrote on our paper (cbartaceos). The
former of thefe are in moft efteem. With regard to
the character, thefe codes are written either in fquare
and capital letters, or in half fquare, or round and fmall
letters. Thofe of the firft kind are the moft ancient.
There are no intervals between the words, no letters
different from the others at the beginning of any word,
no points, nor any other diftintftion. The codes which
are wrote in letters that are half fquare, referable thofe
we have in Gothic charafters, as well for the age as the
form of the letters. Such as are wrote in round let¬
ters are not fo ancient as the former, and do not go
higher than the ninth or tenth century. Thefe have
fpaces between the words, and fome pun&uation. They
are likewife not fo well wrote as the preceding, and are
frequently disfigured with comments. The codes are Diplom
divided, according to the country, into Lombard, Ita¬
lian, Gaulic, Franco-Gaulic, Saxon, Anglo-Saxon, D! ^
&c*  
8. In the ancient Greek books, they frequently ter¬
minated the periods of a drfcourfe, inftead of all other
divifion, by lines; and thefe divifions were called, in
Latin, verfus, from vertendo: for which reafon thefe
lines are ftill more properly named verfus than line#.
At the end of a work, they put down the number of
verfes of which it confifted, that the copies might be
more eaftly collated: and it is in this fenfe we are to
underftand Trebonhis, when he fays, that the pandedts'
contain 150,000 pane verfuitm. Thefe codes were like¬
wife vel prob# vel deterioris not#, more or lefs perfect,
not only with regard to the calligraphy or beauty of
the charafter, but to the corredlion of the text alfo.
9. It is likewife neceffary to obferve, in ancient
codes, the abbreviations, as they have been ufed in dif¬
ferent centuries. Thus, for example, A. C. D. figni-
fies, Aulus Cains Decimus; Ap. Cn. Appius Cneius;
Aug. Imp. Auguftus Imperator. The chara&ers that
are called not#, are fuch as are not to be found in the
alphabet; but which, notwithftanding, fignify certairt
words. All thefe matters are explained in a copious
manner by Voffius, and in the Chronicon Gotvicenfe. -
Laftly, the learned divide all the ancient codes into
codices missus raros, rariores, editos, anecdotos. The
critical art is here indifpenfably neceffary: its re-
fearches, moreover, have no bounds; and the more, as
the ufe of it augments every day, by the difcoveries
that are made in languages, and by the increafe of eru¬
dition.
DIPONDIUS, in the fcripture-language, is ufed by-
St Luke to fignify a certain coin, which was of very
little value: our tranflation of the paffage is, Are not
five fiparrows fold for two farthings P In St Matthew,
who relates the fame thing, we read, Are not two [par-
rows fold for a farthing?
DIPPING, among miners, fignifies the interrup¬
tion, or breaking off, of the veins of ore ; an accident
that gives them a great deal of trouble before they can
difcover the ore again.
Dipping Needle. See Needle,
DIPSACUS, teazel; a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the tetrandia clafsof plants. There
are four fpecies, the moft remarkable of which is the
carduus fullonum, which grows wild in many parts of
England. It is of fingular ufe in raifing the knap upon
woollen cloth. For this purpofe, the heads are fixed
round the circumference of a large broad wheel, which
is made to turn round, and the cloth is held againft
them. In the weft of England, great quantities of the
plant are cultivated for the ufe juft now mentioned. It
is propagated by fowing the feeds in March, upon a
foil that is well prepared. About one peck of feed is
fufficient for an acre, as the plants mull have room to
grow ; otherwife the heads will not be large enough,
nor in great quantity. When the plants come up,
they muft be hoed in the fame manner as is praftifed
for turnips, cutting down all the weeds, and thinning
the plants to about eight inches diftance; and as the
plants advance, and the weeds begin to grow again,
they muft be hoed a fecond time, cutting out the plants
to a wider diftancfc, fo that they may finally ftand a
DIR [ 2485 ] D I S
DiTpas foot diftant from each other. The fecor.d year they DIRIBITORES, among the Romans, officei*s ap-Dirihitores
^ will (hoot up heads, which may be cut , about the be- pointed to diftribute tablets to the people at the co- |
finning of Auguft. They are then to be tied up in mitia. See Comitia. 1 c~
unches,. and let in the fun if the weather is fair ; or DIRIGENT, or Directrix, a term in geometry,
if not, in rooms to dry them. The common produce fignifying the line of motion, along which the defcri-
is about 160 bundles or ftaves upon an acre, which are bent line or furface is carried in the genefisof any plane
fold for one Hulling each. or folid figure.
The leaves of the common wild teazel, dried, and DIS, an infeparable article prefixed to divers words,
given in powder or infufion, are a very powerful re- the effedt whereof is either to give them a fignificatidn
medy againft flatufes and crudities in the ftomach. contrary to what the fimple words have, as difoblige,
There is alfo another, though fomewhat whimfical, ufe difobey. See. ; or to fignify a reparation, detachment,
for which this plant is famous among the country peo- &c. as difpofmg, diftributing.
pie in England. If the heads are opened longitudi- Ehs, a town of Norfolk, feated on the river Wave-
nally, about September or Odtober, there is generally nay, on the fide of a hill. It is a neat flourifiiing town,
found a fmall worm in them: one of thefeonly is found with one large church, a Preftyterian and a Quaker
in each head, whence naturalitts have named it the meeting. It has about 600 good houfes, the ftreets
vertnis folitarius dipfaci. They colledl three, five, or are well paved, pretty wide, and always clean. At
feven of theft, always obferving to make it an odd the well end of the town is a large meer, or lake; but
number; and, fealing them up in a quill, give them to fo muddy, that the inhabitants can make no other ufe
be worn as an amulet againft the ague. This fuper- of it but in catching of eels. In the town are carried
ftitious remedy is in much higher repute than the bark, on manufadories of fail-cloth, hofe, and the making
in many parts of England. of Hays. E. Long. 1. t6. N. Lat. 52. 25.
DIPSAS, a fort of ferpent, the bite of which pro- DISABILITY, inlaw, is when a man is difabled,
duces fuch a third as proves mortal; whence its name or made incapable to inherit any lands, or take that
dipfasy which fignifies thirfty. In Latin it is called benefit which otherwife he might have done : and this
Jitulciy a pail. Mofes fpeaks of it in Deut. viii. 15. may happen four ways ; by the ad of an anceftor, or
DIPTOTES, in grammar, are fuch nouns as have of the party himfelf, by the ad of God, or of the law.
only two cafes, as fuppetia, fuppetias, See. 1. Difability by the ad of the anceftor, is where the
DIPTYCHS, in antiquity, a public regifter in anceftoris attainted of high treafon, &c. which corrupts
which were written the names of the confuls and other the blood of his children, fo that they may not inherit
magiftrates among the heathens; and among the Chri- his eftate. 2. Difability by the ad of the party is
Ilians, they were a fort of tablets, on one of which where a man binds himfelf by obligation, that, upon
were written the names of the deceafed, and on the furrender of a leafe, he will grant a new eftate to a lef-
other thofe of the living, patriarchs, bilhops, &c. or fee ; and afterwards he grants over the reverfion to
thofe who had done any fervice to the church, for another, which puts it out of his power to perform it.
whom prayers were offered, the deacon reading the 3. Difability by the ad' of God is where a man is non
names at mafs. Jana mentoria, whereby he is incapable to make any
DIRiE, the general name of the three Furies in the grant, &c. So that, if he paffeth an eftate out of him.
Pagan fyftem of theology. They were fo called, as be- it may after his death be made void ; but it is a maxim
ing quafi Deorum irx, the minilters of divine venge- in law, “ That a man of full age, Ihall never be re-
ance in punilhing guilty -fouls after death. They ceived to difable his own peVfon.” 4. Difability by
were the daughters of and Acheron. See Furies, the ad of the law, is where a man by the foie ad of
DIRECT harmony. See Harmony. the law, without any thing by him done, is rendered
DIRECTION, in mechanics, fignifies the line or incapable of the benefit of the law; as an alien born, &c.
path of a body’s motion, along which it endeavours to Islands of DISAPOINTMENT, are aclufter of
proceed according to the force impreffed upon it. See fmall iflands, lying in S. Lat. 14. 10. W. Long. 141.
Mechanics. 16. They were difeovered by Commodore Byron in
DIRECTOR, in commercial polity, a perfon who - 1765, who gave them their name from the fhores af-
has the management of the affairs of a trading company: fording no anchorage for his fiiips ; for which reafon
thus we fay, the diredors of the India company, he was obliged to quit them without landing, or pro-
South-fea company, &c. See Company. curing any refrefhments for his crew, who were then
The diredors are confiderable proprietors in the languilhing with ficknefs. They are inhabited by In-
ftocks of their refpedive companies, being chofen by dians, who appeared on the beach with fpears in their
plurality of votes from among the body of proprietors, hands, that were at leaft 16 feet long. They every
The Dutch Eaft India company have 60 fuch direc- where difeovered hoftile intentions, and feemed byfigns
tors; that of France, 21 ; the Britifti Eaft India com- to threaten the people in the boat with death if they
pany has 24, including the chairman, who maybe came afhore. There are cocoa-trees in great abundance,
re-eleded for four years fucceffively. Thefe laft have and the fhore abounds with turtle,
falaries of 1501. a-year each, and the chairman 200 1. DISC, in antiquity, a quoit made of ftone, iron.
They meet at leaft once a-week, and commonly oftener, or copper, five or fix fingers broad, and more than a
being fummoned as occafion requires. foot long, inclining to an oval figure, which they
Director, in furgery, a grooved probe, to dired hurled in form of a bowl, to a vaft diftance, by the
the edge of the knife or feiffars in opening finufeS or help of a leathern thong tied round the perfon’s hand
fiftulse, that by this means the adjacent veffels, nerves, who threw it, and put through a hole in the middle,
and tendons, may remain unhurt. See Surgery. Homer has made Ajax and Ulyffes great artifts at this
Vol. IV 14 M fport.
D I S
l 2486 ] D I S
Dift fport.
. jj_ Djsc, in aftronomy, the body and face of the fun
l~)i(cor moon, fuch as it appears to us on the earth ; or
the body and face of the earth, fuch as it appears to a
fpe&ator in the moon.
Disc, in optics, is the width of the aperture of tele-
fcopic glaflls, whatever their form be, whether plain,
covex, concave, &c.
DISCERNING, or Discernment, a faculty of
the mind whereby it diftingui/hes between ideas. See
Metaphysics, n° 44, 6tc.
DISCIPLE, one who learns any thing from ano¬
ther : thps, the followers of any teacher, philofopher,
&c. are called difciples. In the Chriftian fenfe, they
were followers of Jefus Chrift, in general ; but in a
more yeftrained fenfe, the difciples denote thofe alone
who were the immediate followers and attendants on
his perfon, of which there were 70 or 72. The names
difciple and apoftle are often fynonymoufly ufed in the
gofpel-hiftory; but fometimes the apoltles are diftin-
guilhed from difciples, as perfons felecled out of the
number of difciples, to be the principal minifters of
his religion : of thefe there were only 12. The Latins
kept the feftival of the 70 or 72 difciples on July 15th,
and the Greeks on January 4th.
DISCIPLINE, in a general fenfe, denotes inftruc-
tion and government, as military difcipline, ecclefiaf-
tical difcipline, See.
Ecclefiaftical difcipline confifts in putting thofe laws
in execution by which the church is governed, and in-
flifting the penalties enjoined by them againft the fe-
veral forts of offenders that profefs the religion of Je-
fus. The primitive church never pretended to exercife
difcipline upon any but fuch as were within her pale,
in the largeft fenfe, by fome a£l of their own profef-
fion ; and even upon thefe fhe never pretended to ex-
ereife her difcipline fo far as to cancel or difannul their
baptifm : all that die pretended to, was to deprive men
of the benefits of external communion, fuch as public
prayer, receiving the eucharift, and other afts of di¬
vine worfhip. The church-difcipline was only confined
to the admonition of the party, and to the leffer and
greater excomunication.
As to the obje&s of ecclefiaftical difcipline, they
were all fuch delinquents as fell into great and fcan-
dalous crimes after baptifm.
Difcipline, in a more peculiar fe-nfe, is ufed for the
chaftifements or bodily puniihments infli&ed on a re¬
ligious of the Rotnilh church who has been found a
delinquent; or even for that which the religious volun¬
tarily undergo or inflift on themfelves, by way of mor¬
tification.
DISCLAMATION. See Law, N° clxv. 23.
DISCORD, in general, fignifies difagreement, or
oppofition between different perfons or things.
Discord, in mufic, every found which, joined with
another, forms an affemblage difagreeable to the-ear ;
or rather, every interval whofe extremes do not coa-
lefce. Now, as there are no other concords or confo-
nances, except thofe which form amongft themfelves,
and with their fundamental found, perfect chords, it
follows, that every other interval muff be a real diffo-
nance or difeord: even the third and fixth were rec¬
koned fuch among the ancients, who excluded them
from the nuraberof confouant chords.
The term diJfona?:ce, which is fynonymous with dif- D'feonJi
cord, is compounded of two words, the infeparable
prepofition dis and the verb fonare; which, both in a
literal and metaphorical fenfe, fignifk-s dfagreenunt or
difunion. In reality, that which renders diffonances
grating, is, that the founds which form them, far from
uniting in fhe ear, feem to repel each other, and are
heard each by itfelf as two dillintt founds tho’ produced
at the fame time.
Thisrepullion or violent ofcillation of founds isheard
more or lefs as the vibrations which produce it are
more or lefs frequently coincident. When two vocal
firings are gradually tuned, till they approach a con-
fonant interval, the pulfations become flower, as the
chord grows more juft, till at laft: they are fcarely heard,
if heard at all ; from whence it appears certain, that the
pleafure produced in us by harmony refults from the
more or lefs exafl and frequent coincidence of vibra¬
tions; tho’ the reafon why this coincidence fhould give
pleafure, more than any other modification or combina¬
tion of founds, appears to us infcrutable. The agreeable
effedls of diffonance in harmony, are no objection to
this theory; fince it is allowed, that the fenfations
excited by difeord are not in themfelves immediately
and neceffarily pleafing, but only pleafe by auricular
deception. The ear is furprized with the fhock it
receives, without being able to imagine how it (hould
have happened; and in proportion as it is harfh and
grating, we feel the pleafure of returning harmony
enhanced, and the disappointment of being artfully
and infenfibly extricated more agreeable.
The name of dijfonance, is given fometimes to the
interval, and fometimes to each of the two lounds which
form it. But though two founds equally form a dif-
fonaace between themfelves, the name is moll fre-,
quently given to that found in particular which is molt
extraneous to the chord.
The number of poffible diffonances is indefinite.;
but as in mufic we exclude all intervals which are not
found in the fyftem received, the number of diffonances
is reduced to a very few : befides, in pra&ice, we can
only fele£t from thofe few, fuch as are agreeable to the
fpecies, and the mode in which we compofe; and from
this laft number we muft exclude fuch-as cannot be ufed
confidently with the rules preferibed. But what are
thefe rules ? Have they any foundation in nature, or
are they merely arbitrary? This is what Rouffeau,
whom in this article we have followed or abandoned
as his obfervations appeared ufeful or frivolous, pro-
pofes to inveftigate as its principal objeft.
But where does his ferutiny terminate? Not in the
abolition of the rules preferibed. Thefe have ftill fub-
fifted, and will ftill fubfift, while the frame of man,
and the nature^of mufic, remain what they are. If then
the rules be permanent and univerfal, the principle
upon which they are founded may be latent or ambi¬
guous ; but the rules themfelves can never be purely
arbitrary. How elfe could it happen, that Rameau,
D’Alembert, and Rouffeau, ftiould admit the force and
effeft of thefe rules, whilft: each of thofe mafters exerts
his whole genius to give a different account of their
caufe and origin? Rouffeau himfelf, as we have feen in
a former article, inculcates the neceffity of diffonances
for the completion of harmony; (fee Chord). Now
if this be true, the eafieft methods of introducing and
difmif-
D I S [ 24S7 ] D I S
Difcord difmifling thefe difcords muft be tlie moft eligible,
II and of conl'eqtience the rules for ufing them mud
c'eti:'. be eltablidied. It is not then upon the fubfiftence or
demolition of any particular theory, that they depend.
Should we attend to the particular objections which may
be urged againft any fyftem whatever; where is the
« theory which will be found proof to the efforts of fcep-
ticifm ? After all, the objections of Rouffeau againft
Rameau’s theory, as applied by D’Alembert to the
origin of confonances, (fee Music, art. 94, 95, 96,
97, 98, 99.) appear to be much more frivolous than
the analogies from which he pretends this origin to be
deduced. It appears from D’Alembert’s expofition
of this theory, that, if not for all, it affords a folution
far the molt material and effential phenomena in har¬
mony 5^ which is fufficient for its eftablilhment, till a-
nother can be found, which gives a rational and con-
fiftent account of the whole: a difcovery which has not
yet been made. But, whilft we acknowledge the fu-
> tility of Rouffeau’s objections againft D’Alembert’s
explication of diffonances, we mull at the fame time
admire tbe ingenuity with which he has deduced them
from principles purely mechanical, without departing
from the fyftem of M. Rameau. This mechanical ex¬
plication will be found in his Mufical Dictionary,
under the article Dijfonance.
Discord, (the goddefs of), in Pagan theology
She is reprefented by Ariftides with fiery eyes, a pale
countenance, livid lips, and wearing a dagger in her
bofom. It was (he who at the marriage of Peleus and
Thetis threw in the golden apple, whereon was written
“ To the faireft which occafioned a contention be¬
tween the goddeffes Juno, Minerva, and Venus; each
pretending a title to the apple.—She was likewife cal¬
led Ate and Eris.
DISCOVERY, in dramatic poetry, a manner of
unravelling a plot, or fable, in tragedies, comedies,
and,romances; wherein, by fome unforefeen accident,
a difcovery is made of the name, fortune, quality, &c.
of a principal perfon, which were before unknown.
See Catastrophe.
DISCOUNT, in commerce, a term among traders,
merchants, and bankers. It is ufed by the two former
on occafion of their buying commodities on the ufual
time of credit, with a condition that the feller (hall al¬
low the buyer a certain difeount at the rate of fo much
per cent, per annum, for the time for which the credit
is generally given, upon condition that the buyer pays
ready money for fuch commodities, inftead of taking
the time of credit. Traders and merchants alfo fre¬
quently taking promiffoty notes for moneys due pay¬
able to them or order at a certain time, and fome-
times having occafion for money before the time is e-
lapfed, procure thefe notes to be difeounted by bankers
before the time of payment. Bills of exchange are
alfo difeounted by bankers ; and in this confifts one
article of the profits of banking. See Bank.
DISCRETE, or disjunct, Proportion, is when
the ratio of two or more pairs of numbers or quantities
is the fame, but there is not the fame proportion be¬
tween all the four numbers. Thus if the numbers
3 : 6:: 8 : 16 be confidered, the ratio between 3 : 6
is the fame as that between 8; 16, and therefore the
numbers are proportional: but it is only diferetely or
disjunftly, for 3 is not to 6 as 6 to 8 ; that is, the
proportion is broken off between 8 and 3, and is not Difcus
continued as in the following continual proportionals, ^
3. 6.. 12. 2 4.    
DISCUS, in antiquity. See Disc,
DISCUS, in botany, the middle part of a radiated
compound flower, generally confifting of fmall florets,
with a hollow regular petal. It is commonly fur-
rounded by large, plain, or flat, tongue-ftiaped pe¬
tals, in the circumference or margin ; as in daify,
groundfel, and leopards bane : fometimes the circum¬
ference is naked, as in cotton-weed and fome fpecies
of colts-foot.
Discus Foliiy the furface of the leaf.
DISCUSSION, in matters of literature, fignifies
the clear treating, or handling of any particular point,
or problem, fo as to fliake off the difficulties with
which it is embarraffed: thus we fay, fuch a point was
well difcujfed, when it was well treated of and clear¬
ed up.
DISCUTIENTS, in medicine, are fuch remedies,
as, by their fubtilty, diffolve a ftagnating or coagula¬
ted fluid, and diffipate the fame without an external
folution of continuity.
DISDIACLASTIC crystal, in natural hiftory,
a name given, by Bartholine and fome others, to the
pellucid foffile fubftance more ufually called from the
place whence it was firft brought, Ifland cryjlal tho’
properly it is no cryftal at all, but a fine pellucid fpar,
called by Dr Hill, from its ftiape, parallelopipedum*
See Island CryJlaL
DISDIAPASON, or Bisdiapason, in mufic, a
compound concord, deferibed by F. Parran, in the
quadruple ratio of 4 : 1, or 8 : 2.
Disdiapason Diapente, a concord in a fextuple ra¬
tio of 1 t 6.
Disdiapason Se?ni-Diapente, a compound concord
in the proportion of 16:3.
Disdiapason Ditone, a compound confonance in the
proportion of 10 : 2.
Disdiapason Semi-Ditone, a compound concord in
the proportion of 24 : 5.
DISEASE, has been varioufly defined by phyfi-
cians, almoft every founder of a new fyftem having
given a definition of difeafe, differing in fome refpedts
from his predeceffors. For a particular account of
thefe definitions, fee Medicine.
It has always been obferved, that people of particu¬
lar places are fubjeift to particular difeafes, owing to
their manner of living, or to the air and effluvia of the
waters. The colder the country, the fewer and lefs
violent the difeafes in general are. Scheffer tells us,
that the Laplanders know no fuch thing as the plague,
or fevers of the burning kind, nor are fubjetft to half
the diftempers we have. Some particular diftempers,
however, they are fubjeft to more than other nations :
thus they have often diftempers of the eyes, which a-
rife from their living continually in fmoke, or from the
glaring of the fnow which covers their country for a
great part of the year. Pleurilies, and inflammations
of the lungs, are alfo very common among them; and
the fmall-pox often rages with great violence. They
have one general remedy againft thefe and all other in¬
ternal difeafes: this is the root of that fort of mofs
which they callyVr/L They make a deco&ion of this
root in the whey of rein-deer milk, and drink very
14 M 2 large
D I S [ 248S ] D I S
Dtfeafe. ]arge dofes of it warm, to keep up a breathing fweat.
" If they cannot get this, they ufe the ftalks of Angeli¬
ca boiled in the fame manner. They have not fo great
an opinion of this remedy as of the former. The
quantity of diluting liquors, however, that is drunk
on thefe occafions, moft probably contributes more to
the cure of their difeafes, than either of the drugs.
Hoffman has made fome very curious obfervations
on the difeafes incident to particular places. He in¬
forms us, that fwellings of the throat have been always
common to the inhabitants of mountainous countries.
The people of Svvifferland, Carinthia, Styria, the
Hartz-foreft, Tranfylvania, and the inhabitants of
Cronftadt,he obferves, are all fubjedt to this difeafe from
the fame caufe: which probably is their ufing great
quantities of fnow water; and this, in all probability,
derives its pernicious quality from the expullron of the
fixed air contained in it by the congelation, and which
is not reflored by melting.—The French are peculiar¬
ly troubled with fevers, worms, hydroceles, and farco-
celes : and all thefe diforders are thought to proceed ori¬
ginally from theireatingverylargequantities of chefnuts.
The Britifh are peculiarly afflidted with hoarfenefs, ca¬
tarrhs, coughs, dyfenteries, confumptions; the wo¬
men with the fluor-albus or whites ; and children with
a particular diflemper fcarce known any where elfe,
called the rickets. In different parts of Italy, diffe¬
rent difeafes prevail; At Naples, the venereal difeafe is
more common than in other part of the world. At
Venice people are peculiarly fubjedt to the bleeding
piles. At Rome, tertian agues and lethargic diftem-
pers are the moft common; in Tufcany, theepilepfy or
falling-ficknefs; and in Apulia, they are moft fubjedt
to burning fevers, pleurifies, &c. In Spain, apo¬
plexies are common, as alfo melancholy, hypochondria¬
cal complaints, and bleeding piles. The Dutch are
peculiarly fubjedt to the fcurvy,. and to the ftonein the
kidneys; Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Pomerania,
and Livonia, are all terribly afflidted with the fcurvy:
and it is remarkable, that, in Denmark, Sweden, and
Norway, fevers are very common ; but in Iceland,
Lapland, and Finland, fuch a difeafe is fcarce ever to
be met with ; though peripneumonies are very common
in thefe places, and likewife difeafes of the eyes, and
violent pains in the head. The Ruffians and Tartars
are afflidted with ulcers made by the cold, of the na¬
ture of what we call chilblains, but greatly worfe; and
in Poland there reigns a difeafe called the plica Poloni-
ca, fo terribly offenfive and painful, that fcarce any
thing can be worfe. The people of Hungary are very
much fubjedt to the gout and rheumatifm: they are al¬
fo more infefted with lice and fleas than any other peo¬
ple in the world. The Germans in difl'erent parts of
the empire are fubjedt to different reigning difeafes. In
Weftphalia, they are peculiarly troubled with peripneu¬
monies and the itch. In Silefia, Franconia, Aultria,
and other places thereabout, they are very liable to fe¬
vers of the burning kind, to bleedings at the nofe,.and
to other haemorrhages; alfo to the gout, inflammations,
and confumptions. In Mifnia, they have purple fevers ;
and the children are peculiarly infefted with worms.
In Greece, Macedonia, and Thrace, there are very few
difeafes ; but what they have are principally burning
fevers and pleurifies. At Conftantinople the plague
always rages.; and ia the Weft India iilaads, ma-
lignant fevers, and the moft terrible colics. See Me- BifesJi
DICING. _ \\'
Diseases of Harfes* See Farriery.
Diseases sf Dogs. See Dogs.
Diseases of Plants. See Agriculture, n° 67;
etfeq. and Blight, Mildew, Moss, &c.
DISFRANCHISING, arnoim civilians, fignifies
the depriving a perfon of the rights and privileges of a
free citizen or fubjedt.
DISGUISE, a counterfeit habit. Perfons doing
unlawful adls in difguife are by our ftatutes fometimes
fubjedted to great penalties, and even declared felons.
Thus by an adt, commonly called the black alt, per¬
fons appearing difguifed and armed in a forett or
grounds inclofed, or hunting deer, or robbing a war¬
ren or a fifh-pond, are declared felons.
DISH, in mining, is a trough made of wood, a-
bout 28 inches long, four inches deep, and fix inches
wide ; by which all miners meafure their ore. If any
be taken felling their ore, not firft meafuring it by the
bar-mafter’s di(h, and paying the king’s duty, the
feller forfeits his ore, and the buyer forfeits for every
fuch oflence 40 fhillings to the lord of the field or far¬
mer.
DISJUNCTIVE, fomething that feparates or dif-
joins. Thus, or, neither, ike, which in connecting a
difeourfe yet feparates the parts of it, are called 5//^
.junftive conjunftions. |
DISLOCATION, the fame with Luxation.
DISPART, in gunnery, is the fetting a mark up¬
on the muzzle-ring, or thereabouts, of a piece of ord¬
nance, fo that a fight-line taken upon the top of the
bafe-ring againft the touch-hole, by the markfeton or
near the muzzle, may be parallel to the axis of the con¬
cave cylinder. The common way of doing this, is to
take the two diameters of the bafe ring, and of the
place where the difpart is to ftand, and divide the dif¬
ference between them into two equal parts, one of which
will be the length of the difpart which is fet on the gun
with wax or pitch, or faftened there with a piece of
twine or marlin. By means of au inftrument it may
be done with all pofiible nicety.
DISPAUPER. A perfon fuing in forma pauper
ris, is faid to be difpaupered,. if, before the fuit is
ended, he has any lands or other eftate. fallen to him, ’
or if he has any thing to make him lofe his privilege.
See the article Forma Pauperis.
DISPENSARY, or Dispensatory, denotes a
book containing the method of preparing the various
kinds of medicines ufed in pharmacy. Such are. thofe
of Bauderon, Quercetan, Zwelfer, Charas, Bates, Me-
fue, Salmon,. Lemery, Quincy, &c. but thelateft and
moft efteemed are the Edinburgh and London difpen-
fatories, and Dr Lewis’s difpenfatory.
Dispensary, or Difpenfatory, is likewife a maga¬
zine or office for felling medicines at prime coil to the
poor. The college of phyiicians maintain three of
thefe in London ; one at the college itfelf in Warwick-
lane; another in St Peter’s alley, Cornhill; and a third
in St Martin’s lane. Difpenfaries have alfo been eila?
bliihed; in feveral of the. principal towns in Scotland
and England ; particularly in Edinburgh, Dundee,
and Kelfo; as alfo at Newcaftle upon Tyne. The
firft of thefe hath given rifen to a courfe of Medical
Le&urcs there, which promifes to be of much advan¬
tage
D I S [ 2489 ] D I S
)ifpenfa- tage to the ftudents of medicine : and though the un- dry feed-veflel's, as eapfules and pods (filiqua), divide Diflemers
dertaking hath not been patronifed by people of the the fruit internally into cells. Diflblution
Di
ilpi- firft ran.K’ yet the fupport of fome generous and hu¬
mane citizens hath made fome progrefs towards ren¬
dering the inftitution permanent; and fome hundreds
of patients, who could not be admitted into the royal
infirmary, have found relief from the medicines cha-
’ ably bellowed on them in the difpenfary.
DISSENTERS, feparatifts from the fervice and
worfhip of any eftablifhed church.
DISSIMILITUDE, unlikenefs, or want of fimili-
tude. See the article Resemblance and DitfwiUitu.de.
DISSIPATION, in phyfics, an infenfible lofs or
confumption of the minute parts of the body; or, that
DISPENSATION, in law, the granting a licenfe flux whereby they fly off, and are loft,
of doing fome certain adlion that otherwife is not per- Circle of Dissipation, in optics, is ufed for that
mitted. circular fpace upon the retina, which is taken up by
DISPERSION, in general, fignifies the fcattering one of the extreme pencils or rays iffuing from an ob-
or diffipating fomething. Hence, je&-
Dispersion, in optics, the fame with the divergen- DISSOLVENT, in general, whatever diffolves or
cy of the rays of light. reduces a folid body into fuch minute parts as to be fu-
o/'Dispersion, in dioptrics, the point from ftained in a fluid,
which refrafted rays begin to diverge, where their re- The principal diffolvents for metals,' are aqua-regia
fraftion renders them divergent. and aqua-fortis; for falls, earths, and gums, water;
Dispersion of Inflammation^ in medicine and fur- for coral, and other alkaline fubftances, diftilled vine-
gery, is the removing the inflammation, and reftoring gar or fpirits of wine. Diffolvents are the fame with
the inflamed part to its natural ftate. what the chemifts call tjienjlruums. See the article
DISPLAYED, in heraldry, is underftood of the Menstruum.
pofition of an eagle, or any other bird, when it is e- UniverfalT)\ssoi.xKHT. See the article Alkahest.
reft, with its wings expanded or fpread forth.
DISPONDEE, in the Greek and Latin poetry, a
double fpondee or foot, confifting of four long fyl-
lables; as maecenates, concludentes.
DISPOSITION, in Scots law, is that deed or wri-
DISSOLUTION, in phyfics: a difcontinuation, or
analyfis, of the ftrufture of a mixed body ; whereby,
what was one, and contiguous, is divided into little
parts, either homogeneous, or heterogeneous.
Diffolution, then, is a general name for all reduc¬
ting which contains the fcale or grant of any fub- tions of concrete bodies into their fmalleft parts, with-
jeft: when applied to heritable fubjefts, it in fome cafes out any regard either to folidity or fluidity : though
gets the name of charter, which differs from a difpofi- in the ufual acceptation of the word among authors, it
rr- tion in nothing elfe than a few immaterial forms *. is reftr^ined to the reduftion of folid bodies into a ftate
Disposition, in architefture, the juft placing the of fluidity ; which is more properly expreffed by folu-
feveral parts of an edifice according to their nature and tion, as a branch of diflblittion.
office. See Architecture, n° 30, &c.
Disposition, in oratory. See Oratory, Part I.
Disposition, in painting. SccPainting, n° 14.
Disposition, in human nature.—In every man there
is fomething original, that ferves to dillinguilh him
from others, that tends to form
make him meek or fiery, candid
According to the opinion of Fr. Tertius de Lanis,
Boerhaave, and fome other learned men, the power or
faculty of diffolving is lodgeddn fire alone. See Fire
and Heat.
According to this hypothefis, other fluids common-
charafter, and to ly fuppofed difiblvents, only produce their effeft by
deceitful, refolute means of the fiery fpicula they abound with ; and
or timorous, cheerful or morofe. This original bent, even air, which is judged a powerful menftruum, owes
termed difpqfltion, muft be diftinguilhed from a prin- all its force to the rays of light diffufed therein.
ciple: the latter, fignifying a law of human nature, Sir Ifaac Newton accounts for all diffolutions, and
makes part of the common nature of man ; the former the feveral phenomena thereof, from the great prin-
makes part of the nature of this or that man. Pro- ciple ofattraftion ; and, in effeft, the phenomena of
fenjity is a name common to both; for it fignifies a diftelution furnilh a great part of the arguments and
principle, as well as a difpofition. confiderations whereby he proves the reality of that
DISQUISITION, a ferious and exaft examination principle. The following is a fpecimen of that great
into the circumftances of any affair, in order to dif- author’s way of philofophifing on the fubjeft of dif-
courfe clearly about it: ' folution.
DISSECTION, in anatomy, the cutting up a bo- “ When fait of tartar diffolves by lying in a moill
dy, with a view of examining the ftrufture and ufe of place, is not this done by an attraftion between the
the parts. See Anatomy. particles of the fait of tartar, and thofe of the water
Le Gendre obferves, that the diffeftion of a human which float in the air in form of vapours ? and why
body, even dead, was held a facrilege till the time of does not common fait, or falt-petre, or vitriol, do the
Francis I. And the fame author affures us, he has feen like, but for want of fuch an attraftion ? And when
a confultation held by the divines of Salamanca, at the aqua-fortis, or fpirit of vitriol, poured on fteel-filings,
requeft of Charles V. to fettle the queftion whether or diffolves the filings, with a great heat, and ebullition ;
no it were lawful in point of confcience to diffeft a hu- is not this heat and ebullition effefted by a violent mo-
man body in order to learn the ftrufture thereof. tion of the parts ? and does not that motion argue, that
DISSEISIN, in law, an unlawful difpoffeffing a the acid parts of the liquor rufti towards the parts of
perfon of his lands or tenements, the metal with violence, and run forcibly into its pores;
DISSEPIMENTUM, in botany, the name by till, getting between the utmoft particles and the main
which Linnaeus denominates the partitions which in raafs of metal, they loofen them therefrom, and fet them
D I S [ 2490 ] D I S
©iflolntion at liberty to float off into the water? When a folution
—' of iron in aqua fortisdiffolves lapis calaminaris, and lets
go the iron 5 or a folution of copper diffolves iron im-
merfed in it, and lets go the copper ; or a folution of
mercury in aqua-fortis poured on iron, copper, tin, or
lead, diffolves the metal, and lets go the mercury ;
Does not this argue, that the acid particles of the aqua¬
fortis are attraded more ftrongly by the lapis calami¬
naris than by iron ; by iron than by copper ; by cop¬
per than by filver ; and by iron, copper, tin, and lead,
than by mercury? And is it not for the fame reafon,
that iron requires more aqua-fortis to diffolve it than
copper, and copper more than the other metals ; and
that of all metals iron is diffolved moil eafily, and is
moft apt to ruft ; and next after iron, copper ? When
aqua-fortis diffolves fllver, and not gold ; and aqua-
regia diffolves gold, and not filver; May it not be laid,
that aqua-fortis is fubtile enough to penetrate the pores
of gold as well as of filver, but wants the attradive
force to give it entrance : and the fame of aqua-regia,
and filver ? And when metals are diffolved in acid men-
ftruums, and the acids in conjundion with the metal
ad after a different manner, fo as that the tafte of the
compound is milder than that of the fimples, and fome-
times a fweet one; Is it not becaufe the acids adhere to
the metallic particles, and thereby lofe much of their
activity ? And if the acid be in too fmall a proportion
to make the compound diffoluble in water ; will it not,
by adhering Itrougly to the metal, become unadive, and
lofe its tafte ; and the compound become a taftelefs
earth ? for fuch things as are not diffoluble by the moi-
tture of the tongue, are infipid.”
Dr Freind gives us a mechanical account of diffolu-
tion, in the inftance of fait diffolved in water, which is
the moft Ample operation that falls under this head.
This motion he afcribes to that attradive force, which
is fo very extenfive in natural philofophy, that there is
no kind of matter but what is under its influence. It
may be obferved, fays he, that the corpufcles of falls,
which are the moft Ample of any, are withal very mi¬
nute, and for their bulk very folid; and, therefore,
exert a very ftrong attradive force, which, cateris pa¬
ribus, is proportional to the quantity of matter. Hence
it comes to pafs, that the particles of water are more
ftrongly attraded by the faline particles, than they are
by one another: the particles of water, therefore,
cohering but loofely, and being eafily moveable, ap¬
proach the corpufcles of falls, and run, as it were, in¬
to their embraces : and the motion of them is quicker,
©r flower, according to their lefs or greater diftances ;
the attradive force in all bodies being ftrongeft, at the
point of contad. Therefore, if fait be thrown into
the middle of a difh full of water, we ftiall find the a •
queous particles which are in the middle of the difti
fharp and pungent to the tafte, but the water upon
the fides of the veffel almoft infipid; fo that, when fuch
a motion once arifes, the aqueous particles are carried
with the fame force towards the falls, and the moment
of them is to be eftimated from the ratio of their
weight and celerity conjundly. By the force of this
impulfe, they open to themfelves a paffage into the
pores of the falls, which are very numerous ; and at
length fo break and divide their texture, that all co-
hefion of their parts isdeftroyed : hereupon, being fe-
parated, and removed to a convenient diftance from one
another, they are difperfed, and float here and there Diftblutl
about the water.
The Ample diffolution of faline fubftances of every
kind in water, may indeed be plaufibly enough ex- 5
plained on the hypothefis of attra&ion ; but where the
diffolution is attended with heat, the emiffion of va¬
pours, &c. it feems neceffary to feck for fome other
principle than mere attraction to folve thefe phenome- ^
na. When diluted oil of vitriol, for inftance, is pour¬
ed upon iron-filings, a great quantity of vapour arifes,
which, if it was attempted to be confined, would cer¬
tainly break the containing veffel.—It is impoflible to
imagine any connexion between attraction and the e-
miflion of a vapour ; and what is ftill more unaccount¬
able, this vapour \s ivjiammable, though neither theoil
of vitriol nor the iron are fo by themfelves. Another
very ftrong objection againft the hypothefis of attrac¬
tion may be derived from the phenomena of metallic
diffolutions in general ; for they do not diffolve com¬
pletely in acids, as falls do in water. By diffolution
they are always decompefed, and cannot be recovered
in their proper form without a good deal of trouble.
One metal, indeed, will very often precipitate another
from an acid in its metalline form ; but this is attend¬
ed with the decompofition of the fecond metal; fo
that this can by no means be reckoned a fair experi¬
ment. But, whatever other method is ufed, the diffolved
metal is always recovered in form of an earthy powder,
that we could fcarcely imagine capable of ever beco¬
ming malleable, and affuming the fplendid appearance
of a metal. Now, if there was a ftrong attraction be¬
tween this and the acid, we might very juftly conjec¬
ture, that the diffolution happened by means of that
attraction ; but fo far from this, after a metal has
been diffolved by any acid, and the calx has been fe-
parated from it, it is always difficult, and very often
impoffible, to procure a diffolution of the calx in the
fame acid. The aCtion of the acid in this cafe feems
not unlike that of fire upon wood or any other inflam¬
mable fubftance. Dry wood, thrown into the fire,
burns and flames with great violence ; but the fame
wood reduced to afties, inftead of burning, extinguifties
fire already kindled. In like manner, a piece of clear
metal thrown into an acid,diffolves with great violence:
but the fame metal, deprived of its phlogiftic prin¬
ciple, and reduced to a calx, cannot be aCted upon by
acids, in whatever manner they are applied ; at leaft,
not without the greateft difficulty; and the more per-
feft the calx is, i. e. the more completely it is depri¬
ved of its inflammable principle, the greater the diffi¬
culty is of combining it afterwards with an acid.
Another thing in which the diffolution of metals by
an acid refembles the burning of combuftibles by fire
is, that in both cafes there is a feparation of the prin¬
ciple of imflammability. In the cafe of oil of vitriol
and iron filings, this is exceedingly obvious ; for there
the vapour which arifes from the mixture takes fire,
and explodes with great vehemence. In all other cafes
It is very eafily proved ; for the calx is always capable «
of being revived into metal by the addition of any fub¬
ftance containing the phlogifton. The calces prepa¬
red by fire, and by precipitation from acids, alfo re¬
ferable one another fo much, that in many cafes they
are fcarce to be diftinguiftied.
Thefe confiderations feem to favour the hypothefis
of
See Me
wbyftcs,
eS6, 57-
D I S 1 2491 ] D I S
e of Dr Boovhaave ; and much more does the following,
namely, that almoft all metallic folutions produce feme
__degree of fenfible heat. In fome metals this is very
confiderable; but the greateft heat producible by an a-
queous folution of any fubllance is by diffolving quick¬
lime in the nitrous acid. The heat here greatly ex¬
ceeds that of boiling water. In fome diffolutions of
inflammable matters by a mixture of the vitriolic and
nitrous acids, the heat is fo great, that the whole mix¬
ture takes fire almoft inftantaneoufly. Hence the Boer-
haavians think they have fufficient grounds to conclude,
that fire alone is the agent by which all diffolutions are
performed.
Thefe appearances have alfo been explained on the
hypothefis of attraction; and it has been faid, that the
heat, &c. was owing to nothing but the violent a&ion
of the particles of the acid and metal upon each other.
But the late difeoveries made by Dr Black, with re¬
gard to heat, firow, that it is capable of remaining
/concealed in fubftances for any length of time, and af¬
terwards breaking out in its proper form. It is pro¬
bable therefore, that the heat produced in thefe diffo¬
lutions is no other than what exilted before, either in
the acid, or in the metal. But for a full difeuffion of
this fubjeft fee the articles Cold, Congelation, E-
vaporation, Fire, Heat, &c.
DISSONANCE, in mufic. See Discord.
DISSYLLABLE, among grammarians, a word
confiding onlyof two fyllables: fuch are nature, fcience,
&c.
DISTAFF, an inftrument about which f}ax is tied
in order to be fpun.
DIS I'ANCE, in general, an Internal between two
things, either with regard to time or place *.
j^ccejfible Distances, in geometry,-are fuch as may
be meafured by the chain, &c. See Geo,metry.
Inaccejjible Distances, are fuch as cannot be mea¬
fured by the chain, &c. by reafon of fome river, or the
like, &c. which obftru&s our palling from one objedi
to another. See Geometry.
Distance, in allronomy. The diftance of the fun,
planets, and comets, is found only from their parallax,
as it cannot be found either by eclipfes or their differ¬
ent phafes : for from the theory of the motions of the
earth and planets we know, at any time, the propor¬
tion of the diftances of the fun and planets from us ;
and the horizontal parallaxes are in a reciprocal pro¬
portion to thefe diftances. 'See Astaonomy, n° 182.
DISTASTE properly fignifies an averfion or dif-
like to certain foods; and may be either conftitutional,
or owing to fome diforder of the ftomach.
DISTEMPER, among phyficians, the fame with
Disease.
Distemper, in painting, a term ufed for the work¬
ing up of colours with fomething befides water or oil.
If the colours are prepared with water, that kind of
painting is called limning; and if with oil, it is called
painting in oil, and limply painting. If the colours are
mixed with fize, whites of eggs, or any fuch proper
glutinous or undtuous matter, and not with oil, then
they fay it is done in diftemptr.
DISTENSION, in general, fignifies the ft retching
or extending a thing to its full length or breadth.
DISTICH, a couplet of verfes making a com¬
plete fenfe. Thus hexameter and pentameter verfes
are difpofed in diftichs. There arc excellent morals i« Diftichiafis,
Cato’s diftichs. Diaillation’
DISTICHIASIS, in forgery, a difeafe of the eye¬
lids, when under the ordinary eye-lalhes there grows
another extraordinary row of hair, which frequently
eradicates the former, and, pricking the membrane of
the eye, excites pain, and brings on a defluxion.—It is
cured by pulling out the fecond row of hairs with nip¬
pers, and cauterizing the pores out of which they
iffued.
DISTILLATION. See Chemistry, n°75, et fey.
The objedls of diftillation, confidered as a trade di*
Hindi from the other branches of chemiftry, are chiefly
fpirituous liquors, and thofe waters impregnated with
thj effential oils of plants, commonly called fmple di- 1
Jlilkd waters. The diftilling compound fpirits and wa- Difference
ters is reckoned a different branch of bufinefs, and they
who deal in that way are commonly called reflifiers. rtftifiers.
This difference, however, though it exifts among com¬
mercial people, is not at all founded in the nature of
the thing; compound fpirits being made, and Ample
fpirits being redlified, by the very fame operations by
which they are at firft diftilled, or at leaft with very
trifling alterations. 3
The great objedl with every diftiller ought to be, to Spirit per-
procure a fpirit perfedlly flavourlefs, or at leaft as well f£^ly fte-
freed “from any particular flavour as may be ; and in
this country the procuring of fuch a fpirit is no eafy tained.
matter. The only materials for diftillation that have
been ufed in large quantity, are malt and molaffes or
treacle. Both of thefe, efpecially the firft, abound with
an oily matter, which, rifing along w’ith the fpirit, com¬
municates a difagreeable flavour to it, and from which
it can fcarce be freed afterwards by any means whate¬
ver.— Some experiments have been made upon carrots,
as a fubjtdl for the diftillers: but thefe are not as yet
fufficiently decifive; nor is it probable, that a fpirit
drawn from carrots would be at all devoid of flavour,
more than one drawn from malt.—To diflipate the ef¬
fential oil which gives the difagreeable flavour to malt
fpirits, it has been propofed.to infpiffate the wort into
a rob, or thin extradl like a fyrup; afterwards to thin
it with water, and ferment it in the ufual manner. This
certainly promifes great fuccefs; jln^e is no fubjtdl we
know of that is poffeffed of any kind of effential oil, but
what will part with it by diftillation, or by long boil¬
ing. The infpiffating of the wort, however, does not
feem to he either neceffary, or fafe to be attempted;
for, in this cafe, there is great danger of its contradling
an empyreuma, which never could be remedied. The
quantity loft by evaporation, therefore, might beocca-
fionally added, with an equal certainty of diffipating
the obnoxious oil. Whether the yield of fpirit would
be as great in this cafe as in the other, is a queftion
that can by no means be difeuffed without further ex- 3
periments. According to a theory adopted by fome Eflemid
diftillers, namely, that effential oils are convertible into oil by fome
ardent fpirits; and that the more oily any fubjedt is, convertible
the greater quantity of fpirit is obtainable from it; the ;llt0
pradlice of diffipating the oil before fermentation mult
certainly be a lofs. But we are too little acquainted
with the compofition of vinous fpirits, to have any juft
foundation for adopting fuch theories. Befides, it is
certain, that the quantity of ardent fpirit producible
from any fubftance, malt for inftance, very greatly ex¬
ceeds
D I S [ 2492 ] D I S
DtfHttation, ceeds the quantity of efiential oil which can by any
means be obtained from the fame; nor do we find that
thofe fubftances, which abound moft in eflential oil,
yield the greatefi: quantity of fpirits. So far from this,
fine fugar, which contains little or no efiential oil,
4 yields a great deal of ardent fpirit.
Direftions Previous to the operation of diftilling, thofe of
fermenta'^ brewing and fermentation are necefiary ; but as thefe
tion. " are fuby treated of under the article Brewing, we fliall
here only obferve, that unlefs the boiling of the wort,
before fermentation, is found to difiipate the eflential
oil, fo as to take away the flavour of the malt, there is
no necefiity for being at the trouble of that operation.
The wort may be immediately cooled and fermented.
—The fermentation ought always to be carried on as
flowly as pofiible, and performed in veflels clofely flop¬
ped; only having at the bung a valve prefied down by
a fpring, which will yield with lefs force than is fuffi-
cient to burft the vcfiel. It fhould even be fuffered to
remain till ft has become perfedtly fine and tranfparent;
as by this means the fpirit will not only be fuperior in
quantity, but alfo in fragrance, pungency, and vinofity,
5 to that commonly produced.
Fordifnlla- with regard to performingthe operation of diftilling,
there is only one general rule that can be given ; namely,
to let the heat, in all cafes, be as gentle as pofiible. Ac¬
cidents will be effeftually prevented by having the
worm of a proper widenefs, and by re&ifying the fpi¬
rits in a water-bath ; which, if fufficiently large, will
perform the operation with all the difpatch requifite
for the moft extenfive bufinefs.—The vefiel in which
the re&ification is performed, ought to be covered with
water up to the neck, and to be loaded with lead at
the bottom, fo that it may fink in the water. Thus
the operation will go on as quickly as if it was on an
open lire, and without the lead danger of a mifcarriage;
nor will it ever be neceffary to make the water in the
6 bath come to a boiling heat.
For redtifi- J\6 the end of rectification is to make the fpirit c/ean
canon. aS we]| as flrong, or to deprive it of the eflential oil as
well as the aqueous part, it will be proper to have re¬
gard to this even in the firft diftillation. For this pur-
pofe, the fpirit, as it firft comes over, fhould be re¬
ceived into a quantity of cold water; as by this means
the conneftion betwixt it and the oily matter will be
confiderably lefiened. For the fame reafon, after it
has been once re&ified in the water-bath, it Ihould be
again mixed with an equal quantity of water, and di-
ftilled a fecond time. Thus the fpirit will be freed from
moft of the oily matter, even though it hath been very
much impregnated with it at firft. It is neceffary to
obferve, however, that by ufing fuch a quantity of wa¬
ter, a confiderable part of the fpirit will be left in the
reliduum of each rectification. All thefe refiduums,
therefore, muft be mixed together, and diftilled on an
open fire, with a brifk heat, that the remainder of the
fpirit may be got out.
After the fpirit has been diftilled once or twice in
this manner from water, it may be diftilled in a water-
bath without any addition ; and this laft rectification
will free it from moft of the water it contains. But if
■it is required to be highly dephlegmated, a quantity of
pure and dry fait of tartar muft be added. The at¬
traction betwixt this fait and water is greater than that
betwixt water and fpirit of wine. The fait therefore
imbibes the water contained in the fpirit, and finks DiftilUt'u
with it to the bottom. The fpirit, by a fingle diftil-  —
lation, may then be rendered perfectly free from water;
but there is great danger of fome of the alkaline fait
rifing along with it, and impregnating it with what is
called an urinous flavour. When this once happens, it is ,
impofiible to be remedied; and the only way to prevent
it, is to make the heat with which the fpirit is diftilled
as gentle as pofiible.—It hath been propofed, indeed,
to prevent the rifing of any thing alkaline, by the ad¬
mixture of fome calcined vitriol, fal catharticus amarus,
or other imperfed neutral fait; but this can fcarce be
fuppofed to anfwer any good purpofe, as the alkali u-
nites itfelf with the oily matter of the fpirit, and forms
a kind of faponaceous compound, which is not fo eafily
affeCled by the acid of the Eitriol or other fait, efpe-
cially as thefe falls will not diflblve in the fpirit it-
fe!f. v _ 7 I
One very great defideratum among the diflillers of Of imiu-
this country, is a method of imitating the foreign fpt* tin^forei,
rits, brandy, rum, gin, &c. to a tolerable degree of s* ;
perfection ; and notwith(landing the many attempts
that are daily made for this purpofe, the fuccefs in ge¬
neral hath been but very indifferent. On this fubjeCt,
Mr Cooper hath the following obfervations, in his
“ Complete Syftem of Diftillation ;” which, as they
are applicable to all other fpirits as well as brandy, we 8
ftiall here tranferibe.—“ The general method of diftil- Method 0
ling brandies in France need not be formally deferibed, making
as it differs in nothing from that praCtifed here in brandies iri
working from malt-wa(h, or molaffes; nor are they in ^r*nce• 1
the lead more cleanly or exaCt in the operation. They
only obferve more particularly to throw in a little of
the natural ley into the ftill along with the wine, as
finding this gives their fpirit the flavour for which it is
generally admired abroad.—But, though brandy is ex¬
tracted from wine, experience tells us that there is a !
great difference in the grapes from which the wine is
made. Every foil, every climate, every kind of grapes,
varies with regard to the quantity and quality of the
fpirits extracted from them. There are fome grapes
which are only fit for eating; others for drying, as
thofe of Damafcus, Corinth, Provence, and Avignon,
but not fit to make wine.—Some wines are very pro¬
per for diftillation, and others much lefs fo. The
wines of Languedoc and Provence afford a great deal
of brandy by diftillation, when the operation is per¬
formed on them in their full ftrength. The Orleans
wines, and thofe of Blois, afford yet more: but the
belt are thofe of the territories of Cogniac and An-
daye; which are, however, in the number of thofe the
lead drunk in France. . Whereas thofe of Burgundy
and Champagne, though of a very fine flavour, are im¬
proper, becaufe they yield but very little in diftilla¬
tion.
“ It muft alfo be farther obferved, that all the wines
for diftillation, as thofe of Spain, the Canaries, of Ali-
cant, of Cyprus, of St Peres, of Toquet, of Grave, of
Hungary, and others of the fame kind, yield very little
brandy by diftillation; and confequently would coft the
diftiller confiderably more than he could fell it for.
What is drawn from them is indeed very good, always
retaining the faccharine quality and rich flavour of the
wine from whence it is drawn ; but' as it grows old,
this flavour often becomes aromatic, and is not agree-
D I S [ 2493 ] D I S
& filiation, able to all palates.
JJ • “ Hence we fee that brandies always differ accord¬
ing as they are extracted from different fpecies of
It • grapes. Nor would there be fo great a fimilarity as
there is between the different kinds of French bran-
' dies, were the flrongeft wines ufed for this purpofe:
but this is rarely the cafe; the weakefl and loweil fla¬
voured wines only are diftilled for their fpirit, or fuch
ias prove abfolutely unfit for any other ufe.
“ A large quantity of brandy is diftilled in France
during the time of tire vintage; for all thofe poor
grapes that prove unfit for wine, are ufually firft ga¬
thered, preffed, their juice fermented, and dire&ly di¬
ftilled. This rids their hands of their poor wines at
once, and' leaves their cafks empty for the reception of
better. It is a general rule with them not to diftil
wine that will fetch any price as wine; for, in this ftate,
the profits upon them are vaftly greater than when re¬
duced to brandies. This large ftock of fmall wines,
with which they are almoft over-run in France, fufli-
ciently accounts for their making fuch vaft quantities
of brandy in that country, more than in others which
lie in warmer climates and are much better adapted to
the produ&ion of grapes.—Nor is this the only fund
of their brandies : for all the wine that turns eager, is
alfo condemned to the ftill; and, in fhort, all that they
can neither export nor confume at home, which amounts
to a large quantity; fince much of the wine laid in for
their family provifion is fo poor as not to keep during
the time of fpending.
9 “ Hence many of our Englilh fpirits, with proper
Sowbrandy managcmcnt, are convertible into brandies that Ihall
"ted in'this hardly be diftinguilhed from the foreign in many re-
:oimtry. fpefts, provided the operation be neatly performed.
“ The common method of redfifying fpirits from
alkaline falls, deftroys their vinofity, and in its ftead
introduces an urinous or lixivious tafte. But as it is
abfolutely neceflary to reftore, or at leaft to fubftitute
in its room, fome degree of vinofity, feveral methods
have been propofed, and a multitude of experiments
performed, in order to difcover this great defideratum.
But none has fucceeded equal to the fpirit of nitre;
and accordingly this fpirit, either ftrong or dulcified,
has been ufed by moft diftfilers to give an agreeable
vinofity to their fpirits. Several difficulties, however,
occur in the method of ufing it; the principal of which
is, its being apt to quit the liquor in a (hort time, and
confequently depriving the liquor of that vinofity it
was intended to give. In order to remove this diffi¬
culty, and prevent the vinofity from quitting the goods,
the dulcified fpirit of nitre, which is much better than
the ftrong fpirit, ftiould be prepared by a previous di-
geftion, continued for fome time, with alcohol; the
longer the digeftion is continued, the more intimately
will they be blended, and the compound rendered the
milder and fofter.
“ After a proper digeftion, the dulcified fpirit ftiould
be mixed with the brandy, by which the vinofity will
be intimately blended with the goods, and not difpofed
to fly off for a very confiderable time.—No general
rule, can be given for the quantity of this mineral acid
requifite to be employed; becaufe different proportions
of it are neceffary in different fpirits. It Ihould, how¬
ever, be carefully attended to, that though a final]
quantity of it will undoubtedly give an agreeable vino-
Von. IV.
fity refembling that naturally found in the fine fubtile Diftillatfon.
fpirits drawn from wines, yet an over large dofe of it
will not only caufe a difagreeable flavour, but alfo ren¬
der the whole defign abortive, ky difcovering the im-
pofition. Thofe, therefore, who endeavour to cover a
foul tafte in goods by large dofes of dulcified fpirit of
nitre, will find themfelves deceived.
“ But the beft, and indeed the only method of imi¬
tating French brandies to perfeftion, is by an effential
oil of wine ; this being the very thing that gives the
French brandies their flavour. It muft, however, be
remembered, that, in order to ufe even this ingredient
to advantage, a pure, taftelefs fpirit muft firft be pro¬
cured ; for it is ridiculous to expeA that this effential
oil fhould be able to give the agreeable flavour of
French brandies to our fulfome malt fpirit, already
loaded with its own naufeous oil, or ftrongly impreg¬
nated with a lixivious tafte from the alkaline falls ufed
in re&ification. How a pure infipid fpirit may be ob¬
tained, has already been confidered; it only therefore
remains to fliew the method of procuring this effential
oil of wine, which is this:
“ Take fome cakes of dry wine-lees, fuch as are
ufed by our hatters, diffolve them in fix or eight times
their weight of water, diftil the liquor with a flow fire,
and feparate the oil with a feparating glafs; referving
for the niceft ufes only that which comes over firft, the
fucceeding oil being coarfer and more refinous.—Ha¬
ving procured this fine oil of wine, it may be mixed
into a quinteffence with pure alcohol; by which means
it may be preferved a long time fully poffeffed of all its
flavour and virtues ; but, without fuch management, it
will foon grow refinous and rancid.
“ When a fine effential oil of wine is thus procured,
and alfo a pure and infipid fpirit, French brandies may
be imitated to perfection, with regard to the flavour.
It muft however be remembered, and carefully ad¬
verted to, that the effential oil be drawn from the fame
kind of lees as the brandy to be imitated was procured
from; we mean, in order to imitate Coniac brandy, it
will be neceffary to diftil the effential oil from Coniac
lees; and the fame for any other kind of brandy. For,
as different brandies have different flavours, and as
thefe flavours are entirely owing to the effential oil of
the grape, it would be prepofterous to endeavour to
imitate the flavour of Coniac brandy with an effential
oil procured from the lees of Bourdeaux wine.—When
the flavour of the brandy is well imitated by a proper
dofe of the effential oil, and the whole reduced into one
Ample and homogeneous fluid, other difficulties are ftill
behind: The flavour, though the effential part, is not,
however, the only one; the colour, the proof, and the
foftnefs, muft alfo be regarded, before a fpirit that per¬
fectly refembles brandy can be procured. With re¬
gard to the proof, it may be eafily hit, by ufing a fpi¬
rit rectified above proof; which, after being intimately
mixed with the effential oil of wine, may be let down
to a proper ftandard with fair water. And the foft¬
nefs may, in a great meafure, be obtained by diftilling
and rectifying the fpirit with a gentle fire; and what
is wanting of this criterion in the liquor when firft
made, will be fupplied by time: for it muft be remem¬
bered, that it is time alone that gives this property to
French brandies; they being at firft acrid, foul, and
fiery. But, with regard to the colour, a particular
14 N method
D I S
[
Diftiilation. method is required to imitate it to perfe&ion,
“    “ The art of colouring fprits owes its rife to obfer-
Spirits how vations on foreign brandies. A piece of French brandy
coloured. that has acquired by age a great degree of foftnefs and
ripenefs, is obferved, at the fame time, to have acqui¬
red a yellowiflr brown colour; and hence our diftillers
have endeavoured te> imitate this colour in fuch fpirits as
are intended to pafs for French brandy. And in order
to this, a great variety of experiments have been made
on different fubftances. But in order to know a direft
and fure method of imitating this colour to perfection,
it is neceffary we fhould be informed whence the French
brandies themfelves acquire their colour. This difco-
very is very eafily made. The common experiment of
trying whether brandy will turn blackifh with a folii-
2494 ] D I S
French brandy; but neither of them will'fucceed when Duliilatli
put to the left of the vitriolic folution.
“ The fpirit diddled from molaffes or treacle is very
clean or pure. It is made from common treacle dif-
folved in water, and fermented in the fame manner as
the wafh for the common malt fpirit. But if fome par¬
ticular art is not ufed in diftilling' this fpirit, it will
not prove fo vinous as malt fpirit, but more flat and
lefs pungent and acid, though otherwife much cleaner
tafted, as its effential oil is of a much lefs offenfive fla¬
vour. Therefore, if good frefll wine lees, abounding
in tartar, be added and duly fermented with the mo-
lafies, the fpirit will acquire a much greater vinofity
and brifknefs, and approach much nearer to the nature
of foreign fpirits. Where the molaffes fpirit is brought
tion of iron, fhews that the colour is owing to fome of to the common proof-ftrength, if it is found not to have
the refinous matter of the oak-caflt diffolved in the fpi
rit. There can be no difficulty, therefore, in imitating
this colour to perfection. A fmall quantity of the ex¬
tract of oak, or the (havings of that wood, properly
digefted, will furniflr us with a tinCture capable of gi¬
ving the fpirit any degree of colour required. But it
mult be remembered, that as the tinCture is extracted
from the calk by brandy, that is, alcohol and water,
it is necefiary to ufe both in extracting the tinCture; for
each of thefe diflblves different parts of the wood. Let,
therefore, a fufficient quantity of oak (havings be digeft¬
ed in ftrong fpirit of wine, and alfo at the fan>e time
other oak (havings be digefted in water; and when the
liquors have acquired a ftrong tinCture from the oak,
let both be poured off from the (havings into different
veflels, and both placed over a gentle fire till reduced
to the confidence of treacle. In this condition let the
two extradls be intimately mixed together; which may
be effectually done by adding a fmall quantity of loaf-
fugar, in fine powder, and rubbing the whole well to¬
gether. By this means a liquid effential extraCt of oak
will be procured, and always ready to be ufed as oc-
cafion (hall require.
w There are other methods in ufe for cologring
brandies; but the belt, befides the extraCt of oak a-
bove-mentioned, are treacle and burnt fugar. The
treacle gives the fpirits a fine colour, nearly refem-
bling that of French brandy; but as its colour is but
dilute, a large quantity muft be ufed: this is not, how¬
ever, attended with any bad confequences ; for not-
withftanding the fpir.it is really weakened by this ad¬
dition, yet the bubble proof, the general criterion of
fpirits, is greatly mended by the tenacity imparted to
the liquor by the treacle. The fpirit alfo acquires from
the mixture a fweetifh or lufcious tafte, and a fullnefs
in the mouth; both which properties render it very
agreeable to the palates of the common people, who
are, in faCt, the principal confumers of thefe fpirits. A
much fmaller quantity of burnt fugar . than of treacle
_:n 1 r..cc- . r .• <-
a fufficient vinofity, it will be very proper to add fome
good dulcified fpirit of nitre; and if the fpirit be clean
worked, it may, by this addition only, be made to pafs
on ordinary judges for French brandy. Great quanti¬
ties of this fpirit are ufed in adulterating foreign bran¬
dy, rum, and arrack. Much of it is alfo ufed alone in
making cherry-brandy, and other drams by infufion ;
in all which many, and perhaps with juftice, prefer it
to foreign brandies. Molafles, like all other fpirits, is
entirely colourlefs when firft extracted ; but diftillers
always give it as nearly as poffible the colour of fo¬
reign fpirits.” j, i
if thefe principles hold good, the imitation of fo- Rum ho
reign fpirits of all kinds muft be an eafy matter. It *rn’tated,
will only coft the procuring of fome of thofe fubftances
from which the fpirit is drawn; and diftilling this with
water, the eflential oil will always give the flavour de-
fired. Thus, to imitate Jamaica rum, it will only be
neceflary to procure fome of the tops, or other ufelefs
parts, of the fngar-canes; from which an efiential oil
being drawn, and mixed with clean molafies fpirit, will
give it the true flavour. The principal difficulty muft
lie in procuring a fpirit totally, or nearly, free of all
flavour of its own. The fpirit drawn from the refufe
of a fugar-houfe is by our author commended as fupe-
rior to that drawn from molafles: though even this is
not entirely devoid of fome kind of flavour of its own;
nor indeed is that drawn from the beft refined fugar
entirely flavourlefs. It is very probable, therefore, that
to procure an abfolutely flavourlefs fpirit is impoflible.
The only method, therefore, of imitating foreign fpirits.
is by choofing fuch materials as will yield a fpirit fla- «
voured as much like them as poflible. The materials mod p •/-5t I ‘
recommended by our author in this cafe, and probably beft mate- !
the beft that can be ufed, are raifins. Concerning thefe rial forpro-i
he gives the following direClions. “ In order to ex- curing
traCt this fpirit, the raifins muft be infufed in a proper Pure fPidt5;|
quantity of water, and fermented in the manner al¬
ready directed. When the fermentation is completed,
tllP wVinlp IQ t Kp t Vi rrwxm Inf/'v ♦ V, ^ a.1 
i.1!. ^ Sufficient for colouring the fame quantity of the whole is to be thrown into the dill, and the fpirft
nnts : the tafte is alfo very different: for inftead of extracted hv a ftrnnrr fire 'Tt.e — ...1.   1. 
fpirits : the tafte is alfo very different; for inftead of
the fweetnefs imparted by the treacle, the fpirit ac¬
quires from the burnt fugar an agreeable bitternefs,
and by that means recommends itfelf to nicer palates,
which are offended with a lufcious fpirit. The burnt
fugr_ -•  1 . — • - -
extraded by a ftrong fire. The reafon why we here
dired a ftrong fire is, becaufe by that means a greater
quantity of the effential oil will come over the helm
with the fpirit, which will render it fitter for the di-
ftiller s purpofe: for this fpirit is commonly ufed to
. . » . -    1— t—— • ipini. 13 cumiiiomy uieu 10
iugar u prepared by d.ffolving a proper quantity of mix with common malt goods ; and it is furnrifme
SRTa, 5 ITt T fC°;?ing 11 T ,hue firC l,0W f,r k "i" 8° in thi! "fPra’ <» gallon. ofPhS
till it acquires a black colour. Either treacle or burnt ino- nftpn i  a j
t acquires a black colour. Either treacle or burnt
fugar will nearly imitate the genuine colour of old
ing often fufficient to give a determining flavour and
agreeable vinofity to a whole piece of malt fpirits. It
D I S [ 2495 ] D I S
f P*ion. is therefore well worth the diftillerV while to endea-
j vour at improving the common method of extradiing
fpirits from raifins; and perhaps the following hint
I may merit attention. When the fermentation is com¬
pleted, and the ftill charged with fermented liquor as
above dire&ed, let the whole be drawn off with as
bride a fire as poffible; but, inftead of the calk or can
generally ufed by diltillers for a receiver, let a large
glafs, called by chemifts a feparating glafs, be placed
under the nofe of the worm, and a common receiver
applied to the fpout of the feparating glafs : by this
means the effential oil will fwim upon the top of the
fpirit, or rather low-wine, in the feparating glafs, and
may be eafdy preferred at the end of the operation.
The ufe of this limpid efiential oil is well known to di-
ftillers; for in this refides the whole flavour, and con-
fequently may be ufed to the greateft advantage in gi¬
ving that diftinguilhing tafle and true vinofity to the
common malt fpirits. After the oil is feparated from
the low-wine, the liquor may be rectified in balneo
mariae into a pure and almoft taftelefs fpirit, and there¬
fore well adapted to make the fined compound cor¬
dials, or to imitate or mix with the fined French bran¬
dies, arracks, &c. In the fame manner a fpirit may be
obtained from cyder. But as its particular flavour is
not fo definable as that obtained from raifins, it Ihould
be diddled in a more gentle manner, and carefully rec¬
tified according to the direftions we have already gi-
,3 ven.”
jjreitjons Thefe dire&ions may fuffice for the diflillation of
ordiltilling any k;n£j Gf f]mp]e fpiHts. The diflillation of com-
pirits°Un Pound ones depends on the obfervation of the follow-
ing general rules, which are very eafy to be learned
and praftifed.
1. The artid mud always be careful to ufe a well
cleanfed fpirit, or one freed from its own efiential oil.
For, as a compound water is nothing more than a fpi¬
rit impregnated with the efiential oil of the ingredients,
it is neceflary that the fpirit fliould have depofited its
own.
2. Let the time of previous digedion be proportion¬
ed to the tenacity of the ingredients, or the pondero-
fity of their oil.
3. Let the Arength of the fire alfo be proportioned
to the ponderofity of the oil intended to be raifed with
the fpirit.
4. Let only a due proportion of the fined parts of
the eflential oil be united with the fpirit; the grofier
and lefs fragrant parts of the oil not giving the fpirit
fo agreeable a flavour, and at the fame time rendering,
it unfightly. This may in a great meafure be effe&ed
by leaving out the faints, and making up to proof with
fine foft water in their dead.
A careful obfervation of thefe four rules will render
this part of didillation much more perfect than it is at
prefent. Nor will there be any occafion for thtf ufe of
burnt alum, white of eggs, ifinglafs, &c. to fine down
cordial waters; for they will prefently be fine, fweet
and pleafant tafled, without any further trouble. We
fhall now fubjoin particular receipts for making fome
of thofe compound waters, or fpirits, that are mod
commonly to be met with, and are in the mod general
Receiptsfor edimation.
anumberof Strong Cinnamon-water. Take eight pounds of fine
compound cinnamon bruifed, 17 gallons of clean re&ified fpirit,
and two gallons of water. Put them into your dill, Diflillathm,
and diged them 24 hours with a gentle heat ; after
which draw off 16 gallons with a pretty firong heat.—-
A cheaper fpirit, but of an inferior quality, may be
obtained, by uling cafiia lignea indead of cinnamon.
If you would dulcify your cinnamon water, take double-
refined firgar in w'hat quantity you pleafe ; the general
proportion is about two pounds to a gallon; and dif-
folve it in the fpirit, after you have made it up proof
wu'th clean w’ater. One general caution is here necef-
fary to be added ; namely, that near the end of the
operation, you carefully watch the fpirit as it runs into
the receiver, in order to prevent the faints from mix¬
ing with the goods. This you may difeover by often
catching fome of it as if runs from the worm in a glafs,
and obferving whether it is fine and tranfparent; for
as foon as ever the faints begin to rife, the fpirit will
have an azure or bluifh cad. As foon as this altera¬
tion in colour is perceived, the receiver mud be imme¬
diately changed ; for if the faints are differed to mix
themfelves with the red, the value of the goods will
be greatly leflened.—Here we may obferve, that the
didillers call fuch goods as are made up proof, double
goods ; and thofe below proof, Jingle.
Clove-water. Take of cloves bruifed, four pounds;
pimento, or all-fpice, half a pound ; proof fpirit, 16
gallons. Diged the mixture 12 hours in a gentle heat,
and then draw off 15 gallons with a pretty briik fire.
The water may be coloured red, either by a drong
tin&ure of cochineal, alkanet, or corn-poppy flowers.
It may be dulcified at pleafure with double-refined
fugar.
Lemon-water. Take of dried lemon-peel, four
pounds ; clean proof fpirit 10 gallons and a half, and
one gallon of water. Draw off 10 gallons by a gentle
fire, and dulcify with fine fugar.
Citron-water. Take of dry yellow rhinds of citrons,
three pounds ; of orange-peel, two pounds ; nutmegs
bruifed, three quarters of a pound ; clean proof-fpirit,
ten gallons and a half; water, one gallon : diged with
a gentle heat; then draw off ten gallons in balneo ma¬
riae, and dulcify with fine fugar.
Anifeed-water. Take of anifeed bruifed, two pounds;
proof-fpirit, 12 gallons and a half; water, one gallon :
draw off ten gallons with a moderate fire.—This wa¬
ter Ihould never be reduced below proof; becaufe the
large quantity of oil with which it is impregnated,
will render the goods milky and foul when brought
down below proof. But if there is a necellity for do¬
ing this, their tranfparcncy may be redoredby filtration.
Orange-water. Take of the yellow part of freffi
orange-peels, five pounds; clean proof-fpirit, ten gallons
and a half; water, two gallons: draw off ten gallons
with a gentle fire.
Cedrat-water. The cedrat is a fpecies of citron,
and very highly edeemed in Italy where it grows na¬
turally. The fruit is difficult to be procured in this
country; but as the effential oil is often imported from
Italy, it may be made with it according to the fol¬
lowing receipt.—Take of the fined loaf-fugar reduced
to powder, a quarter of a pound ; put it into a glafs
mortar, with 120 drops of the effence of cedrat; rub
them together with a glafs peflle ; and put them into
a glafs alembic, with a gallon of fine proof-fpirits and
a quart of water. Place the alembic in balneo mariae,
14 N 2 and
Diftillation*
D I S [ 2496 ] D I S
Diftillation. and draw off one gallon, or till the faints begin to rife;
' and dulcify with fine fugar. This is reckoned the fineft
cordial yet known ; it will therefore be neceffary to be
particularly careful that the fpirit is perfe^ly clean,
and, as much as poflible, freed from any flavour of its
own.
Orange Cordial-'water, or Eau de Bigarade. Take
the outer or yellow part of the peels of 14 bigarades,
(a kind of oranges) ; half an ounce of nutmegs, a
quarter of an ounce of mace, a gallon of fine proof-
fpirit, and two quarts of water. Digeft all thefe to¬
gether two days in a clofe veffel; after which draw off
a gallon with a gentle fire, and dulcify with fine fugar.
' This cordial is greatly efteemed abroad, but is not fo
well known in this country.
Ro-s Solis. Take of the herb called Ros Solis, picked
clean, four pounds; cinnamon, cloves, and nutmegs,
of each three ounces and a half; marigold-flowers, one
pound ; caraway-feeds, ten ounces; proof-fpirit, ten
aliens ; water, three gallons. Diftill with a pretty
rong fire, till the faints begin to rife. Then take of
liquorice-root fliced, half a pound ; raifins ftoned, two
pounds; red faunders, half a pound : digeft thefe three
days in two quarts of water; then ftrain out the clear
liquor, in which diffolve three pounds of fine fugar,
and mix it with the fpirit drawn by diftillation.
Ufquebaugh. Take of nutmegs, cloves, and cinna¬
mon, of each two ounces; of the feeds of anife, cara¬
way, and coriander, of each four ounces; liquorice-
root fliced, half a pound. Bruife the feeds and fpices;
and put them, together with the liquorice, into the ftill
with 11 gallons of proof-fpirits, and two gallons of
water. Diftil with a pretty brilk fire till the faints
begin to rife. But, as foon as the ftill begins to work,
fatten to the nofe of the worm two ounces of Englifti
faffron tied up in a cloth, that the liquor may run thro’
it, and extra<ft all its tin&ure; and in order to this,
you ftiould frequently prefs the faffron with your fingers.
When the operation is finifhed, dulcify your goods
with fine fugar.
Ratafia. Is a liquor prepared from different kinds
of fruits, and is of different colours according to the
fruits made ufe of. Of red ratafia there are three kinds,
the fine, the dry or fharp, and the common. The
fruits moft proper for making red ratafia, are the black
heart-cherry, the common red cherry, the black cherry,
the mery or honey cherry, the ftrawberry, the rafberry,
the red goofeberry, and the mulberry. Thefe fruits
ftiould be gathered when in their greateft perfe&ion, and
the largeft and moft beautiful of them chofen for the pur-
pofe.—The following is a receipt for making red ratafia,
fineandfoft. Take of the black heart-cherries 24pounds;
black cherries, four pounds; rafberries andftrawberries,
of each three pounds. Pick the fruits from their ftalks,
and bruife them ; in which ftate let them continue 12
hours : prefs out the juice ; and to every pint of it add
a quarter of a pound of fugar. When the fugar is
diffolved, run the whole through the filtrating bagf,
and add to it three quarts of clean proof-fpirits. Then
take of cinnamon, four ounces ; of mace, an ounce ; and
of cloves, two drams. Bruife thefe fpices; put them
into an alembic with a gallon of clean proof-fpirits and
two quarts of water, and draw off a gallon with a briflc
fire* Add as much of this fpicy fpirit to your ratafia
as will render it agreeable to your palate ; about one
fourth is the ufual proportion.
Ratafia made according to the above receipt will be
of a very rich flavour and elegant colour. It may be
rendered more or lefs of a fpicy flavour, by adding or
diminiihing the quantity of fpirit diftilled from the
fpices.—Some, in making ratafia, fuffer the expreffed
juices of their fruits to ferment feveral days: by this
means the vinofity of the ratafia is increaled ; but, at
the fame time, the elegant flavour of the fruits is greatly
diminilhed. Therefore, if the ratafia is defired ftronger
or more vinous, it maybe done by adding more fpirits
to the expreffed juice; by which means the flavour of
the fruits may be preferred, as well as the ratafia ren¬
dered ftronger. It is alfo a method with fome to tie
the fpices in a linen bag, and fufpend them in the ra¬
tafia. But if this method is taken, it will be necef¬
fary to augment the quantity of fpirit firft added to
the exprefled juice. There is no great difference in
the two methods of adding the fpices, except that by
fufpending them in the ratafia the liquor is rendered
lefs tranfparent.
Dry or fharp Ratafia. Take cherries .and goofe-
berries, of each 30 pounds ; mulberries, feven pounds;
rafberries, ten pounds. Pick all thefe fruits clean from
their ftalks, &c. bruife them, and let them ftand 12
hours ; but do not fuffer them to ferment. Prefs put
the juice, and to every pint add three ounces of fugar.
When the fugar is diffolved, run it through the filtra¬
ting bag, and to every five pints of liquor, add four
pints of clean proof-fpirit; together with the fame pro¬
portion of fpirit drawn from the fpices in the foregoing
compofition.
Common Ratafia. Take of nutmegs, eight ounces;
bitter almonds, ten pounds; Liibon fugar, eight pounds;
ambergreafe, ten grains : infufe thefe ingredients three
days in ten gallons of clean proof-fpirit, and filter thro’
a flanel bag for ufe. The nutmegs and bitter almonds
muft be bruifed, and the ambergreafe rubbed with the
Liibon fugar in a marble mortar, before they are in-
fufed in the fpirit.
Gold Cordial. Take of the roots of angelica, four
pounds; raifins ftoned, two pounds; coriander-feeds,
half a pound; caraway-feeds and cinnamon, of each
half a pound ; cloves, two ounces; figs and liquorice-
root, of each one pound; proof fpirit, eleven gallons;
water, two gallons. The angelica, liquorice, and figs,
muft be fliced before they are added. Digeft two
days; and draw off by a gentle heat till the faints be¬
gin to rife; hanging in a piece of linen, faftened to the
mouth of the worm, an ounce of Englilh faffron. Then
diffolve eight pounds of fugar in three quarts of rofe-
water, and add to it the diftilled liquor.—This liquor
derives its name of Gold Cordial, from a quantity of
leaf-gold being formerly added to it; but this is now
generally difufed, as it cannot poffibly add any virtue.
Cardamum, or All-fours. Take of pimento, cara¬
way, and coriander feeds, and lemon-peel, each three
pounds; of malt fpirits, eleven gallons; water, three
gallons. Draw off with a gentle fire, dulcify with
common fugar, and make up to the ftrength defired
with clear water.—This is a dram greatly ufed by the
poorer fort of people in fome counties.
Geneva. There was formerly fold in the apotheca¬
ries ftiops a diftilled fpirituous water of juniper; but
the vulgar being fond of it as a dram, the diftillers fup-
planted
D I S [ 2497 ] D I S
Dlftinft planted the apothecaries, and fold it under the name of
II Geneva. The common kind, however, is not made
Diftortion. frotn juniper-berries, but from oil of turpentine; and
indeed it is furprifing, that people thould accuilom
themfelves to drink fuch liquors for pleafure.—The
receipt for making this kind pf fpirit, fold in the gin-
fhops at London, is as follows. Take of the ordinary
malt fpirits, ten gallons; oil of turpentine, two ounces ;
bay-fait, three handfuls: Draw off by a gentle fire till
the faints begin to rife ; and make up your goods to
the ftrength required with clear water.
The belt kind is made by the following recipe.—
Take of juniper-berries, three pounds ; proof-fpirit,
ten gallons ; water, four gallons: Draw oihby a gentle
fire till the faints begin to rife, and make up your goods
to the ftrength required with clean water.
There is a fort of this liquor called Hollands Geneva,
from its being imported from Holland, which is greatly
efteemed.—The ingredients ufed by the Dutch, are the
fame with thofe given in the laft recipe; only, inftead
of malt-fpirits, they ufe French brandy. But from
what has been already obferved concerning the nature
of thefe kinds of fpirits, it is eafy to fee, that by the.
help of a well re&ified fpirit, geneva may be made in
in this country at lead nearly equal to the Dutch, pro¬
vided it is kept to a proper age; for all fpirituous li¬
quors contradi a foftnefs and mellownefs by age, im-
polfible to be imitated any other way.
DISTINCT small-pox. See (the Index fubjoined
to) Medicine.
DISTINCTION, in logic, is an aflemblage of two
or more words, whereby difparate things, or their con¬
ceptions, are denoted.
DISTORTION, in medicine, is when any part of
the human body remarkably deviates from its natural
fiiape or pofition. Dillortions of different parts may
arife either from a convulfion orpalfy; though fome-
times a terrible diftortion in the fhape of the whole
body hath arifen merely from carelefsnefs and ill ha¬
bits. Mr Window, in the Memoirs of the Academy
of Sciences at Paris, gives a very remarkable account
of a lady of quality, whom he had known to be per¬
fectly llraight for feveral years; but who taking after¬
wards to a fedentary courfe of life, got a cultom of
dreffing herfelf very carelefsly, and of leaning as fhe
fat, either forwards, or to a fide. It was not many
months before fhe found it painful and troublefome to
ftand or fit upright; and foon afterwards fhe found an
inequality in the lower part of the back-bone. Alarm¬
ed at this, flie confulted the gentleman who gave the
account. To prevent the increafe of the malady, he
ordered her to wear a particular fort of jumps inftead
of flays, and had a pad of a proper fize applied: but
this was foon negledted; and the confequence was, that
in a little time the back-bone became more and more
crooked, and at length bent itfelf fidewife in two con¬
trary diredtions, fo as to reprefent the figure of the
Roman S; and the lady, ftill refufing to take the pro¬
per meafures, loft a fourth part of her height; and
continued for the remainder of her life, not only
crooked from right to left, and from left to right, but
fo oddly folded together, that the firft of the falfe ribs
on one fide, approached very near the creft of the os
ilium on that fide, and the vifcera of the lower belly
became ftrangely pufhed out of their regular places to
the oppofite fide ; and the ftomach itfelf was fo firong- Dirtrefs
ly compreffed, that whatever fhe fwallowed feemed to II
her to fall into two feparate cavities. Pi ringas.
DISTRESS, in law, the feizing or diftraining any
thing for rent in arrear, or other duty unperformed.
The effedl of this diftrefs is to compel the party ei¬
ther to replevy the things diftrained, and conteft the
taking, in an adlion of trefpafs againft the diftrainer ;
or rather to oblige him to compound and pay the debt
or duty for which he was fo diftrained.
There are likewife compulfory diftrefles in adlions,
to caufe a perfon appear in court; of which kind there
is a diftrefs perfonal of one’s moveable goods, and-the
profits of his lands, for contempt in not appearing.after
fummons : there is likewife diftrefs real, of a perfon’s
immoveable goods. In thefe cafes none fhall be di¬
ftrained to anfwer for any thing touching their free¬
holds, but by the king’s writ.
Diftrefs may be either finite or infinite. Finite di¬
ftrefs is that which is limited by law, in regard to the
number of times it fhall be made, in order to bring the
party to a trial of the adlion. Infinite diftrefs is that
which is without any limitation, being made till the
perfon appears: it is farther applied to jurors that do
not appear; as, upon a certificate of affife, the procefs
is venire facias, habeas corpora, and diftrefs infinite.
It is alfo divided into grand diftrefs, and ordinary
diftrefs: of thefe the former extends to all the goods
and chattels that the party has within the county. A
perfon, of common right, may diftrain for rents and all
manner of fervices; and where a rent is referved on a
ift in tail, leafe for life, or years, &c. though there
e no claufe of diftrefs in the grant or leafe, fo as that
he has the reverfion: but on a feoffment made in fee,
a diftrefs may not be taken, unlefs it be exprefsly re¬
ferved in the deed.
DISTRIBUTION, in a general fenfe, the a£t of
dividing a thing into feveral parts, in order to the dif-
pofing each in its proper place.
Distribution, in archite&ure, the dividing and
difpofing the feveral parts and pieces which compofe
a building, as the plan diredls. See Architec¬
ture.
Distribution, in rhetoric, a kind of defcription,
whereby an orderly divifion and enumeration is made
of the principal qualities of the fubjeiil. David fup-
plies us with an example of this kind, when, in the heat
of his indignation againft finners, he gives a defcrip¬
tion of their iniquity: “ Their throat is an open fe-
pukhre; they flatter with their tongues; the poifon
of afps is under their lips; their mouth is full of cur-
fing and lies ; and their feet are fwift to Hied blood.”
Distribution, in printing, the taking a form afun-
der, feparating the letters, and difpofing them in the
cafes again, each in its proper cell. See Printing.
DISTRICT, in geography, a part of a province,
diftinguifhed by peculiar magiftrates, or certain privi¬
leges ; in which fenfe it is fynonymous with hundred.
See Hundred.
DISTRINGAS, in law, a writ commanding the
Iheriff, or other officer, that he diftrain a perfon for
debt to the king, &c. or for his appearance at a cer¬
tain day.
Distringas Juratores, a writ directed to the fhe-
riff, whereby he is commanded to diftrain upon a jury
ta
BIT [ 5498 ] D I V
Uiich to appear, and to return iffues on tbeir lands, &c. for
non-appearance. This writ of diftringas juratores if-
diil C~ ^ll€S ^or t0 ^ave their bodies in court, &c. at
 the return of the writ.
DITCH, a common fence or inclofure in marfhes, or
other wet land where there are no hedges. They al¬
low thefe ditches fix feet wide againft highways that
are broad; and againft commons, five feet. But the
common ditches about inclofures, dug at the bottom
of the bank on which the quick is railed, are three feet
wide at the top, one at the bottom, and two feet deep.
By this means each fide has a flope, which is of great
advantage ; for where this is negle&ed, and the ditches
dug perpendicular, the fides are always waftiing down.
Befides, in a narrow-bottomed ditch, if cattle get down
into it, they cannot ftand to turn themfelves to crop
the quick: but where the ditph is four feet wide, it
fhould be two and a half deep ; and where it is live
wide, it Ihould be three deep, and fo in proportion.
DiTCH-ffrf/er is often ufed as an objeft for the mi-
crofcope, and feidom fails to afford a great variety of
animalcules. This water very often appears of a yel-
lowifti, grcenifh, or reddifh colour ; and this is wholly
owing to the multitudes of animals of thofe colours
which inhabit it. Thefe animals are ufually of the
fhrimp kind : and Swammerdam, who very accurately
examined them,, has called them, from the figure of
their horns, />u/?x aquations arborefcens. They copu-
iate in May or June; and are often fo numerous at that
feafon, that the whole body of the water they are found
in, is feen to be of a red, green, or yellowifh colour,
according to the colours of their bodies. The green
thin fcum alfo, fo frequently feen on the furface of
Handing waters in fummer, is no other than a mul¬
titude of fmall animalcules of this or fome of the other
kinds. Dunghill water is not lefs full of animals than
that of ditches; and is -often found fo thronged with
animalcules, that it feems altogether alive : it is then fo
very much crowded with th^fie creatures, that it muft
be diluted with clear water before they can be diftin&ly
viewed. There are ufually in this fluid a fort of eels,
which are extremely a&ive; and befides thefe and ma¬
ny other of the common inhabitants of fluids, there is
one fpecies found in this, which feems peculiar to it:
the middle part of them is dark, and befet with hairs,
but the ends are tranfparent; their tails are tapering,
with a long fprig at the extremity, and their motion
is flow and waddling. See Animalcule.
DITHYRAMBUS, in ancient poetry, a hymn in
honour of Bacchus, full of tranfportand poetical rage.
This poetry owes it birth to Greece, and to the tranf-
ports of tvine ; and yet art is -not quite exploded, but
delicately applied to guide and reftrain the di-thyram-
bic impetuofity, which is indulged only in pleafing
flights. Horace and Ariftotle tell us, that the an¬
cients gave the name of dithyrambus to thofe verfes
wherein none of the common rules or meafures were
fcbferved. As we have now no remains of the dithy¬
rambus of the ancients, we cannot fay exadlly what
their meafure was.
DITONE, in mufic, an interval comprehending two
tones. _ The proportion of the founds that form the
ditone {84:5, and that of the femiditone is 5 : 6.
DITRIHEDRIA, in mineralogy, a genus offpars
with twice three fides, or fix planes, being formed of
two trigonal pyramids joined bafe-to bafe, without any
intermediate column. See Spar.
The fpecies of ditrihedria are diftinguifhed by the
different figures of thefe pyramids.
DITTANY, in botany. See Dictamnus.
DITTO, in books of accounts, ufually written D°,
fignifies the aforementioned. The word is corrupted
from the Italian detto, “ the faid:” as in our law-phrafe,
“ the faid premifes,” meaning the fame as were afore¬
mentioned.
DIVAL, in heraldry, the herb nightfhade, ufed by
fuel) as blazon by flowers and herbs, inftead of colours
and metals, for fable or black.
DIVAN, a council-chamber, or court of juftice, a-
among the eaftern nations, particularly the Turks.—
The word is Arabic, and fignifies the fame with sofa
in the Turkifh dialed!.
Y)\v k^-Beghi, the fuperintendant of juftice in Per-
fia, whofe place is the laft of the fix minifters of the
fecond rank, who are all under the athemadauler, or
firft minifter. To this tribunal of the divan-beghi he
appeals from fentences pafled by the governors: he has
a fixed ftipend of 50,000 crowns for adminiftering juf¬
tice : all the ferjeants, ufhers, &c. of the court, are in
his fervice : he takes cognifance of the criminal caufes
of the chams, governors, and other great lords of Per-
fia, when accufed of any fault. There are divan-beghis
not only at court and in the capital, but alfo in the pro¬
vinces and other cities of the empire. The alcoran is
the foie rule of his adminiftration of juftice, which alfo
he interprets at pleafure. He takes no cognizance of
civil caufes; but all differences arifing between the of¬
ficers of the king’s houfhold, and between foreign mi¬
nifters, are determined by him.
DIVANDUROW, the name of feven iflands which
lie a league north of the Maldives, and twenty-four
from the coaft of Malabar, almoft oppofite to Cananor.
DIVER, in ornithology. See Colymbus.
DIVERGENT, or diverging, Lines, in geome¬
try, are thofe which conftantly recede from each other.
Divergent Rays, in optics, are thofe which, going
from a point of the vifible objeft, are difperfed, and
continually depart one from another, in proportion as
they are removed from the objeft: in which fenfe it is
oppofed to convergent. See Optics.
DIVERSIFYING, in rhetoric, is of infinite fer¬
vice to the orator ; it is an accomplifhment eflential to
his chara&er, and may fitly be called the fubje& of all
his tropes and figures. Vofiius lays down fix ways of
diverfifying a fubject. 1. By enlarging on w"hat was
briefly mentioned before. 2. By a concife enumera¬
tion of what had been infifted on at length. 3. By
adding fomething new to what is repeated. 4. By re¬
peating only the principal heads of what had been faid.
5. By tranfpofing the words and periods. 6. By imi¬
tating them.
DIVERSION, in military affairs, is when an ene¬
my is attacked in one place wdiere they are weak and
unprovided, in order to draw off their forces from ano¬
ther place where they have made or intend to make an
irruption. Thus the Romans had no other way in their
power of driving Hannibal out of Italy, but by making
a diverfion in attacking Carthage.
DIVESTING, or Divestiture, in law, is ufed
for the aft of furrendering one’s effefts.
DIVI-
Dhtany
li
Diverting.
D I V [ 2499 ] D I V
Divickiii. DIVIDEND, in arithmetic, the number propofed
Divination. t0 be divided into equal parts *.
* Sec Aritb- Di vidend of Stocks, is a (hare or proportion of the
mtic,wa 14. Jntereft 0f docks erededon public funds, as thefouth-
fea, &c. divided among and paid to the adventurers
half-yearly. '
DIVINATION, the knowledge of things ob-
fcure, or future, whiclv cannot be attained by any na¬
tural means.
It was a received opinion among the heathens, that
the gods were wont to converfe familiarly with feme
men, whom they endowed with extraordinary powers,
and admitted to the knowledge of their councils and
defigns. Plato, Aridotle, Plutarch, Cicero, and o-
thers, divide divination into two forts or fpecies, viz.
natural and artificial.
The former was fo called, becaufe not attained by
any rules or precepts.of art, but infufed or infpired in¬
to the diviner, without his taking any further care a-
bout it than to purify and prepare himfelf for the re¬
ception of the divine afflatus. Of this kind were all
thofe who delivered oracles, and foretold future events
by infptralion, without obferving external figns or ac¬
cidents.
The fecond fpecies of divination was called artificial,
becaufe it was not obtained by immediate infpiration,
but proceeded upon certain experiments and obferva-
tions arbitrarily inftituted, and mottly fuperftitious. Of
this fort there w’ere various kinds, as by facrifices, en¬
trails, flame, cakes, flour, wine, water, birds, lots, ver-
fes, omens, &c.
In holy feripture we find mention made of nine dif¬
ferent kinds of divination. The firtt performed by the
infpection of planets, (lars, and clouds: it is fuppofed
to be the praftifers of this, whom Mofes calls pya mea-
mn, oi PV anan, “ cloud,” Deuter. ch. xviii. v. 10.
2. Thofe, whom the prophet calls in the fame place
uma. men ache fish,' which the vulgate and generality of
interpreters render augur. 3. Thofe who in the fame
place are called h^a viecafcheph, which the fepuagint
and vulgate tranflate a man given to ill praflices.
4. Such authors, whom Mofes in the fame chapter,
ver. u. calls "mn 5* Thofe, who confult the
•fpirits called Python; or, as Mofes expreffes it in the
fame book, 'mv, thofe who alk queftions of Py¬
thon. 6. Witches, or magicians, whom Mofes calls
'W’r judeoni. 7. Thofe who confult the dead, necro-
mancers. 8. The prophet Hofea, chap. iv. ver. 12.
mentions fuch as confult ftaves, ibpabw; which kind
of divination may be called rhabdornancy. 9. The
laft kind of divination mentioned in feripture is he-
patofeopy, or the confideration of the liver.
Divination of all kinds was neceffarily made an oc¬
cult fcience, which naturally remained in the hands of
the priefts and prielleffes, the magi, the foothfayers,
the augurs, the vifionaries, the prielts of the oracles,
the falfe prophets, and other like profefibrs, till the
time of the coming of Jefus Chrift. The light of the
gofpel, it is true, has diffipated much of this darknefs ;
but it is more difficult, than is commonly conceived,
to eradicate from the human mind a deep-rooted fuper-
ftition, even though the truth be fet in the ftrongeft
light, efpecially when the error has been believed al-
moft from the origin of the world : fo we ftill find ex-
ifting among us the remains of this pagan fuperftition,
in the following chimeras, which enthufiaflic and de- Divinttion,
figningmen have formed into arts and fciences ; tho’it
muft be owned, to the honour of the 18th century, that
the pure doctrines of Chriftianity, and the fpirit of phi-
lofophy, which become every day more diffufed, e-
qually concur in banifliing thefe vifionary opinions.
The vogue for tbefe pretended fciences and arts, more¬
over, is paft, and they can no longer be named with¬
out exciting ridicule in all fenfible people. By re¬
lating them here, therefore, and drawing them from
their obfeurity, we only mean to fhow their futility,
and to mark thofe rocks againft which the human
mind, without theaffiftance of a pilot, might eafily run.
For the attaining of thefe fupernatural qualifica¬
tions, there are (till exilling in the world the remains of,
1. AJlrology : a conjedtural fcience which teaches to
judge of the effedts and influences of the liars; and to
predidl future events by the fituation of the planets
and their different afpefts. It is divided into natu¬
ral ajlrology, or meteorology; which is confined to the
foretelling of natural effedts, as the winds, rain, hail,
and fnow, frofts and tempefts. In this confifts one
branch of the art of almanack-makers; and by merely
confronting thefe predictions in the calendar, with the
weather each day produces, every man of fenfe will
fee what regard is to be paid to this part of altrology.
The other part, which is called judicial ajlrology, is (till
far more illufive and ralh than the former: and having
been at firft the wonderful art of vifionaries, it after¬
wards became that of impoftors; a very common fate
with all thofe chimerical fciences, of which we Ihall
here fpeak. This art pretends to teach the method of
predicting all forts of events that Ihall happen upon the
earth, as well fuch as relate to the public, as to pri¬
vate perfons; and that by the fame infpeCli-jn of the
liars and planets, and their different conllellations-
The cabala fignifies, in like manner, the knowledge of
things that are above the moon, as the celeftial bo¬
dies and their influences; and in this fenfe it is the
fame with judicial aftrology, or makes a part of it.
2. Horofcopy, which may alfo be confidered as a part
of altrology, is the art by which they draw a figure,
or celeftial fcheme, containing the 12 houfes, wherein
they mark the difpofition of the heavens at a certain
moment; for example, that at which a man is born,
in order to foretel his fortune, or the incidents of his
life. In a word, it is the difpofition of the liars and
planets at the moment of any perfon’s birth. But as
there cannot be any probable or poffible relation be¬
tween the conllellations and the human race, all the
principles they lay down, and the prophecies they draw
from them, are chimerical, falfe, abfurd, and a crimi¬
nal impofition on mankind.
3. The art of augury conlifted, among the ancient
Romans, in obferving the flight, the finging and eat¬
ing of birds, efpecially fuch as were held facred *. '^KAugury
4. The equally deceitful art of harufpicy confilled,
on the contrary, in the infpeClion of the bowels of a-
nimals, but principally of viClims; and from thence
predicting grand incidents relative to the republic, and
the good or bad events of its enterprifes.
5. Aeroniancy was the art of divining by the air.
This vain fcience has alfo come to us from the Pagans:
but is rejeCled by reafon as well as Chriftianity, as falfe
and abfurd.
6. Pyromancy
D I V [ 2500 ] D I v
Divination 6. Pyromancy is a divination made by the infpec-
f) tion of a flame, either by obferving- to which fide it
turns, or by throwing into it fome combuftible mat¬
ter, or a bladder filled with wine, or any thing elfe
from which they imagined they were able to predid.
7. Hydro77tancy is the fuppofed art of divining by
water. The Perfians, according to Varro, invented
it; Pythagoras and Numa Pompilius made ufe of it;
and we (till admire like the wonderful prognofticators.
8. Geo7nancy was a divination made by obferving of
cracks or clefts in the earth. It was alfo performed
by points made on paper, or any other fubftance, at a
venture; and they judged of future events from the
figures that refulted from thence. This was certain¬
ly very ridiculous; but it is nothing lefs fo to pre¬
tend to predift future events by the infpe&ion of the
grounds of a difli of tea or coffee, or by cards, and
many other like matters.—;Thus have defigning men
made ufe of the four elements to deceive their cre¬
dulous brethren-.
9. Chiromancy is the art which teaches to know,
by infpefting the hand, not only the inclinations of
a man, but his future deftiny alfo. The fools or
impoftors who pra&ife this art pretend, that the dif¬
ferent parts or the lines of the hand have a rela¬
tion to the internal parts of the body, as fome to the
heart, others to the liver, fpleen, &c. On this falfe
fuppofition, and on many others equally extravagant,
the principles of chiromancy are founded: and on
which, however, feveral authors, as Robert Flud an
Englifhman, Artemidorus, M. de la Chambre, John
of Indagina, and many others, have wrote large trea-
tifes.
1 o. Phyjiognomy, or phyfwgnoTnancy, is a fcience that
pretends to teach the nature, the temperament, the
underftanding, and the inclinations of men, by the in-
fpe£lion of their countenances, and is therefore very
little lefs frivolous than chiromancy; tho’ Ariftotle, and
a number of learned men after him, have wrote exprefs
treatifes concerning it.
DIVINE, fomething relating to God. The word
is alfo ufed, figuratively, for any thing that is excellent,
extraordinary, and that feems to go beyond the power
of nature and the capacity of mankind. In which
fenfe, the compafs, telefcope, clocks, &c. are faid to
be divine inventions : Plato is called the divine author,
the divine Plato ; and the fame appellation is given to
Seneca: Hippocrates is called, “ the divine old man,”
divinus fenex, &c.
DIVING, the art or a& of defcending under wa¬
ter to confiderablc depths, and abiding there a compe¬
tent time.
The ufes of diving are very confiderable, particular¬
ly in the fifhing for pearls, corals, fpunges, &c. See
PiK%\.-piJhing, &c.
There have been various methods propofed, and ma¬
chines contrived, to render the bufinefs of diving more
fafe and eafy. The great point is to furnifh the diver
with frefh air; without which, he muft either make a
fliort (lay, or perifli.
Thofe who dive for fpunges in the Mediterranean,
help themfelves by carrying down fpunges dipt in oil
in their mouths. But confidering the fmall quantity
of air that can be contained in the pores of a fpunge,
and how much that little will be contrafted by the
preffure of the incumbent water, fuch a fupply cannot Diving-
long fubfift the diver. For it is found by experiment, ~
that a gallon of air included in a bladder, and by a pipe
reciprocally infpired and exfpired by the lungs, becomes
unfit for refpiration in little more than one minute of
time. For though its elafticity be but little altered in
palling the lungs, yet it lofes its vivifying fpirit, and
is rendered effete.
In effedt, a naked diver, Dr Halley aflures us, with¬
out a fpunge, cannot remain above a couple of mi¬
nutes enclofed in water; nor much longer with one,
without fuffocating ; nor, without long pradlice, near
fo long; ordinary perfons beginning to ftifle in about
half a minute. Befides, if the depth be confider¬
able, the preffure of the water in the veflels makes the
eyes blood-(hotten, and frequently occafions a fpitting
of blood.
Hence, where there has been occafion to continue
long at the bottom, fome have contrived double flexible
pipes, to circulate air down into a cavity, inclofing the
diver as with armour, both to furnifh air, and to bear
off the preffure of the water and give leave to his bread
to dilate upon infpiration ; the frefh air being forced
down one of the pipes with bellows, and returning by
the other of them, not unlike to an artery and vein.
But this method is impradlicable when the depth
furpaffes three fathoms ; the water embracing the bare
limbs fo clofely as to obdrudl the circulation of the
blood in them ; and withal preffing fo firongly on all
the jundlures where the armour is made tight with
leather, that, if there be the lead defeft in any of
them, the water rufhes in, and indantly fills the whole
engine, to the great danger of the diver’s life.
It is certain, however, that people, by being accu-
flomcd to the water from their infancy, will at length
be enabled, not only to day much longer under water
than the time above-mentioned, but put on a kind of
amphibious nature, fo that they feem to have the ufe
of all their faculties as well when their bodies are im-
merfed in water, as when they are on dry land. Mod
favage nations are remarkable for this. According to
the accounts of our late voyagers, the inhabitants of
the South-fea iflands are fuch expert divers, that when
a nail or any piece of iron was thrown overboard, the/
would indantly jump into the fea after it, and never
failed to recover it notwithdanding the quick defcent
of the metal. Even among civilized nations, many per¬
fons have been found capable of continuing an incre¬
dible length of time below water. The mod remark¬
able indance of this kind is the famous Sicilian diver
Nicolo Pefce. The authenticity of the account, in¬
deed, depends entirely on the authority of F. Kircher.
He affures us, that he had it from the archives of the
kinjjs of Sicily: but, notwithdanding this affertion,
the whole hath fo much of the marvellous in it, that
we believe there are few who will not look upon it to
have been exaggerated. “ In the times of Frederic
king of Sicily, (fays Kircher), there lived a celebrated
diver, whofe name was Nicholas, and who, from his
amazing (kill in fwimming, and his perfeverance under
water, was furnamed the fijh. This man had from his
infancy been ufed to the fea; and earned his fcanty
fubfidence by diving for corals and oyders, which he
fold to the villagers on fhore. His long acquaintance
with the fea, at lad, brought it to be aimed his natu¬
ral
D I V [ 2501 ] D I V
Diving, ral element. He was frequently known to fpend five
8 days' in the midft of the waves, without any oth?f pro-
vifions than the filh which he caught there and ate
raw. He often fwam over from Sicily into Calabria,
a tempeiluous and dangerous pafiage, carrying letters
from the king. He was frequently known to fwim
among the gulphs of the Lipari iflands, noway appre-
henfive of danger.
“ Some mariners out at fea, one day obferved fome-
thing at fome diftance from them, which they regard¬
ed as a fea-monfter; but upon its approach it was
known to be Nicholas, whom they took into their fiiip.
When they allied him whither he was going in fo ftor-
my and rough a fea, and at fuch a diftance from land,
he fhewed them a packet of letters, which he was car¬
rying to one of the towns of Italy, exadlly done up in
a leather bag, in fuch a manner as that they could not
be wetted by the fea. He kept them thus company
for fome time on their voyage, converfing, and aiking
queftions ; and after eating an hearty meal with them,
he took his leave, and, jumping into the fea, purfued
his voyage alone.
“ In order to aid thefe powers of enduring in the
deep, nature feemed to have aflifted him in a very ex¬
traordinary manner: for the fpaces between his fingers
and toes were webbed, as in a goofe; and his cheft be¬
came fo very capacious, that he could take in, at one
infpiration, as much breath as would ferve him for a
whole day.
“ The account of fo extraordinary a perfon did not
fail to reach the king himfelf; who commanded Ni¬
cholas to be brought before him. It was no eafy mat¬
ter to find Nicholas, who generally fpent his time in
the folitudes of the deep; but, at laft, after much
fearching, he was found, and brought before his maje-
fty. The curiofity of this monarch had been long ex¬
cited by the accounts he had heard of the bottom of
the gulph of Charybdis; he now therefore conceived,
that it would be a proper opportunity to have more
certain information. He therefore commanded our
poor diver to examine the bottom of this dreadful
whirlpool; and as an incitement to his obedience, he
ordered a golden cup to be flung into it. Nicholas was
not infenfible of the danger to which he was expofed ;
dangers belt known only to himfelf; and therefore he
prefumed to remonftrate: but the hopes of the reward,
the defire of pleafing the king, and the pleafure of
(hewing his (kill, at laft prevailed. He inftantly jump¬
ed into the gulph, and was as inftantly fwallowed up
in its bofom. He continued for three quarters of an
hour below; during which time the king and his at¬
tendants remained on (hore, anxious for his fate ; but
he at laft appeared, holding the cup in triumph in one
hand, and making his way good among the waves with
the other. It may be fuppofed he was received with
applaufe when he came on fhore: the cup was made
the reward of his adventure; the king ordered him to
be taken proper care of; and, as he was fomewhat fa¬
tigued and debilitated by his labour, after an hearty
meal he was put to bed, and permitted to refrelh him-
felf by deeping.
“ When his fpirits were thus reftored, he was again
brought to fatisfy the king’s curiefity with a narrative
of the wonders he had feen; and his account was to
the following effedt. He would never, he faid, have
Vol. IV.
obeyed the king’s commands, had he been apprifed of Diving,
half the dangers that were before him. There were
four things, he faid, which rendered the gulph dread¬
ful, not only to men, but to fifties themfelves. 1. The
force of the water burfting up from the bottom, which
required great ftrength to refill. 2. The abrupt-
nels of the rocks that on every fide threatened de-
ftruftion. 3. The force of the whirlpool dafhing a-
gainft thofe rocks. And, 4. The number and magni¬
tude of the polypous filh, fome of which appeared as
large as a man ; and which, every where flicking a-
gainft the rocks, projected their fibrous arms to en¬
tangle him. Being alked how he was able fo readily
to find the cup that had been thrown in, he replied,
that it happened to be flung by the waves into the ca¬
vity of a rock againft which he himfelf was urged in his
defeent. This account, however, did not fatisfy the
king’s curiofity : being requefted to venture once more
into the gulph for further difeoveries, he at firll refu-
fed: but the king, defirous of having the moft exaft
information poflible of all things to be found in the
gulph, repeated his folicitations ; and, to give them
ftill greater weight, produced a larger cup than the
former, and added alfo a purfe of gold. Upon thefe
conliderations the unfortunate diver once again plunged
into the whirlpool, and was never heard of more.”
To obviate the inconveniencies of diving to thofe
who have not the extraordinary powers of the diver
above-mentioned, different inftruments have been con¬
trived. The chief of thefe is the diving-bell; which is
moft conveniently made in form of a truncated cone,
the fmaller bafe being clofed, and the larger open.
It is to be poifed with lead; and fo fufpended, that
the veffel may fink full of air, with its open balls down¬
ward, and as near as may be in a fituation parallel to
the horizon, fo as to clofe with the furface of the wa¬
ter all at once.
Under this covercle the diver fitting, finks down
with the included air to the depth defired: and if the
cavity of the veffel can contain a tun of water, a fingle
man may remain a full hour, without much inconvenience,
at five or fix fathoms deep. But the lower you go, ftill
the included air contrails itfelf according to the weight
of the water which compreffes it: fo that at 33 foot deep
the bell becomes half full of water, the preffure of the
incumbent water being then equal to that of the atmo-
fphere ; and at all other depths the fpace occupied by
the compreffed air in the upper part of the bell will be
to the under part of its capacity filled with water, as
33 feet to the furface of the water in the bell below the
common furface thereof. And this condenfed air be¬
ing taken in with the breath foon infinuates itfelf into
all the cavities of the body, and has no ill effedl, pro¬
vided the bell be permitted to defeend fo (lowly as to
allow time for that purpofe. One inconvenience that
attends it, is found in the ears, within'which there are
cavities which open only outwards, and that by pores
fo fmall as not to give admiflion even to the air itfelf,
unlefs they be dilated and diftended by a confiderable
force. Hence, on the firft defeent of the bell, a pref¬
fure begins to be felt on each ear ; which, by degrees,
grows painful, till the force overcoming the obftacle,
what conftringes thefe pores yields to the preffure, and
letting fome condenfed air flip in, prefently cafe en-
fues. The bell defeending lower, the pain is renewed,
14 O and
D I V [ 2502 ] D I V
Diving, and again eafed in the fame manner.
“'■* But the greateft inconvenience of this engine, is,
that tlj,e water entering it, contra&s the bulk of air
into fo fmall a compafs, that it foon heats and be- ,
comes unfit for refpiration : fo that there is a neceffity
for its being drawn up to recruit it; befides the un¬
comfortable abiding of the diver almoll covered with
water.
To obviate the difficulties of the diving-bell, Dr Hal¬
ley, to whom we owe the preceding account, contrived
fome further apparatus, whereby not only to recruit
and refrefh the air from time to time, but alfo to keep
the water wholly out of it at any depth; The manner
in which this was effe&ed, he relates in the following
words.
“ The bell I made ufe of was of wood, containing
about 60 cubic feet in its concavity ; and was of the
form of a truncate cone, whofe diameter at the top was
three feet, and at the bottom five. This I coated with
lead fo heavy that it would fink empty; and I diftri-
buted the weight fo about its bottom, that it would go
down in a perpendicular direftion, and no other. In
the top I fixed a ftrong but clear glafs, as a window,
to let in the light from above ; and likewife a cock to
Jet out the hot air that had been breathed : and below,
about a yard under the bell, I placed a ftage which
hung by three ropes, each of which was charged with
about one hundred weight to keep it Heady. This
machine I fufpended from the maft of a ihip by a fprit,
which was fufficiently fecured by flays to the maft-
head, and was diredted by braces to carry it overboard
clear of the (hip’s fide, and to bring it again within
board as occafion required.
“ To fupply air to this bell when under water, I
eaufed a couple of barrels of about 36 gallons each to
be cafed with lead, fo as to fink empty ; each of them
having a bung-hole in its lowed parts to let in the wa¬
ter, as the air in them condenfed on their defcent; and
to let it out again when they were drawn up full from
below. And to a hole in the uppermoft part of thefe
barrels, I fixed a leathern trunk or hofe well liquored
with bees wax and oil, and long enough to fall below
the bung-hole, being kept down by a weight append¬
ed : fo that the air in the upper part of the barrels
could not efcape, unlefs the lower ends of thefe hofe
were firft lifted up.
“ The air-barrels being thus prepared, I fitted
them with tackle proper to make them rife and fall al¬
ternately; after the manner of two buckets in a well;
which was done with fo much eafe, that two men, with
lefs than half their ftrength, could perform all the la¬
bour required : and in their defcent they were directed
by lines faftened to the under edge of the bell, the
which paffed through rings on both fides the leathern
hofe in each barrel; fo that, ffidiqg down by thefe
lines, they came readily to the hand of a man who
ilood on the ftage on purpofe to receive them, and to
take up the ends of the hofe into the bell. Through
thefe hofe, as foon as their ends came above the furface
of the water in the barrels,, all the air that was in¬
cluded in the upper parts of them was blown with great
force into the bell; whilft the water, entered at the
bung-holes below, and filled them : and as foon as the
air of one barrel had been thus received, upon a fignal
given, that was drawn up, and at the fame time the
other defcended ; and, by an alternate fucceffion, fur- Diving,
niftied air fo quick, and in fo great plenty, that I my- 7
felf have been one of five who have been together at
the bottom in nine or ten fathom water, for above an
1 hour and an half at a time, without any fort of ill con-
fequence: and I might have continued there as long as
I pleafed, for any thing that appeared to the contrary.
Befides, the whole cavity of the bell was kept entirely
free from water, fo that I fat on a bench which was
diametrically placed near the bottom, wholly drefied,
with all my cloaths on. I only obferved, that it was
neceffa'ry to be letdown gradually at firft, as about 12
feet at a time ; and then to ftop and drive out the air
that entered, by receiving three or four barrels of frefh
air before I defcended further. But being arrived at
the depth defigned, I then let. out as much of the hot
air that had been breathed, as each barrel would re-
plenifh with cool, by means of the cock at the top of
the bell; through whofe aperture, though very fmall,
the air would rufh with fo much violence, as to make
the furface of the fea boil, and to cover it with a
white foam, notwithftanding the weight of the water
over us.
“ Thus I found that I could do any thing that re¬
quired to be done juft under us; and that, by taking
off the ftage, I could, for a fpace as wide as the cir¬
cuit of the bell, lay the bottom of the fea fo far dry,
as not to be overfhoes thereon. And, by the glafs
window, fo much light was tranfmitted, that when the
fea was clear, and efpecially when the fun (hone, I
could fee perfedlly well to write or read; much more
to faften or lay hold on any thing under us that was
to be taken up. And, by the return of the air-barrels,
I often fent up orders written with an iron pen, on fmall
plates of lead, dire&ing how to move us from place to
place as occafion required. At other times, when
the water was troubled and thick, it would be as dark
as night below; but in fuch cafes I have been able to
keep a candle burning in the bell as long as I pleafed,-
notwithftanding the great expence of air neceffary to
maintain flame.—By an additional contrivance, I have
found it not imprafticable for a diver to go out of an
engine to a good diftance from it, the air being con¬
veyed to him with a continued dream, by fmall flex¬
ible pipes; which pipes may ferve as a clue, to di-
red! him back again, when he would return to the
bell.”
Plate XCIV. fig. 1. (hews Dr Halley’s diving bell,
with the divers at work. DBLKRIMP reprefeuts
the body of the bell. D, the glafs which ferves as a
window. B, the cock for letting out the air which
has been breathed. LM, the feats. C, one of the
air-barrels. P, H, two of the divers. F, another di¬
ver at a diftance from the bell, and breathing through
the flexible tube K.—This diver is fuppofed to have a
head-piece of lead, made to fit quite clofe about his
(boulders: this head-piece was capable of containing
as much air as would fupply him for a minute or two.
When he had occafion for more air, he turned a cock
at F, by which means a communication was opened
with the air in the bell, and thus he could receive a
new fupply at pleafure.
Since the invention of this diving machine, there
has been one contrived by Mr Triewald, F. R. S. and
military architeA to the king of Sweden, which, for a
Angle
Diving.
W *•
Fig- 3-
D I V [ 2503 ] D I V
fingle perfon, is in fome refpefts thouglit to be more
eligible than Dr Halley’s, and is conltrufted as fol¬
lows. AB is* the bell, which is funk by lead weights
DD hung to its bottom. This bell is of copper, and
tinned all over in the infide, which is illuminated by
three ftrong convex lenfes, G, G, G, with copper lids
H, H, H, to defend them. The iron ring or plate E
ferves the diver to Hand on when he is at work; and is
fufpended at fuch a diftance from the bottom of the
Bell by the chains F, F, F, that when the diver Hands
upright, his head is juft above the water in the bell,
inhere the air is much better than higher up, becaufe
it is colder, and confequently more fit for refpiration.
But as the diver muft always be within the bell, and
his head of courfe in the upper part, the inventor has
contrived, that even there, when he has breathed the
hot air as well as he can, he may, by means of a fpi-
ral copper tube be, placed clofe to the infide of the
bell, draw the cooler and freflier air from the lower-
mod parts: for which purpofe, a flexible leather tube,
about two feet long, is fixed to the upper end of the
copper tube at b; and to the other end of this tube is
ftxed an ivory mouth-piece, by which the diver draws
in the air.
The greateft improvement, however, which the di¬
ving bell ever has received, or probably can receive, is
from Mr Spalding of Edinburgh. A fe<ftion of his im¬
proved diving-bell is reprefented fig. 3. This conftruc-
tion is defigned to remedy fome inconveniencies of Dr
Halley’s, which are very evident, and of very dangerous
tendency. Thefe are, 1. By Dr Halley’s conftrudlion,
the finking or railing of the bell depends entirely on
the people who are at the furface of the water ; and
as the bell even when in the water has a very confide-
rable weight, the railing it not only requires a great
deal of labour, but there is a poflibility of the rope
breaking by which it is raifed, and thus every perfon
in the bell would inevitably perifti. 2. As there are, in
many places of the fea, rocks which lie at a confiderable
depth, the figure of which cannot pofiibly be perceived
from above, there is danger that fome of their ragged
prominences may catch hold of one of the edges of
the bell in its defeent, and thus overfet it before any
fignal can be given to thofe above, which would infal¬
libly be attended with the deftru&ion of the people in
the bell: and as it muft always be unknown, before trial,
what kind of a bottom the fea has in any place, it is
plain', that, without fome contrivance to obviate this
laft danger, the defeent in Dr Halley's diving-bell is
not at all eligible.
How thefe inconveniencies are remedied by Mr Spal¬
ding’s new conftruftion will be eafily underftood from
the following defeription.—A BCD reprefents a fac¬
tion of the bell, which is made of wood; e, e, are iron
hooks, by means of which it is fufpended by ropes
QJ5 F e, and Q_AERe, and as exprefled in
the figure: c, c, are iron hooks, to which are appended
lead weights, that keep the mouth of the bell always
parallel to the furface of the water, whether the ma¬
chine taken all together is lighter or heavier than an
equal bulk of water. By thefe weights alonp, how¬
ever, the bell would not fink: another is therefore
added, reprefented at L; and which can be raifed or
lowered at pleafurc, by means of a rope pafling over the
pulley and faftened .to one of the Tides of the bell at
M. As the bell defeends, this weight, called by Mr
Spalding the balanee-'weight, hangs down a confider¬
able way below the mouth of the bell. In cafe the
edge of the bell is catched by any obftacle, the balance-
-weight is immediately lowered down fo that it may reft
upon the bottom. By this means the bell is lightened
fo that all danger of overfetting is removed; for, being
lighter, without the balance-weight, than an equal
bulk of water, it is evident that the bell will rife, as
far as the length of the rope affixed to the balance-
weight will allow it. This weight, therefore, will
ferve as a kind of anchor to keep the bell at any par¬
ticular depth which the divers may think neceffary; or
by pulling it quite up, the defeent may be continued
to the very bottom.
By another very ingenious contrivance, Mr Spal¬
ding hath rendered it poffible for the divers to raife
the bell, with all the weights appended to it, even to
the furface, or to ftop at any particular depth, as they
think proper; and thus they could ftili be fafe, even
though the rope defigned for pulling up the bell was
broke. For this purpofe the bell is divided into
two cavities, both of which are made as tight as
poffible. Juft above the fecond bottom E F, are
fmall flits in the fides of the bell; through which
the water, entering as the bell defeends, difplaces
the air originally contained in this cavity, which
flies out at the upper orifice of the cock G H,
When this is done, the divers turn the handle G,
which flops the cock ; fo that if any more air was to
get into the cavity AEFB, it could not longer be dif-
charged through the orifice H as before. When this
cavity is full of water, the bell finks; but when a con¬
fiderable quantity of air is admitted, it rifes. If there¬
fore the divers have a mind to raife themfelves, they
turn the fm&ll cock^, by which a communication is
made between the upper and under cavities of the bell.
The confequence of this is, that a quantity of air im¬
mediately enters the upper cavity, forces out a quan¬
tity of the water contained in it, and thus renders the
bell lighter by the whole weight of the water which is
difplaced. Thus, if a certain quantity of air is admit¬
ted into the upper cavity, the bell will defeend very
flowly; if a greater quantity, it will neither afeend nor
defeend, but remain ftationary; and if a larger quan¬
tity of air is ftili admitted, it will arife to the top. It
is to be obferved, however, that the air which is thus
let out into the upper cavity muft be immediately re¬
placed from the aiv-barrel; and the air is to be let out
very flowly, or the bell will rife to the top with fo
great velocity that the divers will be in danger of be¬
ing ihaken out of their feats. But, by following thefe
directions, every poffible accident may be prevented,
and people may defeend to great depths without the
leaft apprehenfion of danger. The bell alfo becomes
fo eafily manageable in the water, that it may be con¬
duced from one place to another l?y a fmall boat with,
the greateft eafe, and with perfeft fafety to thofe who
are in it.
Inftead of wooden feats ufed by Dr Halley, Mr
Spalding makes ufe of ropes fufpended by hooks bbb;
and on thefe ropes the divers may fit without any in¬
convenience. I arid K are two windows made of thick
ftrong glafs, for admitting light to the divers. N re¬
prefents an air-calk with its tackle, and OCP the flex-
14 O 2 ible
Diving.
D I V
Diving.
Tig. 4-
D I V [ 2504 ]
ible pipe through which the air is admitted to the bell.
In the afcent and defeent of this calk the pipe is kept
down by a fmall weight appended, as in Dr Halley’s
machine. R is a fmall cock by which the hot air is
difcharged as often as it becomes troublefome. Eg. 4.
is a reprefentation of the whole diving apparatus,
which it is hoped will be readily underltood without
any further explanation. Two air-barrels are repre-
fented in this figure; but Mr Spalding is of opinion,
that one capable of containing 30 gallons is fufficient
for an ordinary machine.
We are told of another method put in pra&ice by
a gentleman of Devonfhire. He has contrived a large
cafe of ftrpng leather, perfectly water-proof, which
may hold about half an hoglhead of air. This is fo
contrived, that, when he (huts himfdf up in this cafe,
he may walk at the bottom of the fea, and go into any
part of a wrecked vefiel, and deliver out the goods.
This method, we are told, he has pra&ifed for many,
years, and has thus acquired a large fortune. It
would be a confiderable improvement on this machine
to condenfe the air in it as much as pofiible before the
diver defcended ; as he would thus be furniihed with
an atmofphere endued with elafticity fufficient to refill
the weight of the water, which otherwife would fqueeze
his cafe into much lefs room than it originally took up.
The condenfed air alfo would ferve for refpiration a
much longer time than that which is in its ordinary
ftate.
’Divine-Bladder, a machine invented by Borelli,
and by him preferred, though without any good rea-
fon, to the diving-bell. It is a globular veffel of brafs
or copper, about two feet in diameter, which contains
the diver’s head. It is fixed to a goat’s-fkin habit ex-
a£tly fitted to his perfon. Within the veflel are pipes,
by means of which a circulation of air is contrived;
and the perfon carries an air-pump by his fide, by
which he -can make himfelf heavier or lighter as filhes
do, by contrafting or dilating their air-bladder. By
this means he thought all the objeftions to which o-
ther diving machines are liable were entirely obviated,
and particularly that of want of air; the air which had
been breathed, being, as he imagined, deprived of its
noxious qualities by circulating through the pipes.
Thefe advantages, however, it is evident, are only ima¬
ginary. The diver’s limbs, being defended from the
preflure of the water only by a goat’s fkin, would in¬
fallibly be crufhed if he defcended to any confiderable
depth ; and from the difcoveries now made by Dr
Prieftley and others, it is abundantly evident, that air,
which is once rendered foul by breathing, cannot in
any degree be reftored by circulation through pipes.
Concerning the ufe of copper machines in general, Mr
Spalding has favoured us with the following curious
obfervation, namely. That when a perfon has breathed
in them a few minutes, he feels in his mouth a very
difagreeable brafiy tafte, which continues all the time
he remains in the veflcl; fo that, on this account^cop-
per feems by no means an eligible material. This taile
moft probably arifes from the adtion of the alkalefcent
effluvia of the body upon the copper; for volatile al¬
kali is a Itrong diflblvent of this metal: but how thefe
effluvia volatilife the copper in fuch a manner as to make
the tafte of it fenfible in the mouth, is not eafy to fay.
DIVINITY, properly fignifies the nature, quality,
and effence of God.
Divinity, is alfo ufed in the fame fenfe with theo-'
l°gy-
DIVISIBILITY, that property by which the par¬
ticles of matter in all bodies are capable of a fepara-
tion or difunion from each other.
The Peripatetics and Cartelians hold divifibility to
be an afledlion of all matter. The Epicureans, again,
allow it to agree to every phyfical continuum; but
they deny that this affedlion agrees to all bodies, for
the primary corpufcles or atoms they maintain to be
perfedlly infecable and indivifible.
As it is evident that body is extended, fo it is no
lefs evident that it is divilible : for fince no two parti¬
cles of matter can exill in the fame place, it follows,
that they are really dillindl from each other; which is
all that is meant by being divifible. In this fenfe the
leail conceivable particle muft ftill be divifible, fince it
will confift of parts which will be really diflindl. To
illuftrate this by a familiar inllanee. Let the leail ima¬
ginable piece of matter be conceived lying on a fmooth
plain furface, it is evident the furface will not touch
it every where: thofe parts therefore which it does not
touch, may be fuppofed feparable from the others, and
fo on, as far as we pleafe; and this is all that is meant
when we fay matter is infinitely divifible.
The infinite divifibility of mathematical quantity is
dernonftrated thus geometrically. Suppofe the line
AD perpendicular to BE; and another, as GH, at a
fmall dillance from it, alfo perpendicular to the fame
line: with the centers CCC, &c. deferibe circles cut¬
ting the line GH in the points eee, &c. Now the
greater the radius AC is, the lefs is the part eH. But
the radius may be augmented in infinitum; fo long,
therefore,, the part eH may be divided into ftill lefs
portions; confequently it may be divided in infinitum.
All that is fuppofed in ftridt geometry (fays Mr
Maclaurin) concerning the divifibility of magnitude,
amounts to no more than that a given magnitude may
be conceived to be divided into a number of parts equal
to any given or propofed number. It is true, that the
number of parts into which a given magnitude may be
conceived to be divided, is not to be fixed or limited,
becaufe no given number is fo great but a greater may
be conceived and afligned: but there is not, therefore,
any necefiity of fuppofing the number of parts a&ually
infinite ; and if fome have drawn very abftrufe confe-
quences from fuch a fuppofition, yet geometry ought
not to be loaded with them. *
How far matter may adlually be divided, may in
fome meafure be conceived from hence, that a piece of
wire gdt with fo fmall a quantity as eight grains of
gold, may be drawn out to a length of 13,000 feet,
the whole farface of it ftill remaining covered with
gold. We have alfo a furprifing inftance of the mi-
nutenefs of fome parts of matter from the nature of
light and vifion. Let a candle be lighted, and placed
in an open plain, it will then be vifible two miles round;
and confequently was it placed two miles above the
furface of the earth, it would fill with luminous par¬
ticles a fphere whofe diameter was four miles, and that
before it had loft any fenfible part of its weight. A
quantity of vitriol being diffolved, and mixed with
9000 times as much water, will tinge the whole; con¬
fequently will be divided into as many parts as there
are
PI. XCIII.
fig. 3.
Plafe xcrr.
c£^,.x/
Di\tng Bell.
'
D I V [ 2505 ] D 1 V
Diving, arc vifible portions of matter in that quantity of water.
£>ivifion. 'j’}iere are perfumes, which, without a fenfible dimi-
“ ~ notion of their quantity, (hall fill a very large fpace
with their odoriferous particles; which mull therefore
be of an inconceivable fmallnefs, lince there will be a
fufficient number in every part of that fpace, fenfibly
to affect the organ of fmelling. Dr Keill demonftrates,
that any particle of matter how fmall foever, and any
finite fpace how large foever, being given, it is poffible
for that fmall particle of matter to be diffufed through
all that fpace, and to fill it in fuch a manner, as that
there ffiall be no pore in it whofe diameter fhall exceed
any given line. See Effluvia.
The chief objections againft the divifibility of mat¬
ter in infinitum are, That an infinite cannot be con¬
tained by a finite ; and that it follow's from a divifibi¬
lity in infinitum, either that all bodies are equal, or that
one infinite is greater than another. But the anfvvcr
to thefe is eafyj for the properties of a determined
quantity are hot to be attributed to an infinite confi-
dered in a general fenfe; and who has ever proved that
there could not be an infinite number of infinitely
fmall parts in a finite quantity, or that all infinites
are equal? The contrary is demonttrated by mathema¬
ticians in innumerable inltances. See the article Infi-
Site, and S Gravefande Elt-m. Matbem. 1. r. c. 4.
DIVISION, in general, is the feparating a thing
into two or more parts.
Mechanical Division, fignifies that reparation which
is occafioned in the parts of a body by help of mecha¬
nical inftruments.—The mechanical divifion of bodies
does indeed feparate them into fmaller, homogeneous,
firnilar parts; but this Reparation cannot extend to the
primary integrant molecules of any body; and confe-
quently is incapable of breaking what is properly call¬
ed their aggregation: alfo, no union is formed betwixt
~the divided and dividing bodies, in which refpett di¬
vifion effentially differs from diffolution.
Divifion is not properly a chemical operation. It is
only employed preparatorily to facilitate other opera¬
tions, and particularly folution. For this purpofe it
is very ufeful, as it increafes the quantity of furface,
and confequently the points of contaA of any body.—
Different methods are ufed to divide bodies according
to their nature. Thofe which are tenacious and elaftic,
as horns and gums, require to be cut, rafped, or filed.
Metals, becaufe of their dudlility, require the fame
treatment: but as they are alfo fufible, they may be
quickly and conveniently reduced into grains fmall
enough for moft operations, by pouring them, when
melted, into water. All brittle bodies may be redu¬
ced conveniently into fine parts by being bruifed in a
mortar with a peftle. Very hard bodies, fuch as glafs,
cryftals, ftones, particularly thofe of the vitrifiable
kind, before they are pounded, ought to be plunged
when red-hot into water, by which they are fplit and
cracked, and rendered more eafily pulverable. Bodies
of this kind may alfo be bruifed or ground by means
of a hard and flat done, upon which the matter is to
be put, and bruifed by another hard (tone fo fmall as
to be held and moved upon the larger done with the
hand. The larger done is called a porphyry, from its
being generally of that kind of done ; and the opera¬
tion is called porphyrifation. Indead of porphyrifation,
a mill may be ufed, compofed of a hard grit mildone,
moving round upon another done of the fame kind, Divifion
which mud be fixed ; in the upper done is a groove, Djvj|rcc
or channel, through which the matter to be ground  
paffes. By this method a fubdance may be more quick¬
ly reduced to a dne powder than by porphyrifation.
But thefe mills can be only employed for confiderable
quantities of matter.
Thefe methods of mechanically dividing bodies are
attended wuth fome praftical inconveniencies ; the
mod confiderable of which is, that fome parts of the
dividing indruments are always druck off, and mixed
with the matter to be divided. This may greatly af-
feft the operations. For indance, inftruments of iron
and copper furnilh metallic colouring particles, and
copper is very prejudicial to health. Porphyry is co¬
loured by a reddifh brown matter, which injures the
colour of cryftal-glaffes, enamels, and porcelains made
with matters ground upon this ftone. Thefe matters
therefore muft be cleanfed after their porphyrifation, or
elfe no inftruments capable of injuring the intended
operations ought to be employed. Thus, for the pre¬
paration of all medicines to be taken internally, no
copper inftruments, as mortars, peftles, &c. ought to
be ufed; thofe made of iron are preferable ; and, in-
ftead of porphyries, mortars, grinding-ftones and mill-
ftones made of hard and white ftones ought to be em¬
ployed for fubftances which are to enter into the com-
pofition of enamels, crydal-glafs, and porcelain, the
whitenefs of which is a moft neceffary quality.
Division, in algebra. See Algebra, n° 7.
Division, in arithmetic. See Arithmetic, n° ir.
Division, in fea affairs, a feleift number of Ihips in
a fleet or fquadron of men of war, diftinguiftied by a
particular flag or pendant, and ufually commanded by
a general officer. A fquadron is commonly ranged
into three divifions, the commanding officer of which
is always ftationed in the centre.
When a fleet confifts of 60 fail of the line, that is,
of Ihips having at leaft 60 cannon each, the admiral
divides it into three fquadrons, each of which has its
divifions and commanding officers. Each fquadron
has its proper colours, according to the rank of the
admiral who commands it, and every divifion its proper
mail. Thus the white flag denotes the firft divifion of
France; the white and blue the fecond; and the third
is charafterifed by the blue. In Britain, the firft ad¬
miral, or the admiral of the fleet, difplays the union-
flag at the main-top-maft-head; next follows the white
flag with St George’s crofs ; and afterwards the blue.
The private fliips carry pendants of the fame colour
with their refpe&ive fquadrons, at the mafts of their
particular divifions; fo that the laft ihip in the divifion
of the blue fquadron carries a blue pendant at her mizen-
top-majl-head.
DIVISOR, in arithmetic. See Arithmetic, n° 11.
DIVORCE, a breach or diffolution of the bond of
marriage. See Marriage ; and Law, N° clx. 23.
Divorce is of two kinds: the one, a vinculo ma~
trimonii, which alone is properly divorce; the other,
a ntenfa fy thoro, a feparation from bed and board.
The woman divorced a vinculo matrimonii, receives
all again that ffie brought with her: the other has a
fuitable feparate maintenance allowed her out of her
buffiand’s effefts.
The firft only happens thro’ fomc effcntial impedi¬
ment
DOB [ 2506 ] DOC
Dinrefis ment, as confanguinity or affinity within the degrees
!! forbidden, pre-contraft, impotency, adultery, &c. of
•Dob^011, which impediments the canon law allows 14, compre¬
hended in thefe verfes:
Error, conditio, votum, cognatlo, crimen,
Cultus, difparitas, vis, ordo, ligamen, honeftas,
1 Si fis affinis, ft forte coire nequibis.
Si parochi & duplicis deft prxfentia teJHs,
Kaptave fit mulier, nec parti reddita tuU.
DIURESIS, from «/”"> urine. An excretion of
urine.
DIURETICS, (from and npo*, urine'), me¬
dicines which provoke a difeharge by urine.
Celfus fays every fragrant herb that is cultivated in
a garden is diuretic. -However numerous diuretic me¬
dicines may be, there are none elfe whofe efficacy is fo
uncertain confidered as diuretic. Honey and fugar
increafe the virtue of diuretics; they fhould be often
ufed to be effe&ual, and the body ffiould be kept cool.
—If a medicine is defignedto pafs off by urine, walk-
in'g „gently in a cool air will affift it ; but fweating or
confiderable warmth directs it to the ikin, or at lead
reftrains its efficacy. Medicines of the faline kind are
diuretic or perfpirative, according as the body is kept
cool or warm.
In adminiftring this kind of medicines, they are
rarely given with refpedl to-their operation as diuretics,
but with refpedt to the habit of date of the patient’s
body, as appears from the different claffes of medicines
that come under this denomination ; the chief of which
remove impediments to, rather than promote the dif¬
eharge of, urine.
The following different claffes of medicines are nfed
with a view to promote the difeharge of urine. 1. Cor¬
dial nervous medicines. Thefe accelerate the motion
of the blood when too languid, and increafe its flui¬
dity, and thus increafe this difeharge. 2. Emollient
balfamics. Thefe relax and lubricate, fo obtain a paf-
fage for what is too bulky. 3. Subdances confiding
of falls and mucilages. Thefe guard againd Aridture
in the veffels, and at the fame time fit the matter to
be difeharged for a more eafy exclufion. 4. Detergent
balfamics. Thefe rarify and fcour away vifeous or fa¬
bulous matter which obdrudfs the paffages. 5. Alka¬
line and lixivious falls. Thefe keep the fluids at lead
in a due date of tenuity for being excreted. 6. Acid
and nitrous falls. Thefe determine the ferum to the
kidneys, if not counterafted by heat. 7. Antifpafmo-
dics. Thefe relieve by taking off a dridture in the kid¬
neys.
DIURNAL, in afironomy, fomething relating to
day; in oppofition to notturnal, which regards the
night.
DLVUS, Diva, in antiquity, appellations given to
men and women who had been deified, or placed in
the number of the gods. See Deification, &c.
Hence it is, that on medals flruck for the cenfecra-
tion of an emperor, or emprefs, they give them the
title of divus, or diva: for example, DIVUS JULIUS.
DIVO ANTONINO PIO. DIVO PIO. DIVO
CLAUDIO. DIVA FAUSTINA AUG. &c.
DIZZINESS, in medicine. See Vertigo.
DO, in mufic, a note of the Italian fcale, corre¬
sponding to ut of the common gamut. See Music.
DOB-chick, in ornithology. See Colymbus.
DOBSON (William), an eminent Englifli portrait
and hidory painter, born at London in 1610. He Docimafia
ferved an apprentiedhip with one Peck, a dationer and 11
pifture-dealer; and owed his improvement to the co-
pying fome pi&ures of Titian and Van Dyck, whofe
manner he always retained. He had farther obliga¬
tions to the latter of thefe artids: for it is faid, that a
idture of his painting being expofed at a fhop on
now-hill, Van Dyck palling by was flruck with it
exceedingly; and inquiring after the author, found him
at work in a poor garret. Van Dyck had the gene-
rofity to equip him in a manner fuitable to his merit.
He prefented him to king Charles I. who took him un¬
der his protection, kept him with him at Oxford all
the time his majefly continued in that city, and not
only fat to him feveral times for his picture, but caufed
the prince of Wales, prince Rupert, and mod of the
lords of his court, to do fo too. Mr Dobfon, how¬
ever, being fomewhat loofe and irregular in his way of
life, was far from improving the many opportunities
he had of making his fortune; and died very poor in
1647, at his houfe in St Martin’s lane.
DOCIMASIA, in Greek antiquity, a probation of
the magidrates and perfons employed in public bufi-
nefs at Athens. It was performed publicly in the fo¬
rum, where they were obliged to give account of them-
felves and their pad life before certain judges. A-
mong feveral queflions propofed to them, we find the
following. Whether they had been dutiful to their pa¬
rents, had ferved in the wars, and had a competent
eflate ?
DOCIMASTIC art, a name given to the art of
effaying by operations in fmall, the nature and quan¬
tity of metallic or other matters which may be ob¬
tained from mineral or other compound bodies. See
Refining and Metallurgy.
DOCIMENUM marmor, a name given by the
ancients to a fpecies of marble of a bright and clear
white, much ufed in large and fumptuous build¬
ings, fuch as temples and the like. It had its name
from Docimems, a city of Phrygia, afterwards called
Synaia ; near which it was dug, and from whence it
was fent to Rome. It was accounted little inferior to
the Parian in colour, but not capable of fo elegant a
polifh ; whence it was lefs ufed by the 'flatuaries, or in
other fmaller works. The emperor Adrian is faid to
have ufed this marble in building the temple of Jupi¬
ter; and many others of the great works of the Ro¬
mans are of it.
DOCK, in botany. See Lapathum.
Dock, in the manege, is ufed for a large cafe of
leather, as long as the dock of a horfe’s tail, which
ferves it for a cover. The French call the dock
troujfequeuc. It is made fad by draps to the crupper,
and has leathern thongs that pafs between his thighs,
and along his flanks to the faddle-draps, in order to
keep the tail tight, and to hinder it from whilking a-
bout.
Dock, in maritime affairs, a fort of broad and deep
trench, formed on the fide of a harbour, or on the
banks of a river; and commodioufly fitted either to
build fhips, or receive them to be repaired and breamed
therein. Thefe forts of docks have generally flrong
flood-gates to prevent the flux of the tide from enter¬
ing the dock while the fhip is under repair.—There
are likewife docks of another kind, called oue/ docks,
where
D O D [ 2507 ] D O D
Dock v^liere a fhip can only be cleaned during the recefs of
II the tide, or in the interval between the time when the
1)0 n ^ tide left her dry a-ground, and the period when it a-
gain reaches her by the return of the flood. Docks of
the latter kind are not furnifhed with the ufual flood¬
gates.
"DocK-Tards, certain magazines containing all forts
of naval ftores and timber for fliip-building. In Eng¬
land, the royal dock yards are at Chatham, Portfmouth,
Plymouth, Deptford, Woolwich, and Sheernefs. His
majefty’s (hips and veffels of war are generally moored
at thefe ports during the time of peace; and fuch as
want repairing are taken into the docks, examined, and
refitted for fervice.
The principal dock-yards are governed by a com-
miffioner, refident at the port; who fuperintends all the
mufters of the officers, artificers, and labourers, em¬
ployed in the dockyyard, and ordinary. He alfo con¬
trols their payment therein; examines the accounts;
contrails, and draws bills on the navy-office to fupply
the deficiency of ftores ; and, finally, regulates what¬
ever belongs to the dock-yard, maintaining due order
in the refpeftive offices.
Thefe yards are generally fupplied from the northern
crowns with hemp, pitch, tar, rofin, canvas, oak-plank,
and feveral other fpecies. With regard to the mafts,
particularly thofe of the largeft fize, they are ufually
imported from New-England.
DOCTOR, a perfon who has paffed all the degrees
©f a faculty, and is impowered to teach or pradlife the
fame: thus we fay, doilor in divinity, dodtor in phy-
fic, dodlor of laws.
The title of doftor feems to have been created in the
Xllth century, infteadof viajier; and eftabliihed, with
the other fcholaftic degrees of bachelors and licen¬
tiates, by Peter Lombard and Gilbert Porreus, then
the chief divines of the univerfity of Paris. Gratian
did the fajne thing, at the fame time, in the univerfity
of Bologna.
Doctor ofthe Law, a title of honouramong the Jews.
The inveftiture, if we may fo fay, of this order was
performed by putting a key and table-book in their
hands; which is what fome authors imagine our Savi¬
our had in view, Luke xi. 52. when, fpeaking of the
dodtors, of the law, he fays, “ Wo unto you dodlors
of the law, for you have taken away the key of know¬
ledge : you entered not in yourfelves, and them that
were entering you hindered.”
Doctor, is alfo an appellation adjoined to feveral
fpecific epithets, expreffing the merit of fome of the
fchoolmen : thus, Alexander Hales is called the irre¬
fragable dodlor; Thomas Aquinas, the angelic dodlor;
St Bonaventure, the feraphic dodlor; John Duns Sco-
tus, the fnbtile dodlor; Raimond Lully, the illumi¬
nated dodlor; Roger Bacon, the admirable dodlor, &c.
T)oc-TOKS-Co?m»ons. See College of Civilians.
DOCUMENT, in law, fome written monument
produced in proof of any thing afferted.
DODDER, in botany. See Cuscuta.
DODDRIDGE (Philip), D. D. an eminent P-ef-
byterian minifter, was the fon of Daniel Doddridge an
oil-man in London, where he was born on the 26th of
June 1702; and having completed the ftudy of the
claffics in feveral fchools, was, in 1719, placed under
the tuition of the reverend Mr John Jennings, who kept
an academy at Kilworth in Leicefterfhire. He was Dodecagon
firft fettled as a minifter at Kilworth, where he preach- Do(1Jnjan
ed to a fmall congregation in an obfcure village: but,   -~
on Mr Jennings’s death, fucceeded to the care of his
academy; and foon after was chofen minifter of a large
congregation of Diflenters at Northampton, to which
he removed his academy, and where the number of his
pupils encreafed. He inftrudled his pupils with the
freedom and tcndernefs of a father; and never expefted
nor defired that they fhpuld blindly follow his fenti-
ments, but encouraged them to judge for themfelves.
He checked any appearance of bigotry and unchari-
tablenefs, and endeavoured to cure them by (hewing
what might be faid in defence of thofe principles they
difliked. He died at Lifbon, whither he went for the
recovery of his health ; and his remains were interred in
the burying-ground belonging to the Britifli fadlory
there, and a handfome mon.ument was ere&ed to his
memory in the meeting;houfe at Northampton, at the
cxpence of the congregation, on which is an epitaph
written by Gilbert Weft, efq. He wrote, 1. Free
thoughts on the moft probable means of reviving the
diflenting intereft; 2. The life of Colonel James
Gardiner; 4. Sermons oh the education of children;
4. The rife and progrefs of religion in the foul;
5. The Family Expofitor, in 6 vols. 410, &c. And fince
the author’s death, a volume of his Hymns have been
publifhed, and his Theological Ledlures. Several of
his works have been tranllated into Dutch, German,
and French.
DODECAGON, in geometry, a regular polygon
confiding of twelve equal fides and angles.
DODECAHEDRON, in geometry, one of the
platonic bodies, or regular folids, contained under
twelve equal and regular pentagons.
DODECANDRIA, (from twelve, and«»v>
a man); the name of the eleventh clafs in Linnaeus’s
fexual fyftem, confiding of plants with hermaphrodite
flowers, that, according to the title, have twelve (lami¬
na or male organs. This clafs, however, is not limited
with refpedl to the number of (lamina. Many genera
have fixteen, eighteen, and even nineteen (lamina; the
effential character feems to be, that, in the clafs in que-
llion, the (lamina, however numerous, are inferted into
the receptacle: whereas, in the next clafs, Icofandria,
which is as little determined in' point of number as the
prefent, they are attached to the infide of the calix or
flower-cup.
The orders in this clafs, which are fix, are founded
upon the number of the ftyles, or female organs. A-
farabacca, mangoftan, ftorax, purple loofe-ftrife, wild
Syrian rue,; and purflane, have only one ftyle; agrimony
and heliocarpus have two ; burning thorny plant, and
baftard rocket, three; glinus, five; illicium, eight; and
houfe-leek, twelve.
DODO, in ornithology. See Didus:
DODONIAN, Dodotuzus, in antiquity, an epithet
iven to Jupiter, becaufe he was worftiipped in a temple
uilt in the foreft of Dodona, where wasthe moft famous
and (it is faid) the mod ancient oracle of all Greece.
It is reported that the pigeons and the very oaks of the
foreft of Dodona fpoke and delivered oracles. In the
temple was a fountain, which the ancient naturalifts
affure us had a property of rekindling torches when
newly extinguiftied.
DO-
DOG [ 2508 ] DOG
DoJrans DODRANS, in antiquity, three fourths of the as.
II See the article As.
D°g5- DODSLEY (Robert), a late eminent bookfeller,
and ingenious writer, born at Mansfield in Nottingham-
fhire, in the year 1703. He was not indebted to edu¬
cation for his literary fame, being originally a livery
fervant; but his natural genius, and early paffion for
reading, foon elevated him to a fuperior ftation. He
wrote an elegant little fatirical farce called Tke Toy
Jbop, which was afted with applaufe in 1735, and which
recommended him to the patronage of Mr Pope. T.he
following year he produced the King and Miller of
Mansfield. The profits of thefe two farces enabled him
to commence bookfeller, and his own merit procured
him eminence in that profeffion. He wrote fome other
dramatic pieces, and publifhed a colle&ion of his works
in one vol. 8vo. under the modeft title of Trifles \ which
was followed by Public Virtue, a poem in 410. Befide
what he wrote himfelf, the public were obliged to him
for exerting his judgment in the way of his bufinefs;
he having collefted feveral volumes of well chofen
cellaneous Poems and Fugitive Pieces, whofe brevity
would elfe have endangered their being totally loft
to pofterity. He died in 1764.
DODWELL (Henry), a very learned controverfial
writer, born at Dublin, but of Ehglifh extraftion, in
1641. He wrote an incredible number of trafts: but
his fervices were fo little acknowledged, that bifho'p
Burnet and others accufe him of doing more hurt than
good to the caufe of Chriftianity, by his indifcreet love
of paradoxes and novelties, and thus expofing himfelf
to the feoffs of unbelievers. His pamphlet on thedm-
mortality of the foul, gave rife to the well known con-
troverfy between Mr Collins and Dr Clark on that fub-
jeft. He died in 1711.
DOESBURG, a town of the united provinces in
the county of Zutphen, and province of Guelderland.
It is fmall, but well peopled, and very ftrong, both by
art and nature, having the river Yffel on one fide, and
a morafs on the other, and is only to be approached
by a narrow neck of land. E. Long. 5. 55. N. Lat.
52- 3-
DOG, in zoology: An animal remarkable for its
natural docility, fidelity, and affedfion for its mafter;
which qualities mankind are careful to improve for
their own advantage. Thefe ufeful creatures guard our
houfes, gardens, and cattle, with fp;rit and vigilance.
By their help we are enabled to take not only beafts,
but birds; and to purfue game both over land and
through the waters. In fome northern countries, they
ferve to draw fleds, and are alfo employed to car¬
ry burdens. In feveral parts of Africa, China, and
by the Weft Indian negroes, dogs are eaten, and ac¬
counted excellent food. Nay, we have the teftimony
of Mr Forfter, that dogs flefh, in tafte, exaftly refem-
;.fnf-bles mutton*. They were alfo ufed as food by the
IC ’ n Romans, and long before them by the Greeks, as we
learn from feveral treatifes of Hippocrates. In the
prefent times, their Ikins, drefied with the hair on, are
ufed in mutts, made into a kind of bufkins for perfons
in the gout, and for other purpofes. Prepared in ano¬
ther way, they are ufed for ladies gloves, and the linings
of mafks, being thought to make the Hein peculiarly
white and fmooth. The French import many of thefe
ikins from Scotland, under a fmall duty. Here, when
tanned, they ferve for upper leathers for neat pumps,
Dogs ikins drefied are exported under a fmall, and im¬
ported under a high, duty. The French import from
Denmark large quantities of dogs hair, both white and
black. The laft is elteemed the heft, and is worked
up in the black lift of a particular kind of woollen
cloth; but is not ufed, as many have fuppofed, in ma¬
king of hats, being entirely unfit for this purpofe.
With regard to the qualities of dogs, thofe bred in
the ifiand of Britain are juftly reckoned fuperior to the
dogs bred in any other country. The fwiftnefs of the
gre-hound is amazing: as are alfo the fteadinefs and
perfeverance of other hounds and beagles; the boldnefs
of terriers in unearthing foxes, &cr] the fagacity of
pointers and fetting dogs, who are taught a language
by figns as intelligible to fportfmen as fpeech ; and the
invincible fpirit of a bull-dog, which can be quelled
only by death.—All the nations in Europe not only
do juttice to the fuperior qualities of the Britifii dogs,
but adopt our terms and names, and thankfully receive
the creatures as prefents.—It is remarkable, however,
that almoft every kind of Britifii dogs degenerate in
foreign countries; nor is it pofiible to prevent this de¬
generacy by any art whatever.
For the natural hiftory of the dog, fee Canis.
Chufing (?/"Dogs. In order to chufe a dog and bitch
for good wh'elps, take care that the bitch come of a
generous kind, be well proportioned, having large ribs Sportfman's
and flanks; and likewife that the dog be of a good
breed and young, for a young dog and an old bitch
breed excellent whelps.
The beft time for hounds nitches, or bratchets, to
be lined in, arethe months of January, February, and
March. The bitch fliould be ufed to a kennel, that
fhe may like it after her whelping, and file ought to
be kept warm. Let the whelps be weaned after two
months old ; and though it be fome difficulty to chufe
a whelp under the dam that will prove the beft of the
litter, yet fome approve that which is laft, and account
him to be the beft. Others remove the whelps from
the kennel, and lay them feverally and apart one from
the other; then they watch which of them the bitch
firft takes and carries into her kennel again, and that
they fuppofe to be jhe beft. Others again imagine
that which weighs leaft when it fucks to be the beft:
this is certain, that the lighter whelp will prove the
fwifter. As foon as the bitch has littered, it is pro¬
per to chufe them you intend to preferve, and drown
the reft : keep the black, brown, or of one colour; for
the fpotted are not much to be efteemed, though of
hounds the fpotted are to be valued.
Hounds for chafe are to be chofen by their colours.
The white, with black ears, and a black fpot at the' fet¬
ing on of the tail, are the moft principal to compofe
a kennel of, and of good feent and condition. The
black hound, or the black tanned, or the all liver-co¬
loured, or all white : the true talbots are the beft for
the ftronger line ; the grizzled, whether mixed or ua-
mixed, fo they be fhag-haired, are the beft verminers,
and a couple of thefe are proper for a kennel.— In ftiort,
take thefe marks of a good hound. That his head be
of a middle proportion, rather long than round; his
noftrils wide, his ears large, his back bowed; his
fillet great, his haunches large, thighs well truffed,
ham ftrait, tail big near the reins, the reft flender;
DOG [ 2509 ] DOG
Dog. the leg big, the foie of the foot dry, and in the form
Sportfman's °f that of a foX with large cIaws-
Did, Keeping Dogs in health.—As pointers and fpaniels,
when good of -their kinds and well broken, are very
valuable to a fportfman, it is worth while to take fome
care to preferve them in health. This very much de¬
pends on their diet and lodging: frequent cleaning
their kennels, and giving them frefla draw to lie on, is
very neceffary; or, in fummer-time, deal-fhavings,
or fand, inftead of draw, will check the breeding
of deas. If you rub your dog with chalk, and
brufh and comb him once or twice a-week, he will
thrive much the better; the chalk will clear his Ikin
from all greafinefs, and he will be the lefs liable to be
mangy. A dog is of a very hot nature: he (hould
therefore never be without clean water by him, that
he may drink when he is thirdy. In regard to their
food, carion is by no means proper for them : it mud
hurt their fenfe of fmelling, on which the excellence
of thefe dogs greatly depends. Barley-meal, the drofs
of wheat flour, or both mixed together, with broth or
(Icimmed milk, is very proper food. For change, a
fmall quantity of greaves from which the tallow is
preffed by the chandlers, mixed with their flour, or
fheep’s feet well baked or boiled, area very good diet;
and when you indulge them with flefti, it fhould always
be boiled. In the feafon of hunting your dogs, it is
proper to feed them in the evening before, and give
them nothing in the morning you intend to take them
out except a little milk. If you flop for your own
refrelhment in the day, you {hould alfo refrefli your
dogs with a little bread and milk. It has been
already obferved that dogs are of a hot conftitution ;
the greateft relief to them in the fummer, is twitch-
grafs, or dog-grafs, which is the fame thing. You
fhould therefore plant fome of it in a place where you
can turn them into every morning : they will feed
freely on it to be cured of the ficknefs they are fubjeft
to, and cured of any extraordinary heat of blood: but
unlefs the grafs be of this fort, it will have no effeft.
Difeafes of Dogs.—1. Bites and Stings. If dogs
are bitten by any venomous creatures, as fnakes,
adders, &c. fqueeze out the blood, and wa/h the place
with fait and urine ; then lay a plafter to it made of
calamiut, pounded in a mortar, with turpentine and
yellow wax, till it come to a falve. If you give your
dog fome of the juice of calamine to drink in milk, it
will be good ; or an ounce of treacle diflblved in fome
fweet wine.
2. Mange. Dogs are fubjeft to the mange from
being fed too high, and allowed no exe'rcife or an op¬
portunity of refrefhing themfelves with dog-grafs ; or
by being ftarved at home, which will caufe them to
eat the vileft fluff abroad, fuch as carrion, or even hu¬
man excrement ; or by want of water, and fometimes
by not being kept clean in their kennel, or by founder¬
ing and melting in their greafe. Either of thefe will
heat the blood to a great degree, which will have a
tendency to make them mangy. The cure may be ef-
fe&ed by giving ftone-brimftone powdered line, either
in milk or mixed up with butter, and rubbing them
well every day for a week with an ointment made of
fome of the brimftone and pork-lard, to which add a
fmall quantity of oil of turpentine.—Or, boil four
ounces of quickfilver .in two quarts of water to half the
Vot. IV.
quantity ; bathe them every day with this water, and Dog-
let them have fome of it to lick till the cure is perfe&ed. ^ponfmau's
Or, a fmall quantity of trooper’s ointment rubbed on Did.
the parts on its firfl appearance will cure it. It will
alfo free loufy puppies from their lice. Or, take two
ounces of euphorbium ; flour of fulphur, Flanders oil
of bays, and foft foap, each four ounces. Anoint and
rub your dog with it every other day ; give him warm
milk, and no water. The cure will be performed in
about a week. The following receipt is alfo faid to
be efScacious. Take two handfuls of wild crefles, and
as much elecampane, and alfo of the leaves and roots
of roerb and forrel, and two pounds of the roots of
fodrels: boil all thefe well together in lee and vinegar;
ftrain the decoftion, and put into it two pounds of
grey foap and when it is melted, rub the dog with it
four or five days fucceflively, and it will cure him.
3. Poifon. If you fufpeft your dog to be poifoned
with nux vomica, (the poifon ufually employed by the
warreners, which caufes convulfive fits and foon kills);
the moft effedlual remedy, if immediately applied, is
to give him a good deal qf common fait; to adminifter
which, you may open his mouth, and put a flick acrofs
to prevent his (hutting it, whilft you cram his throat
full of fait, at the fame time holding his mouth up¬
wards ; and it will difiblve fo that a fufficient quantity
will be fwallowed to purge and vomit him. When his
ftomach is fufficiently cleared by a free paflage obtained
by ftool, give him fome warm broth frequently, to pre¬
vent his expiring from faintnefs; and he will recover.
4. Worms. Dogs are very frequently troubled with
worms; but more particularly whilft they are young.
Any thing bitter is fo naufeous to thefe worms, that
they are very often voided by taking two or three
purges of aloes ; or (which is the fame thing) Scots
pills, four or five being a dofe for a large dog : this is
to be repeated two or three times in a week. If this
do not fucceed, you may give him an ounce of powder
of tin mixed up with butter, in three dofes; which fel-
dom fails to cure. Or of the herb favin, dried and
rubbed to powder, give about as much as will lie on a
{hilling for a dofe; which will entirely deftroy worms
and their feed.
6. Sore Feet. A pointer ought not to be hunted
oftener than two or three days in a week : and unlefs
you take care of his feet, and give him good lodging
as well as proper food, he will not be able to perform
that through the feafon. You {hould therefore, after a
hard day’s hunting, wafli his feet with warm water and
fait; and when dry, wafli them with warm broth, or
beer and butter, which will heal their forenefs, and
prevent a fettled ftiffnefs from fixing.
7. Strains^ Blows, or fmall Wounds. If your dog
has received any little wounds by forcing thro’ hedges,
or gets any lamenefs from a blow or ftrain; bathe the
wound or grieved part with fait and cold vinegar (for
warming it only evaporates the fine fpirit); and when
dry, if a wound, you may pour in it a little friar’s
balfam, which will perform the cure fooner than any
method hitherto experienced.
8. Coughs and Colds. Dogs are very fubjedl to a
cough, with an extraordinary choaking, which is thought
to arife generally from a cold or fome inward diforder ;
and probably it is often occafioned by their eating of
fifli-bones. To guard again ft it, order your fervants
14 P t«
DOG [25
Dog. to throw all fuch fifh-bones where the dog can’t get at
—~ them. But if the diforder be from a cold, let bleed-
biff.’ *ng be repeated in fmall quantities, if neceffary; but if it
be whatiscalled the di/?e?nper in dogs, and they appear to
be very low in fpirits, the bleeding is better omitted.
Let meat-broth, or milk-broth warmed, be the principal
part of his diet, ufing at the fame time the following
medicine. Take flour of fulphur, cpld drawn linfeed
oil, and falt-petre, of each an ounce ; divide it into four
dofes, giving him one dofe every other day, and let
him have plenty of clean ftraw to lie on; or one fpoon-
ful of honey daily.
DoG-Madfiefs. Of this there are no lefs than feven
forts common among dogs. The chief caufes are, high-
feeding, want ofexercife,fulnefsof blood, and coftivenefs.
As' for the two firft, you mud obferve when you hunt
them, that they fhould be better fed than when they reft ;
and let them be neither too fat nor too lean ; but, of the
two, rather fat than lean ; by which means they will
not only be preferved from madnefs, but alfo from the
mange and fcab: which difeafes they will be fubjeif to
far want of air, water, or exereife; but if you have but
the knowledge to keep them in an even temper, they
may live long, and continue found. As for water,
they fliould be left to their own pleafure; but for exer-
cife and diet, it muft be ordered according to difcre-
tion, obferving a medium. Give them once a week,
efpecially in the heat of the year, five or fix fpoonfuls
ef falad oil, which will cleanfe them: at other times,
the quantity of a hazle-nut of mithridate is an excel¬
lent thing to prevent difeafes. It is alfo very good to
bleed them under the tongue, and behind the ears.
The fymptoms of madnefs are many and eafily dif-
cerned. When any dog feparatcs himfelf contrary to
his former ufe, becomes melancholy or droops his head,
forbears eating, and as he runs fnatches at every thing;
if he often looks upwards, and his item at his felting
on be a little eredf, and the reft hanging down ; if his
eyes be red, his breath ftrong, his voice hoarfe, and he
drivels and foams at the mouth; you may be allured he
has this diftemper.
The feven forts of madnefs are as follow; of which
■ the two firft are incurable. 1. The hot burning mad¬
nefs. 2. The running madnefs. The animals labour¬
ing under thefe are peculiarly dangerous: for all things
they bite and draw blood from, will have the fame di¬
ftemper; and they generally feire on all they meet
with, but chiefly on dogstheir pain is fo great, it foon
kills them.—The five curable madnefles are,
3. Sleeping madnefs, fo called from the dog’s great
drowfinefs, and almoft continual fleeping. This is cau-
fed by the little worms that breed in the mouth of the
ftomach, from corrupt humours, vapours, and fumes
which afcend to the head: for cure of which, take fix
ounces of the juice of wormwood, two ounces of the
powder of hartlhorn burnt, and two drams of agaric;
mix all thefe together in a little white-wine, and give
it the dog to drink in a drenching horn.
4- Du,mb madnefs, lies alfo in the blood, and caufes
the dog not to feed, but to hold his mouth always wide
open, frequently putting his feet to his mouth, as if he
had a bone in his throat: to cure this, take the juice
of black hellebore, the juice of fpatula putrida, and of
rue, of each four ounces; ftrain them well, and put
thereto two drams of unprepared fcammony; and being
10 j DOG
mixed well together, put it down the dog’s throat with Dog.
a drenching horn, keeping his head up for feme time, f Ti
left he call it out again ; then bleed him in the mouth, p;#;
by cutting two or three veins in his gums.
It is faid that about eight drams of the juice of an
herb called hartjhorn, or dog's-tooth, being given to the
dog, cures all forts of madnefs.
5. Lank inadnefs, is fo called by reafon of the dog’s
leannefs and pining away. For cure give them a purge
as before dire&ed, and alfo bleed them: but fome fay
there is no cure for it.
6. Rheumatic or favering madnefs, occafions the
dog’s head to fwell, his eyes to look yellow, and he
will be always Havering and driveling at the mouth.
To cure which, take four ounces of the powder of the
roots of polipodyof the oak, fix ounces of the juice of
fennel-roots, with the like quantity of the roots of
mifletoe, and four ounces of the juice of ivy : boil all
thefe together in white-wine, and give it to the dog as
hot as he can take it, in a drenching horn.
7. Falling madnefs, is fo termed becaufe it lies in the
dog’s head, and makes him reel as he goes, and to
fall down. For the cure, take four ounces of the juice of
briony, and the fame quantity of the juice of peony,
with four drams of ftavefacre pulverized; mix thefe to¬
gether, and give it the dog in a drenching horn ; alfo
let him blood in the ears, and in the two veins that
come down his flioulders ; and indeed bleeding is ne-
ceffary fer all forts of madnefs in dogs.
When a dog happens to be bit by a mad one, there is
nothing better than their licking the place with their
own tongues, if they can reach it; if not, then let it
be waflied with butter and vinegar made luke-warm,
and let it afterwards be anointed with Venice turpen¬
tine; it is alfo good to pifs,often on the wound; but,
above all, take the juice of the ftalks of ftrong tobacco
boiled in water, and bathe the place therewith; alfo
wafti him in fea-water, or water artificially made fait:
give him likewife a little mithridate inwardly in two or
three fpoonfuls of fack, and fo keep him apart; and if
you find him after fome time ftill to droop, the beftway is
to hang him.
Some have afferted their having cured feveral crea¬
tures that have been bit by mad dogs, with only giving
them the middle yellow bark of buckthorn ; which
muft be boiled in ale for a horfe or cow, and in milk
for a dog; but that it muft be boiled till it is as bitter
as you can take it.
As to the preventive of worming dogs, fee Worm¬
ing.
'Doo-Days. See Canicula.
'DoG-Fijh, in ichthyology. See Squalus.
Tbocs-Bane. See Apocynum.
T>og-Wood Free. See Piscidia.
DOGE, the chief magiftrate in the republic of Ve¬
nice and Genoa.—The word properly fignifies duke,
being formed from the Latin dux; as dogate, and do-
gado, from ducatus, duchy.
This dignity is elective in both Venice and Genoa.
In the firft, it continues for life; at Genoa, it is only
for two years. His title is Serenity; he is chief of the
council, and mouth of the republic, he being to anfwer
for her. The Venetians do not go into mourning at his
death, he being only the phantom of majefty, as all the
authority is veiled in the republic the doge only lends
DOG [25
Dogger h!s name to the fenate; the power is diffufed through
jj the whole body; though anfwers to foreign ambaffa-
Dole- dors, &c. are made in the name of the doge. The
money is ftruck in his name, but does not bear his
arms. All the magiftrates rife and falute him when
he comes into the council: but he rifes to none but fo¬
reign ambaffadors. He muft not ftir out of Venice,
without leave of the counfellors, &c.
DOGGER, a Dutch fifhing-veflel navigated in the
German ocean. It is generally employed in the her¬
ring fishery, being equipped with two mafts, viz. a
main-maftand a mizen-maft, and fomewhat refembling
a ketch. See the Plates at the article Ship.
Doggers, in the Engliih alum works, a name given
by the workmen to a fort of (tone found in the fame
mines with the true alum rock, and containing (ome
alum, though not near fo much as the right kind. The
county of York, which abounds greatly with the true
alum-rock, affords alfo a very confiderable quantity of
thefe doggers; and, in fome places, they approach fo
much to the nature of the true rock, that they are
wrought to advantage.
DOGMA, a principle, maxim, tenet, or fettled opi¬
nion, particularly with regard to matters of faith and
philofophy.
DOGMATICAL, fomething belonging to a doc¬
trine or opinion. A dogmatical philofopher is one who
afferts things pofitively; in oppolition to a fceptic, who
doubts of every thing.
DOGMATISTS, a fe& of ancient phyficians, of
which Hippocrates was the firlt author. They are alfo
called logici, logicians, from their ufing the rules of lo¬
gic in fubjefts of their profeffion. They laid down de¬
finitions and divifions; reducing difeafes to certain gene¬
ra, and thofe genera to fpecies, and furnilhing reme¬
dies for them all; fuppofing principles, drawing con-
clufions, and applying thofe principles and conclufions
to particular difeafes under confideration : in which
fenfe the dogmatiils (land contradiftinguifhed from em¬
pirics and methoditls. They rejeft all medicinal vir¬
tues that they think not reducible to manifeft qualities:
but Galen hath long ago obferved of Inch men, that
they muff either deny plain matter of fa&, or affign
but very poof reafons and caufes of many effe&s they
pretend to explain.
DOLCE (Carlo, or Carlino), a celebrated hiftory
and portrait painter, was born at Floren«e in 1616, and
was the difciple of Vignali. This great mafter was
particularly fond of reprefenting pious fubje&s, though
he fometimes painted portraits; and his works are ea-
fily diftinguilhed by the peculiar delicacy with which
lie perfected all his compofitions, by a pleafing tint of
colour, and by a judicious management of the chiaro
fcuro. His performance was remarkably flow: and it
is reported that his brain was fatally affefted by feeing
Luca Jordano difpatch more bufinefs in four or five
hours, than he could have done in as many months. He
died in 1686.
DOLE, in our ancient cufloms, fignified a part or
portion, moft commonly of a meadow, where feveral
perfons have fhares. It alfo ftill fignifies a diltribution
or dealing of alms, or a liberal gift made by a great
man to the people.
Dole, in Scots law, fignifies a malevolent intention.
It i* effential in every crime, that it be committed in-
ii ] D O L
tentionally, or by an ad of the will; hence the rale, Dolichas.
Crimen dolo contrahitur. *
DOLICHOS, kidney-bean ; a genus of the de-
candria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of
plants. There are 25 fpecies, the moft remarkable of
which are the following.
1. The lablab with a winding ftalk, is a native of
warm climates, where it is frequently cultivated for
the table. Mr Haffelquift informs us, that it is culti¬
vated in the Egyptian gardens, but is not a native of
that country. The Egyptians make pleafant arbours
with it in their houfes and gardens, by fupporting the
ftem and leading it where they think proper. They
not only fupport it with flicks and wood, but tie it
with cords; by which means the leaves form an excel¬
lent covering, and an agreeable fhade.
2. The foja is a native of Japan, where it is termed
daidfu ; and, from its excellence, ; that is, “the
legumen or pod,” by way of eminence. It grows with
an ered, {lender, and hairy ftalk, to our height of about
four feet. The leaves are like thofe of the garden kid¬
ney-bean *. The flowers are of a bluifh white, and pro- * See re¬
duced from the bofom of the leaves, and fucceeded by feolus,
briftly hanging pods refembling thofe of the yellow
lupine, which commonly contain two, fometimes three,
large white feeds. There is a variety of this kind, with
a fmall black fruit, which is ufed in medicine. Kemp-
fer affirms that the feeds of this when pounded, and
taken inwardly, give relief in the afthma. This legu-
men is doubly ufeful in the Japanefe kitchens. It ferves
for the preparation of a fubftance named mijo, that is
ufed as butter ; and likewife a piekle celebrated among
them under the name of fooju, or foy. To make the
firft, they take a meafure of mame, or the beans pro¬
duced by the plant: after boiling them for a confide¬
rable time in water, and to a proper degree of foftnefs,
theybeator bray them into a foftifh pulfe; incorporating
with it, by means of repeated braying, a large quan¬
tity of common fait, four meafures in fummer, in
winter three. The lets fait that is added, the fubftance
is more palatable ; but what it gains in point of tafte,
it lofes in durability. They then add to this mixture
a certain preparation of rice, to which they give the
name of koos; and, having formed the whole into a
compoft, remove it into a wooden veffel which had
lately contained their common ale or beverage named
facki. In about two months it is fit for ufe. The koos
give it a grateful tafte; and the preparing of it, like
the polenta of the Germans, requires the ikilful hand
of an experienced mafter. For this reafon there are
certain people who make it their foie bufinefs to pre¬
pare the koos, and who fell it ready made for the pur-
pofe of making mifo: a fubftance which cannot fail to
be greatly valued in thofe countries, where butter from
the milk of animals is unknown. To make fooju, or
foy, they take equal quantities of the fame beans boil¬
ed to a certain degree of foftnefs; of muggi, that is
corn, whether barley or wheat, roughly ground; and
of common fait. Having properly mixed the beans
with the pounded corn, they cover up the mixture, and
keep it for a day and a night in a warm place, in or¬
der to ferment; then, putting the mafs into a pot, they
cover it with the fait, pouring over the whole two mea¬
fures and a half of water. This compound fubftance
they carefully ftir at leaft once a-day, if twice or thrice
14 P 2 the
D O L [25
Dolichos. the better, for two or three months: at the end of
* which time, they filtrate and exprefs the mafs, prefer-
ving the liquor in wooden veflels. The older it is, the
better and the clearer ; and if made of wheat inftead
of barley, greatly blacker. The firft liquor being re¬
moved, they again pour water upon the remaining
mafs; which, after itirring for fome days, as before,
they exprefs a fecond time, and thus obtain an inferior
fort of foy.
3. The urens, or cow-itch, is alfo a native of warm
climates. It hath a fibrous root, .and an herbaceous
climbing ftalk, which is naked, dividing into a great
number of branches; and rifes to a great height when
properly fupported. The leaves are alternate and tri¬
lobate, riling from the Item and branches about 12
inches diftant from each other. The footftalk is cy¬
lindrical, from 6 to 14 inches long. From the axilla
of the leaf defcends a pendulous folitary fpike, from
6 to 14 inches long, covered with long blood-coloured
papilionaceous flowers, rifing by threes in a double al¬
ternate manner from fmall flelhy protuberances, each
of which is a fhort pendunculus of three flowers. Thefe
are fucceeded by leguminous, coriaceous pods, four or
five inches long, crooked like an Italic f; denfely co¬
vered with lharp hairs, which penetrate the fltin, and
caufe great itching. This will grow in any foil, in
thofe countries where it is a native: but is generally
eradicated from all cultivated grounds; becaufe the
hairs from the pbds fly with the winds, and torment
every animal they happen to touch. If it was not for
this mifchievous quality, the beauty of its flowers would
entitle it to a place in the bell gardens. It flowers in
the cool months, from September to March, accord¬
ing to the fituation.
This plant has lately acquired a confiderable reputa¬
tion as an anthelmintic. As fuch it is mentioned by
Dr Macbride, in his “ Introduftion to the theory and
pra&ice of Phyfic,” and by fome other athors. From
the teftimonies of Mr Cochrane furgeon at Nevis, and
Mr Bancroft author of a “ Natural hiltory of Guiana,”
we are affured that it is ufed in thefe countries with
the greateft fafety and efficacy. Mr Bancroft, after
mentioning the frequency of diforders a rifing from
worms in that part of the world, and affigning fome
reafons for them, proceeds as follows. “ But from
whatever caufe thefe worms are produced, their num¬
ber is fo great, that the ufual remedies are veryinfuffi-
cient for their deftru£Iion; for which reafon the plant¬
ers in general have recourfe to the cow-itch for that
purpofe. From whence its ufe was firft fuggefted, I
am uncertain ; but its efficacy is indifputable. The part
ufed is the fetaceous hairy fubftance growing on the
outfide of the pod, which is fcraped off, and mixed
with common fyrup or mo-affes, to the confiftence of
a thin elediuary; of which a tea-fpoonful to a child of
two or three years.old, and double the quantity to an
adult, is given in the morning faffing, and repeated
the two fucceeding mornings ; after which a dofe of
.rhubarb is ufually fubjpined. This is the empirical
praftice of the planters, who ufually once in three or
four months exhibit the cow-itch in this manner to
their flaves in general, but efpecially to all their chil¬
dren without diftin&ion ; and in this manner I have
feen it given to hundreds, from one year old and up¬
wards, with the raoft happy fuccefs. The patients, after
[2 ] DOM
the fecond dofe, ufually difcharged an incredible num- IK-Iichc*
ber of worms, even to the amount of more than 20 at II
a time; fo that the ftools confifted of little elfe than Dumat-
thefe animals. But though thefe were indifputable
proofs of its efficacy, I was far from being convinced
of its fafety. I obferved that the fubftance given con¬
fifted of an affemblage of fpiculae exquifitely fine, and
lo acutely pointed, that, when applied to the fltin, they
excited an intolerable itching, and even inflammation;
from whence I apprehended dangerous confequences
from their contact with the coats of the ftomach and
inteftines. Indeed, when mixed with an eledluary in
the manner in which they are given, their elafticity is
impaired, that they do not produce the fame fenlible
irritation : but yet I could conceive no other quality
on which their efficacy depended; efpecially after 1 had
prepared both a timSure and d'ecodlion from the cow¬
itch, and given them to worm-patients without any
fenfible advantage. Influenced by thefe fuggeftions, I
particularly examined the ftate and condition of all
fuch patients as I knew had .taken the cow-itch; and
yet can with the greateft truth declare, that, though
prejudiced to its difad vantage, I was never able, either
by my own obfervation or a diligent inquiry, to dif-
cover a Angle inftance of any ill confequence refulting
from its ufe; which has been fo extenfive, that feveral
thoufands muff; have taken it: and as no ill effe&s have
been obferved, I think not only its efficacy, hut fafety,
are fufficiently evinced, to entitle it to general ufe;
efpecially when we refleft on the uncertainty, and even
danger, which attends other vermifuges. It is to be
obferved, that this remedy is particularly defigned a-
gainft the long round worm. Whether it is equally de¬
leterious to the afcarides, or whether it has ever been
ufed againft them, is uncertain.
DOLLAR, a filver coin current in feveral parts of
Germany and Holland. There are various fptcies of
dollars; as the rix-dollar, the femi-dollar, the quarter-
dollar, &c. See Money-T^/c.
DOLPHIN, in ichthyology. See Delphinus.
Dolphin of the Mqji, a peculiar kind of wreath*
formed of plaited cordage, to be fattened occafionally
round the mafts, as a fupport to the puddening, whofe
ufe is to fuftain the weight of the fore and main yards,
in cafe the rigging, or chains, by which thofe yards,
are fufpended, fhould be Ihot away in the time of
battle ; a circumftance which might render their fail»
ufelefs at a feafon when their affiftance is extremely ne-
ceffary. Seethe article Puddening.
DOM, or Don, a title of honour, invented and
chiefly ufed by the Spaniards, fignifying /fr, or lord.
This title, it feems, was firft given to Pelayo, in the
beginning of the VI11th century. In Pbrtugal no
perfon can affume the title of don, without the permif-
fion of the king, fince it is looked upon as a mark of
honour and nobility. In France it is fometimes ufed
among the religious. It is an abridgment of domnui,
from dominus.
Dom andSom, in old charters, fignifies full property
and jurifdidtion-
DOMAIN, the inheritance, eftate, or pofleffion of
anyone. See Demesne.
DOMAT (John), a celebrated French lawyer born
in 1625, who obferving the confufed ftate of the laws,
digefted them in 4 vols 410, under the title of “ The
civil
DOM [25
' Dome civil laws in their natural order:” for which underta-
II king, Lewis XIV. fettled on him a penfion of 2000
Dome a>. ^;vreSj J)omat was intimate with the famous Pafcal,
who left him his private papers at his death: he him-
felf died in 1696.
DOME, in architecture, a fpherical roof, or a roof
of a fpherical form, raifed over the middle of a build¬
ing, as a church, hall, paviliony veftibule, itair-cafe,
&c. by way of crowning.
Dome, in chemiltry, the upper part of furnaces,
particularly portable ones. It has the figure of a hol¬
low hemifphere or fmall dome. Its life is to form a
fpace in the upper part of the furnace, the air of which
is continually expelled by the fire : hence the current
of air is confiderably increafed, which is obliged to en¬
ter by the afli-hole, and to pafs through the fire, to
fupply the place of the air driven from the dome. The
form of this piece renders it proper to refleCI or rever¬
berate a part of the flame upon the matters which are
in the furnace, which has occafioned this kind of fur¬
nace to be called a reverberating one. See Furnace.
Dome, or Doom, fignifies judgment, fentence, or
decree. The homagers oath in the black book of
Hereford ends thus: “ So help me God at his holy
dome, and by my trowthe.”
DOMENICHINO, a famous Italian painter, born
of a good family at Bologna in 1581. He was at firft
a difciple of Calvart the Fleming, but foon quitted his
fchool for that of the Caraccis. He always applied
himfelf to his work with much ftudy and thoughtful-
nefs; and never offered to touch his pencil but when he
found a proper kind of enthufiafm upon him. His
great (kill in architecture alfo procured him the ap¬
pointment of chief architect of the apoftolical palace
from Pope Gregory XV.; nor was he without a theo-
retrical knowledge in mufic. He.died in 1641.
DOMESDAY, or doomsday. Book, a mod an¬
cient record, made in the time of William I. furnamed
the Conqueror, and containing a furvey of all the lands
of England. It confifts of two volumes, a greater and
alefs. The firft is a large folio, written on 38a double
pages of vellum, in a fmall but plain character; each
page having a double column. Some of the capital
letters and principal paffages are touched with red ink;
and fome have ftrokes of red ink run crofs them, as if
fcratched out. This volume contains the defcription of
31 counties. The other volume is in quarto, written
upon 450 double pages of vellum, but in a fingle co¬
lumn, and in a large but very fair character. It con¬
tains the counties of Effex, Norfolk, Suffolk, part of
the county of Rutland included in that of Northamp¬
ton, and part of Lancafhire in the counties of York
and Chefter.
This work, according to the red book in the ex¬
chequer, was begun by order of William the Con¬
queror, with the advice of his parliament, in the year
of our Lord 1080, and completed in the year 1086.
The reafon given for taking this furvey, as affigned by
feveral ancient records and hiftorians, was, that every
man fhould be fatisfied with his own right, and not u-
furp with impunity what belonged to another. But,
befides this, it is faid by others, that now all thofe
who poffeffed landed eftates became vaffals to the king,
and paid him fo much money by way of fee or ho¬
mage in proportion to the lands they held. This ap-
13 ] DOM
pears very probable, as there was at that time extant DomeftJay.
a general furvey of the whole kingdom, made by order ’~~
of king Alfred.
For the execution of the furvey recorded in domef-
day book, commiffioners were fent into every county
and fliire ; and juries fummoned in each hundred, out
of all orders of freemen, from barons down to the low¬
ed farmers. Thefe commiffioners were to be informed
by the inhabitants, upon oath, of the name of each
manor, and that of its owner ; alfo by whom it was
held in the time of Edward the Confcffor ; the number
of hides, the quantity of wood, of pafture, and of
meadow-land; how many ploughs were in thedemefne,
and how many in the tenanted part of it; how many
mills, how many fifh-ponds or fifheries belonged to it;
with the value of the whole together in the time of
king Edward, as well as when granted by king Wil¬
liam, and at the time of this furvey ; alfo whether it
was capable of improvement, or of being advanced m
its value': they were likewife direfted to return the te¬
nants of every degree, the quantity of lands then and
formerly held by each of them, what was the number
of villains or Haves, and alfo the number and kinds of
their cattle and live flock. Thefe inquifitions being firft
methodized in the county, were afterwards fent up ta
the king’s exchequer.
This furvey, at the time it was made, gave great
offence to the people ; and occafioned a jealoufy that it
was intended for fome new impofition. But notwith-
ftanding all the precaution taken by the conqueror to
have this furvey faithfully and impartially executed, it
appears from indifputable authority, that a faife return,
was given in by fome of the commiffioners ; and that*
as it is faid, out of a pious motive. This was particu¬
larly the cafe with the abbey of Cropland in Lincoln-
fhire, the poffeffions of which were greatly under¬
rated both with regard to quantity and value. Per¬
haps more of thefe pious frauds were difeovered, as it
is faid Ralph Flambard, minifter to William Rufus*
propofed the making a frefh and more rigorous inqui-
fition ; but this was never executed.
Notwithftanding this proof of its falfehood in fome
inftances, which muft throw a fufpicion on all others,
the authority of domefday-book was never permitted
to be called in queftion; and always, when it hath been «
neceffary to diftinguilh whether lands were held in an¬
cient demefne, or in any other manner, recourfe was
had to domefday-book, and to that only, to determine
the doubt. From this definitive authority, from which,
as from the fentence pronounced at domefday, or the
day of judgment, there could be no appeal, the name
of the book is faid to have been derived. But Stowe
affigns another reafon for this appellation ; namely*
that domefday-book is a corruption of domus Dei book}
a title given it becaufe heretofore depofited in the king’s
treafury, in a place of the church of Weftminfter or
Winchefter, called i&w/w/Dt’/. From the great care for¬
merly taken for the prefervation of this furvey, we may
learn the eftimation in which its importance was held.
The dialogue de Scaccariis fays, “ Liber ille (domef-
day) Jigilli regii comes eji individuus in thefauro.”
Until lately it has been kept under three different locks
and keys ; one in the cuftody of the treafurer, and the
others in that of the two chamberlains of the exche¬
quer. It is now depofited in the chapter-houfe at Weft-
xniii-
DOM [ 2514 ] DOM
Domeftlc minftcr, where it may be confulted on paying to the
.11 proper officers a fee of 6 r. 8 d. for a fearch, and four-
Donnnant. pence per i;ne for a tranfcript.
Befides the two volumes abovementioned, there is al-
fo a third made by order of the fame king; and which
differs from the others in form more than matter.
There is alfo a fourth called domefday, which is kept
in the exchequer ; which, though a very large volume,
is only an abridgement of the others. In the remem¬
brancer’s office in the exchequer, is kept a fifth book,
likewife called domefday, which is the fame with the
fourth book already mentioned. King Alfred had a
roll which \\e. domefday ; and the domefday-book
made by William the Conqueror referred to the time
of Edward the Confeffor, as that of king Alfred did
to the time of Ethelred. The fourth book of domef¬
day having manypi&ures and gilt letters in the begin¬
ning relating to the time of king Edward the Confef¬
for, this had led fome into a falfe opinion that domef¬
day-book was compofed in the reign of king Edward.
DOMESTIC, any man who afts under another,
ferving to compofe his family; in which he lives, or is
fuppofed to live, as a chaplain, fecretary, &c. Some¬
times domeftic is applied to the wife and children; but
very feldom to fervants, fuch as footmen, lacquies,
porters, See.
DOMICILE, in Scots law, is the dwelling-place
where a perfon lives with an intention to remain.
DOMIFYING, in aftrology, the dividing or dif-
tributing the heavens into 12 houfes, in order to ereft
a theme, or horofeope, by means of fix great circles,
called circles of pojition.
There are various ways of domifying; that of Regio¬
montanus, which is the moft common, makes the circles
of pofition pafs thro’ the interfettions of the meridian
and the horizon : others make them pafs through the
poles of the zodiac.
DOMINANT, (from the Latin word dominari, to
rule or govern), among muficians, is ufed either as an
adjective or a fubflantive ; but thefe different accepta¬
tions are far from being indiferiminate. Inbothfenfes
it is explained by Rouffeau as follows.
The dominant or fenfible chord is that which is prac-
tifed upon the dominant of the tone, and which intro¬
duces a perfeft cadence. Every perfect major chord
becomes a dominant chord, as foon as the feventh mi¬
nor is added to it.
Dominant, (fubft.) Of the three notes effential to
the tone, it is that which is a fifth from the tonick.
The tonick and the dominant fix the tone : in it they
are each of them the fundamental found of a particular
chord; whereas the mediant, which conftitutes the
mode, has no chord peculiar to itfelf, and only makes
a part of the chord of the tonick.
M. Rameau gives the name of dominant in general
to every note which carries a chord of the feventh; and
diftinguifhes that which carries the fenfible chord, by
the name of a tonick dominant: but, on account of the
length of the word, this addition to the name has not
been adopted by artifts: they continue fimply to call
that note a dominant, which is a fifth from the tonick ;
and they do not call the other notes which carry a
chord of the feventh dominants, but fundatnentals;
which is fufficient to render their meaning plain, and
prevents confufion.
A dominant, in that fpecies of church-mufic which is Domlna-
called plain-chant, is that note which is moft frequent- do'1
ly repeated or beaten, in whatever degree it may be Dot||jni
from the tonick. In this fpecies of mufic there are can'f
minants and tonicks, but no mediant.  
DOMINATION, or Dominion, in theology, the
fourth order of angels, or bleffed fpirits,in the hierarchy,
reckoning from the feraphim. See Angel.
DOMINGO, or St Domingo, the capital of the
iflandof Hifpaniola in the Weft Indies, is feated in that
part belonging to the Spaniards on the fouth fide of
the ifland, and has a commodious harbour. The town
is built in the Spanifh manner, with a great fquare i<|
the middle of it; about which are the cathedral, ana
other public buildings. From this fquare run the
principal ftreets, in a direA line, they being croffed
by others at right angles, fo that the form of the town
is almoft fquare. The country on the north and eaft
fide is pleafant and fruitful; and there is a large navi¬
gable river on the weft, with the ocean on the fouth.
It is the fee of an archbifhop, an ancient royal au¬
dience, and the feat of the governor. It has feveral
fine churches and monafteries; and is fo well fortified,
that a fleet and army fent by Oliver Cromwel, in
1654, could not take it. The inhabitants are Spa¬
niards, Negroes, Mulattoes, Meftices, and Albatra-
ces; of whom about a fixth part may be Spaniards.
It had formerly about 200b houfes, but it is much de¬
clined of late years. The river on which it is feated
is called Ozama. W. Long. 69. 30. N. Lat. 18.25.
DOMINIC (de Gufman), founder of the Domini¬
can order of monks, was born at Calahorra in Ara¬
gon, 1170. He preached with great fury againft the
Albigenfes, when Pope Innocent III. made acroifade
againft that unhappy people ; and was inquifitor in
Languedoc, where he founded his order, and got it
confirmed by the Lateran council in 1215. He died
at Bologna in 1221, and was afterwards canonized.
The dominican order has produced many illuftrious
men. See Dominicans.
DOMINICA, one of the Caribbee iflands in the
Weft Indies, about 39 miles long and 13 broad, fitua-
ted between 6i° and 62° W. Long, and between 150
and 16° of N. Lat. This ifland formerly belonged to
the French, but was ceded to Britain by the treaty in
1763. It is very advantageous to the latter, as being
fituated between the French iflands of Guadaloupe and
Martinico, fo that it is equally alarming to both; and
its fafe and commodious roads enable the Britifti pri¬
vateers to intercept, without rifque, the navigation of
France in her colonies, whenever a war happens be¬
tween the two nations.
La Dominica, one of the Marquesas Iflands in
the South Sea.
DOMINICAL letter, popularly called Sunday-
Letter, one of the feren letters A B C D E F G, ufed
in almanacks, ephemerides, &c. to denote the Sundays
throughout the year. See Astronomy, n° 310., The
word is formed from dominica or dominicus dies, Lord’s-
day, Sunday.
The dominical letters were introduced into the calen¬
dar by the primitive Chriftians, in lieu of the nundinal
letters in the Roman calendar.
DOMINICANS, an order of religious, called in
France Jacobins, and in England Black-friars or
Preaching
DOM [ 2515 ] DON
'Dominion Pnacfling-frititi This order, founded hy St Dominic,
il was approved of by Innocent. III. in 1215, and con-
na 1Qn' firmed by a bull of Honorius III. in 1216. The de-
fign of their inftitution was to preach the gofpel, con¬
vert heretics, defend the faith, and propagate Chri-
ftianity. They embraced the rule of St Auguftine, to
which they added (latutes and conftitutions which had
formerly been obferved either by the Carthulians or
Prasmonitratenfes. The principal articles enjoined per¬
petual filence, abllinence from flelh at all times, wear¬
ing of woollen, rigorous poverty, and feveral other
aulterities. This order has fpread into all the parts of
the world. It produced a great number of martyrs,
confeffors, bilhops ; and they reckon three popes, 60
cardinals, I5oarchbifhops, and 800 bifhops, of their or¬
der; befides the mailers of the facred palace, who have
always been Dominicans. They are inquifitors in many
places.
DOMINION, dominium, in the civil law, figni-
fies the power to ufe or difpofe of a thing as wepleafe.
Dominion, ox Domination. See Domination.
DOMIN1S (Mark Anthony de), archbiihopof Spa-
latro in Dalmatia at the clofe of the 15th and begin¬
ning of 16th centuries, was a man whofe ficklenels in
religion proved his ruin. His preferment, inftead of
attaching him to the church of Rome, rendered him
difaffefted to it. Becoming acquainted with our bi-
ihop Bedell, while chaplain to Sir Henry Wotton am-
baffador from James I. at Venice, he communicated
his books de republica ecclejiajiica to him; which were
afterwards publilhed at London, with Bedell’s correc¬
tions. He came to England with Bedell; where he
was received with great refpedl, and preached and
wrote againft the Romilh religion. He is faid to have
had a principal hand in publifhing father Paul’s/fyfory
of the council of Trent, & London, which was infcribed
to James in 1619. But on the promotion of Pope
Gregory XIV. who had been his fchool-fellow and old
acquaintance, he was deluded by Gondomar the Spa-
niih amba/fador into the hopes of procuring a cardi¬
nal’s hat, ’by which he fancied he (hould prove an in-
llrument of great reformation in the church. Accord¬
ingly he returned to Rome in 1622, recanted his er¬
rors, and was at firft well received : but he afterwards
wrote letters to England, repenting his recantation ;
which bjing intercepted, he was imprifoned by Pope
Urban VIII. and died in 1625. He was alfo the au¬
thor of the firll philofophical explanation of the rain¬
bow, which before his time was accounted a prodigy.
DOMINIUM eminens, in Scots law, that power
which the date or fevereign has over private property,
by which the proprietor may be compelled to fell it for
*.See ^aw> an adequate price where public utility requires *.
N° cUii. 1. Dominium Direftnm, in Scots law, the right which
a fuperior retains in his lands, notwithdanding the feu¬
dal grant to his vaflal. See Law, N°clxvi. 1.
Dominium Utile, in Scots law, the right which
the vaffal acquires in the lands by the feudal grant from
his fuperior. See LAW> N° clxvi. 1.
DOMITIAN, the Roman emperor, fon to Vef-
pafian, was the lad of the 12 Caefars. See (Hiftory
cf) Rome.
DONATION, an aft whereby a perfon transfers
to another either the property or the ufe of fomething
as a free gift. In order to be valid, it fuppofes a capa¬
city both in the donor and the donee; and requires Dor.atiils
confent, acceptance, and delivery, and by the French p()||nc
alfo regidry.  
DONATISTS, Chridian fchifmatics in Africa, who
took their name from their leader Donatus. A fecret
hatred sgaind Caecilian, elefted bifhop of Carthage
about the year 3 11, excited Donatus to form this feft.
Lfe accufed Caecilian of having delivered up the facred
books to the Pagans ; and pretended that his eleftion
was void, and all his adherents heretics. He taught
that baptifm adminidered by heretics was null, that
every church but the African was become prodituted,
and that he was to be the redorer of religion. Some
accufe the Donatids of Arianifm. Condantius and
Honorius made laws for their banilhment, and Theodo-
fitis condemned them to heavy mulfts.
DONATIVE, a gratuity, or prefent made to any
perfon.
Donative among the Romans was properly a gift
made to the foldiers, as congiarium was that made to
the people.
DONATORY, in Scots law, that perfon to whom
the king bedows his right to any forfeiture that has
fallen to the crown.
DONATUS, a fchifmatic bifhop of Carthage,
founder of the feft of Donatists. His followers
fwore by him, and honoured him like a god. He died
about 368.
Donatus (iElius)', a famous grammarian, lived at
Rome in 354. He was one of St Jerome’s maders; and
compofed commentaries on Terence and Virgil, which
are edeemed.
DONAWERT, a drong town of Germany, in the
circle of Bavaria on the frontiers of Suabia. It has
been taken and retaken feveral times in the wars of
Germany; and was formerly an imperial city, but at
prefent is fubjeft to the duke of Bavaria. E. Long.
10. 32. N. Lat. 48. 32.
DONAX, a genus of infefts belonging to the or¬
der of vermes tedacea. It is an animal of the oyder
kind; and the {hell has two valves, with a very obtufe
margin in the fore-part. There are 10 fpecies, prin¬
cipally didinguilhed by the figure of their (hells *. * Plate
DONCASTER, a market-town of Yorkfhire, 30 LXXXVII.
miles fouth of York. E. Long. 1.0. N. Lat. 53.30. <5*
DONNE (Dr John), an excellent poet and divine
of the 17th century. His parents were of the Romidi
religion, and ufed their utmoft efforts to keep him firm
to it; but his early examination of the controverfy be¬
tween the church of Rome and the Protedants, at lad
determined him to chufe the latter. He travelled into
Italy and Spain; where he made many ufeful obferva-
tions, and learned their languages to perfection. Soon
after his return to England, Sir Thomas Egerton,
keeper of the great feal, appointed him his fecretary;
in which pod; he continued five years. He marrying
privately Anne the daughter of Sir George Moore
then chancellor of the garter, and niece to the lord
keeper’s lady, was difmiffed from his place, and thrown
into prifon. But he was reconciled to Sir George by
the good offices of Sir Francis Wolley. In 1612, he
accompanied Sir Robert Drury to Paris. During this
time, many of the nobility folicited the king for fome
fecular employment for him. But hi? majedy, who
took pleafure in his converfation, had engaged him in
writing.
DOR [ 2516 1 DOR
Donne writing his Pfeudo Martyr, printed at London in 1610;
II. and was fo highly pleafed with that work, that in 1614
I>ona he prevailed with him to enter into holy orders ; ap¬
pointed him one of his chaplains, and procured him the
degree of Doftor of Divinity from the univerfity of
Oxford. In 1619, he attended the earl of Doncafter
in his embaffy into Germany. In 1621, he was made
dean of St Paul’s: and the vicarage of St Dunllan in
the weft, in London, foon after fell to him ; the ad-
vowfon of it having been given to him long before by
Richard earl of Dorfct. By thefe and other prefer¬
ments, he was enabled to be charitable to the poor,
kind to his friends, and to make good provifion for his
children- He wrote, befides the above, 1. Devotions
upon emergent occafions. 2. The ancient hiftory of
the Septuagint, tranflated from the Greek of Arifteus,
quarto. 3. Three volumes of fermons, folio. 4. A
confiderable number of poems ; and other works. He
died in 1631 ; and was interredin St Paul’s cathedral,
where a monument was ere&ed to his memory. His
writings (hew him to be a man of incomparable wit
and learning; but his greateft excellence was fatire.
He had a prodigious richnefs of fancy, but his thoughts
were much debafed by his verfification. He was, how¬
ever, highly celebrated by all the great men of that age.
DONOR, in law, the perfon who gives lands or
tenements to another in tail, &c.; as he to whom fuch
lands, &c. are given, is the dor.ee.
DOOMSDAY book. See Domesday Booh
DOOR, in architecture. SeeARCHiTECTURE,n°8i.
DORCHESTER, the capital of Dorfetfhire, fitu-
ated on the river Froom, fix miles north of Weymouth:
W. Long. 2. 35. N. Lat. 50. 40. It gives the title
of marquis to the noble family of Pierpoint, dukes of
Kingfton; and fends two members to parliament.
DOR, the !Engli(h name of the common black
beetle. Some apply it alfo to the dufty beetle, that
flies about hedges in the evening. See Scarab^us.
DO REE, or John Doree, in ichthyology. See
Zeus.
DORIA (Andrew), a gallant Genoefe fea-officer,
born in 1466. He entered into the fervice of Francis I.
of France ; but preferved that fpirit of independence
fo natural to a failor and a republican. When the
French attempted to render Savona, long the ob-
of jealoufy to Genoa, its rival in trade, Doria
remonftrated againft the meafure in a high tone ; which
bold aCtion, reprefented by the malice of his courtiers
in the moft odious light, irritated Francis to that de¬
gree, that he ordered his admiral Barbefieux to fail to
Genoa then in the hands of the French troops, to ar-
reft Doria, and to feize his galleys. This rafh order
Doria got timely hints of; retired with all his galleys
to a place of fafety; and, while his refentment was
thus railed, he clofed with the offers of the emperor
Charles V. returned his com million with the collar of
St Michael to Francis, andhoiftedthe Imperial colours.
Todeliverhis country, weary alike of the French and
Imperial yoke, from the dominion of foreigners, was
nowDoria’s higheft ambition; and the favourable mo¬
ment offered. Genoa was affliCIed with the peftilence,
the French garrifon was greatly reduced and ill-paid,
and the inhabitants were fufliciently difpofed to fecond
his views. He failed to the harbour with 13 galleys,
landed 500 men, and made himfelf mafter of the gates
and the palace with very little refiftance. The French Doric
overnor with his feeble garrifon retired to the citadel, II
ut was quickly forced to capitulate; when the people
ran together, and levelled the citadel with the ground.
It was now in Doria’s power to have rendered him¬
felf the fovereign of his country; but, with a mag¬
nanimity of which there are few examples, he affembled
the people in the court before the palace, difclaimed
all pre-eminence, and recommended to them to fettle
that form of government they chofe to eftablilh. The
people, animated by his fpirit, forgot their fa&ions,
and fixed that form of government which has fubfifted
ever fince with little variation. This event happened
in 1528. Doria lived to a great age, refpedted and
beloved as a private citizen ; and is ftill celebrated in
Genoa by the moft honourable of all appellations,
“ The father of his country, and the reftorer of its
liberty.”
DORIC, in general, any thing belonging to the
Dorians, an ancient people of Greece, inhabiting near
mount Parnaffus.
Doric Order. See Architecture, n° 48.
Doric Dialed, one of the five diale&s or manners
of fpeaking which were principally in ufe among the
ancient Greeks.—It was firft ufed by the Lacedemo¬
nians, particularly thofe of Argos; afterwards it paffed
into Epirus, Libya, Sicily, and the iflands of Rhodes,
Crete, &c.
Doric Mode, in mufic, the firft of the authentic
modes of the ancients. Its character is to be fevere,
tempered with gravity and joy; and is proper upon
religious occafions, as alfo to be ufed in war. It be¬
gins D, la, fol, re. Plato admires the mufic of the
Doric mode, and judges it proper to preferve good
manners as being mafeuline ; and on this account
allows it in his commonwealth. The ancients had
likewife their fubdoric or hypodoric mode, which
was one of the plagal modes. Its chara&er was to be
very grave and folemn : it began with re, a fourth
lower than the doric.
DORING, or Daring, among fportfmen, a term
ufed to exprefs a method of taking larks, by means of
a clap-net and a Ipoking-glafs. For this fport there
muft be provided four flicks very ftraight and light,
about the bignefs of a pike; two of thefe are to be
four feet nine inches long, and all notched at the edges
or the ends. At one end of each of thefe fticks there
is to be faftened another of about a foot long on one
fide ; and on the other fide a fmall wooden peg about
three inches long. Then four or more fticks are to be
prepared, each of one foot length ; and each of thefe
muft have a cord of nine feet long faftened to it at the
end. Every one fliould have a buckle for the com¬
modious faftening on to the refpe&ive fticks when the
net is to be fpread,—A cord muft alfo be provided,
which muft have two branches. The one muft jiave
nine feet and a half, and the other ten feet long, with
a buckle at the end of each ; the reft, or body of the
cord, muft be 24 yards long. All thefe cords, as well
the long ones as thofe about the fticks, muft be well
twiftedandof the bignefs of one’s little finger. The next
thing to be provided is a ftaff of four feet long, pointed
at one end, and with a ball of wood at the other, for
the carrying thefe conveniencies in a fack or wallet.—
There (hould alfo be carried, on this occafion, a fpade
to
DOR [ 2517 ] DOR
Doris to level the ground where there may be any little irre-
I!. gularities ; and two fmall rods, each 18 inches long,
Poronicum anj having a fmall rod fixed with a pack-thread at the
larger, end of the other. To thefe are to be tied fome
pack-thread loops, which are to faften in the legs of
fome larks ; and there are to be reels to thefe, that the
birds may fly a little way up and down. When all
this is done, the looking-glafs is to be prepared in the
following manner. Take a piece of wood about an
inch and an half thick, and cut it in form of a bow, fo
that there may be about nine inches fpace between the
two ends; and let it have its full thicknefs at the bot¬
tom, that it n5ay receive into it a falfe piece; in the
'five corners of which there are to be let in five pieces
«f looking-glafs. Thefe are to be fixed, that they may
dart their light upwards; and the whole machine is to
be fupported on a moveable pin, with the end of a long
line fixed to it, and made in the manner of the chil¬
dren’s play-thing of an apple and a plum-ftone ; fo
that the other end of the cord being carried through
a hedge, the barely pulling it may fet the whole ma¬
chine of the glafles a-turning. This and the other
contrivances are to be placed in the middle between
the two nets. The larks fixed to the place, and termed
calls, and the glittering of the lodking-glafles as they
twirl round in the fun, invite the other larks down; and
' the cord that communicates with the nets, and goes
through the hedge, gives the perfon behind an oppor¬
tunity of pulling up the nets, fo as to meet over the
whole, and take every thing that is between them.
The plac'es wdiere this fort of fporting fucceeds beft are
open fields remote from any trees and hedges, except
one by way of flicker for the fportfman : and the wind
ftiould always be either in the front or back; for if it
blows lideways, it prevents the playing of the net.
DORIS, a genus of infefts, belonging to the order
of vermes teftacea. The body is oblong, flat beneath;
creeping: mouth placed below; vent behind, furrounded
with a fringe: two feelers, retra&ile. There are fe-
veral fpecies.—The argo, or lemon doris, has an oval
body, convex, marked with numeRous pun&ures, of a
lemon colour, the vent befet with elegant ramifications.
It inhabits different parts of our feas, called about
Brighthelmflone the fea-levion. See Plate XCII.
DORMANT, in heraldry, is ufed for the pofture
of a lion, or any other bead, lying along in a fleeping
attitude with the head on the fore-paws ; by whichit
is diftinguifhed from the couchant, where tho’ the bead
is lying, yet he holds up his head.
DORMER, inarehite&ure, fignifies a window made
in the roof of an houfe, or above the entablature, be¬
ing raifed upon the rafters.
DORMITORY, a gallery in convents or religious
houfes, divided into feveral cells, in which the religious
fleep or lodge.
DORONICUM, leopard's a genus of the
polygamia fuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenefia
clafs of plants. There are three fpecies, of which the
only one worthy of notice is the pardalianches with ob-
tufe heart-fhaped leaves. It grows naturally in Hun¬
gary, and on the Helvetian mountains; but is fre¬
quently preferved in the Englifh gardens. It hath
thick flefhy roots, which divide into many knobs or
knees, fending out drong flefliy fibres, which^enetrate
deep into the ground ; from thefe arife, in the fpring,
Vot. IV.
a clufter of heart-fhaped leaves, which are hairy, and Dorfal
fland upon footflalks : between thefe arife the flower- ^ .
ftalks, which are channeled and hairy, near three feet.. ur eill‘‘~
high, putting out one or two l nailer flalks from the
fide. Each ftalk is terminated by one large yellow-
flower.—The plant multiplies very fad by its fpread-
ing roots; and the feeds, if permitted to fcatter, will
produce plants wherever they happen to fall; fo that it
very foon becomes a weed in the places where it is once
eflabliflied. It loves a moid foil, and fhady fituation.
The roots were formerly ufed in medicineasalexiphar-
mics and purifiers of the blood ; but their operation was
fo violent, that they are now entirely laid afide.
DORSAL, an appellation given to whatever belongs
to the back. See Dorsum.
DORSET, (Thomas Sackville), Lord Buckhurft.
See Sackville.
Dorset (Charles Sackville), earl of. See Sack¬
ville.
DORSETSHIRE, a count^of England, bounded
on the fouth by the Englifh channel, on the north by
Somerfetfhire and Wiltfhire, on the ead by Hamp-
fhire, and on the wed by Devonfhirt and fome part
of Somerfetfhire. It is between 40 and 50 miles long
from ead to wed, and 34 broad from fouth to north,
and contains 34 hundreds, 22 market-towns, and 248
parifhes. This county ^njoys a mild, pleafant, and
wholefome air, and a deep, rich, and fertile foil, finely
diverfified. Towards the north it is level, under the
high lands that divide it from Somerfetfhire, where
there are fine arable grounds that will yield large crops
of different kinds of grain. But on the fouth, from
the borders of Hampfhire by the fea-coad, for an ex¬
tent of aimed 20 miles in length, and in fome places
four or five in breadth, is an heathy common, which
renders this country lefs populous than it .otherwife
would be. From ead to wed run a ridge of hills cal¬
led the Downs, abounding with fweet and fliort her¬
bage, which nourifhes a vad number of fheep equally
edeemed for their flefh and fleece. The country isalfo
very plentifully watered; and in all refpe&s fo well
fuited both for pleafure and profit, that it was diflin-
guiflied by the Romans above all others. They
had -more flations and fummer-camps in Dorfetfhire,
than in any other county. That the Saxons had the
fame regard for it, is evident from the number of pa¬
laces they had in it, the flately minders they built, and
the exprefs directions they gave that their bodies
fhould be interred in thofe monuments of their piety.
This county yields many, and very valuable, commo¬
dities. The quarries in Purbeck and Portland fupply
flones of different qualities, fuited to various ufes, and
in prodigious quantities, together with fome very rich
and beautiful marble. Thebedtobacco-pipeclay in Eng¬
land is alfo found in this county. Madder, hemp, and
flax, alfo thrive in many places, grain of all forts, &c.
DORSIFEROUS plants, among botanifls, fuch
as are of the capillary kind, without flalks, and which
bear their feeds on the back-fide of their leaves.
DORSTENIA,. contrayerva ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of
plants. There are four fpecies, all of them low her¬
baceous plants, growing in the warm countries of A-
merica. The root is ufed in medicine. It is full of
knots; an inch or two in length, about half an inch
14 thick;
DOR. [25
Dorfum thick; externally of a reddifh brown colour, and pale
II within : long, tough, Ilender fibres Ihoot out from all
fjdes of it, which are generally loaded with fmall round
knots. The root has a peculiar kind of aromatic fmell,
and a fomewhat aftringent, warm, bitterifh tafte, with
a light and fweetilh kind of acrimony when chewed.
The fibres have little tafte or fmell; the tuberous.part
therefore ftiould only be chofen.—Contrayerva is one
of the mildeft of thofe fubftances called alexipharmics :
it is indifputably a good and ufeful diaphoretic. Its
virtues are extra&ed both by water and re&ified Ipirit,
and do not arife by evaporation with either.—The
plants cannot be propagated in this country without
the greateft difficulty.
DORSUM, the Back, in anatomy, comprehends all
the pofterior part of the trunk of the body from the
neck to the buttocks. See Anatomy, n° 28, &c.
DORT, or Dordrecht, a city of Holland, which
holds the firft rank in the aflembly of the Hates. It is
feated in a fmall ifla&d formed by the rivers Meufe,
Merue, Rhine, and Linghe. The Meufe, on which it
Hands, gives it a good harbour, and feparates it from
the iflands of Ifielmonde and Ablas. It is divided from
Beyerland by a canal. The harbour is very com¬
modious for the merchandizes which come down the
Rhine and the Meufe, which keep it in a flourilhin'g
condition. Its ftrength confifts in being furrounded
with water. Its walls are old, and defended by round
towers. It is very rich, and well built with brick, and
had formerly the exclufive right of coining money. It
is at prefent the ftaple town for wines, particularly
Rhenilh. It was detached from the main-land, in 1421,
on the 17th of November, by a flood occafioned by
the breaking down of the dyke, which overwhelmed 70
villages, and about 100,000 perfons. However, by
time and the induftry of the inhabitants, a great part
of the land is recovered. It has two principal canals,
namely, the New and Old Haven, by which heavy-
loaded veflels may enter into the city. Over the Old
Haven is a large bridge well built with brick.
Dort was almoft reduced to affies in the year 1457;
there being then confumed 2000 houfes, with the halls,
hofpital, and church of Notre Dame: but they are
now well provided with fire-engines and watchmen to
prevent the like difafter. This city is famous for the
meeting of the clergy called the Synod of Dort, in
which the Calvinifts obtained a ftntence againft the
Arminians, who were called the Ranonftrantf. The
difpute between the contending parties occafioned
ftrange diforders, Ikirmifhes, and murders, in mo-ft of
the principal cities. Thofe minifters who would not
fubferibe to the decree of the fynod were banifhed, of
whom there were above 100. E. Long. 4. 36. N. Lat.
51' 39-
DORTMUND, a rich, populous, and imperial city
of Germany, in the circle of Weftphalia. It is pretty
iarge, but not well built. Formerly it was one of the
Hanfe towns. Its territory alfo was formerly a coun¬
ty, and had lords of its own; but fince 1504, it hath
been pofieffed entirely by the city.
DORYPHORI, in antiquity, an appellation given
to the lifeguardmen of the Roman emperors.
DOSE, in pharmacy, &c. the quantity of a medi¬
cine to be taken at one time. The word is formed
from the Greek -Wi;, which fignifies or a thing
18 ] . D O U
given; from <&, “ I give.”
DOSITHEANS, in church-hiftory, a feci among
the Hebrews, being one of the branches of the Sama¬
ritans. See Samaritans.
They abftained from eating any creature that had
life; and were fo fuperftitious in keeping the fabbath,
that they remained in the fame place and pofture where¬
in that day furprifed them, without ftirring till the next
day. They married but once, and a great number ne¬
ver married. Dofitheus, their founder, being diflatif-
fied among the Jews, retired to the Samaritans, who
were reputed heretics, and invented another feci; and
to make it more authentic, he went into a cave, where,
by too long abftinence, he killed himfelf.—The name
of Dcfitheans was alfo given to fome of the difciples
of Simon Magus.
DOTTEREL, in ornithology. See Cnaradrius.
DOU, or Dow, (Gerard), of Leyden, an excellent
painter in the 17th century, was the difciple of Rem¬
brandt ; but his manner of working was very different
from that of his mafter. He painted little figures in
oil, which he finifhed as highly as if they had been as
big as the life. He always drew after nature, and
viewed his originals in a convex mirror; and, as he
took a great deal of pains, his works feem almoft as
perfedl as nature herfelf, without lofing any thing of
the frelhnefs, union, or force of colouring, or of the
claro ofeuro. The common height of his piftures did
not exceed a foot; yet his price was fometimes fix hun¬
dred, fometimes eight hundred, and fometimes a thou-
fand livres each piilure, according to the time he fpent
about it, though he only reckoned after the rate of a
livre an hour.
DOUAY, a large and ftrong city of the French
Netherlands, fituated in E. Long. 3. o. N. Lat. 50. 25.
It was taken by the French in 1667 ; by the allies in
1710; and retaken by the French in 1712.
DOUBLE ; two of a fort, one correfponding to the
other.
Doubie Children, Double Cats, Double Pears,
&c. Inftances of thefe are frequent in the Philofoph.
Tranfatt. and elfewhere. See Monster.
Sir John Floyer, in the fame Tranfaftions, giving an
account of a double turkey, furnifhes fome reflexions on
the produXion of double animals in general. Two tur¬
keys, he relates, were taken out of an egg of the com¬
mon fize, when the reft were well hatched, which grew
together by the flelh of the breaft-bone, but in all
other parts were diftinX. They feemed lefs than the
ordinary fize, as wanting bulk, nutriment, and room
for their growth; which latter, too, was apparently
the occafion of their cohefion. For, having two di¬
ftinX cavities in their bodies, and two hearts, they
muft have arifen from two cicatriculas ; and, confe-
quently, the egg had two yolks; which, is no uncom¬
mon accident. He mentions a dried double chicken in
his poffeffion, which, though it had four legs, four
wings, &c. had but one cavity in the body, one heart,,
and one head; and, confequently, was produced from
one cicatricula.
So, Paneus mentions a double infant, with only one
heart: in which cafe, the original or ftamen of the
infant was one, and the veffels regular; only, the nerves
and arteries towards the extremities dividing into more
branches than ordinary, produced double parts.
Dofitheans
II,
Double, -f
The
D O U
The fame is the cafe in the double flowers of plants,
occafioned by the richnefs of the foil. So it is in the
eggs of quadrupeds, &c.
There are, therefore, two reafons of duplicity in em¬
bryo’s: i. The conjoining or connexion of two per-
feA animals ; and, 2. An extraordinary divifion and
ramification of the original veffels, nerves, arteries, &c.
Double Employment, in mafic, a name given by M.
Rameau to the two different manners in which the
chord of the fub-dominant may be regarded and treat¬
ed, viz. as the fundamental chord of the fixth fuper-
added, or as the chord of the great fixth, inverted from
a fundamental chord of the feventh. In reality, the
chords carry exaAly the fame notes, are figured in the
fame manner, are employed upon the fame chord of
the tone, in fuch a manner, that frequently we cannot
difeern which of the two chords the author employs,
but by the afliftance of the fubfequent chord, which
refolves it, and which is different in thefe different cafes.
To make this diftin&ion, we muff confider the dia¬
tonic progrefs of the two notes which form the fifth
and the fixth, and which, conftituting between them
the interval of a iecond, muff one or the other confti-
tute the diffonance of the chord. Now, this progrefs
is determined by the motion of the bafs. Of thefe two
notes, then, if the fuperior be the diffonance, it will rife
by one gradation into the fubfequent chord, the lower
note will keep its place, and the higher note will be a
fuperadded fixth. If the lower be the diffonance, it
will defeend into the fubfequent chord, the higher will
remain in its place, and the chord will be that of the
great fixth. See the two cafes of the double employ¬
ment in Rouffeau’s Mufical Dictionary, Plate D, fig. 12.
With refpeCt to the compofer, the ufe which he may
make of the double-employment, is to confider the
chord in its different points of view, that from thence
he may know how to make his entrance to it, and his
exit from it; fo that having arrived, for inffance, at
the chord of the fuperadded fixth, he may refolve it as
a chord of the great fixth, and reciprocally.
M. D’Alembert has (hewn, that one of the chief ufes
of the double-employment is, that we be able to carry
the diatonic fucceflion of the gamut even to an oCtave,
without changing the mode, at leaft whilft we rife; for
in defeending we muff change it. Of this gammut and
its fundamental bafs, an example will be found in Rouf¬
feau’s Mufical Dictionary, Plate D, fig. 13. It is evi¬
dent, according to the.fyftem of M. Rameau, that all
the harmonic fucceflions which refult from it, are in
the fame tone: for, in ftriftnefs, no other chords are
there employed but three, that of the tonic, that of the
dominant, and that of the fub-dominant; as this laft,
in the double-ertiployment, conftitutes the feventh from
the fecond note, which is employed upon the fixth.
With refpeA to what M. D’Alembert adds in his
Elements of Mufic, p. 80. and which he repeats in the
Encyclopedic, article Double-emplai, viz. that the chord
of the feventh re fa la tit, though we (hould even re¬
gard it only as an inverfion oifa la ut re, cannot be
followed by the chord ut mi fol ut-, “I cannot (fays
Rooffeau) be of his opinion in this point.
“ The proof which he gives for it is, that the dif¬
fonance ut of the firft chord cannot be refolved in the
fecond; and this is true, fince it remains in its place:
but in this chord of the feventh re fa la ut, inverted
D O U
from this chord of the fuperadded fixth fa la ut re, it Double,
is not the ut, but the re, which is the diffonance; which,
of confequence, ought to be refolved in afeending up¬
on mi, as it really does in the fubfequent chord; fo that
this procedure in the bafs itfelf is forced, which, from
re, cannot without an error return to ut, but ought to
afeend to mi, in order to refolve the diffonance.
“ M. D’Alembert afterwards (hews, that this chord
re fa la ut, when preceded and followed by that of the
tonic, cannot be authorifed by the double-employment:
and this is likewife very true; becaufe this chord, tho’
figured with a 7, is not treated as a chord of the fe¬
venth, neither when we make our entrance to it, nor
our exit from it; or at lead that it is not neceffary to
treat it as fuch, but fimply as an inverfion of the fuper¬
added fixth, of which the diffonance is the bafs: in
which cafe we ought by no means to forget, that this
diffonance is never prepared. Thus, though in fuch a
tranfition the double-employment is not in queflion,
though the chord of the feventh be no more than ap¬
parent, and impofiible to be refolved by the rules, this
does not hinder the tranfition from being proper and
regular, as I have juft proved to theorifts, and as I (hall
immediately prove to pra&ical artifts, by an inftance of
this tranfition; which certainly will not be condemned
by any one of them, nor juftified by any other funda¬
mental bafs except my own. (See the Mufical Dic¬
tionary, Plate D,-fig. 14.)
“ I acknowledge, that this inverfion of the chord of
the fixth fuperadded, which transfers the diffonance to
the bafs, has been cenfured by M. Rameau. This au¬
thor, taking for a fundamental chord the chord of the
feventh, which refults from it, rather chofe to make
the fundamental bafs defeend diatonically, and refolve
one feventh by another, than to unfold this feventh by
an inverfion. I had diffipated- this error, and many
others, in fome papers which long ago had paffed into
the hands of M. D’Alembert, when he was compofing
his Elements of Mufic; fo that it is not his fentiment
which I attack, but my own opinion which I defend.”
For what remains, the double-employment cannot
be ufed with too much referve, and the greateft mafters
are the mod temperate in putting it in pra&ice.
Double Ficby, or Fiche, in heraldry, the denomina¬
tion of a crofs, when the extremity has two points; in
contradiftin&ion to fiche, where the extremity is (harp-
ened away to one point.
Double Oftave, in mufic, an interval compofed of
fifteen notes in diatonic progreflion ; and which, for
that reafon, is called a fifteenth. “ It is (fays Rouf-
feau) an interval compofed of two oAaves, called by
the Greeks difdiapafon.
It deferves however to be remarked, that in intervals
lefs diftant and compounded, as in the thirds the fifth,
the fwtple ottave, &c. the lowed and higheft extremes
are included in the number from whence the interval
takes its name. But, \n the doubleoflave, when termed
a fifteenth, the fimple numberlS>of which it is compofed
gives the name. This is by no means analogical, and
may occafion fome confufion. We flrould rather choofe,
therefore, to run any hazard which might occur from
uniformly including all the terms of which the compo¬
nent intervals confift, and call the double o&ave a fix-
tcenth, according to the general analogy. See In¬
terval.
1+ Q_2
[ 2519 ]
DOU-
D O U [ 2520 ] D O U
Doublet. DOUBLET, among lapidaries, implies a counter-
"'felt ftone compofed of two pieces of cryftal, and fome-
times glafs foftened, together with proper colours be¬
tween them ; fo that they make the fame appearance
to the eye, as if the whole fubftance of the cryftal had
been tinged with thefe colours.
The impracticability of imparting tinges to the bo¬
dy of cryftals, while in their proper and natural ftate,
and the foftnefs of glafs, which renders ornaments
made of it greatly inferior in wear to cryftal, gave in-
Idncements to the introduction of colouring the furface
of cryftal wrought in a proper form, in fuch a manner,
that the furfaces of two pieces fo coloured being laid
together, the eifeCt might appear the fame as if the
whole fubftance of the cryftal had been coloured: The
cryftals, and fometimes white tranfparent glafs fo
treated, were called doublets; and at one time prevailed
greatly in ufe, on account of the advantages with re-
fpeftto wear, fuch doublets had, when made of cryftal,
over glafs, and the brightnefs of the colours which
could with certainty be given to counterfeit ftones this
way, when coloured glafs could not be procured^ or at
leaft not without a much greater expence, Doublets
have not indeed' the property which the others have, of
bearing to be fet tranfparent, as is frequently required
in drops of ear-rings and other ornaments: but when
mounted in rings, or ufed in fucb manner that the fides
of the pieces, where the joint is made, cannot be in-
fpedted, they have, when formed of cryftal, the title to
a preference to the coloured glafs; and the art of ma-
naging them is therefore, in fome degree, of the fame
importance with that of preparing glafs for the coun¬
terfeiting gems ; and is therefore properly an appen¬
dage to it, as being entirely fubfervient to the fame in¬
tention. The manner of making doublets is as fol-
lows:
Let the cryftal or glafs be firft cut by the lapidaries
in the manner of a brilliant, except that, in this cafe,
the figure muft be compofed from two feparate ftones,
or parts of ftones, formed in the manner of the upper
and under parts of a brilliant, if it was divided in an
horizontal direftion, a little lower than the middle.
After the two plates of the intended ftone are thus cut,
and fitted fo exactly that no divifion can appear when
they are laid together, the upper part muft be poliihed
ready for felting; and then the colour muft be put be¬
twixt the two plates by this method. “ Take of Ve¬
nice or Cyprus turpentine two fcruples; and add to it
one fcruple of the grains of maftich chofen perfedfly
pure, free from foulnefs, and previoufly powdered.
Melt them together in a fmall fiber or brafs fpoon ladle,
or other veffel, and put to them gradually any of the
coloured fubftances below mentioned, being firft well
powdered;, ftirring them together as the colour is put
in, that they may be thoroughly commixed. Warm
then the doublets to the fame degree of heat as the
melted mixture; and paint the upper furface of the
lower part, and put the upper one inftantly upon it,
prefting them to each other, but taking care that they
may be conjoined in the moft perfe&ly even manner.
When the cement or paint is quite cold and fet, the re¬
dundant part of it, which has been prefled out of the
joint of the two pieces, ftiould he gently feraped off
the fide, till there be no appearance of any colour on
the outfide of the doublets: and they fhould then be
Ikilfully fet; obferving to carry the mounting over the Doublet;
joint, that the upper piece may be well fecured from Do^ib,m^
feparating from the under one.”
The colour of the ruby may be beft imitated, by
mixing a fourth part of carmine with fome of the fintft
crimfon lake that can be procured.
The fapphire may be counterfeited by very bright
Pruflian blue, mixed with a little of the abovemen-
tioned crimfon lake, to give it a caft of the purple.
The Pruflian blue rtiould not be very deep-coloured,,
or but little of it fliould be ufed: for otherwife, it will
give a black (hade that will be injurious to the luftre
of the doublets.
The emerald may Jbe well counterfeited by dtftilled
verdigreafe, with a little powdered aloeS. But the mix¬
ture ihould not be ftrongly heated,, nor kept, long over
the fire after \he verdigreafe is added : for the colour
is to be foon impaired by it.
The refemblance of the garnet may be made by dra¬
gon’s blood; which, if it cannot be procured of fuffi-
cient brightnefs, may be helped by a very fmall quan¬
tity of carmine.
The amethyft may be imitated by the mixture of
fome Pruffian blue with the crimfon lake; but the pro¬
portions can only, be regulated by direftion, as differ¬
ent parcels of the lake and Pruffian blue vary extreme¬
ly in the degree of ftrength of the colour.
The yellow topazes may be counterfeited by mixing
the powdered aloes with a little dragon’s blood, or by,
good Spanifh anotto: but the colour muft be very fpa -
ringly ufed, or the tinge will be too ftrong for the ap¬
pearance of that ftone.
The chryfolite, hyacinth, vinegar garnet; eagle ma¬
rine, and other fuch weaker or more diluted colours,,
may be formed in the fame manner, by leffening the
proportions of the colours, or by compounding them
together correfpondently to the hue of the ftone to be
imitated; to which endJt is proper to have an original
ftone, or an exadt imitation of one, at hand when the
mixture is made, in order to the more certain adapting
the colours to the effedt defired: and when thefe pre¬
cautions are taken, and the operation well conduced,
it is pradiicable to bring the doublets to fo near a re¬
femblance of the true ftones, that even the beft judges
cannot diftinguifh.them, when well fet, without a pe¬
culiar manner of infpedrion.
There is, however, an eafy method of diftinguiftiing
doublets, which is only to behold them betwixt the eye
and light, in fuch pofition, that the light may pafs-
through the upper part and corners of the ftone; when
it will eafily be perceived that there is no colour in the
body of the ftone.
DOUBLETS, a game on dice within tables; the
men, which are only 15, being placed thus: Upon the
fice, ctnque, and quatre points, there ftand three men
a-piece; and upon the trey, duce, and ace, only two.
He that throws higheft hath the benefit of throwing
firft, and what he throws he lays down, and fo doth
the other: what the one throws, and hath not, the o-
ther lays down for him, but on his own account; and
thus they do till all the men are down, and then they
bear. He that is down firft, bears firft; and will doubt-
lefs win the game, if the other throws not doublets to
overtake him: which he is fure to do, fince he advances
or bears as mafty as the doublets make, viz. eight for
two
D O V [ 2j
doubling t\vo fours.
If DOUBLING, in the military art, is the patting
over~ two ranks or files of foldiers into one. Thus, when the
word of command is, double your ranks, the fecond,
fourth, and fixth ranks march into the firft, third, and
fifth, fo that the fix ranks are reduced to three, and the
intervals between the ranks become double what they
were before.
Doubling, among hunters, who fay that a hare
doubles, when (he keeps in plain fields, and winds about
to deceive the hounds.
Doubling, in the menage, a term ufcd of a horfe,
who is faid to double his reins, when he leaps feveral
times together, to throw his rider: thus we fay, the
ramingue doubles his reins, and makes pontlevis.
Doubling, in navigation, the adt of failing round,
or pafiing beyond, a cape or promontory, fo as that
the cape or point of land feparates the (hip from her
former fituation, or lies between her and any diftant
obferver.
Doubling-in naval tadlics, the a& of inclo-
fing any part of a hoftile fleet between two fires, or of
cannonading it on both Tides.
It is ufually performed by the van or rear of that
fleet which is fuperior in number, taking the advantage
of the wind, or of its fituation and circumftanrces, and
tacking or veering round the van or rear of the enemy,
who will thereby be expofed to great danger, and can
fcarcely avoid being thrown into a general confufion.
DOUBLON, or Dubloon, a Spanifh and Portu-
guefe coin, being the double of a Pistole.
DOUBTING, the adt of with-holding our aflent
from any propofition, on fufpicion that we are not tho-
' roughly apprifed of the merits thereof, or from, not
being able peremptorily to decide between the reafons
for and againft it.
Doubting is diftinguifhed by the fchoolmen into two
kinds, dubitatio flerilis, and dubitatiu efficax. The for¬
mer is that where no determination enfues: in this
manner the Sceptics and Academics doubt, who with¬
hold their aflent from every thing. See Sceptics, &c.
The latter is followed by judgment, which diflin-
guifhes truth from falfehood : fuch is the doubting of
the Peripatetics and Cartefians.. The laft in particular
are perpetually inculcating the deceitfulnefs of our
fenfes, and tell us that we are to doubt of everyone of
their reports, till they have been examined and con¬
firmed by reafon. On the other hand, the Epicureans
teach, that our fenfes always tell truth; and that, if you
go ever fo little from them, you come within the pro¬
vince of doubting. See Cartesians, Epicureans,&c.
DOUCINE, in architedfure, a moulding concave
above, and convex below, ferving commonly as a cy-
matium to a delicate corniche. It is likewife called
gula.
DOVE, in ornithology. See Columba.
Viovv.•Tailing, in carpentry, is the manner of fa-
ftening boards together by letting one piece into ano¬
ther, in the form of the tail of a dove. The dove-tail
is the firongeft of the afiemblages or jointings; becaufe
the tenon, or piece of wood which is put into the other,
goes widening to the extreme, fo that it cannot be
drawn out again, by reafon the extreme or tip is big¬
ger than the hole.
DOVER, a borqugh and port town of England,
'2i ] D O U
in the county of Kent, fituated in E. Long. o. 25.
N. Lat. 51.10. It gives the title of duke to the dukes
of Queenfbury, a branch of the noble family of Dou¬
glas ; and fends two members to parliament, ftyled ba¬
rons of the Cinque-ports, whereof Dover is the chief.
By the Romans this town was named Dubris, and
by the Saxons Dofra, probably from the Britifh word
Dour, which fignifies water. The convenience of its
fituation drew the attention of the Roman governors,
who ruled here while they poflefled this part of the
ifland; and there (till remain iridubitable teftimonies of
their care and refpeft for this important place. For
the defence of the town, the Romans, or, according to
fome, Arviragus, a Britifh king, their confederate, by
cutting out walls with infinite labour in the folid rock,
conftrudfed a ftony fortrefs ; and, as its venerable re¬
mains ftill prove, erefted alfo a light-houfe for the be¬
nefit of navigation. The Saxons, Danes, and Nor¬
mans, had a very high opinion of this place; and when
the barons invited over the young prince afterwards
Lewis VIII. of France, his father Philip Auguftus
conceived a bad opinion of the expedition, becaufe the
callle and port of Dover were held for king John,
though a great part of the kingdom had fubmitted to
Lewis. In its moft flourifhing ftate, the fortrefs was
impregnable, and the town a very opulent emporium.
It had 2 r wards, each of which furnifhed a fhip for
the public fiervice, 10 gates, 7 parifh-churches, many
religious houfes, hofpitals, and other public edifices.
The decay of the town was brought on by that of the
harbour. To recover this, Henry VIII. fpent no lefs
than 63,0001. in conftrufting piers, and 50001. in
building a caftle between this and Folkftone, called
Sandgate; where the ftiore was flat, and the landing
eafy. Notwithflanding all this expence, however, it
was again choaked up in the reign of Queen Eliza¬
beth, by whom it was again cleared at a valt expence,
fo that fhips of fome hundred tons could enter it.. Since
that time it has again declined, notwithflanding of
many efforts for its relief, and great afliftance from time
to time given by parliament for this purpofe. As the
haven, however, is {till capable of receiving veffels of
fmalbburden, and as the packets to France and Flan¬
ders are ftationed here in time of peace, it is Hill a place
of fome confequence, and the people are active and in-
duftrious.
DOUGLAS (lord). See {Hijlory of) Scotland.
Douglas (Gavin), bifliop of Dunkeld in Scotland,
was the third fon of Archibald earl of Angus, and
born in the year 1474. Where he was educated, is not
known ; but it is' certain that he fludied theology : a
fludy, however, which did not eftrange him from the
mufes ; for he employed himfelf at intervals in tranf-
lating into .beautiful verfe the poem of Ovid de Remedio
Amor is. The advantages of foreign travel, and the
converfation of the moil learned men in France and
Germany to whom his merit procured the readieft ac-
cefs, completed his education. With his fuperior re¬
commendations and worth it was impoffxble he could
remain unnoticed. His firfl preferment was to be pro-
voft of the collegiate church of St Giles in Edinburgh;
a place, at that time, of great dignity and revenue. In
the year 1514, the queen mother, then regent of Scot¬
land, appointed Douglas abbot of Aberbrothock, and
foon after archbifhop.of St Andrews ; but, the queen's
poWer
Dover
Dongla
D O U [ 2522 ] DOW
power not being fnfficient to eftablifli him in the pof-
feffion of that dignity, he relinqulfhed his claim in fa¬
vour of his competitor Foreman, who was fupported
by the pope. In 1515, he was by the queen appoint¬
ed bifhop of Dunkeld; and that appointment was foon
after confirmed by his holinefs Leo X. Neverthelefs
it was fome time before he could obtain peaceable pof-
fefiion of his fee. The duke of Albany, who in this
year was declared regent, oppofed him becaufe he was
fupported by the queen; and, in order to deprive him
of his bifhoprie, accufed him of aefing contrary to law
in receiving bulls from Rome. On this accufation
he was committed to the caftle of Edinburgh, where
he continued in confinement above a year; but the re¬
gent and the queen being atlaft reconciled, he obtain¬
ed his liberty, and was confecrated biihop of Dunkeld.
In 1517, he attended the duke of Albany to France ;
but returned foon after to Scotland. In 1521, the dif-
putes between the earls of Arran and Angus having
thrown the kingdom into violent commotion, our pre¬
late retired to England, where he became intimately
acquainted with Polydore Virgil the hiftorian. He
died in London, of the plague, in 1522; and was bu¬
ried in the Savoy. He wrote “ The palace of Ho¬
nour:” a mod ingenious poem under the fimilitude of
awifion; in which be paints the vanity and inconftancy
of all worldly glory. It abounds with incidents, and
a very rich vein of poetry. The palace of happinefs,
in the pifture ofDebes, feems to be the'ground-work
of it.
“ Aureae narrationesA performance now loft; in
which, it is faid, he explained, in a moft agreeable
manner, the mythology of the poetical fi&ions of the
ancients.
“ Comcediae aliquot facraeNone of which are now
to be found.
“ Thirteen bukes of Eneades, of the famofe poet
Virgil, tranflatet out of Latin verfes into Scottifh
metre, every buke having its particular prologe. Im¬
printed at Lond. hi4to; and reprinted at Edin¬
burgh 1710, in folio.”
The lalt is the moft efteemed of all his works. He
undertook it at the defire of lord Henry Sinclair, a mu¬
nificent patron of arts in thofe times : and he com¬
pleted it in 13 months ; a circumftance which his ad¬
mirers are too fond of repeating to his advantage. Da¬
vid Hume of Godfcroft, an author of uncommon me¬
rit, and an admirable judge of poetry, gives the fol¬
lowing teftimony in his favour. “ He wrote, (fays
he), in his native tongue, divers things; but his chiefeft
work is his tranfiation of Virgil, yet extant, in verfe:
in which he ties himfelf fo ftriftly as is poffible; and
yet it is fo well expreffed, that whofoever will effay to
do the like, will find it a hard piece of work to go
through with it. In his prologues before every book
where he hath his liberty, he fheweth a natural and
ample vein of poetry, fo pure, pleafant, and judicious,
that I believe there is none that hath written, before or
fince, but cometh fhort of him.”
It has been faid, that he compiled an hiftorical trea-
tife “ de rebus Scoticis; but no remain of it hathde-
feended to the prefent times.
DOUGLAS, the principal town of the Ule of Man,
and which has lately increafed both in trade and build¬
ings. The harbour, for fhips of a tolerable burden, is
the fafeft in the ifland, and is much mended by a fine Dowager
mole that has lately been built. It is feated on the II
eaftern fide. W. Long. 4. 25. N. Lat. 54. 7. 0>ul*'
DOWAGER, a widow endowed, is a title applied
to the widows of princes, dukes, earls, and perfons of
high rank only.
Ghieen Dowager, is the widow of the king, and as
fuch enjoys moft of the privileges belonging to her as
jqueen confort; but it is not high treafon to violate her
chaftity or confpire her death, becaufe the fucceflion
is not endangered thereby; but no man can marry her
without fpecial licenfe from the king, on pain of for¬
feiting his lands and goods. See Queen.
DOWN, a county of Ireland in the province of Ul-
fter, bounded on the eaft and fouth by St George’s
channel ; on the weft by the county of Armagh ; and
on the north by the county of Antrim. It lies oppo-
fite to the Me of Man, Cumberland, and Weftmore-
land; and the north part of it fronts the Mull of Gal¬
way, in Scotland, and is about 44 miles from it. It is
about 44 miles in length, and 30 in breadth. It fends
14 members to parliament, two for the county, and
12 for the following boroughs, Down-Patrick, New-
ry, Newtown, Killeleagh, Bangor, and Hilhborough.
This county is rough and full of hills, and yet the
air is temperate and healthy. The foil naturally pro¬
duces wood, unlefs conftantly kept open and ploughed ;
and the low grounds degenerate into bogs and mofs,
where the drains are negle&ed. But by the induftry
of the inhabitants it produces good crops of corn,
particularly oats ; and, where marl is found, barley.
This laft is exported from Killogh to Dublin. The
ftaple commodity of this county is the linen manufac¬
ture.
Down, or Down-Patrick, a town of Ireland, in the
county of Down, is one of the moft ancient in that
kingdom. It is a market-town and a bifhoprick, faid
to be erefted in the fifth century by St Patrick, but is
now united to the fee of Connor. Within 200 paces
of the town, on the afeent of a hill, are the ruins of
an old cathedral, remarkable for the tomb of St Pa¬
trick, the founder, in which they fay the bodies of St ^
Bridget and St Columb are alfo laid. The town which
is feated on the fouth corner of Lough Coin, now call¬
ed the lake of Strangford, is adorned with feveral hand-
fome public buildings^ Among the hills, and in many
illands, are flights of fwans and other water-fowl; and
the Lough abounds with falmon, mullets, and other
fea-fifti. About a mile from this town is St Patrick’s
Well, which many people frequenf to drink at fome fea-
fens of the year, and others to perform a penance en¬
joined them by the popilh priefts. The linen ma-
nufafture is carried on here, as it is in feveral places
in this country. W. Long. 5. 50. N. Lat. 54. 23.
DOWNETON, or Dunkton, a borough-town of
Wiltfliire, five miles fouth of Salilbury. It fends two
members to parliament.
DOWNHAM, a market-town of Norfolk, 10 miles
fouth of Lynn, famous for .its good butter ; there be¬
ing 1000, and fometimes 2000, firkins bought here
every Monday, and fent up the river Oufe to Cam¬
bridge, from whence it is conveyed to London in the
Cambridge-waggons.
DOWNS, a famous road near Deal in Kent, where
both the outward and homeward-bound fhips frequent-
Jy
E> R A [ 2523 ] D R A
Dowry ]y make fome ftay ; and fquadrons of men of war ren-
Drahs ^€zv*?n8 i'n time of war.
- ra s' It affords excellent anchorage; and is defended by
the caftles of Deal, Dover, and Sandwich.
DOWRY, the money or fortune which the wife
brings her hufband in marriage: it is otherwife called
tnaritagium, marriage-goods, and differs from dower.
DOXOLOGY, an hymn ufed in praife of the Al¬
mighty, diftinguifhed by the title greater ani lejfer.
The leffer doxology was anciently only a fingle fen-
tence, without refponfe, running in thefe words, Glory be
to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghojl, world
without end, Amen. Part of the latter claufe. As it was
in the beginning, is now, and ever frail be, was infert-
ed fome time after the 'tirft compofition. Some read
this ancient hymn, Glory be to the Father, and to the
Son with the Holy Ghojl. Others, Glory be to the Fa¬
ther- in or by the Son, and by the Holy Ghojl. This dif¬
ference of expreffiow occafioned no difputes in the
church, till the rife of the Arian herefy ; but when the
followers of Arius began to make ufe of the latter as a
diftinguilhing charafter of their party, it was entirely
laid alide by the Catholics, and the ufe of it was e-
nough to bring any one under fufpicion of heterodoxy.
The doxology was ufed at the clofe of every folemn
office. The weftern church repeated it at the end of
every pfalm, and the eaftern church at the end of the
iaft pfalm. Many of their prayers were alfo concluded
with it, particularly the folemn thankfgiving or confe-
cration prayer at the euchariit. It was abb the ordi¬
nary conclufion of their fermons.
The greater doxology, or angelic hymn, was like-
wife of great note in the ancient church. It began
with thefe words, which the angels fang at our Savi¬
our’s birth, Glory be to God on high, <bc. It was
chiefly ufed in cdmmunion fervice, and in mens private
devotions. Both the doxologies have a place in the
church of England, the former being repeated after
every pfalm, and the latter ufed in the communion fer-
® DRAB A, in botany; a genus of the filiculofa or¬
der, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of plants.
There are fix fpecies; of which the only one worthy of
notice is the verna, or early whitlow-grafs. It hath
naked ftalks, with leaves a little ferrated. The blof-
foms are white, and at night the flowers hang down.
It grows on old walls and dry banks. It is one of the
earlieft flowering plants we have, and is good to eat as
a falad. Goats, fheep, and horfes eat it; cows are
not fond of it ; fwine refufe it.
DRABLING, in angling, is a method of catch¬
ing barbels. Take a ftrong line of fix yards ; which,
before you fallen it to your rod, mull be put through a
piece of lead, that if the fifti bite, it may flip to and
fro, and that the water may fomething move it on the
ground ; bait with a lobe worm well fecured, and fo
by its motion the barbel will be enticed into the danger
without fnfpicion. The bell places are in running wa¬
ter near piles, or under wooden bridges, fupported with
oaks floated and flimy.
DRABS, in the falt-works, a kind of wooden
boxes for holding the fait when taken out of the boding
pan ; the bottoms of which are made Ihelving or in¬
clining forwards, that the briny moilture of the fait
may drain off.
DRAG, an imaginary being, much dreaded by the Drac
country people in many parts of France. The dracs S
are fuppofed to be malicious, or at lead trickfome, de- Jam.""
mons; but, which is very rare, if one of them happens  
to take a fancy to a man or woman, they are fure to be
the better for it. They are ftili faid to lay gold cups
and rings on the furface over pits and rivers, as baits to
draw women and children in ; though their ufual dwell¬
ing is fome old empty houfe, whence they make excur-
fions in human form, vifible or invifible as belt fuits
their purpofe. The country-folks fhudder at the very
name of the drac. Some are pofitive that they have
feen him ; for happy indeed is that village in which
there is not a houfe execrated as the lurking-place of
this tremendous drac.
DRACHM, a Grecian coin, of the value of feven-
pence three farthings. Drachm is alfo a weight ufed
by our phyficians ; containing juft 60 grains three
fcruples, or the eighth part of an ounce.
DRACO, an Athenian lawgiver, prior to Solon,
fo extremely fevere, that he puniflied all faults, fmall
or great, with death : hence his laws were proverbial¬
ly faid to have been written with blood. He flourifli-
ed 624 B. C.
Draco, the Dragon, in zoology, a genus belong¬
ing to the order of amphibia reptilia. The charadlers
of which are thefe : it has four legs, a cylindrical tail,
and two membranaceous wings, radiated like the fins
of a fifh, by which he is enabled to fly, but not to any
great diftance at a time. There are two fpecies, 1. The Plate
volans, or flying dragon, with the wings entirely di- l*xxv>d*
ftindl from the fore-legs ; it is found in Africa and the 5’
Eaft Indies. 2. The praspos, with the wings fixed to
the fore-legs ; it is a native of America. They are both
harmlefs creatures, and feed upon flies, ants, and fmall
infe£ls.
Draco Volans, in meteorology, a fiery exhalation,
frequent in marfliy and cold countries.
It is moft common in fummer; and though princi¬
pally feen playing near the banks of rivers, or in bog¬
gy places, yet fometimes mounts up to a confiderable
height in the air, to the no fmall terror of the amazed
beholders; its appearance being that of an oblong,
fometimes roundifh, fiery body, with a long tail. It is
entirely harmlefs, frequently flicking tothe hands and
cloaths of people, without irjtiring them in the leaft.
Draco, in artronomy, a conftellation of the northern
hemifphere. See Astronomy, n° 206.
DRACOCEPHALUM, dragon s head; a ge¬
nus of the gymnofpermia order, belonging to the didy-
namia clafs of plants. There are 13 fpecies, moft of
them herbaceous, annual, or perennial, plants, from 18
inches to three feet high, garniflied moflly with entire
leaves, and whorled fpikes of fmall monopetalous and
ringent flowers of a blue, white, or purple colour.
They are all eafily propagated by feeds, which may be
fown either in the fpring or autumn, and after the plants
are come up they will require no other culture but to
be kept clear from weeds.
DRACONTIC month, the time of one revolution
of the moon from her afeending node, called caput dra-
eonis, to her return thither.
DRACONTIUM, dragons; a genus of the poly-
andria order, belonging to the gynandria clafs of plants.
There are five fpecies, all natives of the Indies. The
ooly
D R A [ 2524 ] D R A
DracuncuK only one which makes any appearance is the pertufum,
II with leaves having holes, and a climbing ftalk. This
ragoon. a nat;ve 0f 0f India iflands. It hath
trailing ftalks which put out roots at every joint, that
fallen to the trunks of trees, walls, or any fupport which
is near them, and thereby rife to the height of 25 or
30 feet. The leaves are placed alternately upon long
footftalks: they are four or five inches long, two and
an half broad ; and have feveral oblong holes in each,
which at firfl fight appear as if eaten by infers, but
they are natural to the leaves. The flowers are produ¬
ced at the top of the ftalk, which always fwefls to a
much larger fize in that part immediately under the
ftalk, than in any other : thefe are covered with an ob¬
long fpatha or hood of a whitifh green colour, which
opens longitudinally on one fide, and ftiews the piftil,
which is clofely covered with .flowers of a pale yellow,
inclining to'white. This plant is eafily propagated
by cuttings ; which if planted in pots filled with poor
fandy earth, and plunged into an hot-bed, will foon
put out roots; but the plants are fo tender, that they
mull be preferved in a ftove.
DRACUNCULI, in medicine, fmall long worms
which breed in the mufcular parts of the arms and legs,
called Guinea worms. The common way of getting
out thefe worms is by the point of a needle; and to
prevent their forming there again, the ufual cuftom is
to wafti the parts with wine or vinegar, with alum,
nitre, or commofi fait, or with a ftrong lixivium of
oak-afties, and afterwards anointing them with an oint¬
ment of the common kind ufedfbr fcorbutic eruption^
with a fmall mixture of quickfilver.
DRACUNCULUS, in botany. See Arum.
DRAGOMAN,Drogman, orDruggerman, a name
given in the Levant to the interpreters kept by theam-
bafladors of Chriftian nations, refiding at the Porte, to
sdfift them in treating of tlifir mafter’s affairs.
DRAGON, in zoology. See Draco.
Dragon’s-S/*?!?*/, a red coloured, inodorous, and
infipid refin, infolublein water, but foluble in fpirit of
wine and in oils, to both which liquors it communi¬
cates a red colour. By fire it is fufible, inflammable,
and emits an acid vapour like gum Benzoin. Afolu-
tion of dragon’s blood in fpirit of wine is ufed for flam¬
ing marble, to which it gives a red tinge, which pe¬
netrates more or lefs deeply according to the heat of
the marble during the time of application. But, as it
fpreads at the fame time that it finks deep, for fine
defigns the marble fhould be cold. Mr du Fay fays,
that, by adding pitch to this folution, the colour may
be rendered deeper.
Dragon-Tv/^, or Dragotiet, in ichthyology. See
Callionymus.
Dragon-Z^. See Libellula.
Dragons, in botany. See Dracontium.
DRAGONET, or Dragon-Zu/Z', in ichthyology.
See Callionymus.
DRAGONNE'E, in heraldry. Alion dragonee is
where the upper half refembles a lion, the other half
going off like the hinder part of a dragon. The fame
may be faid of any other beaft as well as a lion.
DRAGOON, in military affairs, a mufqueteer,
mounted on horfeback, who fometimes fights or marches
on foot, as occafion requires.
Menage derives the word dragoon from the Latin
draconaritis, which in Vegetius is ufed to fignify foldier. Drags,
But it is more probably derived from the German tra- •Drain5,
gen, or draghen, which fignifies to carry ; as being in¬
fantry carried on horfeback.
Dragoons are divided into brigades, as the cavalry,
and each regiment into troops ; each troop, having a
captain, lieutenant, cornet, quarter-mafter, two fer-
jeants, three corporals, and two drums. Some regi¬
ments have hautboys. They are veryufeful on any expe¬
dition that requires difpatch ; for they can keep pace
with the cavalry, and do the duty of infantry : they
encamp generally on the wings of the army, or at the
paffes leading to the camp ; and fometimes they are
brought to cover the general’s quarters : they march in
the front and rear of the army.
DRAGS, in the fea-language, are whatever hangs
over the ftiip in the fea, as ftiirts, coats, or jhe like;
and boats, when towed, or( whatever elfe that after
this manner may hinder the (hip’s way when (he fails,
are called drags.
DRAINS, a name given, in the fen countries, to
certain large cuts or ditches of 20, 30, nay fometimes
40 foot wide, carried through the marfhy ground to
fome river or other place capable of difcharging the wa¬
ter they carry out of the fen-lands.
An eftedlual method of drawing off the water from
fuch grounds as are hurt by fprings oozing out upon
them, (ufually diftinguifhed by the name of wet or
/pouting ground, or bogs,) has been a defideratum in
agriculture.- Mr Anderfon is almoft the only perfon
who hath treated this matter fcientifically, and his ob-
fervations feem to be very rational and well founded.
“ Springs (fays he) are formed in the bowels of the EJJajs on
earth, by water percolating through the upper ftrata Agriculture,
where that is of a porous texture, which continues to
defcend downwards till it meets with a ftratum of clay p’ 11C*
that intercepts it in its courfe ; where, being colle&ed
in confiderable quantities, it is forced to feek a paffage
through the porous ftrata of fand, gravel, or rock,
that may be above the clay, following the courfe of
thefe ftrata till they approach the furface of the eartha
or are interrupted by any obftacle which occafions the
water to rife upwards, forming fprings, bogs, and the
other phenomena of this nature; which being varioufly
diverfified in different circumftances, produce that va¬
riety of appearances in this refpedl that we often meet
with.
“ This being the cafe, we may naturally conclude,
that an abundant fpring need never be expedled in any
country that is covered to a great depth with fand
without any ftratum of clay to force it upwards, as is
the cafe in the fandy deferts of Arabia, and the im-
meafurable plains of Libya: neither are we to expedl
abundant fprings in any foil that confifts of an uniform
bed of clay from the furface to a great depth; for, it
muft always be in fome porous ftratum, that the water
flows in abundance; and it can be made to flow hori¬
zontally in that, only when it is fupported by a ftra¬
tum of clay, or other fubftance that is equally imper¬
meable by water. Hence the rationale of that rule fo
univerfally eftablifhed in digging for wells, that if you
begin with fand or gravel, &c. you need feldom hope
to find water till you come to clay; and if you begin
with clay, you can hope for none in abundance, till
you reach to fand, gravel, or rock. *
It
D R A [ 25
Braios. ’ <{ It is ncceffary that the farmer ihould attend to
this procefs of nature with care, as his fuccefs in drain¬
ing hogs, and every fpecies of damp and fpouting
ground, will in a great meafure depend upon his tho¬
rough knowledge of this,— his acutenefs in perceiving
in every cafe the variations that may be occafioned by
particular circumftances,. and his fkill in varying the.
plan of his operations according to thefe. As the va¬
riety of cafes that may occur in this refpeft is very
great, it would be a very tedious talk to enumerate the
whole, and defcribe the particular method of treating
each; I fhall, therefore, content myfelf with enumera¬
ting a few particular cafes, to fhow in what manner
the principles above eftablifhed may be applied to
pradlice.
Plate XCV. “ Let fig. 5. reprefent a perpendicular fe&ion of
a 'part of the earth, in which AB is the furface of the
round, beneath which are feveral llrata of porous fub-
ances which allow the water to fink through them till
it reaches the line CD, that is fuppofed to reprefent
the upper furface of a folidjbed of clay; above which
lies a ftratum of rock, fand, or gravel. In this cafe,
it is plain, that when the water reaches the bed of
clay, and can fink no farther, it mull be there accu¬
mulated into a body ; and feeking for itfelf a paflage,
it flows along the furface of the clay, among the fand
or gravel, from D towards C ; till at laft it iffues forth,
at the opening A, a fpring of pure water.
If the quantity of water that is accumulated between
D and C.is not very confiderable, and the ftratum of
clay approaches near the furface ; in that cafe, the
whole of it will iffue by the opening at A, and the
ground will remain dry both above and below it. But,
if the quantity of water is fo great as to raife it to a
confiderable height in the bed of fand or gravel, and
if that ftratum of fand is not difcontinued before it
reaches the furface of the ground, the water, in this
cafe, would not only ifiue at A, but would likewife
ooze out in fmall ftreamsthro’ every part of the ground
between A and a ; forming a barren patch of wet fan-
dy or gravelly ground upon the fide of a declivity,
which every attentive obferver rpuft have frequently
met with.
To drain a piece of ground in this fituation is, per¬
haps, the moft unprofitable talk that a farmer can en¬
gage in ; not only becaufe it is difficult to execute,
but alfo becaufe the foil that is gained is but of very
little value. However, it is lucky, that patches of this
kind are feldom of great breadth, although they fome-
times run along the fide of a declivity in a horizontal
direction for a great length. The’ only effe&ual me¬
thod of draining this kind of ground, is to open a
ditch as high up as the higheft of the fprings at a,
which fhould be of fuch a depth as not only to pene¬
trate through the whole bed of fand or gravel, but al¬
fo to fink fo far into the bed of clay below, as to make
a canal therein fufficiently large to contain and carry off
the whole of the water. Such a ditch is reprefented
by the dotted lines a e z: but, as the expence of ma¬
king a ditch of fueh a depth as this would fuppofe, and
of keeping it afterwards in repair, is very great, it is
but in very few cafes that this mode of draining would
be advifeable; and never, unlefs where the declivity
happens to be fo fmall, as that a great furface is loft
ibr little depth, as would have been the cafe here if
V,ol. IV.
25 ] D R A
the furface had extended in the diredtion e>f the doted Df3illi-
line a d.
But, fuppofing that the ftratum of clay, after ap¬
proaching toward the fur face at A, continued to keep
at a little depth below ground ; and that the foil which
lay above it was of a fandy or fpungy nature, fo ae to
allow the water to penetrate it eafily ; even fuppofing
the quantity of water that flowed from D to C was but
very inconfiderable, inftead of rifing out at the fpring
A, it would flow forward along the furface of the clay
among the porous earth that forms the foil, fo as to keep
it conftantly drenched with water, and of confequence
render it of very little value.
Wetnefs arifing from this caufe, is ufually of much
greater extent than the former : and, as it admits of
an eafy cure, it ought not to be one moment delayed j
as a ditch of a very moderate depth opened at A, and
carried through a part of the ftratum of clay, (as re¬
prefented by the dotted lines A k f), would intercept
and carry off the whole of the water, and render the
field as dry as could be defired. It is, therefore, of
very great confequence to the farmer, accurately to di-
ftinguifh between thefe two cafes, fo nearly allied to
each other in appearance ; and, as this can be eafieft
done by boring, every one who has much ground of
this kind ought to provide himfelf with a fet of bo¬
ring-irons, which he will likewife find ufe for on other
occafions.
“ I might here enumerate a great variety of cafes
which might be reduced to the fame head with the
foregoing: but, as any attentive reader may, after
what has been faid, be able eafily to diftinguifh thefe,
I (hall only in general obferve, that every foil of a foft
and porous texture, that lies upon a bed of hard clay,
whatever its fituation in other refpedls may be, will in
fome meafure be" fubjefted to this difeafe. And, if it
is upon a declivity of any confiderable length, the un-
dermoft parts of the field will be much damaged by it,
unlefs ditches are thrown up acrofs the declivity at pro¬
per diftances from one another, to intercept the water
in its defcent.
It may not likewife be improper here to obferve,
that in cafes of this nature, unlefs where the foil is of
a very great depth, the malady will always be increa-
fed, by raifing the ridges to a confiderable height; as
will appear evident by examining fig. 6. in which the
line A B reprefents the furface of a field of this na¬
ture, and C D the furface of the bed of clay. Now,
if this field were raifed into high ridges, as at F F F,
fo that the furrows E E E defcended below the fur¬
face of the clay, it is plain, that all the water that
fhould fink through the middle of the ridgej would run
along the furface of the clay, till it came to the fides
of the ridge L, L L L L L, which would thus be kept
continually foaked with water. Whereas, if the ground
had been kept-level, as in the part of the field from G
to H, with open furrows ET, at moderate diftances
from each other, the water would immediately fink to
the clay, and be carried off by the furrows, fo as to
damage the foil far lefs than when the ridges are high.
If the foil is fo thin as that the plough can always
touch the clay, the ridges ought to be made narrow
and quite flat, as from G to H: but, if there is a
little greater depth of foil, then it ought to be raifed
into ridges of a moderate height, as from H to K, fo
14 R as
D R A [ 2526 ] D R A
Drai ns. as to allow the bottom of the farrow to reach the clay:
‘ but neither is this neceffary where the foil is of any con*
fiderable depth.
“ I have feen fome induftrious farmers who, having
ground in this fituation, have been at the very great
exp£nce of making a covered drain in each furrow.
But, had they rightly underltood the nature of the
difeafe, they never would have thought of applying
fuch a remedy ; as mu ft appear evident at firft fight to
thofe who examine the figure. The fuccefs was what
might be expe&ed from fuch a foolifh undertaking.
“ Thefe obfervations, it is hoped, will be fufficient
as to the manner of treating wet, fandy, or porous foils.
I now proceed to take notice of fuch as are of a ftiff
clayey nature, which are often very different in ap¬
pearance, and require a different treatment from thefe.
“ Suppofe that (in fig. 7.) the ftratum of fand or
ateXCV. grave] fhould be difcontinued, as at E, and that
the ftratum above it fhould be of a coherent clayey na¬
ture. In this cafe, the water that flowed towards E,
being there pent in on every fide, and being accumu¬
lated there in great quantities, it muft at length force
apaffage for itfelfin fome way; and preffing ftrongly
upon the upper furface, if any one part is weaker than
the reft, it there would burft forth and form a fpring,
(as fuppofe at A). But if the texture of every part of
this ftratum were equally flrong, the water would
fqueeze thro’ many fmall crannies, and would ooze out
in numberlefs places, as between A and F, fo as to
occafion that kind of wetnefs that is known by the
name of a fpouting clayey foil.
“ The cure, in this cafe, is much more eafily ef-
fefted than in any of the former ; for, if a ditch of a
confiderable fize is opened, as at A, towards the low-
crmoft fide of the fpouting ground, fo deep as to pe¬
netrate through the upper ftratum of clay, and reach
,to the gravel, the water will rife up through it at firft
with very great violence, which will gradually decreafe
as the preffure from the water behind is diminifhed ; and
when the whole of the water, accumulated in this fub-
terraneous refervoir, is run off, there being no longer
any preffure upon the clay above it, the whole foon
becomes as dry as could be defired, and continues fo
ever afterwards, if the ditch is always kept open. This
I fpeak from experience, I having rendered fome fields
of this kind that were very wet, quite dry by this me¬
thod of treating them.
“ It will hardly be neceffary for me here to put the
farmer upon his guard, to be particularly careful in his
obfervations, that he may diftinguifh between the wet¬
nefs that is produced from this caufe, and that which
proceeds from the caufe before-menticned; becaufethe
treatment that would cure the one, would be of no ufe
at all to the other. The attentive obferver likewife will
readily perceive, that if any field that is wet from this
caufe admits of being ploughed, it will be in equal dan¬
ger of being hurt by being raifed into high ridges, with
the other kind of damp ground before-mentioned. For,
as the depth of earth above the refervoir would be
fmaller in the deep furrows than any where elfe, there
would, of confequence, be lefs refiftance to the water
in that place, fo that it would arife there in greater a-
bundance. And if, in this cafe, a farmer fhould dig
a drain in each furrow, as a confiderable quantity of
water would rife into them, in fome cafes, the ground
might be improved, or even quite drained thereby, e- Drains,
fpeciaily if they fhould have accidentally reached the gra- ~——
vel in any one place ; altho’ at an expence much greater
than was necefl'ary. I take notice of this circumftance
in fome meafure to prevent the prejudice that fome in¬
attentive obfervers might entertain againft what was *
faid before of this method of draining, from their ha¬
ving accidentally feen fome fields that may have been
bettered by it.
“ Bogs are only a variety of this lad-mentioned
kind of wet ground; and, therefore, ought in general
to be drained after the fame manner with them. Clay
is a fubftance that ftrongly refifts the entrance of water
into it: but when it is long drenched with it, it is, in
procefs of time, in fome meafure diffolved thereby;
lofes its original firmnefs of texture and confiftence; and
becomes a fort of femi-fluid mafs, which is called a
bog ; and as thefe are fometimes cpvered with a ftrong
fcurf of a particular kind of grafs, with very matted
foots, which is ftrong enough to bear a fmall weight
without breaking, although it yields very much, it is
in thefe circumftances called a fwaggle. But, what¬
ever be the nature of the bog, it is invariably occa-
fioned by water being forced up through abed of clay,
as juft now defcribed, and diffolving or foftening, if
you will, a part thereof. I fay only a part; becaufe
whatever may be the depth of the bog or fwaggle, it
generally has a partition of folid clay between it \and
the.refervoir of water under it, from whence it original¬
ly proceeds : for, if this were not the cafe, and the
quantity of water were confiderable, it would meet
with no fufficient refiftance from the bog, and would
iffue thro’ it with violence, and carry the whole femi-
fluid mafs along with it. But, this would more ine¬
vitably be the cafe, if there was a cruft at the bottom
of the bog, and if that cruft Ihould ever be broken, e-
fpecially if the quantity of water under it were very
confiderable : and as it is probable, that, in many cafes
of this fort, the water flowly diffolves more and more
of this under-cruft, I make no doubt, but that, in the
revolution of many ages, a great many eruptions of
this kind may have happened, although they may not
have been deemed of importance enough to have the
hiftory of them tranfmitted to pofterity. Of this kind,
although formed of a different fubftance, I confider the
flow of the Solway-mofs in Northumberland to have
been; which, upon the 16th of November 1771, burft
its former boundaries, and poured forth a prodigious
ftream of femi-fluid matter, which in a fliort time co¬
vered feveral hundred acres of very fine arable ground.
Nor will any one, who is acquainted with the nature
of mofs,—who knows its rtfemblance to clay in its
quality of abforbing and retaining water, and its very
eafy diffufibility therein, be furprifed at this; as, from
all thefe properties, it is much better adapted for form¬
ing an extenfive bog, and therefore in greater dan¬
ger of producing an extenfive devaftation by an erup¬
tion of the water into it, than thofe that are formed of
any kind of clay whatever.
If the bog, or fwampy ground, is upon a declivity,
the ditch ought to be carried acrofs the field about the
place where the loweft fprings arife. But, if the fur-
face of the ground is level or nearly fo, as between A ^‘2-
and B, and the fprings break out in feveral places,
S' ? f ? ? ?> as to form foft quagmires interfperfed
through
Plate XCY.
I) RAWING
rmera/lims
D R A [ 2527 ] D R A
prains. through the whole of the field, it will be of little con-
fequence in what part the drain is opened ; for, if it is
dug up fo deep as to allow the water to rife in it with
freedom, it will iffue thro’ that opening, and the field
will be left perfe&ly dry.
“ But, as it may frequently happen that the ftra-
tum ©f gravel (hall be at a confiderable depth beneath
the furface of the earth, and as it may be fometimes
even below the level of the place into which the drain
mull be emptied, it might fometimes be extremely dif¬
ficult to make a ditch fo deep as to reach the bed of
fand or gravel. But, it is lucky for us, that this is
not abfolutely neceflary in theprefeut cafe ; as a drain
of two or three feet deep, as at ]Q, will be equally ef¬
fectual with one that (hould go to the gravel. All
that is necefiary in this^pafe, is to fink pits (P) in the
courfe of the drain, at a moderate diftance from one
another, which go fo deep as to reach the gravel: for,
as the water there meets with no refiftanee, it readily
flows out at thefe openings, and is carried off by the
drain without being forced up through the earth; fo
that the ground is left entirely dry ever after.
“ I have likewife drained feveral fields in this way ;
and as I have generally found the appearances pretty
much alike, I (hall, for the information of the inexpe¬
rienced reader, give a Ihort account of them.
“ If you attempt to make yoUr pit in one of thefe
foft quaggy places where the water is found in great
abundance, you will meet with very great difficulty in
forming it; for, as the fubftance of which it is compo-
fed is foft, it will always flow into the hole as fall as
you dig it; on which account I would advife, not to
attempt to make the pit in the fwaggle, but as near it
in the folid earth as you conveniently can. However,
if it is pretty firm, and of no great extent, it is fome¬
times practicable to make a pit in the foft bog at the
dried time of the year. This I have fometimes prac-
tifed, which gave me an opportunity of obferving the
nature of thefe bogs more perfectly than I otherwife
would have had. In the trials of this kind that I have
made, this foft quaggy ground has feldom been above
three or four feet deep, below which I have always
found a ftratum of hard tough clay ufually mixed with
ftones ; and fo firm, that nothing but a mattock or
pick-axe could penetrate it: and, as this, is compara¬
tively fo much drier than the ground above it, an in¬
experienced operator is very apt to imagine that this
is the bottom that he is in fearch of. In digging thro’
this ftratum, you will frequently meet with fmall
fprings oozing out in all direClions ; fome of them that
might fill the tube of a fmall quill, and others fo fmall
as to be fcarce perceptible : but without regarding
thefe, you mull continue to dig on without intermif-
fion till you come to the main body of the refervoir, if
I may fo call it, that is contained in the rock, gravel,
or fand; which you will generally find from two to
four feet below the bottom of the fwaggle, and which
you will be in no danger of miftaking when you come
to it: for, if there has been no opening made before that
in the field, as foon as you break the cruft immediately
above the gravel or rock, the water burfts forth like a
torrent, and on fome occafions rifes like a jet d'eau, to
a confiderable height above the bottom of the ditch ;
and continues to flow off with great impetuofity for
fome time, till the pent-up water being drained off, the
violent boiling up begins to fubfide, and the ftrength Drains,
of the current to abate ; and, in a ftiort time, it flows
gently out like any ordinary fpring :—allowing it to
remain in this ftate, the quaggy earth begins to fub¬
fide, and gradually becomes firmer and firmer every day;
fo that, in the fpace of a few months, thofe bogs
which were formerly fo foft as hardly to fupport the
weight of a fmall dog, become fo firm, that oxen
and horfes may tread upon them without any danger
of finking, at the very wetteft feafon of the year. I
have had a field of this nature, that, by having only
one fuch pit as I have now deferibed opened in it,
was entirely drained to the diftance of above a hundred
yards around it in every direction. But, as it is pof-
fible that the ftratum in which the water runs may be
in fome places interrupted, it will be in general expe¬
dient to make feveral of thefe pits, if the field is of
great extent; always carrying the drain forward thro’
the lowermoft part of the field, or as near the quag as
you conveniently can ; and finking a pit wherever you
may judge it will be moft neceffary. But, if the ftra¬
tum of gravel is not interrupted, there will be no vio¬
lent burft of water at opening any of thefe after the
firft, as I have frequently experienced. To keep thefe
wells from clofing up after they are made, it is always
expedient to fill them up with fmall ftones immediately
after they are made, which ought to rife to the height
of the bottom of the drain. _
“ I have often imagined that the expence of digging
thefe pits might be faved by boring a hole through
this folid ftratum of clay with a large wimble made
on purpofe ; but, as I never experienced this, I can¬
not fay whether or not it would anfwer the defired end
exaftly.
“ If the whole field that is to be drained confifts of
one extenfive bog, it will require a long time before the
whole work can be entirely finilhed, as it will be im-
poffible to open a drain through it till one part of it
is firft drained and becomes folid ground. In a fitua-
tion of this kind, the undertaker, after having opened
a drain to convey the water from the loweft part of the
bog, muft approach as near to the fwampy ground as
he can, and there make his firft pit; which will drain,
off the water from the neareft parts of the bog. When
this has continued open fojr fome time, and that part of
the bog is become fo folid as to admit of being work¬
ed, let him continue the dftch as far forward thro’ it as
the fituation it is in will admit of, and there fink ano¬
ther pit: and proceed gradually forward in the fame
manner ; making crofs cuts where neceffary, till the
whole be finiflied.
“ In this manner may any bog, or track of fpout-
ing ground of this nature, be rendered dry at a very
inconfiderable expence; and as there can be no other
method of draining ground of this fort effectually, I
recommend the ftudy of it to the attention of every di¬
ligent farmer who may have occafion for it. Let him
firft be extremely cautious in examining all the circum-
ftances of his particularffields, that he may be certain
which of the claffes above enumerated it may be rank¬
ed with; and, when he is perfectly fure of that, he
may proceed without fear, being morally certain of
fuccefs.
“ There is, however, one kind of damp ground not
yet particularly fpecified, that I have purpofely omit-
14 R 2 ted
D R A [ 2528 ] D R A
Drains, ted taking notice of till this time, I have never had
    any 0pp0rtunity 0f examining particularly into the na¬
ture of it, nor of afcertaining by experience what is
the moft proper method of treating it.—The foil I have
now particularly in my eyeconfifts of a deep ftrong clay
that does not vary its nature even on the lurface, but
in as far as manures may have rendered it more friable
and tender : the colour ufually inclines to a reddilh call,
and, for the moft part, it is fituated upon the fide of
fome declivity. This bed of clay reaches to a great
depth, without any variation, and is intermixed with
a confiderable quantity of fmall round ftones. Many foils
of the fort now defcribed, are apt to be continually
moift and full of water during the winter feafon ; but
when the dry weather of fummer fets in, the moifture
is diminiftied, and the furface becomes hard, and it is
rent into many large gaps which allow free admiffion
to the fun and air, fo as to fcorch up almoft every plant
that-is fowed upon it: and as thefe foils are ufually in
themfelves naturally fertile when drained* it were to be
wilhed that fome method could be difcovered that would
be lefs expenfive than what is ufually pradtifed with re¬
gard to fome foils of this kind in Effex; where they
make covered drain's of two and a half feet deep, run¬
ning diagonally through the whole field, at the diftance
of 20 feet from each other.”
Concerning the making of thefe drains we have the
following dire&ions in the Georgical Effays, by T. B.
Bayley, Efqj of Hope near Manchefter.—“ Firft
make the main drains down the Hope or fall of the
field. When the land is very wet, or has not much fall,
there ftiould, in general, be two of thefe to a ftatute
acre; for the fhorter the narrow drains are, the lefs
liable they will be to accidents. The width of the
trench for the main drains ftiould be 30 inches at top,
but the width at the bottom mu ft be regulated by the
nature and fize of the materials intended to be ufed.
If the drain is to be made of bricks 10 inches long,
3 inches thick, and 4 inches in breadth, then the bot¬
tom of the drain muft be 12 inches ; but if the com¬
mon fale bricks are ufed, then the bottom muft be pro-
portionably contra&ed. In both cafes there muft be
an interftice of one inch between the bottom brick and
the fides of the trench, and the vacuity muft be filled
up with ftraw, nifties, or loofe mould. For the pur-
pofe of making thefe drains, I order my bricks to be
moulded 10 inches long, four broad, and three thick;
which dimenfions always make the beft drain.
“ The method I purfue in conftru&ing my main
drains is as follows.—When the ground is foft and
fpungy, the bottom of the drain is laid with bricks
placed acrofs. On thefe, on each fide, two bricks are
laid flat, one upon the other, forming a drain fix inches
high and four broad ; which is covered with bricks,
laid flat. When the bottom of the trench is found to
be a firm and folid body, as clay of marie, the bottom
of the drain does not then require being laid with
bricks. In that cafe the fides are formed by placing
one brick edgewife, inftead of two laid flat.
“ This latter method is much cheaper, and in fuch
land equally durable with the other. When ftones are
ufed inftead of bricks, the bottom of the drain ftiould
be about eight inches in width. And here it will be
proper to remark, that, in all cafes, the bottom of the
main drains muft be funk four inches below the level of
the narrow ones, even at the point where the latter fall Drain*-,,
into them. Dr*ke~
“ The main drains ftiould be kept open till the nar¬
row ones are begun from them, after which they may
be finiftied ; but before the earth is returned upon the
ftones- or bricks, it will be advifeable to throw in ftraw,
rulhes, or brufti-wood, to increafe the freedom of the
drain.
“ The fmall narrow drains ftiould be cut at the di¬
ftance of 16 or x8 feet from each other; and ftiould
fall into the main drain at very acute angles, to pre¬
vent any ftoppage. At the point where they fall in,
and eight or ten inches above it, they fliould be made
firm with brick or ftone. Thefe drains ftiould be 18
inches wide at top, and 16 at bottom.”— Fig. g. re- p]ate XCV,
prefents a field with drains laid out, according to Mr
Bayley’s method* The black lines reprefent the main
drains, and the dotted lines reprefent the narrow drains
communicating with the former from all parts of the field.
DRAKE, in ornithology, the male of the duck
kind. See A was.
Drake (Sir Francis), the renowned Englifti admi¬
ral, was the fon of Edmund Drake a failor, and born
near Taviftock in Devonfttire, in the year 1545. He
was brought up at the expence and under the care of
Sir John Hawkins, who was his kinfman; and, at the
age of 18, Was purfer of a ftiip trading to Bifcay. At
20, he made a voyage to Guiney; and, at 22, had the
honour to be made captain of the Judith. In that ca¬
pacity he was in the harbour of St John de Ulloa, in
the gulph of Mexico, where he behaved moft gallantly
in the glorious a&ions under Sir John Hawkins, arid
returned with him to England with great reputa¬
tion, though not worth a groat. Upon this he pro-
je&ed a defign againft the Spaniards in the Weft In¬
dies ; which he no fooner publiftxed, than he had vo¬
lunteers enough ready to accompany him. In 1570,
he made his firft: expedition with two ftiips; and the
next year with on^ only, in which he returned fafe, if
not with fuch advantages as he expe<fted. He made
another expedition in 1572, wherein he did the Spa¬
niards fome mifchief, and gained confiderable booties.
In thefe expeditions he was much aflifted by a nation-
of Indians, who then were, and have been ever fince,
engaged in perpetual wars with the Spaniards. The
prince of thefe people was named Pedro; to wftiora
Drake prefented a fine cutlafs from his fide, which he
faw the Indian greatly admired. Pedro, in return,
gave him four large wedges of gold; whichDrake threw
into the common ftock, faying, That he thought it
but juft that fuch as bore the charge of fo uncertain a
voyage on his credit, ftiould lhare the utmoft advan¬
tage that voyage produced. Then, embarking his men
with all the wealth he had obtained, which was very
confiderable, he bore away for England, where he ar¬
rived in Auguft 1573.
His fuccefs in this expedition, joined to his honou¬
rable behaviour towards his owners, gained him a high
reputation ; and the ufe he made of his riches, a ftill
greater. For, fitting out three ftout frigates .at his
own expence, he failed with them to Ireland; where,
under Walter earl of Effex, the father of the famous
unfortunate earl, he ferved as a volunteer, and did many
glorious aftions. After the death of his noble patron,
he returned into England; where Sir Chriftopher Hat¬
ton
D R A
Drake, ton introduced him to her majefty, and procured him
— ” countenance and proteftion at court. By this means
he acquired a capacity of undertaking that grand ex«
pedition which will render his name immortal. The
firft thing he propofed was a voyage into the South
Seas through the Straits of Magellan; which was what
hitherto no Englifhman had ever attempted. The pro¬
ject was well received at court: the queen furnilhed
him with means; and his own fame quickly drew to¬
gether a fufficient force. The fleet with which he
failed on this extraordinary undertaking, confifted only
of five veffels, fmall when compared with modern fhips,
and no more than 164 able men. He failed on the 13th
of December 1577 ; on the 25th fell in with the coafl
of Barbary, and on the 29th with cape Verd. On the
13th of March he pafled the equinoftial, made the
coaft of Brazil on the 5th of April, and entered the
River de la Plata, where he loft the company of two
of his (hips; but meeting them again, and taking out
their provifions, he turned them adrift. On the 29th
of May he entered the port of St Julian’s, where he
continued two months for the fake of laying in provi¬
fions: on the 20th of Auguft he entered the Straits of
Magellan, and on the 25th of September pafled them,
having then only his own (hip. On the 25th of No¬
vember he came to Machao, which he had appointed
for a place of rendezvous in cafe his (hips feparated;
but captain Winter, his vice admiral, having repaired
the Stiaits, was returned to England. Thence he con¬
tinued his voyage along the coafts of Chili and Peru,
taking all opportunities of feizing Spanifh (hips, and
attacking them on (hore, till his men were fated with
plunder; and then, coafting America to the height of
48 degrees, he endeavoured to find a paffage that way
back into our feas, but could not. However, he land¬
ed, and called the country Nenu Albion, taking poffef-
fion of it in the name and for the ufe of queen Eliza¬
beth; and, having careened his (hip, fet fail from thence,
on the 29th of September 1379, for the Moluccas.
He is fuppofed to have chofen this paffage round,
partly to avoid being attacked by the Spaniards at a
difadvantage, and partly from the latenefs of the fea-
fon, whence dangerous (forms and hurricanes were ap¬
prehended. On the 13th of Oftober he fell in with
certain iflands inhabited by the mod barbarous people
he had met with in all his voyage: on the 4th of No¬
vember he had fight of the Moluccas; and, coming to
Ternate, was extremely well received by the king
thereof, who appears, from the mod authentic relations
of this voyage, to have been a wife and polite prince.
On the 10th of December he made Celebes; where his
(hip unfortunately ran upon a rock-, the 9th of January
following; from which, beyond all expectation, and in
a manner miraculoufly, they got off, and continued
their courfe. ■ On the 16th .of March he arrived at Java
Major; and from thence he intended to have diredfed
his courfe to Malacca ; but found himfelf obliged to
alter his purpofe; and to think of returning home. On
the 25th of March 1580, he put this defign in execu-
. tion; and on the 15th of June he doubled the Cape of
Good Hope, having then on board 57 men, and but
three calks of waten On the 12th of July he paffed
the line, reached the coaft of Guiney on the 16th, and
there watered. On the nth of September he made^
the- bland of Tercera j and on the 3d of November^
D R A
entered the harbour of Plymouth. This voyage round Drake,
the world was performed in two years and about ten
months. Shortly after his arrival, the queen going to
Deptford, went on board his (hip; where, after dinner,
(he conferred on him the order of knighthood, and de¬
clared her abfolute approbation of all he had done. She
likewife gave directions for the prefervation of his (hip,
that it might remain a monument of his own and his
country’s glory. This celebrated (hip, which had been
contemplated many years at Deptford, at length de-
csying, it was broke up, and a chair, made out of the
planks, was prefented to the univerfity of Oxford; up¬
on which the famous Abraham Cowley made the fol¬
lowing verfes:
“ To this great (hip, which round the world has run,
“ And match’d in race the chariot of the fun;
“ This Pythagorean thip (for it may claim,
“ Without prefumption, fo defcrv’d a name,
“ By knowledge once, and transformation now)
“ In her new thape this facred port allow.
“ Drake and his (hip could not have wifli’d, from fate,-
“An happier ftation, or more blefs’d eftate :
“ For, lo! a feat of endlefs reft is given,
“ To her in Oxford, and to him in heaven.
WpRKS, Vol. II.
In the year 1583, he failed with a fleet to the Weft
Indies; and took the cities of St Jago, St Domingo,
Carthagena, and St Auguftin. In 1587, he went to
Lifbon with a fleet of 30 fail; and, having intelligence
of a great fleet aflembled in the bay of Cadiz, which
was to have made part of the armada, he with great
courage entered that port, and burnt there upwards of
10,000 tons of (hipping: which he afterwards merrily
called burning the khig of Spain’s beard. In 1388,
when the armada from Spain was approaching our
eoafts. Sir Francis Drake was appointed vice-admiral
under Charles lord Howard of Effingham, high admi¬
ral of England, where fortune favoured him as remark¬
ably as ever: for he made prize of a very large galleon,
commanded by Don Pedro de Valdez, who was repu¬
ted the projeftor of this invafion. This affair happened
in the following manner: On the 22d of July, Sir
Francis obferving a great Spaniflr (hip floating at a di-
ftance from both fleets, fenf his pinnace to fummon
the commander to yield. Valdez replied, with much
Spanifti folemnity, that they were 430 ftrong; that he
himfeif was Don Pedro, and flood much upon his ho¬
nour ; and thereupon propounded feveral conditions;
upon which he was willing to yield. But the vice-ad¬
miral replied,That he had no leifure to parley: but if
he thought fit-inftantly to yield, he might; if not, he
(hould (bon find that Drake was no cpward. Pedro,
hearing the name of Drake, immediately yielded, and
’with 46 of his attendants came on board Drake’s (hip;
This Don Pedro remained about two years Sir Francis
Drake’s prifoner in England; and, when he was re¬
leafed, paid him for his own and his captains liberties;
a ranfom of 33001. Drake’s foldiers were well recom-
penfed with the plunder of this (hip : for they found
in it 33000 ducats of gold, which was divided among
them.
A little before this formidable Spaniffi armament
put to fea, the ambaffador of his Catholic majefty had
the confidence to propound to queen Elizabeth, in La¬
tin verfe, the terms upon which (he might hope for
peace; which, with an Engliffi tranflation by Dr Ful?
ler,,
[ 2529 1
D R A [ 2530 ] D R A
Drake ler, we will infert in this place, becaufe Drake’s ex-
II pedition to the Weft Indies makes a part of this mef>
fage. The verfes are thefe:
Te veto ne per gas hello defender e Belgas:
(9ux Dracus eripult nunc reftituantur oportet:
Iguas pater evertit jubeo tc condere cellas :
Keligio Papa fac reftituatur ad unguem.
“ Thefe to you are our commands,
“ Send no help to th’ Netherlands :
“ Of the treafure took by Drake,
“ Reflitution you mud make:
“ And thofe abbeys build anew,
“ Which your father overthrew:
“ If for any peace you hope,
“ In all points redore the pope."
The queen’s extempore return.
Ad Gnecas, bone rex, fient maniata calendas.
“ Worthy king, know, this your will
“ At Latter-Lammas we’ll fulfil.
In the year 1589, Sir Francis Drake commanded as
admiral the fleet fent to reftore Don Antonio king of
Portugal, the command of the land-forces being gi¬
ven to Sir John Norris: but they were hardly got to
fea, before the commanders differed, and fo the attempt
proved abortive. The war with Spain continuing, a
more effectual expedition was undertaken by Sir John
Hawkins and .Sir Francis Drake, againft their fettle-
ments in the Weft Indies, than had hitherto been made
during the whole epurfe of it: but the commanders
here again not agreeing about the plan, this alfo did
» not turn out fo fnccefsfully as was expefted. All dif¬
ficulties, before thefe two laft expeditions, had given
way to the fkill and fortune of Sir Francis Drake ;
which probably was the reafon, why he did not bear
thefe difappointments fo well as he otherwife would
have done. A ftrong fenfe of them is fuppofed to
have thrown him into a melancholy, which ocafxoned a
bloody flux; and of this he died on board his own (hip,
near the town of Nombre de Dios in the Weft Indies,
on the 28th of January 1595-6. His death was la¬
mented by the whole nation, and particularly by his
countrymen; who had great reafon to love him from
the circumftances of his private life, as well as to efteem
him in his public charafter. He was eledled burgefs
for the town of Bofliney, alias Tintagal, in the county
of Cornwall, in the 27th parliament of queen Eliza¬
beth; and for Plymouth in Devonlhire, in the 35th of
the fame reign. This town had ve-y particular obli¬
gations to him: for, in the year 1587, he undertook
to bring water into it, through the want of which, till
then, it had been grievoufly diftreffed; and he per¬
formed it by conducing thither a ftream from fprings
at eight miles diftance, that is to fay, in a ftraight line :
for in the manner he brought it, the courfe of it runs
upwards of 20 miles.
DRAKENBORCH (Arnold), profeffor of elo¬
quence and hiftory at Utrecht, made himfelf known by
feytiral works, and particularly by his Notes on Titus
Livius and Silius Italicus; his fine editions of which
are highly efteemed.
DRAMA, a poem containing fome certain aftion,
and reprefenting a true pifture of human life, for the
delight and improvement of mankind.
* c o , e principal fpecies of the drama are two, comedy
article ani traSedy- Some others there are of lefs note, as
Poetry. paftoral, fatire, tragi-comedy, opera, &c *.
DRAMATIC, an epithet given to pieces written Dramatic
for the ftage. See Poetry, chap. ii. H ;
DRANK, among farmers, a term ufed to denote j
wild oats, which never fail to infeft worn-out lands; fo
that, when ploughed lands run to thefe weeds and
thiftles, the farmer knows it is high time to fallow them,
or elfe to fow them with hay-feed, and make pafture of
them.
DRAPERY, in fculpture and painting, fignifies the
reprefentation of the clothing of human figures, and
alfo hangings, tapeftry, curtains, andmoft other things
that are not carnations or landfcapes. See Painting,
n° 10.; Crayon-Painting, fedt. ii.; and Drawing,
par. 8.
DRASTIC, in phyfic, an epithet beftowed on fuch
medicines as are of prefent efficacy, and potent in ope¬
ration ; and is commonly applied to emetics and ca¬
thartics.
DRAVE, a large navigable river, which, taking
its rife in the archbifhopric of Saltzburg, in Germany,
runs fouth-eaft through Stiria ; and continuing its
courfe, divides Hungary from Sclavonia, and falls into
the Danube at Effeck.
DRAUGHT, in trade, called alfo cloff or clouch, is
a fmall allowance on weighable goods, made by the
king to the importer, or by the feller to the buyer,
that the weight may hold out when the goods are
weighed again.
The king allows 1 lb draught for goods weighing
no lefs than 1 Cwt. 2 lb for goods weighing between
i and 2 Cwt. 3 lb for goods weighing between 2 and
3 Cwt. 4 lb from 3 to toCwt. 7 lb from 1 o to i 8Cwt.
gib from 18 to 30 or upwards.
DRAUGHT-fftoi/, are large hooks of iron, fixed on
the cheeks of a cannon-carriage, two on each fide, one
near the trunnion hole, and the other at the train, di-
ftinguifhed by the name of fore and kind draught-hooks.
Large guns have draught-hooks near the middle tran-
fom, to which are fixed the chains that ferve to keep
the fliafts of the limbers on a march. The fore and
hind hooks are ufed for drawing a gun backwards or
forwards, by men with ftrong ropes, called draught-
ropes, fixed to thefe hooks. *»
Draught, the depth of a body of water neceffary
to float a (hip; hence a fhip is faiebto draw fo many
feet of water, when (he is borne up by a column of wa¬
ter of that particular depth. Thus, if it requires a
body of water whofe depth is equal to 12 feet, to float
or buoy up a (hip on its furface, fhe is faid to draw 12
feet water; and that this draught may be more readily
known, the feet are marked on the ftem and ftern poft,
regularly from the keel upwards.
DRAUGHT-//c»r/e, in farming, a fort of coarfe-made
horfe, deftined for the fervice of a cart or plough.
DRAWBACK, in commerce, certain duties, either
of the cuftoms or of the excife, allowed upon the ex¬
portation of fome of our own manufa&ures 5 or upon
certain foreign merchandife, that have paid duty on
importation.
The oaths of the merchants importing and export¬
ing are required to obtain the drawback on foreign
goods, affirming the truth of the officers certificate on
the entry, and the due payment of the duties : and
thefe may be made by the agent or hulband of any cor¬
poration or company; or by the known fervant of any
merchant,
ID R A
Draw, merchant ufually employed in making his entries, and
j Draw'ii‘g‘ paying his cufloms. In regard to foreign goods entered
' outward, if lefs quantity or value be fraudulently (hip¬
ped out than what is expreifed in the exporter’s certifi¬
cate, the goods therein mentioned, or their value, are
forfeited, and no drawback to be allowed for the fame.
Foreign goods exported by certificate in order to ob¬
tain the draw-back, not fhipped or exported, or re¬
landed in Great Britain, unlefs in cafe of diftrefs to
fave them frorp periling, are to lofe the benefit of the
draw-back, and are forfeited, or their value, with the
vefiels, horfes, carriages, &c. employed in the reland¬
ing thereof; and the perfons employed in the reland¬
ing them, or by whofe privity they are relanded, or
into whofe hands they lhall knowingly come, are to for¬
feit double the amount of the drawback. Officers of
the cuftoms conniving at or affifting in any fraud re¬
lating to certificate goods, befides other penalties, are
to forfeit their office, and fuffer fix months imprifon-
ment without bail or mainprize; as are alfo mafters,
or perfons belonging to the fhips employed therein.
Bonds given for the exportation of certificate-goods to
Ireland muft not be delivered up, nor drawback allow¬
ed for any goods, till a certificate under the hands and
feals of the cdlleftor or comptroller, &c. of the cu¬
ftoms be produced, teftifying the landing.
Dkxv:-Bridge, a bridge made after the manner of
a float, to draw up, or let down, as occafion ferves, be¬
fore the gate of a town or caftle. See Bridge.
A draw-bridge may be made after feveral different
ways; but the moft common are made with plyers, twice
the length of the gate, and a foot in diameter. The
D R A
D R A
inner fquare is traverfed with a crofs, which ferves for Draw,
a counterpoife ; and the chains which hang from the Drawing,
extremities of the plyers to lift up or let down the
bridge, are of iron or brafs.
In navigable rivers it is fometimes neceffary to make
the middle arch of bridges with two moveable plat¬
forms, to be raifed occafionally, in order to let the
mafts and rigging of fhips pafs through. This kind
of draw-bridge is reprefented in Plate XCVI. where
A B is the width of the middle arch ; A L and B L,
the two piers that fupport the draw-bridge NO, one
of the platforms of which is raifed, and the other let
down, having the beam PQJbr its plyer. To NO
are fufpended two moveable braces EH, EH; which
refting on the fupport E, prefs againft the bracket M,
and thereby ftrengthen the draw-bridge. Thefe braces
are condufted to the reft by means of the weight S,
pulling the chain SLF.
DRAW-iVe^, a kind of net for taking the larger fort
of wild-fowl, which ought to be made of the beft fort
of pack-thread, with wide mefhes ; they fhould be
about two fathoms deep and fix long, verged on each
fide with a very ftrong cord, and ftretched at each end
on long poles. It fhould be fpread fmooth and flat
upon the ground; and ftrewed over with grafs, fedge,
or the like, to hide it from the fowl; and the fportf-
man is to place himfelf in fome flicker of grafs, fern,
or fome fuch thing.
DRAWING, in general, denotes the a&ion of
pulling out, or haling along; thus we read of tooth¬
drawing, wire-drawing, &c.
WING,
[ 2531 ]
TH E art of reprefenting the appearances of objefts
by imitation, or copying without the affiftance of
mathematical rules.
1. Of the proper Materials for drawing, and the
manner of ufmg them. The firft thing neceffary for a
beginner is to furnifh himfelf with proper materials,
* See fuch as black-lead pencils, crayons * of black, white,
Pamtin °r re^ c^a^> crow-quill pens, a rule and compaffes,
aiming. c3[0ieJs.|iair pencils, and Indian ink. He muft ac-
cuftom himfelf to hold the pencil farther from the point
than one does a pen in writing; which will give him
a better command of it, and contribute to render the
ftrokes more free and bold. The ufe of the pencil is
to draw the firft /ketches or outlines of the piece, as
any,ftroke or line that is amifs may in this be more ea-
fily rubbed out than in any other thing ; and when he
has made the (ketch as corredl as he can with the pen¬
cil, he may then draw carefully the beft outline he has
got, with his crow-quill pen and (a) ink; after which
he may difcharge the pencil-lines, by rubbing the piece
gently with the crumb of ftale bread. Having thus
got the outline clear, his next work is to fhade the
piece properly, either by drawing fine ftrokes with his
pen where it requires to be /haded, or by wa/hing it
with his pencil and the Indian ink. As to his rule and
compaffes, they are never or very rarely to be ufed*
except in meafuriug the proportions of figures after he
has drawn them, to prove whether they are right or
not ; or in houfes, fortifications, and other pieces of
archite&ure.
2. Of drawing Lines, Squares, Circles, and other re¬
gular and irregular figures. Having got all thefe im¬
plements in readinefs, the firft practice muft be to draw
ftraight and curve lines, with eafe and, freedom, up¬
wards and downwards, fideways to the right or left, or
in any dire&ion whatfoever. He muft alfo learn to
draw, by command of hand, fquares, circles, ovals, and
other geometrical figures: for as the? alphabet, or a
knowledge of the letters, is an introduftion to gram¬
mar ; fo is geometry to drawing. The praftice of
drawing thefe fimple figures * till he is mafter of them, * See Plate
will enable him to imitate, with greater eafe and accu- XCVI.
racy, many things both in nature and art. And here
it is proper to admonifh him, never to be in a hurry ;
but to make himfelf perfeftly mafter of one figure be¬
fore h^; proceeds to another : the advantage, and even
neceffity, of this, will appear as he proceeds. Two ob-
fervations more may be added : 1. That he accuftom
himfelf to draw all his figures very large, which is the
only way of acquiring a free bold manner of defign-
(a) The ink made ufe offer this purpofe muft not be common, but Indian ink ; which is much fofter than the
other, and does not run: by mixing it with water, it may be made to any degree of ftrength, and ufed in a pen like
common ink.
2532
D R. A W I N G.
ing. 2. That he pra&Ife dra wing till he has gained
a tolerable maftery of his pencil, before he attempts
to fhadow any figure or objedt of any kind whatever.
3. Of Light and Shade. After the learner has made
himfelf in fome meafure perfect in drawing outlines,
his next endeavour mufl: be to fhade them properly. It
is this which gives an appearance of fubftance, fhape,
diftance, and diftinftion, to whatever bodies he endea¬
vours to reprefent, whether animate or inanimate. The
beft rule for doing this is, to confider from what point,
and in what direction, the light falls upon the objects
which he is delineating, and to let all his lights and
Ihades be placed according to that direction through¬
out the whole work. That part of the objeft muft be
lighteft, which hath the light moftdire&ly oppofite to
it; if the light falls Tideways on the pi&ure, he muft
make that fide which is oppofite to it lighteft, and that
fide vyhich is fartheft from it darkeft. If he is draw¬
ing the. figure of a man, and the light be placed above
the head, then the top of the head muft: be made
lighteft, the (houlders next lighteft, and the lower parts
darker by degrees. That part of the ohjedt, whether
in naked figures, or drapery, or buildings, that (lands
fartheft out, muft be made the lighteft, becaufe it comes
neared to the light; and the light lofeth fo much of
its brightnefs, by how much any part of the body
bends inward, becaufe thofe parts that (tick out hinder
the luftre and full brightnefs of the light from ftriking
on thofe.parts that fall in. Titian ufed to fay, that
he knew no better rule for the diftribution of lights
and (hadows, than his obfervations drawn from a bunch
of grapes. Sattins and filks, and all other (hining
■Huffs, have certain glancing refledlions, exceeding
bright, where the light falls ftrongeft. The like is
feen in armour, brafs-pots, or any other glittering
metal, where you fee a fudden brightnefs in the middle
or centre of the light, which difeovers the (hining na¬
ture of fuch things. Obferve alfo, that a ftrong light
requires a ftrong (hade, a fainter light a fainter (hade;
and that an equal balance be preferved throughout the
piece between the lights and (hades. Thofe parts
which muft appear round, require but one (Iroke in
(hading, and that fometimes but very faint; fuch parts
as (hould appear deep or hollow, require two ftrokes
acrofs each other, or fometimes three, which is fuffi-
cient for the deepeft (hade. Care muft be alfo taken
to make the outlines faint and fmall in fuch parts as
receive the light; but where the (hades fall, the out¬
line muft be ftrong and bold. The learner muft be¬
gin his (hadings from the top, and proceed downward,
and ufe his utmoft endeavours both by pra&ice and
obfervation to learn how to vary the (hadings pro¬
perly; for in this confifts a great deal of the beauty
and elegance of drawing. Another thing to be ob-
ferved is, that as the human fight is weakened by di-
dances, fo objedls muft feem more or lefs confufed or
clear according to the places they hold in the piece;
T-hofe that are very diftant,—weak, faint, and confu¬
fed ; thofe that are near and on the foremoft ground,—
clear, ftrong, and accurately finilhed.
A- Of drawing Flowers, Fruits, Birds, Beajls, &c.
The learner may proceed now to make fome attempts
at drawing flowers, fruits, birds, beads, and the like;
not only as it will be a morepleafing employment, but
ss it is an ealier talk, than the drawing of hands and
feet, and other parts of the human body, which require
not only more care, but greater exadtnefs and nicer
judgment. Very few rules or inftrudlions are requi-
fite upon this head; the beft thing the learner can do
is, to furnifti himfelf with good prints or drawings by
way of examples, and with great care and exaftnefs to
copy them. If it is the figure of a bead, begin with
the' forehead, and draw the nofe, the upper and under
jaw, and (lop at the throat. Then go to the top of
the head, and form the ears, neck, back, and continue
the line till you have given the full (hape of the but¬
tock. Then form the bread, and mark out the legs
and feet, and'all the fmaller parts. And, laft of all,
finifti it with the proper (hadows. It is not amifs, by
way of ornament, to give a fmall /ketch of landflcip;
and let it be fuftable and natural to the place or coun¬
try of the bead you draw. Much the fame may be
faid with regard to birds. Of thefe, as well as beads
and other abjedis, the learner will find many examples
among the plates given in this work.
5. Of drawing Eyes, Ears, Legs, Anns, Hands,Feet,
&c. As to the drawing of eyes and ears, legs and
arms, the learner will have very little more to do than
to copy carefully the examples given in Plate XCVI.
XCVII. But the adlions and poftures of the hands
are fo many and various, that no certain rules can be
given for drawing them, that will univerfally hold
ood. "Yet as the hands and feet are difficult mem-
ers to draw, it is very neceffary, and well worth while,
to bellow fome time and pains about them; carefully
imitating their various poftures and actions, fo as not
only to avoid all lamenefs and imperfe&ion, but alfo to
give them life and fpirit. To arrive at this, great care,
ftudy, and pra&ice, are requifite; particularly in imi¬
tating the bed prints or drawings that can be got of
hands and feet, (fome good examples of which are
given in Plate XCVII.); for, as to the mechanical
rules of drawing them by lines and meafures, they are
not only perplexed and difficult, but alfo contrary to
the practice of the beft mafters. One general rule,
however, may be given, (which is univerfally to be ob-
ferved in all fubjefts), and that is, Not to finilh per-
feftly at firft any fingle part, but to (ketch out faintly,
and with light ftrokes of the pencil, the (hape and pro¬
portion of the whole hand, with the adtion and turn of
it; and after confidering carefully whether this firft
(ketch be perfect, and altering it wherever it is amifs,
you may then proceed to the bending of the joints, the
knuckles, the veins, and other fmall particulars, which,
when the learner has got the whole (hape and propor¬
tion of the hand or foot, will not only be more eafily
but alfo more perfeftly defigned.
6. Of drawing Faces. The head is ufually divided in¬
to four equal parts. (1.) From the crown of the head
to the the top of the forehead. (2.) From the top of
the forehead to the eye-brows. (3.) From the eye¬
brows to the bottom of the nofe. (4.) From thence
to the bottom'of the chin. But this proportion is not
conftant; thofe features in different men being often
very different as to length and (hape. In a well-pro¬
portioned face, however, they are nearly right. To
diredt the learner therefore in forming a perfeft face,
his firft bufinefs is to draw a complete oval ; in the
middle of which, from the top to the bottom, draw a
perpendicular line. Through the centre or middle of
Tlate XrVI
?533
DRAWING.
this line draw a diameter line, direftly acrofs from one
fide to the other of your oval. On thefe two lines all
the features of your face are to be placed as follows.
Divide your perpendicular line into four equal parts:
the firft muft be allotted to the hair of the head; the
fecond is from the top of the forehead to the top of
the nofe between the eye-brows; the third is from
thence to the bottom of the nofe; and the fourth in¬
cludes the lips and chin. Your diametei4 line, or the
breadth of the face, is alwaysduppofed to be the length
of five eyes; you muft therefore divide it into five equal
parts, and place the eyes upon it fo as to leave exactly
the length of one eye betwixt them. This is to be
underftood only of a full front face; for if it turn to
either fide, then the diftances are to be leffened on that
fide which turns from you, lefs or more in proportion
to its turning. The top of the ear is to rife parallel to
the eye-brows, at the end of the diameter line; and
the bottom of it muft be equal to the bottom of the
nofe. The noftrils ought not to come out further than
the corner of the eye in any face; and the middle of
the mouth muft always be placed upon the perpendicu¬
lar line. See Plate XCVI.
7. Of drawing Human Figures. When the learner
is tolerably perfect in drawing hands, feet, heads, and
faces, he may next attempt to draw the human figure
at length. In order to which, let him firft form his
oval for the head ; then draw a perpendicular line from
the bottom of the head fix times its length, (for the
length of the head is one-feventh part of the length of
the figure.)
The belt proportioned figures of the ancients are 7
heads ^ in height. If, therefore, the figure ftands up¬
right, draw a perpendicular line from the top of the
head to the heel, which muft be divided into two equal
parts. The bottom of the belly is exactly the centre.
Divide the lower part into two equal parts again, the
middle of which is the middle of the knee. For the
upper part of the figure, the method muft be varied.
Take off with your compafles the length of the face,
(which is 3 parts in 4 of the length of the head); from
the throat-pit to the pit of the ftomach is one
face, from thence to the navel is another, and from
thence to the lower rim of the belly is a third. The
line muft be divided into feven equal parts. Againft
the end of the firft divifion, place the breafts ; the fe¬
cond comes down to the navel; the third, to the privi¬
ties ; the fourth to the middle of the thigh ; the fifth,
to the lower part of the knee; the fixth, to the lower
part of the calf; and the feventh, to the bottom of the
heel, the heel of the bearing leg being always exactly
under the pit of the throat. But, as the effence of all
drawing confifts in making at firft a good flcctch, the
learner muft in this particular be very careful and ac¬
curate; he ought to draw no one part perfetd or exaft,
till he fee whether the whole draught be good ; and
when he has altered that to his mind, he may then fi-
nifh one part after another as curioufly as he can.
There are fome who, having a ftatue to copy, begin
with the head, which theyTinifli, and then proceed in
the fame manner to the other parts of the body, finifh-
ing as they go: but this method generally fucceeds ill;
for if they make the head in the leaft too big, or too
little, the confequence is a difproportion between all
the parts, occafioned by their not having fketched the
Vol. IV.
whole proportionably at firft. Let the learner remember,
therefore, in whatever he intends to draw, firft to Iketch
its feveral parts, meafuring the diftances and propor¬
tions between each with his finger or pencil, without
ufing the compaffes ; and then judge of them by the
eye, which by degrees will be able to judge of truth
and proportion, and will become his beft and principal
guide. And let him obferve, as a general rule. Always
to begin with the right fide of the piece he is copying:
for by that means he will always have what he has
done before his eyes; and the reft will follow more na¬
turally, and with greater eafe: whereas if he begin
with the left fide, his hand and arm will cover what he
does firft, and deprive him of the fight of it; by which
means he will not be able to proceed with fo much eafe,
pleafure, or certainty.
As to the order and manner of proceeding in draw¬
ing the human body, he muft firft Iketch the head;
then the ftioulders in the exaft breadth; then draw the
trunk of the body, beginning with the arm-pits (lea¬
ving the arms till afterwards), and fo draw down to the
hips on both fides; and be lure he obferve the exaft
breadth of the waift. When he has done this, let him
then draw that leg which the body ftands upon, and
afterwards the other which ftands loofe ; then the arms,
and laft of all the hands.
He muft take notice alfo of the bowings and bend¬
ings that are in the body ; making the part which is
oppofite to that which bends, correfpond to it in bend¬
ing with it. For inftance : If one fide of the body
bend in, the other muft (land out anfwerable to it; if
the back bend in, the belly muft ftick out; if the knee
bend out, the ham muft fall in ; and fo of any other
joint in the body. Finally, he muft endeavour to form
all the parts of the figure with truth, and in juft pro¬
portion : not one arm or one leg bigger or lefs than
the other; not broad Herculean fhoulders, with a thin
and {lender waift; nor raw and bony arms, with thick
and gouty legs: but let there be a kind of harmonious
agreement amongft the members, and a beautiful fym-
metry throughout the whole figure.
We (hall conclude this head by giving, from Frefnoy,
77>f Meafures of the Human Body. The ancients
have commonly allowed eight heads to their figures,
though fome of them have but feven : but we ordina¬
rily divide the figures into ten faces; that is to fay,
from the crown of the head to the foie of the foot, in
the following manner.
From the crown of the head to the forehead is the
third part of a face.
The face begins at the root of the loweft hairs which
are upon the forehead, and ends at the bottom of the
chin.
The face is divided into three proportional parts; the
firft contains the forehead, the fecond the nofe, and the
third the mouth and chin.
From the chin to the pit betwixt the collar-bones,
are two lengths of a nofe.
From the pit betwixt the collar-bones to the bottom
of the bread, one face.
From the bottom of the bread to the navel, one face.
From the navel to the genitals, one face.
From the genitals to the upper part of the knees,
two faces.
The knee contains half a face.
14 S
From
2534
DRAWING.
From the lower part of the knee to the ankle, two
faces.
From the ankle to the foie of the foot, half a face.
A man, when his arms are ftretched out, is, from
the longed finger of his right hand to the longed of
his left, as broad as he is long.
From one fide of the breads to the other, two faces.
The bone of the arm called humerus, is the length
of two faces, from the Ihoulder to the elbow.
From the end of the elbow to the root of the little
finger, the bone called cubitus, with part of the hand,
contains two faces.
From the box of the fhoulder-blade to the pit be¬
twixt the collar-bones, one face.
If you would be fatisfied in the meafures of breadth
from the extremity of one finger to the other, fo that
this breadth fliould be equal to the length of the body,
you mud obferve, that the boxes of the elbows with the
humerus, and of the humerus with the fhoulder-blade,.
bear the proportion of half a face, when the arms are
dretched out.
The foie of the foot is the fixth part of the figure.
The hand is the length of the face.
The thumb contains a nofe.
The infide of the arm, from the place where the
mufcle difappears, which makes the bread, called the
pettoral mufcle, to the middle of the arm, four nofes.
From the middle of the arm to the beginning of the
hand, five nofes.
The longed toe is a nofe long.
The two utmod parts of the teats and the pit be¬
twixt the collar-bones of a woman, make an equilate¬
ral triangle.
For the breadth of the limbs, no precife meafure can
be given; becaufe the meafures themfelves are change¬
able, according to the quality of the perfons, and ac¬
cording to the movements of the mufcles.
8. Of Drapery. In the art of cloathing the figures,
or cading the drapery properly and elegantly upon
them, many things are to be obferved. i. The eye
mud never be in doubt of its object; but the fhape and
proportion of the part or limb, which the drapery is
fuppofed to cover, mud appear; at lead fo far as art
and probability will permit: and this is fo material a
confideration, that many artids draw fird the naked
figure, and afterwards put the draperies upon it. 2. The
drapery mud not fit too clofetothepartsof the body :
but let it feem to flow round, and as it' were to em¬
brace them; yet fo as that the figure may be eafy, and
have a free motion. 3. The draperies which cover thofe
parts that are expofed to great light, mud not be fo
deeply fliaded- as to feem to pierce them ; nor fhould
thofe members be eroded by folds that are too firong,
led by the too great darknefs of their fhades the members
look as if they were broken. 4. The great folds mud
be drawn fird, and then droked into leder ones : and
great care mud be taken that they do not crofs one a-
nother improperly. 5. Folds in general fliould be large,
and as few as poffible. However, they mud be greater
or lefs according to the quantity and quality of the
duds of which the drapery is fuppofed to be made.
The quality of the perfons is alfo to be confidered in
the drapery. If they are magidrates, their draperies
ought to be large and ample; if country clowns or
Saves, they ought to be coarfe and ftiort j if ladies or
nymphs, light and foft. 6. Suit the garments to the
body, and make them bend with it, according as it
dands in or out, flraight or crooked ; or as it bends
one way or another; and the clofer the garment fits
to the body, the narrower and fmaller mud be the
folds. 7. Folds well-imagined give much fpirit to any
kind of aftion ; becaufe their motion implies a motion
in the adting member, which feems to draw them for¬
cibly, and makes them more dr lefs dirring as the ac¬
tion is more or lefs violent. 8. An artful complication
of folds in a circular manner greatly helps the effedlof
fore-fliortenings. 9. All folds confid of two (hades,,
and no more; which you may turn with the garment
at pleafure, fliadowing the inner fide deeper, and the
outer more faintly. 10. The Ihades in filk and fine
linen are very thick and fmall, requiring little folds
and a light fhadow\ 11. Obferve the motion of the
air or wind, in order to draw the loofe apparel all fly¬
ing one way: and draw that part of the garment that
adh eres dofefl to the body, before you draw the loofer
part that flies off from it; led, by drawing the loofe
part of the garment fird, you fhould midake the pofi-
tion of the figure, and place it awry. 12. Rich or¬
naments, when judiciouflyandfparinglyufed, may fome-
times contribute to the beauty of draperies. But fuch or¬
naments are far below the dignity of angels or heavenly
figures; the grandeur of whofe draperies ought rather to
confid in the boldnefs and noblenefs of the folds, than
in the quality of the duff, or the glitter of ornaments.
13. Light and flying draperiesare proper only tofigures
in great motion, or in the wind : but when in a calm place,
and free from violent aftion, their draperies fhould be
large and flowing ; that, by their contrad and the fall of
thefolds, they may appear with grace anddignity. And
thus much for drapery ; an example or two of which are
given in Plate XCVITI. But fee farther the articles
Crayon-Painting, fe£t. ii.; and Painting, n° 10.
9. On the Paffions. The paflxons, fays M. Le Brun,
are motions of the foul, either upon her purfuing what
fhe judges to be for her good, or fhunning what die
thinks hurtful to her; and commonly, whatever caufes
emotion of paflion in the foul, creates alfo fome adlion
in the body. It is therefore neceffary for a painter to
know which are the different aftions in the body that
exprefs the feveral pafiions of the foul, and how to de¬
lineate them.
M. Le Brun has been extremely happy in exprefling
many of the pafiions, and you cannot fludy any thing
better than the examples which he has left us of them,
a few of which are carefully copied in Plates XCV.
and XCVIII. However, as M. De Piles judly
obferves, it is abfurd as well as impofiible to pre¬
tend to give fuch particular demonflrations of them
as to fix their expreflion to certain flrokes, which
the painter fliould be obliged to make ufe of as
effential and invariable rules. This, fays he, would
be depriving the art of that excellent variety of expref-
fion which has no other principle than diverfity of ima¬
gination, thenumberof which isinfinite. Thefamepaf-
fion may be finely expreffed feveral ways, each yield¬
ing more or lefs pleafure in proportion to the painter’s
underftanding and the fpeftator’s difeernment.
Though every part of the face contributes towards
exprefling the fentiments of the heart, yet the eye¬
brow', according to M. Le Brun, is the principal feat
of
DRAWING.
of expreffion, and where the pafllons beft make them-
felves known. It is certain, fays he, that the pupil
of the eye, by its fire and motion, very well fhews the
agitation of the foul, but then it does not exprefs the
kind or nature of fuch an agitation ; whereas the mo¬
tion of the eye-brow differs according as the paffions
change their nature. To exprefs a fimple palfion, the
motion is fimple ; to exprefs a mixed paffion, the mo¬
tion is compound : if the paffion be gentle, the mo¬
tion is gentle ; and if it be violent, the motion is fo
too. We may obferve farther, fays he, that there are
two kinds of elevation in the eye-brows. One, in
which the eye-brows rife up in the middle ; this eleva¬
tion exprefies agreeable fenfations, and it is to be ob-
ferved that then the mouth rifes at the corners : Ano¬
ther, in which the eye-brows rife up at the ends, and
fall in the middle ; this motion denotes bodily pain,
and then the mouth falls at the corners. In laughter,
all the parts agree ; for the eye-brows, which fall to-
wara the middle of the forehead, make the nofe, the
mouth, and the eyes, follow the fame motion. In
weeping, the motions are compound and contrary; for
the eye-brows fall toward the nofe and over the eyes,
and the mouth rifes that way. It is to be obferved
alfo, that the mouth is the part of the face which more
particularly expreffes the emotions of the heart : for
when the heart complains, the mouth falls at the cor¬
ners ; when it is at eafe, the corners of the mouth are
elevated ; and when it has an averfion, the mouth (hoots
forward, and rifes in the middle.
“ The head, fays M. De Piles, contributes more to
« the expreffion of the paffions than all the other parts
« of the body put together. Thofe feparately can only
“ (hew fome few paffions, but the head expreffes them
« all. Some, however, are more peculiarly expreffed
“ by it than others: as humility, by hanging it down ;
“ arrogance, by lifting it up; languifhment, by inclin-
“ ing it on one fide; and obftinacy, when with a ftiff
“ and refolute air it (lands upright, fixed, and ftiff
“ between the two (houlders. The head alfo bed
«< (hews our fupplications, threats, mildnefs, pride,
“ love, hatred, joy, and grief. The whole face, and
“ every feature, contributes fomething : efpecially the
«« eyes; which, as Cicero fays, are the w/Wowx of the
« foul. The paffions they more particularly difcover
“ are, pleafure, languifhing, fcorn, feverity, mildnefs,
“ admiration, and anger; to which one might add joy
« and grief, if they did not proceed more particularly
« from the eye-brows and mouth; but when thofe two
“ paffions fall in alfo with the language of the eyes,
“ the harmony will be wonderful. But though the
“ paffions of the foul are moil vifible in the lines and
“ features of the face, they often require the affiftance
“ alfo of the other parts of the body. Without the
“ hands, for inftance, all ailion is weak and imperfedl;
“ their motions, which are almoft infinite, create num-
“ berlefs expreffions : it is by them that we defre, hope,
“ promife, call, fend lack; they are the inftruments
« of threatening, prayer, horror, and praife; by them
“ we approve, condemn, refufe, admit, fear, aft; ex-
“ prfcfs our joy and grief, our doubts, regrets, pain,
“ and admiration. In a word, it may be laid, as they
“ are the language of the dumb, that they contribute
“ not a little to (peak a language common to all na-
M tions, which is the language of painting. But to
“ fay how thefe parts muft be difpofed for expreffing
“ the various paffions, is impoffible; nor can any
“ exadl rules be given for it, both becaufe the talk
“ would be infinite, and becaufe every one muft be
“ guided in this by his own genius and the particular
“ turn of his own (Indies.” See Painting, n° 15.
IO. On drawing Landjkips, Buildings, fjC. Of all
the parts of drawing, this is the mod ufeful and necef-
fary, as it is what every man may have occafion for
at one timeor another. To be able, on the fpot, to take
the (ketch of a fine building, or a beautiful profpedl;
of any curious production of art, or uncommon ap¬
pearance in nature; is not only a very defirable ac-
compliftiment, but a very agreeable amufement. Rocks,
mountains, fields, woods, rivers, catarafts, cities, towns,
cattles, houfes, fortifications, ruins, or whatfoever elfe
may prefent itfelf to view on our journeys or travels in
our own or foreign countries, may be thus brought
home, and preferved for our future ufe either in bufi-
nefs or converfation. On this part, therefore, more
than ordinary pains (hould be bellowed.
All drawing confifts in nicely meafuring the diftances
of each part of the piece by the eye. In order to fa¬
cilitate this, let the learner imagine in his own mind,
that the piece he copies is divided into fquares. For
example : Suppofe or imagine a perpendicular and a
horizontal line croffing each other in the centre of the
pifture you are drawing from ; then fuppofe alfo two
fuch lines croffing your own copy. Obferve in the
original, what parts of the defign thofe lines interfeCl,
and let them fall on the fame parts of the fuppofed
lines in the copy : We fay, the fuppofed lines; becaufe
though engravers, and others who copy with great
exaCtnefs, divide both the copy and original into many
fquares, as below: yet this is a method not to be
recommended, as it will be apt to deceive the learner,
who will fancy himfelf a tolerable proficient, till he
comes to draw after nature, where thefe helps are not
to be had, when he will find himfelf miferably defec¬
tive and utterly at a lofs.
If he is to draw a landfltip from nature, let him
take his ftation on a rifing ground, where he will have
a large horizon ; and mark his tablet into three divi-
fions, downwards from the top to the bottom ; and
divide in his own mind the landfl^ip he is to take, into
three divifions alfo. Then let him turn his face direCtly
oppofite to the midft of the horizon, keeping his body
fixed, and draw what is direCHy before his eyes upon
the middle divifion of the tablet; then turn his head,
but not his body, to the left hand, and delineate what
he views there, joining it properly to what he had done
before ; and, laftly, do the fame by what is to be feen
upon his right hand, laying down every thing exaCtly
both with refpeCl to diftance and proportion.
The beft artifts of late, in drawing their landlkips,
make them (hoot away one part lower than another.
Thofe who make their landfkips mount up higher and
14 S a higher,
-2536
DRAWING.
higher, as if they ftood at the bottom of a hill to take
the profpedt, commit a great error: the belt way is
to get upon a rifing ground, make the neareft objefts
in the piece the higheft, and thofe that are farther off
to fhoot away lower and lower till they come almoft
level with the line of the horizon, leffening every thing
proportionally to its diftance, and obferving alfo to
make the objects fainter and lefs diftinft the farther
they are removed from the eye. He muft make all his
lights and (hades fall one way ; and let every thing
have its propermotion: as, Trees (haken by the wind,
the fmall boughs bending more, and the large ones lefs:
water agitated by the wind, and dalhing againft Ihips
or boats; or falling from a precipice upon rocks
and Hones, and fpirting up again into the air, and
fprinkling all about: clouds alfo in the air, now ga¬
thered with the winds; now violently condenfed into
hail, rain, and the like : Always remembering, that
whatever motions are caufed by the wind muft be made
all to move the fame way, becaufe the wind can blow
but one way at once.
Finally, it muft be obferved, that in order to attain
any confiderable proficiency in drawing, a knowledge of
Perspective is abfolutely ncceflary; fee that article.
Dray
^ II
Dreams.
D R E
DR AY, a kind of cart ufed by brewers, for carry¬
ing barrels of beer, or ale; alfo a fledge drawn with¬
out wheels.
Dray, among fportfmen, denotes fquirrel-nefts,
built in the tops of trees.
DRAYTON (Michael), an eminent Englifli poet,
born of an ancient family in Warwickfhire in 1563.
His propenfity to poetry was extremely ftrong, even
from his infancy!; and we find the moil of his principal
poems publiihed, and himfelf highly diftinguifhed as a
poet, by the time he was about 30 years of age.—It
appears from his poem of “ Mofes’s birth and miracles,”
that he was a fpeftator at Dover of the famous Spanifti
armada, and it is not improbable that he was engaged
in fome military employment there. It is certain, that
not only for his merit as a writer, but his valuable qua¬
lities as a man, he was held in high eftimation, and
ftrongly patronized by feveral perfonages of confe-
quence ; particularly by Sir Henry Goodere, Sir Wal¬
ter Afton, and the Countefs of Bedford ; to the firft
of whom he owns himfelf indebted for great part of
his education, and by the fecond he yvas for many years
fupported.
His poems are very numerous; and fo elegant, that
his manner has b^en copied by many modern writers
of eminence fince. Among thefe the moft celebrated
one is the Poly-Albion, a chorographical defcription of
England, with its commodities, antiquities, and cu-
riofities, in metre of 12 fyllables ; which he dedicated
to prince Henry, by whofe encouragement it was writ¬
ten : and whatever may be thought of the poetry, his
defcriptions are allowed to be exadl. He was ftyled
poet laureat in his time : which, as Ben Johnfon was
then in that office, is to be underftood in aloofefenfe,
of approbation as an excellent poet; and was beftowed
on others as well as Drayton, without being confined
ftri&ly to the office known by that appellation. He
died in 1631 ;. and was buried in Weftminfter abbey,
among the poets, where his bull is to be feen, with
an epitaph penned by Ben Johnfon.
DREAMS ; thofe fancies or imaginations which
occur to the minds of people when afleep.
The fubjeft of dreaming hath been inveftigated by
feveral philofophers, but hitherto with very little fuc-
«ls.—Wolfius fuppofes that dreams take their rife en¬
tirely from the fenfations; and that no dream arifes in
the human mind without a previous fenfation, though
perhaps fuch a flight one that it cannot eafily be tra¬
ced. This hypothefis is exprefsly adopted by Mr For-
mey, in an eflay on dreaming, in the Memoirs of the
Academy of Sciences at Berlin.—Mr Baxter, in his
D R E
treatife of the Immateriality of the human Soul, attri- Dreams,
butes dreams to the aftion of fome immaterial beings “
upon our foul. — Laftly, fome modern phyfiologifts
reckon dreaming to be a fpecies of delirium. Their ac¬
count of the matter is as follows. The brain and nervous
fyftem, which are the only organs of fenfation, are gene¬
rally in two Hates, exceedingly different from one ano¬
ther, which may be expreffed by the words excitement
collapfe. The firft of thefe denotes that ftate in
which the nervous fyftem is eafily made fenfible of the
impreffions of external objefts, and then we are faid to
be awake. The fecond is, when external obje&s do
not eafily make thefe impreffions: and of this ftate
there are various degrees; drowfinefs, fleep, fainting,,
and death. Thefe do not indeed proceed in the order
in which we have placed them. Sleep is of a quite
different nature from fainting, or from that ftupor and
infenfibility produced by a compreffion of the brain.
But, whatever be the nature of fleep, it is certain that
this ftate is attended with what we call a collapfe of the
brain; as external objedts do not make the fame im¬
preffions on the organs of fenfe when people are afleep,
that they do when awake. Between the two dates of
fleeping and waking, a ftate of delirium always occurs;
and this is moft probably occafioned by the excite¬
ment of one part of the brain, and the collapfe of ano¬
ther.—That one part of the brain is capable of being
excited, while the other fuffers a collapfe, will be evi¬
dent from confidering what happens when we are juft
falling afleep. Every one muft be fenfible, that at that
time we do not lofe our fenfes all at once. The hear¬
ing will continue after the fight is loft; and, even while
we are yet confcious of the place we are in, falfe ima¬
ginations of a nature fimilar to that of dreaming will
occur to our minds. But when the brain is perfedtly
collapfed, fenfation or imagination of every kind totally
vanifhes, and we are altogether inconfcious of exirtence.
On a fubjedl fo obfcure, and fo much out of the
reach of inveftigation, as that of dreaming, it is diffi¬
cult to advance any thing fatisfa&ory. All the above-
mentioned hypothefes, however, feem to be exceed¬
ingly imperfed.—It may be granted Wolfius and
Formey, that dreams will arife from certain impref¬
fions made either on the external or internal parts
of the body. But thefe impreffions by no means pro¬
duce any thing like the fenfations we have from fimi¬
lar ones made upon us while we are awake. Thus, if
a perfon whofe'digeftion is not very good, goes foon
to bed after eating a large fupper, it is not improbable
that he will dream of being oppreffed with a great
weight, by a monfter, being fuffocated, &c. Thefe
dreams
Dreams.
D R E [ 2537 ] E> R E
dreams undoubtedly arife from the uneafy fenfations
produced in the ftomach from too great a quantity of
food; but if the perfon was awake, fuch fenfations
would produce only a ficknefs and uneafinefs at ftomach.
If dreams, therefore, in all cafes, proceed from fenfa¬
tions, we mult alfo fay, that in fleep the laws of fenfa-
tion itfelf are altered; that thofe connexions which we
look upon to be the moll conftant and invariable, are
not fo in reality; and thus we are led into a greater
difficulty than before. For example, there is no fen-
fation more invariable, than that, when a man’s fto¬
mach is oppreffed, he Ihould feel what we call ficknefs.
This fer fation happening in the time of deep, accord¬
ing to Wolfius, produces a dream. Very true, it will
do fo; but why does not the man dream that he is fick ?
What connexion is there between ficknefs, the waking
fenfation, and being opprelfed by a weight, fuffocated
by a monfter, &c. the fleeping ones?—This difficulty
feems infurmountable on the hypothefis of Wolfius and
Formey.
Mr Baxter’s fuppofition is, in its very nature, inca¬
pable of proof. We are by no means afcertained of the
exiftence of any immaterial beings, created ones at
leaft, that can have accefs to our fouls: and though
we were, the ridiculous fancies that fometimes occur
in dreams are too abfurd to be fuppofed the work of
any rational being; much lefs of thofe who poflefs an
higher rank in the creation than ourfelves.—It mud
alfo be obferved, that the method which this author
takes to prove his hypothefis can never be conclufive,
even though every thing he contends for fhould begrant-
ed. He infifts that the phantafm, or what is properly
called the vifion, in dreams, is not the work of the foul
itfelf, and cannot be the effeX of mechanical caufes;
therefore, according to him, it muft be the effeX of
immechanical, ox immaterial, agents operating upon the
foul.—That it is not the work of the foul itfelf, may
readily be granted; and likewife that it is not the effeX
of fuch mechanical caufes as we are acquainted with :
but from thence it will not follow, that it muft necef-
farily be the effeX of immaterial caufes, unlefs we were
perfeXly well acquainted with the extent of all mecha¬
nical powers whatever. Nay, in many inftances, fuch
as that above-mentioned, we are certain that dreams
not only may be, but aXually are, the effeXs of me¬
chanical caufes, though we fhould never be able to in-
veftigate them.
The third hypothefis feems alfo inadequate to folve
the phenomena of dreaming. If this depended on a
partial excitement of the brain, our ideas ought to be
juft, as far as that excitement could reach. Thus, fup-
pofing that part of the brain on which fight depends, to
be quite collapfed; and that on which hearing depends,
to be in fome meafure excited; the perfon, tho’ deprived
©f fight, would hear founds confufedly: but ftill they
would only be fuch founds as were aXually produced
by external objeXs; and no reafon can be affigned why
he fhould imagine he heard founds which never exifted.
—Befides, in dreaming, it is very manifeft, that the
excitement of the brain is not partial, but falfe. No
perfon in his dreams imagines himfelf deaf, dumb, or
blind. He imagines that he fees, hears, walks, reafons;
nay, fometimes that he llceps and dreams; which a
partial excitation of the brain can never account for.
Before any thing can be conjeXured with probabi¬
lity concerning the phenomena of dreaming, it is ne-
ceffary to invcftigate in fome meafure the nature of
fleep.—On this fubjeX it may be obferved, that by what¬
ever means fleep is produced, whether naturally by fa¬
tigue, artificially by compreffing the brain, &c.; and
however different thefe kinds offleep may be from one
another, one general effeX ftill remains the fame; namely,
that the external fenfes are abolifhed, and the perfon
becomes totally inconfcious of whatever paffes around
him. From this general effeX, which in all cafes is
conftant and invariable, deep may be defined, “ a ftate
in which all communication is cut off between our fen-
tient principle and this vifible world.”—That the fen-
tient and vital principle hath its refidence in the brain,
is an opinion which in all ages hath been efteemed very
robable. If the comparifon can be allowed, it might
ere be faid,that the brain,with regard to fenfation, hath
the fame relation to the nerves, that a pond or refervoir
of water hath to a number of fmall ftreams that flow
into it and out from it.— In the brain there feems
to be a kind of general repofitory of fome part of
thofe fenfations we have formerly felt; but in what
manner this repofitory is formed, we know not. Cer¬
tain it is, that there the ideas are treafured up in
fuch a manner as to be at times, and indeed mofl:
commonly, imperceptible to ourfelves. Thus, there
are many things we have done, many people we have
been acquainted with, and many places we have been
in, of which we are juft now quite infenfible, and
will remain fo till fome circumftance or other brings
them to our remembrance. For example: Suppofe
a man has been intimately acquainted with two o-
thers who were companions, and lodged in the fame
houfe; he goes into another country, and being en¬
gaged in new purfuits, forgets both fo completely, that
for a coniiderable time he hath perhaps never thought
of them at all. But if he fhould unexpeXedly meet
with one of thefe friends in the ftreet, he will inftantly
remember the other who is at a dittance; and this very
circumftance will bring a train of thoughts into his
mind, which produces the remembrance of many things
that otherwife perhaps would never have been thought
of. Now, if we confider what paffes with regard to
our own minds and intelleXual faculties, we (hall rea¬
dily be convinced, that every thing we do remember,
occurs only in confequence of fome external circum¬
ftance. If a perfon gave us a flight offence yefterday,
to-day perhaps we do not think of it, even though we
fee the perfon ; but if he offends again, though in ano¬
ther manner, the offence of yefterday inftantly occurs
to our minds. A thonfand other inftances of the like
kind might be adduced; fo many indeed, that fome
have doubted whether we ever do forget any thing fo
completely that it could not be brought to our remem¬
brance by a proper combination of external circum-
ftances.
The only things we can think of, are the prefent and
the paft. When we think of what is to come, we muft;
combine ideas from the prefent and the paft. If, there¬
fore, our memory depends on a certain combination of
external circumftances immediately prefent to our view,
it muft neceffarily follow, that the more a perfon is
kept in perfeX folitude, or removed from every thing
that can affeX his fenfes, the more he will be inclined
to fleep. And, indeed, as far as this experiment can
D R E [ 2538 ] D R E
Dreams, be tried, it will moft commonly be found fuccefsful. tions or fatigue of any kind. By thefe the circulation
  "For, let a perfon who has flept his ufual time through of the blood is difturbed, or perhaps its quantity lef-
the night be put to bed at noon-day, in a dark room, fened in fuch a manner, that the extreme parts of the
where there is nothing either to amufe or difturb him, nerves cannot receive a fufficient fupply of vital fluid
and he will almoll certainly fall afleep in a fhort time, to enable them to perform their funftions. The ex-
Hcnce it would feem, that by whatever means our fen- ternal fenfes therefore ceafe ; and though former fenfa-
fations of what is prefent, or our external fenfes, are tions remain in the memory, yet as no external circum-
fufpended; by the fame, our memory mull alfo be ex- fiance can be perceived, which only can call the me-
tinguiflied, and we become abfolutely inconfcious of mory into adlion, a ftate of total infenfibility generally
exillence, or fall afleep. enfues.
This Hate of the body, therefore, may be produced This hypothefis proceeds upon a principle fome-
in three different ways. 1. By a removal of all fuch what different from thofe laid down by the genera-
obje&s as by their appearance make a ftrong impreflion lity of phyfiologifts. Thofe who allow the nervous
on the nervous fyftem. 2. By compreffing or other- fluid to be fecreted from the blood by the brain,
wife injuring the brain, fo that the vital principle can- generally fuppofe that it is fent out from thence to
not receive the fenfations from the nerves. 3. By in- all parts of the body ; but the idea that any quan-
juring the extremities of the nerves in fuch a manner, tity of the nervous or vital fluid is abforbed from the
that they cannot receive any fenfation from the im- blood by the extremities of the nerves, feems not to
preflion of external obje&s. have occurred. It is certain, however, that we have
The firff and the laff of thefe are the common me- the fame evidence of this abforption by the extremities
thods by which natural fleep is produced. But, before of the nerves that there is of the fecretion in the brain,
jve can fully inveftigate our fubjedl, another queftion The blood, on this fuppofition, contains the vital
remains to be difcuffed ; namely, From whence are the principle ; but all the blood is not fent to the brain,
fentient extremities of the nerves fupplied with that The greater part of it is fent to other parts of the bo-
fluid which is the immediate inftrument of fenfa- dy. There doth not feem to be any effential diffe-
tion ? rence between the blood brought back from the brain.
Under the article Blood, it hath been Ihewn, and that returned by the veins from other parts of the
that, in refpiration, there is a certain quantity of a body. Both of them have evidently fuffered a lofs of
fubtile fluid received from the air, which is abfolutely their moft fubtile part. In the firft it is not difputed
neceflary to life. Of this fluid there is undoubtedly a that the volatile part loft by the blood is received by
confiderable wafte fomewhere or other; becaufe refpi- the brain ; but what becomes of that which is loft by
ration cannot be interrupted even for a very fhort time, the blood fent to all the other parts of the body? We
without a total deftrudlion of life. The arterial blood, can here give no other anfwer, than that in all proba-
which receives this fubtile vivifying fpirit, fhews that bility it is taken up by the extremities of the nerves,
it hath done fo by its florid red colour, which diftin- and fupplies them with the powers neceffary for fenfa-
guifhes it from that of the veins. During the courfe tion, and the regulation of the body. Hence we fee
of the circulation, that fpirit, or whatever it is, which the reafon why depriving any part of the body, of the
gives the arterial blood its florid colour, is diffipated, blood it contained, deprives it alfo of fenfation; name-
arid the blood returned by the veins makes a quite dif- ly, becaufe there is then no fource whence the extre-
ferent appearance. It would feem probable, there- mities of the nerves can be fupplied with the fentient
fore, that this very volatile part is abforbed by the principle.
nerves, which every where accompany the blood-vef- If what is now advanced can be admitted with any
fels.—If this is the cafe, we muft eafily fee the reafon degree of probability, the explication of the pheno-
why a ftate of fleep fo readily follows immoderate fa- mena of dreaming, as far as an explanation can rea-
tigue, watching, &c.; namely, becaufe thefe things oc- fonably be expefted, will not be difficult. According
caflon a conftant drain of the vital principle from the to this hypothefis, as long as a certain motion is com-
blood, which at laft becoming greater than the fupply municated, by the impreffion of external objedts, from
afforded by refpiration, the blood becomes deprived of the fentient extremities of the nerves to the brain, fo
a part of that principle which ought to be retained in long we continue fenfible of theexiftence of theobjedts
it, and which confequently cannot be beftowed on the around us, or are faid to be awake. When, from a
nerves without great uneafinefs and inconvenience. In deficiency of the vital fluid in the extremities of the
fuch cafes, therefore, unlefs the external impreffions are nerves, from a compreffion of the brain, or from any
very ftrong, the abforption of the vital principle by other caufe, the above-mentioned motion ceafes, we are
the nervous fyftem will not go on; and the confequence infenfible of our exiftence, and are faid to be ajleep.
of this muft be, that the perfon will very foon fall afleep, In fleep therefore the nervous fluid, which lies between
for the reafons already given.— Hence we fee, why any the extreme parts of the nerves and the brain, is either
thing that impedes the circulation alfo produces a ten- deficient in quantity, or remains at reft, or its influx
dency to fleep. Of this we have a remarkable in- into the brain is interrupted. When we are awake,
{lance in the effedls of cold. The firft fymptom of the communication is free, the fluid in fufficient quan-
death in thofe who are about to perilh with cold, is a tity, and liable to be fet in motion by every flight im-
drowfinefs, which foon increafes to fuch a degree that pulfe. Of thefe impulfes therefore we are fenfible, and
it cannot be refitted. The perfon fits down, as he ima- our fenfations are uniform and regular. When exter-
gines, to take a (hort nap, but never awakes.—In the nal objefts ceafe to be perceived, ftill the nerves contain
fame way we may account for that kind of fleep cal- a quantity of the fluid we have mentioned, and which
led fainting, which ufually follows exceffive evacua- is very eafily fet in motion. If irregular motions hap¬
pen
Dreams,
D R E [ 2539 1 D R E
Breams, pen in it from any internal caufe, the confequence muft
' be a multitude of confufed and irregular fenfations,
which we call dreaming.
This may be illuftrated by the following examples.
There is no fenfe we exercife fo much as that of fight;
and it is the one of which we can moft eafily deprive our-
felves at pleafure. By means of this fenfe every perfon
has it in his power to dream when he pleafes ; and to do
fo,'he needs only to (hut his eyes. No perfon can (hut
his eyes even for a few moments, but he will be fen-
fible of a great number of faint confufed images pre-
fenting themfelves before him ; and thefe he cannot
poffibly remove, till he opens his eyes, or falls afleep
altogether. It can fcarce be doubted, that thefe images
are occafioned by the great mobility and fubtilty of
the fluid contained in the optic nerve. Though the re¬
gular motion produced in it by the impulfe of the light
ceafes when the eye-lids are (hut, yet an irregular one
continues from fome internal caufes, and this motion
occafions the confufed fenfation already mentioned.
The appearance of fuch images we do not indeed in the
prefent inftance call dreams, becaufe our other fenfes
are awake ; but if thefe individual fenfations were to
occur while we were afleep, undoubtedly they would be
called by that name; and from what is already obfer-
ved, they feem plainly to be of the fame nature in
both cafes.
With regard to the other fenfes, it is not in our
power to hinder the operation of external obje&s upon
them, as we can do with our fight; but there is no
reafon to fuppofe that dreams might not be- produced
by them in the very fame manner that they are by our
faculty of vifion, provided we could as eafily fufpend
the operation of external objedls upon them.—We have
an evidence of the truth of this fuppofition in the cafe
of fainting; which is generally preceded by a noife
in the ears. In many difeafes alfo, particularly ner-
vousrones, the tinnitus aurium, or node in the ears, is a
very troublefome fymptom.
The fenfe of feeling is lefs liable to deception while
we are awake than any of the reft ; neverthelefs there
is one cafe which may be referred to that of dreaming,
and which has been very often taken notice of. It is
an imagination common to people who have loft a
limb, that they ftill feel a pain in it, though many
years after it has been feparated from their body. If
this imagination occurred only in the time of deep, we
would have no hefitation in calling it a dream ; but as
it occurs while the perfons are awake, it hath been ex¬
plained without thinking of any connexion between it
and the phenomenon of dreaming. It is certain, how¬
ever, that whatever explains the one, will explain the
other alfo. In the cafe of the amputated limb, the fen¬
fation arifes from fome injury offered to the nerve which
had formerly gone to that limb. This produces a cer¬
tain motion in the nervous fluid, that is propagated
along the nerves to the brain, upon which the imagi¬
nation that the limb ftill remains immediately takes
place. In like manner, if, during the time of deep, a
iimilar motion (hall occur, a fimilar imagination or
dream will be the confequence.—It muft be obferved,
however, that, in dreaming, our fenfe of feeling is much
more obfcure than thofe of feeing and hearing. We
dream that we fee objefts and hear founds pretty di-
ftinftly; while we fcarce feel any thing we imagine
ourfelves to touch, or carry in our hands; and as for Bn
the fenfes of tafte and fmell, they are fcarce ever exer- ^
cifed in dreaming.  
Dreams have in all ages been reckoned by the
vulgar to have fomething portentous in them, and
to prefage future events. Indeed, there are few things
about which the fuperftition of mankind hath more ex-
ercifed itfelf than the interpretation of dreams. If the
abovementioned folution of this phenomenon is allow¬
ed, it may readily be granted, that dreams may prefage
difeafes, or changes of the weather, becaufe the ner¬
vous fyftem is very apt to be influenced by alterations
in our atmofphere; and no alteration in our health
can pofiibly take place without producing fome change
in - the nervous fyftem. But how they can prefage
events entirely unconne&ed with our bodies, doth not
appear; or rather it appears very plain that naturally
they cannot ; though the facred writers give us many
inftances of the knowledge of future events being con¬
veyed to mankind in dreams, by a fupernatural in¬
fluence. From the folution of this phenomenon we
have juft now given, it appears, how imaginations re-
fembling dreams may occur as well when we are awake
as when we are afleep; and that they a&ually do fo,
we have many melancholy inftances in hypochondriac
and mad people.
DRELINCOURT(Charles),minifterofthe reform¬
ed church at Paris, was born at Sedan, in ij'py, where
his father enjoyed a confiderable poft, He had all the
qualifications that compofe a refpe&able clergyman ;
and though he defended the Proteftant caufe againft
the Romilh religion, was much efteemed even among
the Catholics. He is beft known in England by his
Conflations againf the fears of death, which work was
tranflated, and is often printed. He married the daugh¬
ter of a rich merchant at Paris, by whom he had 16
children ; his third fon, profeffor of phyfic at Leyden,
was phyfician to the prince and princefs of Orange,
before their acceflion to the crown of England : Bayle
has given him a high charadler. Mr Drelincourt died
in 1660.
DRENCH, among farriers, a phyfical potion for
horfes. The ingredients for this purpofe are to be
beat coarfely, and either mingled with a decoftion,
or with wine. Then let all infufe about a quarter of
an hour; and give it to the horfe with a horn, after he
has been tied up two hours to the rack.
DRESDEN, the capital city of the eledlorate of
Saxony, in Germany. It is feated on the river Elbe,
which divides it into two parts. One part is called Oid
Drefden, and the other the iVeou Town, in the Ger¬
man language, New Stadt. They are joined together
by a ftone bridge, fupported by 19 piers, and 630
paces in length. As this bridge was too narrow for
the crowds of people that were continually pafiing and
repaffing, king Auguftus, in 1730, caufed two walks
for foot-paffengers to- be built, one on each fide, in a
very wonderful manner, the one for thofe that go into
the city, and the other for thofe that return back.
Thefe are bordered with iron pallifadoes, of curious
workmanftiip. Upon this bridge a gilded crucifix is
placed. Drefden is furrounded by ftrong and handfome
fortifications; and might boaft that it never had been
taken, nor yet befieged : but this glory was put to an
end on December 19. 1745, ^7 the king of Pruffia ;.
D R E [ 2540 ] D R I
Drcfden, who then became mafter of it, and entered it in
Drdling. tr;uniph the next day.
All the houfes of this city are built with fquare free
ftone, and are almoft all of the fame height. They
have ftone from the neighbourhood of Pirna, about 10
miles from this city, which is readily brought down
the Elbe. They have lately finiftied a large handfome
church for the Roman Catholics, which is placed be¬
tween the Elbe, the bridge, and the caftle. In gene¬
ral the houfes are high and ftrong ; the ftreets wide,
flraight, well paved, clean, and well illuminated in the
night; and there are large fquares, difpofed in fuch a
manner, that Drefden may pafs for one of the hand-
fomeft cities in the world.
Though this city lies in a low fituation, yet it hath
agreeable profpefts. It is fupplidd with a prodigious
quantity of provilions, not only out of the neighbour¬
hood, but from Bohemia, which are brought every
market-day, which is once a-week. The Drefden
china-ware, or rather porcelain, has been noted fome
time for a curious manufa&ure. E. Long. 13. 34. N.
Lat. 51. 12.
DRESSING of Hemp and Flax. See Flax-
Drejfing.
Dressing of Meats, the preparing them for food,
by means of culinary fire.
The defign of drefiing, is to loofen the compages
or texture of the fleih, and difpofe it for diffolution
and digeftion in the ftomach. Flefh not being a
proper food without drefiing, is alleged as an argu¬
ment that man was not intended by nature for a car¬
nivorous animal.
The ufual operations are roafting, boiling, and ftew-
ing.—In roafting, it is obferved, meat will bear a much
greater and longer heat than cither in boiling or ftew-
ing; and ir> boiling, greater and longer than in ftew-
ing. The reafon is, that roafting being performed in
the open air, as the parts begin externally to warm,
they extend and dilate, and fo gradually let out part
of the rariiied included air, by which means the inter¬
nal fuccufiions, on which the diftblution depends, are
much weakened and abated. Boiling being performed
in water, the preffure is greater, and conkquently the
fuccuffions to lift up the v/eight are proportion ably
ftrong ; by which means the coftion is haftened:
and even in this way there are great differences ; for
the greater the weight of water, the fooner is the bu-
finefs done.
In ftewing, though the heat be infinitely fhort of
what is employed in the other ways, the operation is
much more quick, becaufe performed in a clofe veflel,
and full; by which means the fuccuflions are oftener
repeated, and more ftrongly reverberated. Hence the
force of Papin’s digeftor ; and hence an illuftration of
the operation of digeftion.
Boiling, Dr Cheyne obferves, draws more of the
rank, ftrong juices from meat, and leaves it lefs nutri¬
tive, more diluted, lighter, and eafier of digeftion:
roafting, on the other hand, leaves it fuller of the
ftrong nutritive juices, harder to digeft, and needing
more dilution. Strong, grown, and adult animal food,
therefore, fhould be boiled; and the younger, and ten¬
derer, roafted.
Dressing, in furgery, the treatment of a wound,
or any difordered part. The apparatus of dreffing con-
fifts of dofiils, tents, plafters, comprefles, bandages, Drelfing
bands, ligatures, and firings. See Surgery. II
DREXELIUS (Jeremiah), a Jefuit celebrated for Dril1,
his piety and writings, was born at Aufburg, and be¬
came preacher in ordinary to the ele&or of Bavaria.
He wrote feveral pious and pra&ical pieces, which
have been printed together in two volumes folio; and
died in 1638.
DREVET (Peter), an eminent French engraver,
was a member of the royal academy of painting and
fculpture ; and died at Paris in 1739, at 42 years of
age. His portraits are neat and elegant; but labour¬
ed to the laft degree. They are copied from Rigaud
and other French maflers; and abound in all that flut¬
ter and licentious drapery fo oppofite to the Ample and
chafte ideas of true tafte. He chiefly excells in copy-
ing Rigaud’s frippery, lace, filk, fur, velvet, and other
ornamental parts of drefs.—His father was excellent
in the fame art.
DREUX, a town in the Me of France, remark¬
able for its antiquities; and for the battle which was
fought in December 1562, between the Papifts and
the Proteftants, wherein the former gained the vic¬
tory. Some think it took its name from the priefts of
Gaul, called the Druids, in the times of Paganifm. It
confifts of two parifhes, St Stephen’s and Notre Dame,
called \\ie great church, which is pretty well built. It
is feated on the river Blaife, at the foot of a mountain,
on which is a ruined caftle. E. Long. 1.27. N. Lat.
48. 44.
DRIFT, in navigation, the angle which the line of
a (hip’s motion makes with the neared meridian, when
(he drives with her fide to the wind and waves, and is
not governed by the power of the helm: it alfo im¬
plies the diftance which the (hip drives on that line.
A (hip’s way is only called drift in a ftorm ; and
then, when it blows fo vehemently as to prevent her
from carrying any fail, or at lead reftrains her to fuch
a portion of fail as may be neceflary to keep her fulfi-
ciently inclined to one fide, that (he may not be dif-
mafted by her violent labouring produced by the turbu¬
lence of the fea.
Drift, in mining, a pafiagc cut out under the earth
betwixt (haft and (haft, or turn and turn; or a pafiage
or way wrought under the earth to the end of a meer
of ground, or part of a meer.
DRiFT-Sr//'/, a fail ufed under water, veered out
right a-head by (heets, as other fails are. It ferves to
keep the (hip's head right upon the fea in a ftorm, and
to hinder her driving too fail in a current.
DRILL, in mechanics, a fmall inftrument for ma¬
king fuch holes as punches will not conveniently ferve
for. Drills are of various fixes, and are chiefly ufed by
fmiths and turners.
Drill, or Drill-Box, a name given to an inftru¬
ment for fowing land in the new method of horfe-hoe-
ing hulbandry. See Agriculture.
DRiLL-iSfloy/w^, a method of fowing grain or feed
of any kind, fo that it may all be at a proper depth in
the earth, which is nectfiary to its producing healthful
and vigorous plants. For this purpofe a variety of
drill-ploughs have been invented and recommended; but
from the expence attending the purchafe, and the ex¬
treme complication of their ftrudlure, there is not au
inftrument of that kind, as yet difcovered, that is likely
to
D R I
to be brought into general ufe. This method, how¬
ever, is greatly recommended in the Georgical Eflays,
where we have the following obfervations and experi¬
ments.—“ Grain fown by the hand, and covered by
the harrows, is placed at unequal depths; the feeds
confequently fprout at different times, and produce an
unequal crop. When barley is fown late, and a drought
fucceeds, the grain that was buried in the moifture of
the earth foon appears, while fuch as was left near the
furface lies baking in the heat of the fun, and does
not vegetate -till plentiful rains have moiftened the foil.
Hence an inequality of the crop, an accident to which
barley is particularly liable. The fame obfervation,
but in a more ftriking manner, may be made upon the
fowing of turnips* It frequently happens that thtf
hufbandman is obliged to fow his feed in very dry
weather, in hopes that rain will foon follow; and either
rolls or covers it with a bufh-harrow. We will fop-
pofe, that, contrary to his expedations, the dry wea¬
ther continues. The feed, being near the ^urface,
cannot fprout without rain. The hufbandmanf is mor¬
tified at his difappointment, but is foon fatisfied and
made eafy by a perfedl acquiefcence in what he
thinks is the will of Providence. The fcourge that he
feels muft not be placed to the difpenfation of Provi¬
dence, but has its fource in the ignorance of the man
himfelf. Had he judicioufly buried the feed in the
moiftpart ofthefoil with the drill-plough, or harrowed
it well with the common harrow, his feed would have
vegetated in due feafon, and bountifully repaid him
for his toil.
“ In the year 1769, a ty acre clofe was prepared
for turnips. The land was in fine condition as to light-
nefs, and had been well manured. On the 24th of
June, 14 acres were fown with turnip-feed broad-cafl,
and harrowed in with a bblh-harrow. The remaining
acre wasfowed the fame day with the drill-plough, al¬
lowing 14 inches between the rows, and the fhares be¬
ing fet near two inches deep. At the time of fowing,
the land was extrerpely dry, and the drought Continued
from the time of lowing to the 5th of July; fo that
the broad-caft did not make its appearance till about
the 8th of that month, at which time the drill turnips
were in rough leaf, having appeared upon the furface
the fixth day after fowing.
“ In the drieft feafons, at the depth of two inches
or lefs, we are fure of finding a fufficiency of moifture
tamake the feed germinate. When that is once ac-
eomplilhed, a fmall degree of moifture will carry on
the work of vegetation, and bring the tender plants
forward to the furface. When extreme dry weather
obliges the broad-caft farmer to fow late, he has no
opportunity of fowing a fecond time if the fly ftiould
get into the field. The drill fecures him in fome de¬
gree againft that misfortune, by giving him a full
command over the feafons.
“ The excellence of the drill-plow is not confined
to turnip-feed ; it is an ufeful inftrument for fowing all
kinds of grain. By burying the feed at an equal depth,
it fecures an equal crop in all circumftances of the wea¬
ther. But this is not the only confideration to the
cultivator. It faves near one half of his feed, which is
an objefit of importance to the tillage farmer.
“ In the fpring of the year 1769, an acre of barley
was fowed in equidiftant rows with the drill-plough, in
Vol. IV. * -
15 R I
a field which was fown with the fame grain and upon Brill,
the fame day broad-caft.—The broad-caft took three Prin '
bulhels per acre; the drill required only fix pecks.
The drills were eight inches afunder, and the feed was
lodged about two inches within the foil. The drill acre
was finiftied within the hour, and the moft diftinguifti-
ing eye could not difcover a Angle grain upon the fur¬
face.
“ In the courfe of growing, the drill barley feemed
greener and bore a broader leaf than the broad-caft.
When the ears were formed throughout the field, the
ear of the drill barley was plainly diftinguilhed to be
near half an inch longer than the broad-caft, and the
grains feemed fuller and better fed.
“ Drill-fowing, however, though it may be recom¬
mended as a moft rational and judicious praftice, has
many difficulties to overcome, and perhaps will never be
brought into general ufe. A proper inftrument is
wanting that would come cheap to the farmer, and
have the requifites of ftrength and fimplicity to recom¬
mend it. The prefent inftruments cannot by any means
be put into the hands of common fesvants. Should
we ever be fo happy as to fee this objedlion removed,
it is probable that all kinds of grain will be cultivated
in drills. Corn growing in that manner has a freer
enjoyment of air, and the farmer has an opportunity
of hand-hoeing and weeding without injury to the
growing crop. This is an objeft of the utmoft confe-
quence in the cultivation of beans and winter corn.
“ The beft inftrument for drilling of grain is the
invention of the ingenious Mr Craick, and made by
Mr Crichton coach-maker in Edinburgh. It works
with four coulters, and the price is 12 1. With it,
one man, a horfe and a boy, can eafily fow four
acres a-day.”
DRINK, a part of our ordinary food in a liquid
form. See Food.
The general ufe of drink is, to fupply fluid; facili¬
tate folution ; in confequence of that, to expede the eva¬
cuation of the ftomacb, and promote the progrefs of
the aliment through the inteftines: for, by the con-
tra&ion of the longitudinal fibres of the ftomach, the
pylorus is drawn up, and nothing But fluid can pafs ;
which, by its bulk, makes a hurried progrefs through Cullen on
the inteftines, and fo determines a greater excretion by the Mat.
ftool, as lefs then can be abforbed by the lafteals. Med.
Hence a large quantity of common water has been
found purgative ; and, certcris paribus, that aliment
which is accompanied with the largeft proportion of -
drink, makes the largeft evacuation by ftool. Here a
queftion has arifen, about where the feculent part of
the aliment is firft remarkably coiled!ed. It is com¬
monly thought to be in the great guts: but undoubt¬
edly it often begins in the lower part of the ileum,
efpecially when the drink is in fmall proportion, and
when the progrefs of the aliment is flow; for when the
contents of the guts are very fluid, they are quickly
pufhed on, and reach the great guts before they de-
pofite any feculency. Another effedt of drink is, to
facilitate the mixture of the lymph, refluent from every
part of the fyftem, with the chyle. In the fclood-vef-
fels, where all muft be kept fluid in order to proper
mixture, drink increafes the fluidity, and gives tenfion,
by its bulk, without concomitant acrimony or too much
elafticity, and fo ftrength and ofciHatory motion: lienee
14 T drink
[ 254i ]
D R I [ 2542 1 D R I
Drink, drink contributes to fanguification, as fometimes food
gives too denfe a nutriment to be acted upon by the
folids ; and hence alfo we can fee how drink promotes
the fccretions. Thefe are the effedts of drink in gene¬
ral ; but what has been faid nnift be taken with fome
limitations; for the moreliquid the food, it is fooner eva¬
cuated, and lefs nourilhment is extracted. Hence drink
is, in fome degree, oppofed to nourifliment; and fo,
ceteris paribus, thofe who ufe leaft drink are molt
nourifhcd.
All the effefts of drink above mentioned are produ¬
ced by fimple water; and it may be faid, that other
liquors are fit for drink in proportion to the w’ater they
contain. Water, when ufed as drink, is often im¬
pregnated with vegetable and farinaceous fubftances ;
but, as drinks, thefe impregnations are of little confe-
quence : they add, indeed, a little nourilhment; but
this is not to be regarded in a healthy ftate. Some¬
times we impregnate water with the fruttus acido-dul-
ces; and then, indeed, it acquires other qualities, of
confiderable ufe in the animal ceconomy. All drinks,
however, may .be reduced to two heads: firft, pure
water, or where the additional fubftance gives no ad¬
ditional virtue; fecondly, the fermentata. Of the firll
we havealready fpoken ; and the latterhave not only the
qualities of the firft, but alfo qualities peculiar to them-
felves.
Fermented liquors are more or lefs poignant to the
tafte, and better calculated to quench thirft. Thirlt
may be owing to various caufes : firft, to defedt of
fluid in the fyftem, which occafions a fcanty fecretion
in the mouth, fauces, and ftomach ; the drynefs of the
mouth and fauces will alfo in this cafe be increafed, by
their continual expofure to the perpetual flux and reflux
of the evaporating air. Secondly, thirft depends on a
large proportion of folid vifcid food: thirdly, on an
alkalefcent aliment, efpecially if it has attained any
thing of the putrefadf ive taint: fourthly, on the heat
of the fyftem ; but this feems to operate in the fame
manner as the firft caufe, giving a fenfe of drynefs from
its diffipation of the fluids. The fermented liquors are
peculiarly adapted for obviating all thefe caufes ; fti-
mulating the mouth, fauces, and ftomach, to throw
out the faliva and gaftric liquor by their poignancy :
by their acefcency they are fitted to deftroy alkalefcent
acrimony, to quench thirft from that caufe: by their
fluidity they dilute vifcid food ; though here, indeed,
they anfwer no better than common water. In two
ways they promote the evacuation by ftool, and pro-
grefs through the inteftines: firft, by their fluidity and
bulk ; fecondly, by their acefcency, which, uniting
with the bile, forms the peculiar ftimulus formerly men¬
tioned. Carried into the blood-vefiels, in fo far as
they retain any of the faline nature, they ftimulate the
excretories, and promote urine and fweat; corre&ing
thus alkaleffcency, not only by mixture, but diflipation
of the degenerated fluids.
Many phyficians, in treating of fermented liquors,
have only mentioned thefe qualities, reje&ing their nu¬
tritious virtue, which certainly ought to be taken in ;
though by expediting the evacuation by ftool they make
lefs of the nutritious parts of the aliment to be taken
up, and by ftimulating the excretories make thefe nu¬
tritious parts to be for a fhorter time in the fyftem.
All thefe, and many more effe&s, arife from fermented
liquors. Their acefcency fometimes promotes the dif-
eafe of acefcency, by increafing that of vegetables, a£t-
ing as a ferment, and fo producing flatulency, purging,
cholera, &c: fo that, with vegetable aliment, as little
drink is neceflary, the moft innocent is pure water; and
it is only with animal food that fermented liquors are
neceffary. In warmer climates,would feem
neceffary to obviate alkalefcency and heat. But it
fhould be confidered, that though fermented liquors
contain an acid, yet they alfo contain alcohol; which,
though it adds ftimulus to the ftomach, yet is extreme¬
ly hurtful in the warmer climates, and wherever alka¬
lefcency prevails in the fyftem. Nature, in thefe cli¬
mates, has given men an appetite for water impregnated
with acid fruits, e. g. ftierbet; but the ufe of this needs
caution, as in thefe countries they are apt to fhun ani¬
mal food, ufing too much of the vegetable, and often
thus caufing dangerous refrigerations, choleras, diar¬
rhoeas, See. 1
Of varieties of fermented liquors. We fhall only men¬
tion here the chief heads on which thefe varieties de¬
pend. Firft, they are owing to the quality of the fubjeift,
as more or lefs vifcid; and to its capacity alfo of un¬
dergoing an aflive fermentation, although perhaps;
the more vife’d be more nutritious. Hence the differ¬
ence between ales and winesby the firft meaning fer¬
mented liquors from farinacea, by the fecond from the
fruits of plants. It depends, fecondly, on the acerbity,,
acidity, nature, and maturation, of the fruit. Thirdly,
the variety depends on the conduft of the fermentation.
In general, fermentation is progreffive, being at firft
aftive and rapid, detaching the fixed air or gas fyl-
vejlre, at the famq time acquiring more acid than be¬
fore. Thefe qualities of flatulency and acidity remain
for fome time; but as the fermentation goes on, the
liquor becomes more perfedl, no air is detached, and
alcohol is produced; fo that fermented liquors differ
according to the progrefs of the fermentation, and,have
different effects on the fyftem. When fermentation is
flopped before it comes to maturity, though naturally
it proceeds in this way, yet by addition of new fer¬
ment it may again be renewed with a turbid inteftine
motion.
DRIVERS, among fportfmen, a machine for dri¬
ving pheafant-powts, confifling of good ftrong ozier
wands, fuch as the baftcet-makers ufe ; thefe are to be
fet in a handle, and twifted or bound with fraall oziers
in two or three places. With this inftrument the fportf-
man drives whole eyes of young powts into his nets-
See the next article.
DRIVING, among fportfmen, a method of taking-
pheafant powts. It is thus: The fportfman finds out
the haunts of thefe birds; and having fixed his net*
there,'he calls upon them together by a pheafant-call,
imitating the voice of the dam ; after this he makes a
noife with his driver, which will make them run a little
way forward in a clufter ; and this he is to repeat till
he has made fare of them, which an expert fportfman
never fails to do, by driving them into his nets.
Driving, in metallurgy, is faid of filver, when, in
the operation of refining, the lead being burnt away,
the remaining copper rifes upon its furface in red
fiery bubbles.
Driving, in the fea-language, is faid of a (hip, when
an anchor being let fall will not hold her faft, nor pre¬
vent
Drinkr
II
Driving.
D R O [ 2543 ] DR O
progheda ven{ failing away with the wind or tide. The beft
D ods ,n t^1*s ca^e to ^et wiore anchors, or to veer
 L_ out more cable ; for the more cable Ihe has out, the
fafer die rides. When a fhip is a-hull, or a-try, they
fay, Ihe drives to leeward.
DROGHEDA, by the Englifh called Tredah, a
town of Ireland, in the province of Eeinfter and county
of Lowth, and fituated on a bay of the fame name, in
W. Long. 6. 17. N. Lat. 53. 45, It was formerly
very remarkable for its fituation and ftrength. In con-
fequence of this it was much diftinguifhed by the old
Engiifh monarchs. Edward II. granted it a market
and fair-; and to thefe were added other great privi¬
leges in fucceeding ages, particularly the right of coin¬
age. It was bravely defended againft the rebels in
1641. After the ceffation of arms it was taken by the
duke of Ormond and the earl of Inchiquin ; but was
retaken by Cromwell in 1649. At this time it fuffered
fo much, that for a long time after it remained almoft
in ruins. The buildings were exceedingly fhattered ;
and the town being taken by ftorm, not only the gar-
rifon, but the inhabitants, men, women, and children,
were moftiy put to the fword. By degrees, however,
it recovered, and is at prefent a large and populous
place. It is a town and county; and as fuch fends two
reprefentatives to parliament. It has a great fhare of
inland trade, and an advantageous commerce with Eng¬
land: and tho’ the port is but indifferent, and narrow
at its entrance, with a bar, over which ihips of burden
cannot pafs but at high water, yet a great deal of bu-
finefsjs done; fo that, from a low and declining port, it
is now become rich and thriving.
Drogheda is perhaps one of the ftrongeft inftances
that can be mentioned of the ineftimable benefit of a
river in any degree navigable : for though the Boyne
is not capable of carrying veifels bigger than barges,
or pretty large boats, yet the conveniency that this af¬
fords of conveying coals by water-carriage through a
reat extent pf country, introduced a correfpondence
etween this place and Whitehaven in Cumberland, to
which the revival of its commerce has been in a great
hieafure owing.
DROITWITCH, a town of Worcefterihire in
England, noted for excellent white fait made from the
fait fprings in its neighbourhood. W. Long. 2. 16.
N. Lat. 52. 20.
DROMEDARY. See Camelus.
DRONE, in the hiftory of infefts, a kind of male
bee, larger than the common working’or honey-bees:
it is fo called from its idlenefs, as never going abroad
to colleft either honey or wax. See Apis and Bee.
Drone-jF/t, a two-winged infedl, extremely like the
common drone-bee, whence alfo the name.
Drops, in meteorology, fmall fpherical bodies
which the particles of fluids fpontaneoufly form them-
felves into when let fall from any height. This fphe¬
rical figure, the Newtonian philofophers demonftrate
to be the effedt of corpufcular attraction; for confider-
ing that the attradlive force of one Angle particle of a
fluid is equally exerted to an equal diftance, it muft
follow that other fluid particles are on every fide drawn
to it, and will therefore take their places at an equal
diftance from it, and confequently form a round fuper-
ficies. See the articles Attract ion, Fluid, and Rain.
Drops, in medicine, a liquid remedy, the dofe of
which is eftimated by a certain number of drops. Dropfy
Englifb Drops, Gutta Anglicana;, a name given to II.
a chemical preparation efteemed of great virtue againft rowninS-
vapours and lethargic affedllons, and purchafed at
5000I. by king Charles II. from the inventor Dr God¬
dard. The medicine appeared to be only a fpirit drawn
by the retort from raw filk, and afterwards re&ified
with oil of cinnamon, or any other eflential oil; and
was in reality no better than the common fal volatile
oleofum, or any of the volatile fpirits impregnated
with an eflential oil, except that it was lefs difagree-
able than any of them to the tafte.
Palfy Drops. See Pharmacy, n° 443.
Drops of Life. Ibid, n° 575.
DROPSY, in medicine, an unnatural collection of
water in any part of th°e body. See (the Index fub-
joined to) Medicine.
DROPWORT, in botany. 3ee Filipendula.
Water Dropwort, in botany. See Oenanthes.
DROSERA, ros solis, or Sun-Dew, in botany;
a genus of the pentagynia order, belonging to the pen-
tandria clafs of plants. There are three fpecies, which
grow naturally in boggy places in many parts of the
kingdom. They feem to receive the n&me oifun-dew
from a very ftriking circumftance in their appearance.
The leaves, which are circular, are fringed with haira
fupporting fmall drops or globules of a pellucid liquor
like dew, which continue even in the hotteft part of
the day and in the fulleft expofure to the fun. The
whole plant is acrid, and fufficiently cauftic to erode
the ikin: but fome ladies know how to mix the juice
with milk, fo as to make it an innocent and fafe appli¬
cation to remove freckles and fun-burn. The juice that
exfudes from it unmixed, will deftroy warts and corns.
The plant hath the fame effeCt upon milk that the
common butterwort hath; and like that too is fuppofed
to occafion the rot in flieep.
DROWNING, fignifies the extinction of life by a
total immerfion in water.
In fome refpeCts, there feems to be a great fimilarity
between the death occafioned by immerfion in water,
and that by ftrangulation, fuffocation by fixed air, a-
poplexies, epilepfies, fudden fainting?, violent fliocks
of eleftricity, or even violent falls and bruifes. Phyfi-
cians, however, are not agreed with regard to the na¬
ture of the injury done to the animal fyftem in any or
all of thefe accidents. It is indeed certain, that in all
the cafes above-mentioned, particularly in drowning,
there is very often fuch a fufpenfion of the vital powers
as to us hath the appearance of a total extinction of
them ; while yet they may be again fet in motion, and
the perfon reftored to life, after a much longer'fubmer-
fion than hath been generally thought capable of pro¬
ducing abfolute death. It were to be wiflied, how¬
ever, that as it is now univerfally allowed, that drown¬
ing is only a fufpenfwn of the aCtion of the vital powers,
phyficians could as unanimoufly determine the me-ant
by which thefe powers are fufpended; becaufe on a
knowledge of thefe means, the methods to be ufed for
recovering drowned perfons muft certainly depend.
Dr de Haen, who hath written a treatife on this
fubjedl, aferibes this diverfity.of opinion among the
phyficians to their being fo ready to d-aw general con-
clufions from a few experiments. Some, having never
found water in the lungs, have thought that it never
14 T 2 was
D R O [ 2544 ] D R O
Drowning, was there; and others, from its prefence, have drawn
' ' a contrary conclufion. Some have afcribed the death
which happens in cafes of drowning, to that fpecies of
apoplexy which arifes from a great fullnefs of the fto-
mach. But this opinion our author rejefts, becaufe in
13 dogs which he had drowned and afterwards diflec-
ted, no figus of fuch a fulnefs appeared. Another rea-
fon is drawn from the want of the common marks of
apoplexy on the diffe&ion of the brain; and from the
adhual prefence of water in the lungs. He is of opi¬
nion, that the death of drowned perfons happens in con-
fequence of water getting into the lungs, and flopping
the blood in the arteries. He then difcuffes the que-
ftion how far the blowing of air into the lungs is ufe-
ful in recovering drowned peogle. If their death is to
be afcribed to the water entering the lungs, this prac¬
tice, he obferves, muft be hurtful, as it will increafe the
preffure on the blood-vefiels, or may even force the
water into them; which, on the authority of Lewis’s
experiments, he alleges is poffible. But, in fpite of this
reafqning, he aflerts, that from experience it has been
found ufeful. He allows, that the pra&ice of fufpend-
ing drowned people by the feet muft be hurtful, by de¬
termining the blood too much to the head; but he
obferves, that remedies in fome refpe&s hurtful may be
ufed when the advantages derived from them prepon¬
derate ; and is of opinion, that the pra&iee above-men¬
tioned may be ufeful by agitating the vifcera againft
each other, and thus renewing their motions. Cutting
the larynx in order to admit air more freely to the lungs,
he reckons to be of little or no ufe; but acknowledges,
however, that it may fometimes prove beneficial on
account of the irritation oecafioned by the operation.
Dr Cullen, in his Letter to Lord Cathcart concern¬
ing the recovery of perfons drowned and feemingly
dead, tells us, that “ From the difle&ion of drowned
men, and other animals, it is known, that very often
the water does not enter into the cavity of the lungs,
nor even into the ftomach, in any quantity to do hurt
to the fyftem; and, in general, it is known, that, in
moft cafes, no hurt is done to the organifation of the
vital parts. It is therefore probable, that the death
which enfues, or feems to enfue, in drowned perfons,
is owing to the ftoppage of refpiration, and to the
ceafing, in confequence, of the circulation of the blood,
whereby the body lofes its heat, and, with that, the ac¬
tivity of the vital principle.”
In the Phil. Tranf. Vol. LXVI. Mr Hunter gives
the following theory. The lofs of motion in drown¬
ing, feems to arife from the lofs of refpiration; and the
immediate effedl this has upon the other vital motions
qf the animal, at leaft this privation of breathing,' ap¬
pears to.be the firft caufe of the heart’s motion ceafing.
It is moll probable therefore, Mr Hunter obferves,
that the reftoration of breathing is all that is neceflary
to reftore the heart’s motion; for if a fufficiency of life
ftill remains to produce that effedt, we may fuppofe
every part equally ready to move the very inftant in
which the adtion of the heart takes place, their adtions
depending fo much upon it. What makes it very pro-.
table, that the principal effedl depends upon throwing
air into the lungs, is, that children in the birth, when
too much time has been fpent after the lofs of that life
which is peculiar to the fetus, lofe altogether the dif-
j>ofitian for the new life. In fuch cafes there is a to¬
tal fufpenfion of the adlions of life ; the child remains Drowmrg,
to all appearance dead; and would die, if air was not *
thrown into its lungs, and the firll principle of adtion
by that means reftored. To put’this in a clearer light,
Mr Hunter gives the refult of fome experiments made
on a dog in 1755.—A pair of double bellows were
provided, which were fo conftrudted, that, by one ac¬
tion, air was thrown into the lungs, and by the other
the air was fucked out which had been thrown in by
the former, without mixing them together. The
muzzle of thefe bellows was fixed into the trachea of
a dog, and by working them he was kept perfedtly a-
live. While this artificial breathing was going on, the
fternum was taken off, fo that the heart and lungs were
expofed to view. The heart then continued to adl as
before, only the frequency of its adlion was greatly in-
creafed. Mr Hunter then flopped the motion of the
bellows; and obferved that the contradlion of the heart
became gradually weaker and lefs frequent, till it left
off moving altogether; but, by renewing the operation^,
the'motion of the heart alfo revived, and foon became
as ftrong and frequent a^ before. This procefs was^ ✓ !
repeated upon the fame dog ten times; fometimes flop¬
ping for five, eight, or ten minutes. Mr Hunter ob-
ferved, that, every time he left off working the bellows,
the heart became extremely turgid with blood, and ths,
blood in the left fide became as dark as that in the
right, which was not the cafe when the bellows were
working. Thefe fituations of the animal, he obferves,.
feem to be exa&Iy fimilar to drowning.
From thefe different views of this matter, phyficians
have differed confiderably in their account of the me¬
thods to be followed in attempting the recovery of
drowned perfons. De Haen recommends agitation of
all kinds ; every kind of ftimulus applied to the mouth,
nofe, and redlum; bleeding; heat, both by warm cloths
and warm water; blowing air into the trachea ; ftimu-
lants, fuch as blifters, warm allies, &c. applied to the
head, ankles, thighs, pit of the ftomach, and other
parts.
Doftor Cullen’s obfcrvations on this fubjeft are as
follow.— “ With refpedl to the particular means to be
employed for the recovery of drowned perfons, it is to
be obferved, in the firft place, That fuch as were re¬
commended and pra&ifed, upon a fuppofition that the
fuffocation was occafioned by the quantity of water
taken into the body, and therefore to be evacuated a-
gain, were very unhappily advifed. The hanging up
of perfons by the heels, or fetting them upon the crown
of the head, or rolling the body upon a calk, were ge¬
nerally pradlifed, upon a fuppofition altogether faife;
or upon the fuppofition of a cafe which, if real, is ap¬
prehended to be irrecoverable. At the fame time,
thefe pradtices were always attended with the danger
of burfting fome veffels in the brain or lungs, and of
rendering thereby fome cafes incurable, that were not
fo from the drowning alone. All fuch pradlices,
therefore, are now very properly difapproved of and
forbid.
“ In thofe cafes in which the body has not been long
in the water, and in which ‘therefore the natural heat
is not entirely extinguifhed, nor the irritability of the
moving fibres very greatly impaired, it is poffible that
a good deal of agitation of the body may be the only
means neceflary to reftore the adlion of the vital or¬
gans^
D R O
g. gans; but in other cafes, where the heat and irritabi¬
lity have ceafed to a greater degree, it is to me very
doubtful, if much agitation can be fafe, and if any de¬
gree of it can be ufeful, till the heat and irritability
are in fome meafure reftored. In all cafes, any violent
concuffion cannot be fafe, and, I believe, is never ne-
ceifary. It may be proper here to obferve alfo, that,
in tranfporting the body from the place where it is
taken out of the water, to the place where it may be
neceffary for applying the proper means of its recove¬
ry, all poftures expofing to any improper compreffion,
as that of the body’s being carried over a man’s {boul¬
der, are to be avoided. The body is to be kept
ftretched out, with the head and upper parts a little
railed; and care is to be taken to avoid the neck’s be¬
ing bent much forward. In this manner, laid upon
one fide, aftd upon fome flraw in a cart, it may be
moft properly conveyed ; and the agitation which a
pretty brilk motion of the cart may occafion, tvill, in
moft cafes, do no harm.
** From the account I have given above of the caufes,
or of the appearances, of death, in drowned perfons, it
is evident, that the firft ftep to be taken for their re¬
covery is to reftore the heat of the body, which is ab-
folutely neceflary to the aftivity of the moving fibres.
For this purpofe, the body, as foon as poffible, is to be
ftripped of its wet clothes, to be well dried, and to be
wrapped up in dry, and (if poffible) warm, coverings :
and it is to be wifhed, in all cafes, as foon as the re¬
port of a perfon’s being drowned is heard, that blan¬
kets fhould be immediately carried to the water-fide;
fo that, as foon as the body is got out of the water, the
change of covering jnft now mentioned may be in-
ftantly made ; or,. if the body has been naked when
drowned, that it may be immediately dried, and de¬
fended againft the cold of the air. Befides coyeripg
the body with blankets, it will be further of advan¬
tage, if it can be done without lofe of time, to cover
the drowned body with a warm fhirt or waiftcoat im¬
mediately taken from a living perfon.
“ When, at the time of a perfon’s being drowned, it
happens that the fun fhines out very hot, I think there
can be no better means of recovering the heat, than by
expofing the naked body, in every part, to the heat of
the fun ; while, at the fame time, all other means ne-
cefiary or ufeful for the recovery of life are alfo em¬
ployed.
“ When the heat of the fun cannot be employed, the
body fhould be immediately tranfported to the neareft
houfe that can be got convenient for the purpofe: The
fitted, will be one that has a tolerably large chamber,
in which a fire is ready, or can be made; and, if pof¬
fible, the houfe fhould afford another chamber, in which
alfo a fire can be provided.
“ When the drowned body isbrought into fuch houfe,,
and care is at the fame time taken that no more people
are admitted than are abfolutely neceffary to the fer-
vice of the drowned perfon, every endeavour muff be
immediately employed for recovering the heat of the
body, and that by different meafures, as circumftance&
flrall direft.
“ If, in the neighbourhood of the place, there be any
brewery, diftillery, dyery, or fabric which gives an op¬
portunity of immediately obtaining a quantity of warm
water and a convenient veffel, there is nothing more
D R O
proper than immerfing the body in a warm bath. Even Drowning,
where a fufficient quantity of warm water cannot be
had at once, the bath may be ftill praftifed, if the ac¬
cident has happened in or very near a town or village,
when a great many fires may be at once employed in
heating fmall quantities of water; for in this way the
neceffary quantity may be foon obtained. To encou¬
rage this praftice, it is to be obferved. That one part
of boiling water is more than fufficient to give the ne¬
ceffary heat to two parts of fpring or fea water, as it
is not proper to apply the bath at firft very warm, nor
even of the ordinary heat of the human body, but
fomewhat under it; and, by the addition of warm wa¬
ter, to bring it gradually to a heat very little above it.
“ If the drowned body be of no great bulk, it may
be conveniently warmed by a perfon’s lying down in
bed with it, and taking it near to their naked body,
changing the pofition of it frequently, and at the fame
time chaffing and rubbing with warm cloths the parts
which are not immediately applied to their warm body.
“ If none of thefe meafures can be conveniently prac-
tifed, the body is to be laid upon a bed before a mo¬
derate fire, and frequently turned, to expofe the dif¬
ferent parts of it; and thus, by the heat of the fire
gradually applied, and by rubbing the body well with
coarfe towels, or other cloths well warmed, pains are
to be taken for reftoring its heat. This will be pro¬
moted by warm cloths applied and frequently renewed
under the hams and arm-pits; and by hot bricks, or
bottles of warm water, laid to the feet.
“ In the praftice of rubbing, it has been propofed to
moiften the cloths applied with camphorated fpirits, or
other Inch ftimulating fubftanees: but I think this
muff prove an impediment to the rubbing ; and I
would not recommend any praftice of this kind, ex¬
cept, perhaps, the application of the vinous fpirit of
fal ammoniac to the wrifts and ankles only.
“ For recovering the heat of the body, it has been
propofed, to cover it all over with warm grains, afhes,
land, or fait; and where thefe, fufficiently warm, are
ready at hand, they may be employed ; but it is very
feldom they can be obtained, and.the application might
often interfere with other meafures that may be necef¬
fary. All therefore that I can propofe, with refpeft
to the life of thefe, is to obferve, that bags of warm
and dry fait may be amongft the moft convenient ap¬
plications to the feet and hands of drowned perfons;
and the quantity neceffary for this purpofe may be got
pretty quickly by heating the fait in a frying-pan over
a common fire.
“ While thefe meafures are taking for recovering the
heat, means are at the fame time to be employed for
reftoring the action of the moving fibres. It is well
known, that the inteftines are the parts of the body
which, both from their internal fituation and peculiar
conftitution, retain the longeft their irritability; and
therefore, that, in drowned perfons, ftimulants applied
may have more effe& upon the inteftines than upon
other parts. The aftion, therefore, of the inteftines
is to be fupported or renewed as foon as poffible; as
the reftoring and fupporting the aftion of luch a con-
fiderable portion of moving fibres as thofe of the in¬
teftines, muft contribute greatly to reftore the aftivity
of the whole fyftem.
“ For exciting the aftion of the inteftines, the moft
progee
f 2545 1
Drowning.
D R O [ 2546 ] D R O
proper mean is, the application of their ordinary fti-
mulus of dilatation ; and this is moft efFeftually ap¬
plied, by forcing a quantity of air into them by the
fundament. Even the throwing in cold air has been
found ufeful: but it will certainly be better if heated
air can be employed; and further, if that air can be
impregnated with fomething which, by its acrimony,
alfo may be powerful in ttimulating the inteftines.
“ From all thefe confiderations, the fmoke of burning
tobacco has been moft commonly applied, and has up¬
on many pccafions proved very effeftual. This will be
moft properly thrown in by a particular apparatus,
which, for other purpbfes as well as this, fhould be in
the hands of every furgeon; or at leaft ftiould, at the
public expence, be at hand in every part of the coun¬
try where drownings are likely to happen. With re¬
gard to the ufe of it, I have to obferve, that till
the tobacco is kindled in a confiderable quantity, a
great deal of cold air is blown through the box and
tube ; and as that, as hinted above, is not fo proper,
care ftiould be taken to have the tobacco very well
kindled, and to blow through it very gently, till the
heated fmoke only paffes through. If, upon certain
occafions, the apparatus referred to fliould not be at
hand, the meafure however may be executed by a com¬
mon tobacco pipe, in the following manner: A com¬
mon glyfter-pipe that has a bag mounted upon it, is
to be introduced into the fundament, and the mouth of
the bag is to be applied round the fmall end of a to¬
bacco-pipe. In the bowl of this, tobacco is to be
kindled; and, either by a playing card made into a
tube and applied round the mouth of the bowl, or by
applying upon this the bowl of another pipe that is
empty and blowing through it, the fmoke may be thus
forced into the inteftines, and, in a little time, inacon-
fiderable quantity.
“ If none, of thefe means for throwing in the fmoke
can be employed, it may be ufeful to injeft warm wa¬
ter to the quantity of three or four Englifti pints.
This may be done by a common glyfter-bag and pipe,
but better by a large fyringe; and it may be ufeful to
diflblve in the water fame common fait, in the propor¬
tion of half an ounce to an Englifti pint; and alfo, to
add to it fome wine or brandy.
“ While thefe meafures for recovering the heat of
the body and the adb'vity of the moving fibres are em¬
ployed, and efpecially after they have been employed
for fome time, pains are to be taken to complete and
finifti the bufinefs, by reftoring the a&ion of the lungs
and heart.
“ On this fubjeft, I am obliged to my learned and
ingenious colleague, Doftor Monro, who has made
fome experiments for afeertaining the beft manner of
inflating the lungs'of drowned perfons. By thefe ex¬
periments he finds it may be more conveniently done
by blowing into one of the noftrils, than by blowing
into the mouth. For blowing into the noftril, it is
neceffary to be provided with a wooden pipe, fitted at
one extremity for filling the noftril, and at the other
for being blown into by a perfon’s mouth, or for re¬
ceiving the pipe of a pair of bellows, to be employed
for the fame purpofe. Dodlor Monro finds, That a
perfon of ordinary ftrength can blow into fuch a pipe,
with a fufficient force to inflate the lungs to a confi-
derable degree; and thinks the warm air from the
lungs of a living perfon will be moft conveniently em- PrQW
ployed at firft ; but when it is not foon effe&ual in
reftoring the refpiration of the drowned perfon, and
that a Jonger continuance of the inflation is neceflary,
it may be proper to employ a pair of bellows, large
enough at once to contain the quantity of air ueceffary
to inflate the lungs to a due degree.
“ Whether the blowing-in is done by a perfon’s
mouth, or by bellows, Doator Monro obferves, that the
air is ready to pafs by the gullet into the ftomach; but
that this may be prevented, by prefling the lower part
of the larynx backwards upon the gullet. To perfons
of a little knowledge in anatomy, it is to be obferved,
that the prefiiire fhould be only upon the cricoid car¬
tilage, by which the gullet may be ftraitened, w'hile the
paflage through the larynx is not interrupted.
When, by blowing thus into the noftril, it can be
perceived, by the railing of the cheft or belly, that the
lungs are filled with air, the blowing in fttould ceafe;
and, by prefling the breaft and belly, the air received in¬
to the lungs fhouid be again expelled; then the blow¬
ing and expulfion fliould be again repeated ; and thus
the pradtice is to be continued, fo as to imitate, as
exadily as pofiible, the alternate motions of natural
refpiration.
“ It is hardly neceflary to obferve, that when the
blowing into the noftril is pradtifed, the other noftril
and the mouth ftiould be accurately clofed.
“ If it ftiould happen, that, in this pradtice, the air
does not feem to pafs readily into the lungs, Dodlor
Monro informs me, it is very pradlicable to introduce
diredtly into the glottis and trachea a crooked tube,
fuch as the catheter ufed for a male adult. For this
he offers the following diredfion?: The furgeon fliould
place himfelf on the right fide of the patient; and, in¬
troducing the forefinger of his left hand at the right
corner of the patient’s mouth, he ftiould pufti the point
of it behind the epiglottis; and ufing this as a diredory,
he may enter the catheter, which he holds in his right
hand, at the left corner of the patient’s mouth, till the
end of it is paffed beyond the point of his forefinger ;
and it is then to be let fall, rather than puftied into
the glottis; and through this tube, by a proper fyringe
applied to it, air may be with certainty blown into the
lungs. I obferve, that fome fuch meafure had been
propofed by Monf. Le Cat in France ; but I have not
learned that it has ever been put in pra&ice, and I am
afraid it may be attended with feveral difficulties, and
muft be left to the diferetion of furgeons, who may be
properly provided and inftru&ed for this purpofe.
“ For throwing air with more certainty into the
lungs, it has been propofed to open the windpipe in
the fame manner as is done in the operation which the
furgeons call bronchotomy, and by this opening to blow
into the lungs; and when the blowing into the noftril
does not feem to fucceed, and a ikilful operator is at
hand, I allow that the meafure may be tried; but I_ean
hardly fuppofe, that it will be of any advantage when
the blowing in by the noftril has entirely failed.
“ It is to be hoped, that by blowing into the lungs
one w-ay or other, even a quantity of water which had
been taken into the lungs may be again waftied out;
and the fame feems to be the only effe&ual means of
waftiing out that frothy matter which is found to fill
the lungs of drowned perfons, and which proves, if {
miftake
D R O
"g. miftake not, the mod common caufe of their mortal
fnffocation. This praftice, therefore, is to be imme¬
diately entered upon, and very afiiduoufly continued for
an hour or two together.
“ I have now mentioned the meafures chiefly to be
purfued and depended upon for the recovery of drown¬
ed perfons ; but mult (till mention feme others that
may prove confiderable helps to it.
“ One of thefe is, the opening the jugular veins to
relieve the congeftion, which almoil ccnftantly occurs in
the veins of the head, and is probably a frequent caufe
of the death of drowned perfons.' For relieving this
congeftion, the drawing fome blood from the jugulars,
very early, may certainly be of fervice ; and it will be
particularly indicated by the livid and purple colour of
the face. It may even be repeated, according to the
effe£t it feems to have in taking off that fuffufion ; but
when the drowned perfon is in fome meafure recover¬
ed, and fome motion of the blood is reftored, it will be
proper to be very cautious in making this evacuation,
and at lead to take care not to pufh it fo far as to wea¬
ken too much the recovering, but flill weak, powers of
life.
“ Another meafure for recovering the a&ivity of the
vital principle, is the application of certain flimulants
to the more fenfible parts of the body, fuch as holding
the quick-lime fpirit of fal ammoniac to the nofe, or
putting a little of it upon a rag into the noftrils. It
has been ufual to pour fome liquids into the mouth ;
but it is dangerous to pour in any quantity of liquid,
till it appear that the power of fwallowing is in lome
meafure reftored.
“ When a furgeon is at hand, and is provided with
proper apparatus, a crooked pipe maybe introduced
into the gullet; and by this a gill or two of warm-wine
may be poured down into the ftomach, and probably,
with advantage. But when no fuch apparatus is at
hand, or furgeon to employ it, and the power of fwal¬
lowing isftill doubtful, the trial of pouring liquids in¬
to the mouth fnould be made by a fmall quantity of
warm water alone; and when, from fuch trial, the
power of fwallowing lhall appear to be recovered, it may
then be allowable to favour the further recovery of the
perfon, by pouring in forae wine or brandy.—In fliort,
till fome marks of the recovery of fwallowing and re-
fpiration appear, it will not be fafe to apply any fti-
mulants to the mouth, excepting that of a few' drops
of fome acrid fubftance to the tongue, and which aj-e
not of bulk enough to Aide back upon the glottis : I
can think of no.ftimulant, more conveniently and fafe-
ly to be applied to the mouth and noftrils, than a mo¬
derate quantity of tobacco-fmoke blown into them.
“ Though I do not imagine that drowned perfons
are ever hurt by the quantity of water taken into their
ftomach, yet, as a ftimulus applied to the ftomach, and
particularly as the adtion of vomiting proves a ftimu¬
lus to the whole fyftem, I can have no objection to the
French practice of throwing in an emetic as foon as
any fwallowing is reftored. For this purpofe, I would
fucceffively throw in fome tea-fpoonfuls of the ipeca¬
cuanha wine; and, when it does not interfere with o-
ther neceflary meafures, the fauces may be gently irri¬
tated by an oiled feather thruft into them.
“ With regard to the ftimulants, I muft conclude
with obferving, That when a body has lain but for a
E> R O
fhort time in the water, and that therefore its heat Drowning.1
and irritability are but little impaired, the application "* '
of ftimulants alone has been often found effeCIual for
the recovery : but, on the contrary, when the body
has lain long in the water, and the heat of it is very
much extinguilhed, the application of any other ftimu¬
lants than that of tobacco-fmoke to the inteftines can
be of very little fervice ; and the application of others
ought never to interfere with the meafures for recover¬
ing heat and the motion of refpiration.
“ With rcfpedl; to the whole of thefe pradljces, I
expedt, from the principles upon which they are in
general recommended, it will be underftood, that they
are not to be foon, difeontinued, though their effedts do
not immediately appear. It is obvious, that, in many
cafes, it may be long before the heat of the body, and
the a&ivity of the vital principle, can be reftored, al¬
though, in a longer time, it may very poffibly be ac-
complifhed. In fadt, it has often happened, that tho’
means, employed for one hour, have not fucceeded,
the fame continued for two or more hours, have, at
length, had the wifhed for effe&s. It fliould therefore
be a conftant rul?, in this bufinefs, that the proper
means fhould be employed for feveral hours together;
unlefs it happen, that, while no fymptoms of returning
life appear, the fymptoms of death Ihall, at the fame
time, go on conftantly incrcafing.
“ In the whole of the above I have kept in view
chiefly the cafe of drowned perfons: but it will be ob¬
vious, that many of the meafures propofed will be e—
qually proper and applicable in other cafes of fuffoca-
tion ; as thofe from ftrangling, the damps of mines,
the fumes of charcoal, See. ; and a little attention to
the difference of circumftances will lead to the meafures
moft proper to be employed.”
Mr Hunter, in the before-mentioned paper, differs
pretty confiderably from De Haen and Dr Cullen. He
obferves, that when affiftance is foon called .in after
immerfton, blowing air into the lungs wall in fome
cafes effedt a recovery ; but when any confiderable
time has been loft, he advifes ftimulant medicines,
fuch as the vapour of volatile alkali, to be mixed with
the air; which may eafily be done, by holding fpirits
of hartlhorn in a cup under the receiver of the bellows.
And, as applications of this kind to the olfadtory nerves
tend greatly to roufe the living principle, and put the
mufcles of refpiration into aeftion, it may probably,
therefore, be moft proper to have air impregnated in
that manner thrown in by the nofe. To prevent the
ftomach and inteftines from being too much diftended
by the airfo injedied, the larynx isdiredled to be gent¬
ly preffed againft the oefophagus and fpine.
While this bufinefs is going on, an affiilant fhould
prepare bed-cloaths, carefully brought to a proper de¬
gree of heat. Heat our author confiders as congenial
with the living principle; increafing theneceflity of ac¬
tion, it increafes adlion ; cold, on the other hand, lef-
fens the necefiity, and of courfe the adtion is dimi-
nifhed ; to a due degree of heat, therefore, the living
principle, he thinks, owes its vigour. From experi¬
ments, he fays, it appears to be a law in animal bo¬
dies, that the degree of heat fhould bear a proportion
to the quantity of life ; as life is weakened, this pro¬
portion requires great accuracy, while greater powers
of life allow it greater latitudes.
1 2547 1
Aftcs
D R O [ 2548 ] D R U
•r»wmng. After thefe and feveral other obfervations on the
fame fubjeft, our author proceeds to more particular
diredtions for the management of drowned people.
If bed-cloaths are put over the perfon, fo as fcarce
to touch him, fteams of volatile alkali, or of warm
balfams, may be thrown in, fo as to come in contadt
with many parts of the body. And it might probably
be advantageous, Mr Hunter obferves, to have fteams
of the fame kind conveyed into the ftomach. This, we
are told, may be done by a hollow bougie, and a fy-
ringe ; but the operation (hould'be very fpeedily per¬
formed, as the inftrument, by continuing long in the
mouth, might produce ficknefs, which our author fays
he would always wifh to avoid.
Some of the warm ftimulating fubftances, fuch as
juice of horfe-radifh, pepper-mint water, and fpirits
of hartihorn, are diredted to be thrown into the fto¬
mach in a fluid ftate, as alfo to be injedled by the anus.
Motion poflibly may be of fervice; it may at leaft be
tried; but as it hath lefs effedt than any other of the
nfually ;prefcribed ftimuli, it is diredted to be the laft
y>art of the procefs.
The fame care in the operator, in regulating the
proportion of every one of thefe means, is here diredted,
as was formerly given for the application of heat.
For every one of them, our author obferves, may pof-
fibly have the fame property of deftroying entirely the
feeble adtion which they have excited, if adminiftered
in too great a quantity : inftead, therefore, of increa-
iing and haftening the operations on the firft Cgns of
returning life being obferved, as is ufually done, he
defires they may be lefiened ; and advifes their increafe
to be afterwards proportioned, as nearly as pofiible, to
the quantity of powers asthey arife.
When the heart begins to move, the application of
air to the longs fhould be leflened, that, when the
rnufcles of refpiration begin to adf, a good deal may be
left for them to do.
Mr Hunter abfolutdy forbids blood-letting in all
fuch cafes ; for, as it not only weakens the animal
principle, but leffens life itfelf, it muft confequently,
he obferves, leflen both the powers and difpofitions to
adtion. For the fame reafon, he is againft introducing
any thing into the ftomach that might produce fick-
nefs or vomiting ; and, on the fame principle, he fays,
we fhould avoid throwing tobacco fumes, or any other
fuch articles, up by the anus, as might tend to-an eva¬
cuation that way.
The following is a defeription of inftruments recom¬
mended for fuch operations by our author.
Firjl, A pair of bellows, fo contrived, with two .fe-
parate cavities, that, by opening them when applied
to the noftrils or mouth of a patient, one cavity will
be filled with common air, and the other with air fuck¬
ed out from the lungs, and by {hutting them again,
the common air will be thrown into the "lungs, and that
fucked out of the lungs difeharged into the room. The
pipe of thefe fhould be flexible; in length a foot, or a
loot and an half; and, at leaft, three eighths of an inch
in width. By this the artificial breathing may be con¬
tinued, while the other operations, the application of
the ftimuli to the ftomach excepted, are going on,
which could not be conveniently done if the muzzle
of the bellows were introduced into the nofe. The end
next the nofe fhould be double, and applied to both
noftrils. Secondlyt A fyringe, with a hollow bougie. Drowning
or flexible catheter, of fufficient length to go into the il
ftomach, and convey any ftimulating matter into it, Drmd!;^
without affecting the lungs. Thirdly, a pair of fmall
bellows, fuch as are commonly ufed in throwing fumes
of tobacco up by the anus.
Notwithftanding the differences in theory, however,,
between the phyficians above-mentioned, it is certain,
that within thefe few years great numbers of drowned
people have been reftored to life hy a proper ufe of the
remedies we have enumerated, and foeieties for the re¬
covery of drowned perfons have been inftituted in dif¬
ferent places. The firft fociety of this kind was infti-
tuted in Holland, where, from the great abundance of
canals and inland feas, the inhabitants are particular¬
ly expofed to accidents by water. In a very few years
150 perfons were faved from death by this fociety ; and
many of thefe had continued upwards of an hour with¬
out any figns of life, after they had been taken out of
the water. The fociety was inftituted at Amfterdarn
in 1767: and, by an advertifement, informed the in¬
habitants of the United Provinces of the methods pro¬
per to be ufed on fuch occafions; offering rewards at
the fame time to thofe who fhould, with or without
fuccefs, ufe thofe methods for recovering perfons
drowned and feemingly dead. The laudable and hu¬
mane example of the Dutch was followed in the year
1768 by the magiftrates of health in Milan and Venice;
afterwards by the magiftrates of Hamburgh in the year
1771, by thofe of Paris in the year 1772, and by the
magiftrates of London in 1774.
DRUG, a general term for goods of the druggift
and grocery kinds, efpecially thofe ufed in medicine
and dyeing. See Materia Medica, Pharmacy, and
Dyeing.
DRUGGET, in commerce, a fluff fometimes all
wool, and fometimes half wool half thread, fometimes
corded, but ufually plain. Thofe that have the woof
of wool, and the warp of thread, are called threaded
druggets; and thofe wrought with the {buttle on a loom
of four marches, as the ferges of Moui, Beauvois, and
other like fluffs corded, corded druggets. As
to the plain, they are wrought on a loom of two marches,
with the fhuttle, in the fame manner as cloth, camblets,
and other like fluffs not corded.
DRUIDS, the priefts among the ancient Britons
and, Gauls.—The word is formed from the Celtic, de-
ru, an oak; becaufe they held that tree in the higheft
veneration.
Their antiquity is efteemed equal to that of the
Brachmans of India, the Magi of Perfia, and the Chal¬
dees of Babylon. And whoever confiders the furpri-
fing conformity of their do6lrine, will find fufficient rea¬
fon to think that they all derived it from the fame -
hand, we mean from Noah and his immediate defeen-
dants, who carried it with them at their difperlion ;
for it cannot be fuppofed that the Britifh druids derived
their doctrine from any foreign fe£l, to whom they
were abfolutely unknown.
But the druids were not contented with the power
annexed to the priefthood: they introduced religion
into every tranfadlion both public and private, fo that
nothing could be done without their approbation ; and
by this means their authority was rendered ahnoft ab-
folute. They ek&ed the annual magiftrates of every
diftridt,
Druids,
D R U [ 2549 ] D R U
Druids, diftr'ft, who rtiould have enjoyed during that term the
“ iuprenve authority, and fometimes tiie title of kings:
but they could not even call a council without their
approbation and advice ; fo that, notwithftanding their
pretended authority, they were in reality the'creatures
and flaves of the druids.
They exercifed the fame arbitrary power in their
courts of juft ice; and whoever refufed to fubmit to
their decilions, were excluded from the public facrifi-
ces, which was confidered as the greateft punifhment
that could be inflifted. It muft, however, be acknow¬
ledged, that their adminiftration ofjuftice has always
been celebrated for its impartiality. The foie manage¬
ment and inftru&ion of youth was alfo committed to
them, except the training them up in the art of war;
for both they and their difcipies w'ere not only exemp¬
ted from going to war, but likewife from all kind of
tribute.
Their garments wfere remarkably long ; and, when
employed in religious ceremonies, they always wore a
white furplice. They generally carried a wand in their
hands; and wore a kind of ornament enchafed in gold
about their necks, called the druid’s egg. Their necks
were likewife decorated with gold chains, and their
hands and arms with bracelets: they wore their hair
very (hort, and their beards remarkably long.
They were all fubordinate to a chief or fovereign
pontiff, ftyledthe arch-druid, chofen from among their
fraternity by a plurality of voices; but, in cafe of a
competition too powerful to be decided by a majori¬
ty, the conteft was determined by the fword. He en¬
joyed his fupremacy for life, had power to infpeft the
conduft of kings, and either to eleft or depofe when¬
ever he pleafed.
It was one of the maxims of their religion, not to
commit any thing to writing; but deliver all their my-
fteries and learning in verfes compofed for that purpofe;
and thefe were in time multiplied to fuch a number,
that it generally took up 20 years to learn them all by
heart. By this means their dodtrines appeared more
myfterious by being unknown to all but themfelves ;
and having no books to recur to, they were the more
careful to iix them in their memory.
But what had ftill a more dire& tendency to impofe
on the public, was their pretended familiar intercourfe
with the gods. And in order at once to conceal their
own ignorance, and render the impofition lefs fufcep-
tible of dete&ion, they boafted of their great (kill in
magic, and cultivated feveral branches of the mathe¬
matic?, particularly aftronomy. The latter they car¬
ried to fome degree of perfection ; for they were able
to foretel the times, quantities, and durations, of eclip-
fes: a circumftance which could not fail of attracting
reverence from an ignorant multitude, who were per-
fuaded that nothing lefs than a fupernatural power was
fufficient to make fuch aftonifhing predictions. They
alfo ftudied natural philofophy, and praCtifed phyfic.
They worfhipped the Supreme Being under the name
of Efus, or Hefus, and the fymbol of the oak ; and
had no other temple than a wood or a grove, where all
their religious rites were performed. Nor was any per-
fon admitted to enter that facred recefs, unlefs he car¬
ried with him a chain, in token of his abfolute depen¬
dence on the Deity. Indeed, their whole religion o-
viginally confifted in acknowledging, that the Supreme
Vol. IV.
Being, who made his abode in thefe facred groves, go¬
verned the univerfe; and that every creature ought to ~
obey his laws, and pay him divine homage.
They confidered the oak as the emblem, or rather
the peculiar refidence, of the Almighty; and according¬
ly chaplets of it were worn both by the druids and peo¬
ple in their religious ceremonies, the altars wiye ftrew-
ed with its leaves and encircled with its branches. The
fruit of it, efpecially the mifletoe, was thought to con¬
tain a divine virtue, and to be the peculiar gift of hea¬
ven. It was therefore fought for on the fixth day of
the moon with the greateft earneftnefs and anxiety;
and when found was hailed with fuch raptures of
joy, as almoft exceeds imagination to conceive. As
foon as the druids were informed of this fortunate dif-
covery, they prepared every thing ready for the fa-
crifice under the oak, to which they faftened two
white bulls by the horns: then the arch-druid, attend¬
ed by a prodigious number of people, afcended the
tree, dreffed in white; and with a confecrated golden
knife,, or pruning hook, cropped the mifletoe, which
he received in his fagum or robe, amidft the rapturous
exclamations of the people. Having fecured this fa¬
cred plant, he defcended the tree; the bulls were fa-
crificed; and the Deity invoked to blefs his own gift,
and render it efficacious in thofe diftfcmpers in which it
fliould be adminiftered.
The confecrated groves, in which they performed
their religious rites, were fenced round with ftones, to
prevent any perfon’s entering between the trees, ex¬
cept through the paffages left open for that purpofe,
and which were guarded by fome inferior druids, to
prevent any ftranger from intruding into their myfte-
ries. Thefe groves were of different forms; fome quite
circular, others oblong, and more or lefs capacious as
the numbers of votaries in the diftri&s to which they
belonged were more or lefs numerous. The area in
the centre of the grove was encompaffed with feveral
rows of large oaks fet very clofe together. Within
this large circle were feveral fmaller ones furrounded
with large ftones ; and near the centre of thefe fmaller
circles, were ftones of a prodigious lize, and conve¬
nient height, on which the victims were flain and of¬
fered. Each of thefe being a kind of altar, was fur-
rounded with another row of ftones, the ufe of which
cannot now be known, unlefs they were intended as
cinftures to keep the people at a convenient diftance
from the officiating prieft. Nor is it unreafonable to
fuppofe, that they had other groves appointed forfecular
purpofes, and perhaps planted with oaks as the others
were, that the facred trees might ftrike the members
of fuch courts and councils with awe, and prevent all
quarrels and indecent expreffions.
While the religion of the druids continued pure and
unmixed with any foreign cuftoms, they offered only
oblations of fine flour fprinkled with fait, and adored
the Supreme Being in prayers and thankfgivings. But(
after they had for fome time carried on a commerce
with the Phoenicians, they loft their original fimplicity,
adored a variety of gods, adopted the barbarous cu-
ftom of offering human vidtims, and even improved on
the cruelty of other nations ; ufing thefe unfortunate
mortals for the purpofes of divination, with fuch-bar¬
barous cruelty as is (hocking to human nature to relate.
Pra&ices like thefe foon rendered them fo deaf to the
14 U voice
D R U [ 2550 ] D R U
Druids voiceof humanity, that on extraordinary occafions they
!l ere&ed a monftrous hollow pile of olier, which they
rummond ^j|e^ 'wJt|j thefe unhappy wretches, and burnt them to
their gods. Criminals were indeed chofen for this bar¬
barous facrifice ; but, in want of thefe, the innocent
became viflims of a cruel fuperftition.
We have already mentioned, that in their facred
groves were feveral large (tones, fuppofed to be the al¬
tars on which they offered their victims. Some of
thefe (tones are (till remaining in England, Wales, Ire¬
land, and the ifland of Anglefey ; and are of fuch an
amazing magnitude, that the bringing and rearing
them was thought by the fuperltitious to have been the
work of thofe daemons fuppofed to attend on that man¬
ner of worfhip.
Temples they had none before the coming of the
Romans, nor in all probability for a long time after :
for with regard to thofe vaft piles of (tones (till remain¬
ing, they feem rather to have been funeral monuments
than places of worftiip; efpecially as all the ancient
writers agree that their religious ceremonies were al¬
ways performed in their confecrated groves. Accord-
ingly Tacitus, fpeaking of the defcent of the Romans,
tells us, that their firlt care was to deftroy thofe groves
and woods which had been polluted with the blood of
lb many human viftims.
One of the chief tenets taught by the druids was the
immortality of the foul, and its tranfmigration from
one body to another; a do&rine which they confidered
as proper to infpire them with courage, and a contempt
of death. They alfo inftrufted their difciples in feve¬
ral traditions concerning the (tars and their motions,
the extent of the world, the nature of things, and the
power of the immortal gods. But as they never com¬
mitted any of their tenets to writing, in order at once
to conceal their myfterious learning from the vulgar,
and exercife the minds of their difciples, the greateft
part of them are now irrecoverably buried in oblivion.
DRUM, is a martial mufical inftrument in form of a
cylinder, hollow within, and covered at the two ends
with vellum, which is ftretched or flackened at pleafure
by the means of fmall cords or Aiding knots: it is beat
upon with (licks. Drums are fometimes made of brafs,
but mod commonly they are of wood.—The drum is by
Le Clerc faid to have been an Oriental invention, and
to have been brought by the Arabians, or perhaps
rather the Moors, into Spain.
Kettle Drum s, are two forts of large bafons of cop¬
per or brafs, rounded in the bottom, and covered with
vellum, or goat-fkin, which is kept fad by a circle of
aron round the body of the drum, with a number of
ferews to drew up and down. They are much ufed
among the horfe; as alfo in operas, oratorios, con¬
certs, &c.
Drum, or Drummer, he that beats the drum ; of
whom each company of foot has one, and fometimes
two. Every regiment has a drum-major, who has the
command over the other drums. They are didinguifh-
ed from the foldiers, by cloaths of a different fa (hi on :
their pod, when a battalion is drawn up, is on the
flanks, and on a march it is betwixt thedivifions.
Drum of the Ear, the fame with the Tympanum.
See Anatomy, n° 405.
DRUMMOND (William), a polite writer, born in
Scotland, in 1585, was the fon of Sir John Drum¬
mond, gentleman-ufhcr to king James VI. He had Drum-
his education at Edinburgh; and afterwards being fent '
into France, ftudied the civil law at Bourges: but his 1)e^< " j
genius leading him to polite literature, he returned to  —
Scotland, and retired to his agreeable feat at Haw-
thornden. Here he fpent his time in reading Greek and
Latin authors, and obliged the world with feveral fine
produdlions. He wrote his Cyprefs Grove, a piece of
excellent profe, after a dangerous fit of ficknefs ; and
about this time his Flowers of Sion, in verfe. But an
accident befel him, which obliged him to quit his re¬
tirement ; and that was the death of an amiable lady
he was juft going to be married to. This affefted him
fo deeply, that he went to Paris and Rome, betweea
which two places he refided eight years. He travelled
alfo through Germany, France, and Italy: where he
vifited univerfities; converfed with learned men; and
made a choice colleftion of the beft ancient Greek, and
of the modern Spanifti, French, and Italian books.
He then returned to his native country, where a civil
war was juft ready to break out: upon which he re¬
tired again, and in this retirement is fuppofed to have
written his Hijiory of the five James's, fucceflively kings
of Scotland, which was not publilhed till after his
death. Bendes this, he compofed feveral other trafts
againft the meafures of the covenanters and thofe en¬
gaged in the oppofition of Charles I. In a piece call¬
ed Irene, he harangues the king, nobility, and clergy,
about their mutual miftakes, fears, and jealoufies : be¬
lays before them the confequences of a civil war, frofn
indifputable arguments and the hiftories of pad times.
The great marquis of Montrofe wrote a letter to him,
defiring him to print this Irene, as the beft means to
quiet the minds of a diftrafted people : he likewife fent
him a prote&ion dated Auguft 1645, immediately af¬
ter the battle of Kilfyth, with a letter, in which he
commends Mr Drummond’s learning and loyalty. Mr
Drummond wrote other things alfo with the fame view
of promoting peace and union, of calming the difturb-
ed minds of the people, of reafoning the better fort in¬
to moderation, and checking the growing evils which
would be the confequence of their obftinacy. He
died in the year 1649, having married a wife five years
before, by whom he had fome children : William, who
was knighted in Charles the lid’s time ; Robert; and
Elizabeth, who was married to Dr Henderfon a phy-
fician at Edinburgh. He had a great intimacy and
correfpondence with the two faipous Englilh poets, Mi¬
chael Drayton and Ben Johnfon ; the latter of whom
travelled from London on foot, to fee him at his feat at
Hawthornden. His works confided of feveral things
in verfe and profe ; an edition of which, with his life
prefixed, was printed in folio at Edinburgh, 1711.
DRUNKENNESS, a well known diforder in the
brain, occafioned by drinking too freely of fpirituous li¬
quors. Drunkennefs appears in different (hapes, in dif¬
ferent conftitutions : fome it makes gay, fome fallen,
and fome furious.
The ancient Lacedemonians ufed to make their flaves
frequently drunk, to give their children an averfion and
horror for the fame. The Indians hold drunkennefs a
fpecies of madnefs; and in their language, the fame
term (ramgam), that fignifies drunkard, fignifies alfo
a phrenetick.
Drunkennefs, by the law of England, is looked up¬
on
D R U [ 2551 ] DRY
u Drunken- on as an aggravation rather than an excufe for any
3. criminal behaviour. A drunkard, fays Sir Edward
tipa‘ , Coke, who is voluntarius damon, hath no privilege
thereby ; but what hurt or ill foevtr he doth, his
drunkennefs doth aggravate it: nam omne erimeii ebris-
tas, et incendit, at detegit. It hath been obferved that
the real ufe of ftrong liquors, and the abufe of them
by drinking to excels, depend much upon the tempera¬
ture of the climate in which we live. The fame indul¬
gence which may be neceflary to make the blood move
in Norway, would make an Italian mad. A German
therefore, fays the prelident Montefquieu, drinks thro’
cultom founded upon conftitutional neceffity; a Spa¬
niard drinks through choice, or out of the mere wan-
tonuefs of luxury ; and drunkennefs, he adds, ought
to be more feverely punilhed where it makes men mif-
chievous and mad, as in Spain and Italy, than where
it only renders them ftupid and heavy, as in Germany
and more northern countries. And accordingly, in the
warmer climate of Greece, a law of Pittacus ena&ed,
“ that he who committed a crime when drunk, fliould
receive a double puniftimentone for the crime itfelf,
and the other for the ebriety which prompted him to
commit it. The Roman law indeed made great allow¬
ances for this vice:' per vinum dalapjis capitalis poena re¬
mittitur. But the law of England, confidering how
eafy it is to counterfeit this excufej and how weak an
excufe it is (though real), will not fuller any man thus
to privilege one crime by another.
For the offence of drunkennefs a man may be pu-
nifhed in the ecclefiaftical court, as well as by juftices
of peace by ftatute. And by 4 Jac. I. c. 5. and
21 Jac. I. c. 7. if any perfon ffiau be convicted of
drunkennefs by the view of a juftice, oath of one wit-
nefs, &c. he (hall forfeit 5 s. for the firft offence, to
be levied by diffrefs and fale of his goods; and for
want of a diffrefs, fhall fit in the ftocks fix hours: and,
for the fecond offence, he is to be bound with two fure-
ties in 10I. each, to be of good behaviour, or to be
committed. And he who is guilty of any crime thro’
his own voluntary drunkennefs, fnall be punilhed for
it as if he had been fober. It has been held that drun¬
kennefs is a fufficicnt caufe to remove a magiftrate:
and the profecution for this offence by the ftatute of
4 Jac. I. c. 5. was to be, and ftill may be, beforeju-
ftices of peace in their feffions by way of indiftment,
&c. Equity will not relieve againff a bond, &c. given
by a man when drunk, unlefs the drunkennefs is oc-
cafioned through the management or contrivance of
him to whom the bond is given.
DRUPA, or Druppa, in botany, a fpecies of pe-
rtcarpium, or feed-veffel, which is fucculent or pulpy,
has no valve or external opening like the capfule and
pod, and contains within its fubftance a ftone or nut.
The cherry, plumb, peach, apricot, and all other Hone-
fruit, are of this kind.
The term, which is of great antiquity, is fynoni-
mous to Tournefort’s fruttus mollis ojjiculo, “ foft fruit
with a ftone;” and to the prunus of other botanifts.
The ftone, or nut, which, in this fpecies of fruit, is
furrounded by the foft pulpy flelh, is a kind of ligneous
or wmody cup, which contains a fingle kernel or feed.
This definition, however, will not apply to every feed-
veffel denominated dr up a in the Genera Plantarum.
The almond is a drupa} fo is the feed-veffel of the elm-
tree and the genus rumphia; though far from being
pulpy or fucculent, the firft and third are of a fubftance
like leather, the fecond like parchment. The fame may
be faid of the walnut, piftachia-nut, guettarda, quif-
qualis, jack-in a-box, and fome others.
Again, the feeds of the elm, fehrebera, flagellariay
and the mango-tree, are not contained in a ftone. The
feed-veffel of burr-reed is dry, fhaped like a top, and
contains two angular ftones.
This fpecies of fruit, or more properly feed-veffel,
is commonly roundifh, and, when feated below the ca-
lix or receptacle of the flow'er, is furnilhed, like the
apple, at the end oppofite to the foot-ftalk, with a
fmall umbilicus or cavity, which is produced by the
fwelling of the fruit before the falling off of the flower-
cup.
DRUSIUS (John), a Proteftant writer of great
learning, boru at Oudenarde in Flanders in 155?- He
was deiigned for the ftudy of divinity ; but his father
being outlawed, and deprived of his eftate, they both
retired to England, where the fon became profeffor of
the Oriental languages at Oxford: but, upon the paci¬
fication of Ghent, they returned to their own country,
where Drufius was alfo appointed profeffor of the Ori¬
ental languages. From thence he removed to Frief-
land, where he was admitted Hebrew profeffor in the
univerfity of Franeker; the functions of which he dif-
charged with great honour till his death in 1616. His
works {hew him to have been well /killed in Hebrew;
and the States General employed him in 1600, to write
notes on the molt difficult paffages in the Old Tefta-
ment, with a penfion of 400 florins a-year: but being
frequently difturbed in this undertaking, it was not
publifhed till after his death. He held a vaft: corre-
fpondence with the learned; for befides letters in He¬
brew, Greek, and other languages, there were found
2300 Latin letters among his papers. He had a fon
John, who died in England at 21, and was a prodigy
for his early acquifition of learning; he wrote Notes
on the Proverbs of Solomon, with many letters and
verfes in Hebrew.
DRYADS, in the heathen theology, a fort of dei¬
ties, or nymphs, which the ancients thought inhabited
groves and woods. They differed from the Hamadry-
ades, thefe latter being attached to fome particular
tree, with which they were born, and with which they
died; whereas the Dryades were goddeffes of trees and
woods in general.
DRYDEN (John), one of the moft eminent Eng-
lifh poets of the 17th century, defeeuded of a genteel
family in Huntingdonfhire, was born in that county
at Oldwincle 1631, and educated at Weftminfter fchool
under Dr Bufby. From thence he was removed to
Cambridge in 1650, being ele&ed fcholar of Trinity
college, of which he appears by his epitbalamia Can-
tabrigienf. 410, 1662, to have been afterwards a fel¬
low. Yet, in his earlier days, he gave no extraordinary
indications of genius; for, even the year before he
quitted the univerfity, he wrote a poem on the death
of Lord Haftings, which was by no means a prefage
of that amazing perfeftion in poetical powers which he
afterwards poffeffed.
On the death of Oliver Cromwell he wrote fome he¬
roic ftanzas to his memory; but, on the Reftoration,
being defirous of ingratiating himfelf with the new
14 U 2 court,
Drtifitis-
Dryden.
DRY [ 2552 ] DRY
Bryden. court,ic wrote, firft a poem intitled AJiraa Rsdux, and
 afterwards a panegyric to the king on his coronation.
In 1662, he addreffed a poem to the Lord Chancellor
Hydej prefented on New Year’s day; and in the fame
year a fatire on the Dutch. In 1668, appeared his
Annus Mirabilis, which was an hiftorical poem in ce-
. lebr'ation of the duke of York’s vi&ory over the Dutch.
Thefe pieces at length obtained him the favour of the
crown; and Sir William Davenant dying the fame
year, Mr Dryden was appointed to fucceed him as
poet laureat. About this time alfo his inclination to
write for the ftage feems firfl to have {hewn jtfelf. For
befides his concern with Sir William DaveUant in the
alteration of Shakefpeare’s Tempeft, in 1669 he pro¬
duced his Wild Gallants a comedy. This met with
very indifferent fuccefs; yet the author, not being dif-
couraged by its failure, foon publifhed his Indian Em¬
peror. This, finding a more favourable reception, en¬
couraged him to proceed; and that with fuch rapidity,
that, in the key to the duke of Buckingham’s Rchear-
fal, he is recorded to have engaged himfelf by contract
for the writing of four plays per year; and indeed, in
the years 1679 and 1680, he appears to have fulfilled
that contraft. To this unhappy necefiky that our au¬
thor lay under, are to be attributed all thofe irregu¬
larities, thofe bombaftic flights, and fometimes even
puerile exuberances, for which he has been fo feverely
criticifed; and which, in the unavoidable hurry in
which he wrote, it was impoflible he fhould find time
either for lopping away or corre&ing.
In 1675, the earl of Rochefter, whofe envious and
malevolent difpofition would not permit him to fee
growing merit meet with its due reward, and was
therefore fincerely chagrined at the very juft applaufe
with which Mr Dryden’s dramatic pieces had been re¬
ceived, was determined, if pofiible, to fliake his inte-
reft at court; and fucceeded fo far as to recommend
Mr Crowne, an author by no means of .equal merit,
and at that time of an obfeure reputation, to write a
mafque for the court, which certainly belonged to Mr
Dryden’s office as poet laureat.—Nor was this the only
attack, nor indeed the moft potent one, that Mr Dry¬
den’s juftly acquired fame drew on him. For, fome
years before, the duke of Buckingham, a man of not
much better character than Lord Rochefter, had moft
feverely ridiculed feveral of our author’s plays in his
admired piece called the Rehearfal. But, though the
intrinfic wit which runs through that performance can¬
not even to this hour fail of exciting our laughter, yet
at the fame time it ought not to be the ftandard on
which we ftiould fix Mr Dryden’s poetical reputation,
if we confider. That the pieces there ridiculed are not
any of thofe looked on as the chef d’oeuvres of this au¬
thor, that the very pafiages burlefqued, are frequent¬
ly, in their original places, much lei's ridiculous, than
when thus detached, like a rotten limb, from the body
of the work; and expofed to view with additional di-
ftortions, and divefted of that connexion with the o-
ther parts, which, while it preferved, gave it not only
fymmetry but beauty; and laftly, that the various ini¬
mitable beauties, which the critic has funk in oblivion,
are infinitely more numerous than the deformities which
he has thus induftrioufly brought forth to our more im¬
mediate infpe&ion.
Mr Dryden, however, did not fuffer thefe attacks
to pafs with impunity: for, in 1679, there came out Drydem
an Effay on Satire, faid to be written jointly by that ——
gentleman and the earl of Mulgrave, containing fome
very fevere refledlions on the earl of Rochefler and the
duchefs of Portfmouth, who, it is not improbable,
might be a joint inftrument in the above-mentioned
affront (hewn to Mr Dryden; and in 1681 he publifh¬
ed his Abfalom and Achitophel, in which the well-known
character of Zimri, drawn for the duke of Bucking¬
ham, is certainly fevere enough to repay all the ridi¬
cule thrown on him by that nobleman in the charadter
of Bayes.—The refentment (hewn by the different peers
was very-different. Lord Rochefter, who was a coward
as well as a man of the moft depraved morals, bafely
hired three ruffians to cudgel Dryden in a coffeehoufe:
but the duke of Buckingham, as we are told, in a more
open manner, took that talk upon himftlf; and at the
fame time prefented him with a purfe containing no-
very trifling fum of money; telling him, That he gave
him the beating aS a punifhment for his impudence,
but bellowed the gold on him as a reward for his wit.
In 1680 was publifhed a tranflation of Ovid's Epijlles-
in EnglHh verfe, by feveral hands, two of which, to¬
gether with the preface, were by Mr Dryden ; and in
1682, came out h\s Religio Laid, designed as a de¬
fence of revealed religion, againft Debts, Papifts, &c-
Soon after the acceffion of king James II. our author,
changed his religion for that of the church of Rome,,
and wrote two pieces in vindication of the Romifh te¬
nets, viz. A Defence -of the papers- written by.the late
king, found in his ftrong box ; and the celebrated-
poem, afterwards anfwered by Lord Halifax, entitled
the Hind and the Panther.—By this extraordinary itep
he not only engaged himfelf in controverfy, and incur¬
red much cenfure and ridicule from his cotemporary
wits; but, on the completion of the Revolution, being,
on account of his newly-chofen religion, difqualified
from bearing any office under the government, he was
ftripped of the laurel, which, to his (till greater mor¬
tification, v/as bellowed on Richard Flecknoe, a man to
whom he had a moft fettled averfion. This circum-
ftance occafioned his writing the very fevere poem,
called Mac Flecknoe.
Mr Dryden’s circumftances had never been affluent;
but now being deprived-of this little fupport,. he found
himfelf reduced to the neceffity of writing for mere
bread. We confequently find him from this period
engaged in works of labour as well as genius, viz. in
tranflating the works of others; and to this neceffity
perhaps our nation Hands indebted for fome of the beft
tranflations extant. In the year he loft the laurel, he
publifhed the life of St Francis Xavier from the French.
In 1693, cauie out a tranflation of Juvenal and Per-
fius ; in the firft of which he had a confiderable hand,
and of the latter the entire execution. In 1695 was
publiflied his profe verfion of Frefnoy’s art of painting;
and the year 1697 gave the world that tranflation of
Virgil’s works entire, which ftill does, and perhaps ever
will, Hand foremoft among the attempts made on that
author. The petite pieces of this eminent writer, fuch
as prologues, epilogues, epitaphs, elegies, fongs, &c.
are too numerous to fpecify here, and too much difper-
fed to diredt the reader to. The greateft part of them,
however, are to be found in a colledtion of mifcellanies,
in 6 vols 12mo. His laft work is what is called his
Fables,
DRY [ ] D R 'Y
(ia Dry.1en. Tables, winch confifts of many of the moft interefting
Iff'-' ftories in Homef, Ovid, Boccace, and Chaucer, tranf-
lated or modernized in the moft elegant and poetical
manner; together with fome original pieces, among
which is that amazing ode on St Cecilia’s day, which,
though written in the very decline of the author’s life,
and at a period when old age and diftrefs confpired as
it were to damp his poetic ardor and clip the wings of
fancy, yet poflefles fo much of both, as would be luffi-
cient to have rendered him immortal, had he never
written a Tingle line befides.
Dryden married the lady Elizabeth Howard, fifter
to the earl of Berklhire, who furvived him eight years;
though for the laft four of them Ihe was a lunatic, ha¬
ving been deprived of her fenfes by a nervous fever.—
By this lady he had three fons; Charles, John, and
Henry. Of the eldeft of thefe, there is a circumftance
related by Charles Wilfon, Efq; in his Life of Con-
gteve, which feems fo well attefted, and is itfelf of io
very extraordinary a nature, that we cannot avoid gi¬
ving it a place here.—Dryden, with all his underftand-
i-ng, was weak enough to be fond of judicial aftrology,
and ufed to calculate the nativity of his children.
When his lady was in labour with his fon Charles, he
being told it was decent to withdraw, laid his watch
on the table, begging one of the ladies then prefent,
hi a moft folemn manner, to take exacf notice of the
H very minute that the child was born; which (he did,
and acquainted him with it. About a week after, when
his lady was pretty well recovered, Mr Dryden took
occaiion to tell her that he had been calculating the
child’s nativity; and obferved, with grief, that he was
born in an evil hour: for Jupiter, Venus, and the Sun,
were all under the earth, and the lord of his afcendant
affti&ed with a hateful fquare ofMars and Saturn. If
he lives to arrive at the 8th year, fays he, “ he will go
near to die a violent death on his very birth-day; but
if he (hould efcape, as I fee but fmall hopes, he will
in the 23d year be under the very fame evil direftion;
and if he ftiould efcape that alfo, the 33d or 34th year
is, I fear”— here he was interrupted by the immode¬
rate grief of his lady, who could no longer hear cala¬
mity prophefied to befal her fon. The time at laft
came, and Auguft was the inaufpicious month in which
young Dryden was to enter into the 8th year of his
age. The court being in progrefs, and Mr Dryden at
leifure, he was invited to the country-feat of the earl
of Berkftiire, his brother-in-law, to keep the long va¬
cation with him in Charlton in Wilts ; his lady was
invited to her uncle Mordaunt’s, to pafs the remainder
of the fummer. When they came to divide the chil¬
dren, lady Elizabeth would have him take John, and
fuffer her to take Charles: but Mr Dryden was too
abfolute, and they parted in anger; he took Charles
with him, and (he was obliged to be content with John.
When the fatal day came, the anxiety of the lady’s fpi-
rits occalioned fuch an effervefcence of blood, as threw
her into fo violent a fever, that her life was defpaired
of, till a letter came from Mr Dryden, reproving her
for her womanilh credulity, and affuring her that her
child was well; which recovered her fpirits, and in fix
weeks after (he received an ecclairciflement of the whole
affair. Mr Dryden, either through fear of being reck¬
oned fuperftitious, or thinking it a fcience beneath his
ftudy, was extremely cautious of letting any one know
that he was a dealer in allrology; therefore could not Dryden.
excufe his abfence, on his fan’s anniverfary, from a ge-
neral hunting-match which Lord Berkfhire had made,
to which all the adjacent gentlemen were invited.
When he went out, he took care to fet the boy a double
exercife in the Latin tongue, which he taught his chil¬
dren himfelf, with a ftridt charge not to ftir out of the
room till his return; well knowing the talk he had fet
him would take up longer time. Charles was perform¬
ing his duty, in obedience to his father: but, as ill fate
would have it, the (lag made towards the houfe ; and’
the noife alarming the fervants, they hafted out to fee
the fport. One of them took young Dryden by the
hand, and led him out to fee it alfo; when, juft as they
came to the gate, the flag being at bay with the dogs,
made a bold pu(h, and leaped over the court-wall,
which was very low and very old; and the dogs fol¬
lowing, threw down a part of the wall 10 yards in
length, under which Charles Dryden lay buried. He
was immediately dug out; and after fix weeks languifti-
ing in a dangerous way, he recovered. So far Dryden’s
predi&ion was fulfilled. In the 23d year of his age,
Charles fell from the top of an old tower belonging to
the Vatican at Rome, occafioned by a fwimming in his
head, with which he was feized, the heat of the day
being exceffive. He again recovered, but was ever af¬
ter in a languiftiing fickly ftate. In the 33d year of his
age, being returned to England, he was unhappily
drowned at Windfor. He had with another gentle¬
man fwam twice over the Thames; but returning a
third time, it was fuppofed he was taken with the
cramp, becaufe he called out for help, though too late..
Thus the father’s calculation proved but too prophei-
tical.
At laft, after a long life, harraffed with the moft la¬
borious of all fatigues, viz. that of the mind, and con¬
tinually made anxious by diftrefs and difficulty, our
author departed this life on the firft of May 1701.—
The day after Mr Dryden’s death, the dean of Weft-
minfter lent word to Mr Dryden’s widow, that he
would make a prefent.of the ground, and all other
abbey-fees for the funeral: the Lord Halifax likewife
fent to the lady Elizabeth, and to Mr Charles Dryden,
offering to defray the expences of our poet’s funeral,
and afterwards to beftow 500I. on a monument in the
abbey ; which generous offer was accepted. Accord¬
ingly, on Sunday following, the company being affem-
bled, the corpfe was put into a velvet hearfe, attended
by 18 mourning coaches. When they were juft ready
to move, Lord Jefferys, fon of Lord Chancellor Jef-
ferys, a name dedicated to infamy, with fome of his
rakiffi companions riding by, alked whofe funeral it
was; and being t-old it was Mr Dryden’s, he protefted
he (hould not be buried in that private manner; that
he would himfelf, with the lady Elizabeth’s leave, have-
the honour of the interment, and would beftow 1000I.,
on a monument in the abbey for him. This put a flop
to their proceffion ; and the Lord Jefferys, with feve-
ral of the gentlemen, who had alighted from their
coaches, went up ftairs to the lady, who was fick in
bed. His Lordfhip repeated the purport of what he
had faid below; but the lady Elizabeth refufing her
confent, he fell on his knees, vowing never to rife till
his requeft was granted. The lady under a fuddenfur-
prife fainted away; and Lord Jefferys pretending to
have
I>RY [ 2554 ] DUB
feryden. have obtained her confent, ordered the body to be car-
ried to Mr Ruflel’s an undertaker In Cheapiide, and to
be left there till further orders. In the mean time the
abbey was lighted up, the ground opened, the choir
attending, and the bifhop waiting fome hours to no
purpofe for the corpfe. The next day Mr Charles Dry-
den waited on my Lord Halifax and the bilhop; and
endeavoured to excufe his mother, by relating the
truth. Three days after, the undertaker, having recei¬
ved no orders, waited on the Lord Jefferys; who pre¬
tended that it was a drunken frolic, that he remember¬
ed nothing of the matter, and he might do what he
pleafed with the body. Upon this, the undertaker
waited upon the lady Elizabeth, who defired a day’s
refpite, which was granted. Mr Charles Dryden im¬
mediately wrote to the Lord Jefferys, who returned for
anfwer, that he knew nothing of the matter, and would
be troubled no more about it. Mr Dryden hereupon
applied again to Lord Halifax, and the. bifhop of Ro-
cliefter; who abfolutely rtfufed to do any thiag in the
affair.
In this diftrefs,'*Dr Garth, who had been Mr Dry-
den’s intimate friend, fent for the corpfe to the college
of phyficians, and propofed a fubfeription; which fuc-
ceeding, about three weeks after Mr Dryden’s deceafe,
Dr Garth pronounced a fine Latin oration over the
body, which was conveyed from the college, attended
by a numerous train of coaches to Weftminfter-abbey,
but in very great diforder. At lafl the corpfe arrived
at the abbey, which was all unlighted. No organ play¬
ed, no anthem fung ; only two of the finging boys
preceding the corpfe, who fung an ode of Horace,
with each a fmall candle in their hand. When the fu¬
neral was over, Mr Charles Dryden fent a challenge to
Lord Jefferys; who refufing to anfwer it, he fent fe-
veral others, and went often himfelf; but could neither
get a letter delivered, nor admittance to fpeak to him :
which fo incenfed him, that finding his Lordfhip refu-
fed to anfwer him like a gentleman, he refolved to
watch an opportunity, and brave him to fight, though
with all the rules of honour; which his Lordfhip hear¬
ing, quitted the town, and Mr Charles never had an
opportunity to meet him, though he fought it to his
death, with the utmoft application.
Mr Dryden had no monument ere&ed to him for
feveral years; to which Mr Pope alludes in his epitaph
intended for Mr Rowe, in this line,
Beneath a rude and namelefs done he lies.
In a note upon which, we are informed, that the tomb
of Mr Dryden was erefled upon this hint by Sheffield
duke of Buckingham, to which was originally intended
this epitaph:
This Shtfiicld rais’d.—-The facred dud below
Was Dryden once; the red who does not know.
Which was fince changed into the plain infeription
«ow upon it, viz.
J. DRYDEN,
Katus Aug. p, itf31.
Morluus Maii 1, ,701.
Johannes Sheffield, dux Bucklnghamitn/is fecit.
Mr Dryden’s character has been very differently
drawn by different hands, fome of which have exalted
it to the higheft degree of commendation, and others
debfcfed it by the fevereft cenfure.—The latter, how¬
ever, we muff charge to that ftrong fpirit of party
which prevailed during great part of Dryden’s time, Dryde»,
and ought therefore to be taken with great allowances. ■Dubiil>*
Were we indeed to form a judgment of the author
from fome of his dramatic writings, we fhould perhaps
be apt to conclude him a man of the moft licentious
morals; many of his comedies containing a great fhare
of loofenefs, even extending to obfeenity: But if wc
confider, that, as the poet tells us,
Thofe who live to fdeafe, mud pleafe to live;
if we then look back to the fcandalous licence of the
age he lived in, the indigence which at times he un¬
derwent, and the neceffity he confequently lay under
of complying with the public tafte however depraved;
we (hall furely not refufe our pardon to the compelled
writer, nor our credit to thofe of his cotemporaries
who were intimately acquainted with him, and who
have affured us there was nothing remarkably vicious
in his perfonal chara&er.
From fome parts of his hiftory he appears unfleady,
and to have too readily temporized with the feveral re¬
volutions in church and ftate. This however might ia
fome meafure have been owing to that natural timi¬
dity and diffidence in his difpofition, which almoft all
the writers feem to agree in his poffeffing. Congreve,
whofe authority cannot be fufpedled, has given us fuch
an account of him, as makes him appear no lefs amiable
in his private chara&er as a man, than he was illuftri-
ous in his public one as a poet. In the former light,
according to that gentleman, he was humane, com-
paffionate, forgiving, and fincerely friendly. Of an
extenfive reading, a tenacious memory, and a ready
communication: gentle in the corre&ion of the wri¬
tings of others, and patient under the reprehenfion of
his own deficiencies: eafy of accefs himfelf, but flow
and diffident in his advances to others; and of all men
the moft modeft and the moft eafy to be difcountenanced
in his approaches either to his fuperiors or his equals.
As to his writings, he is perhaps the happieft in the
harmony of his numbers, of any poet who ever lived
either before or fmee his time, not even Mr Pope him¬
felf excepted. His imagination is ever warm, his images
noble, his deferiptions beautiful, and his fentiments
juft and becoming. In his profe he is poetical without
bombaft, concife without pedantry, and clear without
prolixity. His dramatic have, perhaps, the leaft me¬
rit of all his writings. Yet there are many of them
which are truly excellent; though he himfelf tells us
that he never wrote any thing in that way to pleafe
himfelf but his 411 for Love. This laft, indeed, and
his Spanijh Friar, may be reckoned two of the beft
plays our language has been honoured with.
DUBLIN, a city of Ireland, in the province of Lein-
fier, and capital of the whole kingdom, fituated on the
river Liffy, in W. Long. 6. 32. N. Lat. 53. 10. It
is certainly a very ancient place, fince we find it men¬
tioned by Ptolemy under the name of Eblana, which
he probably wrote Deblana. The Irifh call it Rala-
cleigh, that is, “ The town founded upon hurdles or
piles.” It is faid to have been in the hands of the En-
glifh as early as the days of king Edgar. We are af¬
fured, however, that it was, long after, in the hands
of the Danes, or fome other northern Nation, who in¬
troduced fortifications and trade into this country.
They certainly made choice of and efteemed it for its
port, which was a very good one for any vefiels then in
UiJ Dublin,
S(] Dubof.
DUS' [ 2SSS ] D U. C .
ufe ; and for this reafon, and becaufe it was but 6o miles volumes duodecimo. 2. A critical HiHory of the
_ from the coaft of Wales, it came to be preferred by French Monarchy in Gaul, two volumes 4to.
the Englifli when this part of Ireland was reduced un- DUCAL, in general, fomething belonging to a duke,
der their power. It has gradually, therefore, under See Duke.
the aufpices of feveral princes, acquired almoft all the DUCAS, a learned Greek, who wrote an hiftory of
advantages of which any city can boaft. It is fup- what palled under the lart emperors of Condantinople,
pofed to have been a biihop’s fee in the fifth century, till the ruin of that city. This work, which is elleem-
The firft archbifhop was Gregory, in the year 1152 ; ed, was printed at the Louvre in 1649, with the Latin
and the bifhopric of Glendaloch was annexed to it in tranflation and notes of Bouillaud.
12 14, when Henry de Loundres, or Henry of Lon- DUCAT, a coin current in Germany, and other
don, was archbifhop. He made it a place of ftrength countries abroad, of different values,
by building the caftle ; which flill remains the centre DUCATOON, a filver coin, likevvife current in fe-
of the Britifh force in this place, by the addition of veral parts of Europe.
barracks. An univerfity was erefted here by the au- DUCHAL (James), D. D. a late pious and learned
thority of the Pope in 1320 ; but that not taking ef- diffenting minifter, was born in Ireland, and finifhed
fed, queen Elizabeth, in 1591, founded and endowed his fludies at the univerfity of Glafgow; which after-
Trinity college, which has continued ever fince, and wards, from a regard to his merit, conferred on him
produced many learned men. This city is the feat of the degree of do&or of divinity. He refided 10 or II
government; the lord lieutenant, lord deputy, or lords years at Cambridge, as the paftor of a fmall congre-
juftiees, refiding here. Here alfo are kept the fovereign gation there ; where he enjoyed his beloved retirement,
courts of law and equity, and the records of the king- the advantage of books and of learned converfation,
dom ; and here likewife is held the parliament. As a which he improved with the greateft diligence. On
city or corporation, its chief magiftrate is llyled /ord Mr Abernethy’s removal from Antrim, he fucceeded
mayor, and wears a collar of SS, both bellowed by him there; and on that gentleman’s death, he fucceed-
Charles II. Suceeding monarchs have confirmed thefc ed him as minifler of the diffenting meeting-houfe in
favours, and moft extenfive privileges have been granted Wood-flreet, Dublin. In this fituation he continued
to the citizens; their liberties alfo, or corporate jurif- till his death, which happened on the 4th of May 1761,
diftion, being very large. Befides all this, Dublin may when he had completed his 64th year. He publifhed
be confidered as the centre of the inland trade, and is a volume of excellent difcourfes on the prefumptive ar-
without doubt the place of the amplell foreign com- guments in favour of the Chrillian religion, and many
merce in the ifland. For the accommodation of mer- occafional tradls ; and after his death were publilhed a
chants, they have a tholfel or exchange; a cuftom- number of his fermons, in three volumes 8vo.
houfe for the receipt of the revenue; and commiffioners DUCENARIUS, in Roman antiquity, a military
for the management of it. The city has increafed pro- officer who had the command of 200 men.
digioufly of late. From 1682, to 1752, the number DUCHY, in geography, an appellation given to the
of houfes were completely doubled; and the number dominions of a duke.
of inhabitants is now reckoned at 150,000.—Since the DUCK, in ornithology. See Anas, and Decoy.
introdu&ion of large veffels that draw a great deal This fowl is furnifhed with a peculiar ftrudture of
of water, the harbour of Dublin is but indifferent; for veffels about the heart, which enables it to live a con-
all along this coaft, from Wexford, there lie fhoals of fiderable time under water, as is neceflary for it in di-
fand, divided into the fouth, middle, and north grounds; ving. This made Mr Boyle think it a more proper
and at the mouth of the harbour there is a bar, occa- fubjeft for experiments with tire air-pump than any
fioned by two banks of fand, called the fouth^A. north other bird. A full grown duck being put into the
bulls, ftretching from the oppofite fides of the haven, receiver of an air-pump, of which fhe filled one third
upon which at high water there is no more than 17 part, and the air exhaufted, the creature feemed to bear
feet, and at low water it is impoffible to go over it. it better for the firft moments than a hen or other fuch
Befides, when the tide is out, except in two places, fowl; but, after about a minute, fhe fhewed great figns
fhips lie dry. Great pains and much money have been of uneafinefs, and in lefs than two minutes her head
employed with a view to remove thefe inconveniencies, fell down, and fhe appeared dying, till revived by the
but hitherto not with any great fuccefs ; yet, not- letting in of the air. Thus, whatever facility of diving
withftanding all thefe obftru&ions, the merchants of this and other water-fowl may have, it does not ap-
Dublin extend their correfpondence daily, and pro- pear that they can fubfift, without air for refpiration,
bably one half of the foreign commerce of Ireland is any longer than other animals. A young callow duck
carried on at this port. was afterwards tried in the fame manner, and with the
DUBOS (John Baptift), a learned and ingenious fame fuccefs, being reduced very near death in lefs than
French author, born at Beauvais in 1670. He finifhed two minutes. But it is obfervable, that both birds
his ftudies at Paris, and at length was intruded with fwelled very much on pumping out the air, fo that they
the management of feveral important affairs in Italy, appeared greatly larger to the fpe&ators, efpecially
England, and Holland. At his return to Paris, he about the crop; it not being intended that any water-
had a prebendary given him ; afterwards he had a pen- fowl fhould live in an exceedingly rarefied air, but on-
fion of two thoufand livres, and the abbey of Notre ly be able to continue occafionally fome time under
Dame at Reffons, near Beauvais. He died at Paris, water. Nature, though fhe has provided them with
when perpetual fecretary of the French academy, on the means of this, has done nothing for them in re-
the 23d of March 1742. His principal works are, gard to the other.
I. Critical Refledions on Poetry and Painting, in three The ftrongeft inftance of thefe creatures being cal¬
culated
DUG [25
Buck, cuiated to live almoft in any fituation, we have in the
..Ducking. accounts 0f the blind ducks in the Zirchnitzer lake in
Carniola. It is fuppofed that this lake communicates
with another lake under ground in the mountain Sa-
■vornic, and fills or empties itfelf according to the ful-
,nefs or emptinefs of that lake; the water of the upper
lake running off, and that in vail quantities, by holes
in the bottom. The ducks, which are here always in
great numbers, are often carried down along with the
water, and forced into the fubterraneous lake to which
it retires. In this unnatural habitation, many of thefe
■creatures undoubtedly perilh, but fome remain alive.
Thefe become blind, and lofe all their feathers; and
in the next filling of the lake, both they andvalt num¬
bers of fifh are thrown up with the water. At this
time they are fat, but make a ftrange appearance in
their naked ftate, and are eafily caught, by reafon of
their want of fight. In about a fortnight they recover
their fight and feathers; and are then of the fize of a
common wild-duck, but of a black colour,, with a
white fpot in their forehead. When opened, on being
taken at their firlt coming up in their,blind ftate, their
ftomachs are found full of fmall fillies, and fomewhat
refembKng weeds. From this it feems, that they
cannot be abfohitel'y blind; but that the degree of
light to which they have been accuftomed in their fub¬
terraneous habitation, was fufficient to enable them to
procure food for themfelves; and their blindnefs, on
coming again into open day-light, is no other than that
of a man who has been long in the dark, on having in
an inftant a large blaze of candles fet under his eyes.
Duck (Stephen), originally a threlher in a barn,
was born about the beginning of the prefent century.
By his poetical talents he firft attra&ed the notice of
fome gentlemen at Oxford; and being recommended
•to Queen Caroline, he, under her patronage, took or¬
ders, and was preferred to the living of Byfleet in Sur¬
ry. His abilities were, however, much more confpi-
cuous in his primitive ftation, than in his advancement;
though, it is faid, he was not dllliked as a preacher.
Falling at length into a low-fpirited melancholy way,
probably owing to his change of life, and ceflation
from his ufual labour, he in a fit of lunacy flung him-
felf into the Thames, in 1756.
DUCKING, plunging in water, a diverfion an¬
ciently praftifed among the Goths by way of exercife;
but among the Celtae, Franks, and ancient Germans,
it was a fort of punifliment for perfons of fcandalous
lives.—At Marfeilles and Bourbon their men and wo¬
men of fcandalous life are condemned to thec«/<r,-as
they call it; that is, to be fliut up naked to the ftiift
in an iron cage fattened to the yard.of a fliallop, and
ducked feveral times in the river. The fame is done
at Thouloufe to blafphemers.
Ducking, a fort of marine punhhment, inflicted
by the French, on thofe who have been convicted of
defertion, blafphemy, or exciting fedition. It is per¬
formed as follows: The criminal is placed aftride of a
ftiort thick batten, fattened to the end of a rope, which
paffes through a block hanging at one of the yard-arm.
Fhus fixed, he is hoifted fuddenly up to the yard, and
the rope being flackened at once, he is plunged into
the £ea. This chaftifement is repeated feveral times
conformable to the purport of the fentence pro-
aounced againft the culprit, who has at that time
56 ] DUD
feveral cannon-fliot fattened to his feet during the Dnckfogj
punifhment; which is rendered public by the firing II
of a gun, to advertife the other (hips of the fleet there- u e^*'
of, that their crews may become fpe&ators.
Ducking-S^o/. See Castigatory.
DUCKUP, at fea, is a term ufed by the fleer’s- , ]
man, when the main-fail, fore-fail, orfprit-fail, hinders
his feeing to fleer by a land-mark : upon which he calls
out, Duckup the clew-lines of thefe fails; that is, hale
the fails out of the way. Alfo when a (hot is made
by a chace-piece, if the clew of the fprit-fail hinders
the fight, they call out, Duckup, &c.
DUCT, in general, denotes any tube or canal. It
is a term much ufed by anatomifts.
DUCTILITY, in phyfics, a property pofieffed by
certain folid bodies, which confifts in their yielding to
percuffion, or preffure, and in receiving different forms
without breaking.
Some bodies are du&ileboth when they are hot and
when they are cold, and in all circumftances. Such are
metals, particularly gold andfilver. Other bodies are
du&ile only when heated to a fufficient degree ; fuch
as wax and other fubftances of that kind, and glafs.
Other bodies, particularly fome kinds of iron, called
by the workmen rjd-fsort, brafs, and fome other me¬
tallic mixtures, are dudtile only when cold, and brittle
when hot. The degrees of heat requifite to produce
du&ility in bodies of the firft kind, vary according to
their different natures. In general, the heat of the body
mutt be fuch as is fufficient to reduce it to a middle ftate
betwixt folidity and perfeft fufion. As wax, for in*
ftance, is fufible with a very fmall heat, it may be ren¬
dered duftile by a ftill fmaller one ; and glafs, which
requires a moft violent heat for its perfe& fufion, can¬
not acquire its greateft du&ility until it is made per-
feftly red-hot, and almoft ready to fufe. Laftly, fome
bodies are made duftile by the abforption of a fluid.
Such are certain earths, particularly clay. When thefe
earths have abforbed a fufficient quantity of water, to
bring them into a middle ftate betwixt folidity and
fluidity, that is to the confiftence of a confiderablyfirm
pafte, they have then acquired their greateft ductility.
Water has precifely the fame effect upon them in this
refped, that fire has upon the bodies above mentioned.
DUDLEY (Edmund), an eminent lawyer and able
ftatefman in the reign of Henry VII.; who with Sir
Richard Empfon, another lawyer of the fame com¬
plexion, affifted in filling that rapacious monarch’s cof¬
fers by arbitrary profecutions of the people on old penal
ftatutes. They were beheaded on the acceffion of Hen-
ty VIII. to pacify the clamours of the people for juftice.
Dudley, (John), duke of Northumberland, fon of
the above, a ftatefman; memorable in the Engljfh hif-
tory for his unfuccefsful attempt to place the crown on
the head of his daughter-in-law, lady Jane Grey, who
fell a vi&im to his ambition ; was born in 1502, and
beheaded in 1553. See England. Ambrofe
his eldeft fon was a brave general and able ftatefman
under queen Elizabeth ; and received the appellation
of the good earl of Warwick. Henry, the duke’s fe¬
cund fon, was killed at the fiege of St Quintin. Ro¬
bert, the third fon, a man of bad character, was created
earl of Leicefter; and was one of queen Elizabeth’s
favourites. His fourth fon was the unfortunate lord
Guildford Dudley, whofe only crime was his being the
hufband
DUD [ 2557 ] DUE
TDiidley, hufband of lady Jane Grey,.for which lie wasbeheaded
-Eud- in i9?4-
Dudley (Sir Robert), as he was called in Eng¬
land, and, as he was ftyled abroad, earl of Warwick
and duke of Northumberland, was the fon of Robert
above mentioned, by the lady Douglas Sheffield; and
was born at Sheen in Surry, in 1573, where he was
carefully concealed, to prevent the queen’s knowledge
of the earl’s engagements with his mother. Heftudied
at Oxford ; when his father, dying, left him the bulk
of his eftate. He was at this time one of the lineft
gentlemen in England; and having a particular turn to
navigation, fitted out a fmall fquadron at his own expence,
with which he failed ,lo the river Oronooque, and took
and deftroyed nine fail of Spanifh (hips. In 1595,
he attended the earl of Effex, and the lord high admiral
of England, in their expedition againft the Spaniards ;
when, for his gallant behaviout at the taking of Cadiz,
he received the honour of knighthood. He now en¬
deavoured to prove the legitimacy of his birth, in order
to be entitled to his hereditary honours. But being
overpowered by the intereft of the countefs dowager
of Leicefter, he applied for a licence to travel; and
being well received at the court of Florence, refolved
to continue there, notwithftanding his receiving a let¬
ter of recall ; on which his whole eftate was feized by
king James I. and vefted in the crown. He difcovered
at the court of Cofmo II. grearduke of Tufcany, thofe
great abilities for which he had been admired in Eng¬
land, and was at length made chamberlain to his ferene
highnefs’s confort. He there contrived feveral methods
of improving (hipping ; introduced new manufa&nres;
and by other fervices obtained fo high a reputation,
that at the defire of the archduchefs, the emperor Fer¬
dinand, in 1620, created him a duke of the holy Ro¬
man empire. He afterwards drained a vaft traft of
morafs between Pifa and the fea ; and raifed Leghorn,
which was then a mean, pitiful place, into a large and
beautiful tcnjvn, improving the haven by a mole, which
rendered it both fafe and commodious; and having
engaged his highnefs to declare it a free port, he, by
his influence and correfpondence, drew many Englifh
merchants to fettle and fet up houfes there, which was
of very great fervice to his native country, as well as
to the Spaniards. He was alfo the patron of learned
men, and held a high place himfelf in the republic of
letters. .His moft celebrated work is his Del Arcana
del Mare, in two volumes, folio.
DUEL, a Angle combat, at a time and place ap¬
pointed, in confequence of a challenge. This cuftom
came originally from the northern nations, among whom
it was ufual to decide all their controverfies by arms.
Both the accufer and accufed gave pledges to the
judges on their refpe&ive behalf; and the cuftom pre¬
vailed fo far amongft the Germans, Danes, and Franks,
that none were excufed from it but women, fick peo¬
ple, cripples, and fucb as were under 21 years of age,
or above 60. Even ecclefiaftics, priefts, and monks,
were obliged to find champions to fight in their (lead.
The punifhment of the vanquiftied was either death,
by hanging or beheading ; or, mutilation of members,
according to the eircumftances of the cafe. Duels
were at firft admitted not only on criminal occafions,
but on fome civil ones for the maintenance of rights
to eftates, and the like ; in- latter times, however, be-
Vol. IV.
fore they were entirely abolifhed, they were reftrained to Dud.
thefe four cafes. 1. That the crime (hould be capital.
2. That it (hould be certain the crime was perpetrated.
3. The accufed muft by common fame be fuppofed guilty.
And, 4. The matter not capable of proof by witnefies.
Duel, at prefent, is ufed for fingle combat on fome
private quarrel; and muft be premeditated, otherwife
it is called a rencounter. If a perfon is killed in a duel,
both the principals and feconds are guilty whether the
feconds engage or not. (See the article Murder.) It
is alfo a very high offence to challenge a perfon either
by word or letter, or to be the meffenger of a challenge,
(See Law, N° clxxxv. 20.) The fevere edifts made by
Lewis XIV. againft duels have in a great meafure put
a ftop to the pfaflice in France.
The general pradlice of duelling, in this laft fenfe,
took its rife in the year 1527, at the breaking up of
a treaty between the emperor Charles V. and Francis I.
The former defired Francis’s herald to acquaint his fo-
vereign, that he would henceforth confider him not
only as a bafe violator of public faith, but as a ftranger
to the honour and integrity becoming a gentleman.
Francis, too high-fpirited to bear fuch an imputa¬
tion, had recourfe to an uncommon expedient to vin¬
dicate his charafter. He inftantly fent back the he¬
rald with a cartel of defiance, in which be gave the
emperor the lie in form, challenged him to fingle com¬
bat, requiring him to name the time and place of the
encounter, and the weapons with which he chofe to
fight. Charles, as he was not inferior to his rival in
fpirit or bravery, readily accepted the challenge ; but
after feveral meffages concerning the arrangement of
all the circumftances relative to the combat, accom¬
panied with mutual reproaches bordering on the moft
indecent feurrility, all thoughts of this duel, more be¬
coming the heroes of romance than the two greateft
monarchs of their age, were entirely laid afide.
The example of two perfonages fo illuftrious, drew
fuch general attention, and carried with it fo much
authority, that it had confiderable influence in intro¬
ducing an important change in manners all over Eu¬
rope. Duels, as has already been obferved, had been
long permitted by the laws of all the European na¬
tions; and, forming a part of their jurifprudence, were
authorifed by the magiftrate on many occafions, as the
moft proper method of terminating queftions with re¬
gard to property, or of deciding in thofe which re¬
garded crimes. But fingle combats being confidered
as folemn appeals to the omnifcience and juftice of the
Supreme Being, they were allowed only in public cau-
fes, according to the prefeription of law, and carried
on in a judicial form*. Men, accuftomed to this man- * ^ee the
ner of decifion in courts of juftice, were naturally led
to apply it to perfonal and private quarrels. Duels,
which at firft could be appointed by the civil judge a-
lone, were fought without the interpofition of his au¬
thority, and in cafes to which the laws did not extend.
The tranfa&ion between Charles and Francis ftrongly .
countenanced this praflice. Upon every affront or in¬
jury which feemed to touch his honour, a gentleman
thought himfelf entitled to draw his fword, and to call
on his adverfary to make reparation. Such an opinion,
introduced among men of fierce courage, of high fpirit,
and of rude manners, where offence was often given,
and revenge was always prompt, produced moft fatal
14 X con-
D U K [ . 2558 1 D U M
Ducrn, confequencss. Much of the beft blood in Chriftendom
Dugdak. ■vvas faed • many ufeful lives were loft; and, at fome
periods, war itfelf hath hardly been more deftru&ive
than thefe contefts of honour. So powerful, however,
is the dominion of fafhion, that neither the terror of
penal laws, nor reverence for religion, have been able
entirely to abolifh a pra&ice unknown among the an¬
cients, aftd not juftifiable by any principle of reafon ;
though at the fame time it muft be admitted, that to
this abfurd cuftom we muft afcribe, in fome degree, the
extraordinary gentlenefs and complaifance of modern
manners,, and that refpe&ful attention of one man to
another, which at prefent render the focial intercourfes
of life far more agreeable and decent than among the
moft civilized nations of antiquity.
DUERO, or Duro, a large river, which, rifing in
Old Caftrle in Spain, runs from eaft to weft, crofles the
province of Leon; and, after dividing Portugal from
Spain by a foutherly courfe, turns weftward, croffes
Portugal, and falls into the Atlantic Ocean at Porto-
Port.
DUGDALE (Sir ’William), an eminent Englilli
hiftorian, antiquarian, and herald, born in Warwick-
fhire in 1605. He was introduced into the herald’s
office by Sir Chriftopher Hatton; and afcended gra¬
dually through all the degrees, until he became garter
principal king at arms. His chief work is the Mona-
Jikvn Anglicanum, in three vols folio; containing the
charters and defcriptions of all the Englilh monafteries,
adorned with engravings : in the former part of which
•work he was affifted by Mr Roger Dodfworth. Nor
are his Antiquities of Warwickihire lefs efteemed. He
wrote likewife, among other things of lefs note, the
Hiftory of St Paul’s Cathedral ; a Hiftory of Em¬
banking and Draining; a Baronage of England; and
completed the fecond volume of Sir Henry Spelman’s
Councils, with a fecond part of his Glolfary. He died
in 1686. His fon, Sir John, was Norroy king at arms,
and publifhed a Catalogue of Englilh Nobility: his
daughter Elizabeth married the famous Elias Alhmole.
DUKE is either the title of a fovereign prince, as
the duke of Savoy, Parma, &c. the grand duke of
Tufcany, Mufcovy, &c.; or it is the title of honour and
nobility next below princes. The commanders of ar¬
mies in time of war, the governors of provinces and
wardens of marches in times of peace, were called duces
under the later emperors. The Goths and Vandals di¬
vided all Gaul into duchies and counties, the gover¬
nors of which they fometimes call duces, and fometimes
eomites. In France, under the fecond race of kings,
though they retained the name and form of ducal go¬
vernment, there were fcarce any dukes except thofe of
Burgundy, Aquitain, and France.
In Britain, a duke, though, in refpeft of his title of
* See Nell- nobility*, he is inferior in point of antiquity to many
others, yet is fuperior in rank to all of them ; his being
the firft title of dignity after the royal family. Among
the Saxons, the Latin name of dukes, duces, is very
frequent; and fignified, as among the Romans, the
commanders or leaders of their armies. But after the
Norman conqueft, which changed the military polity
of the nation, the kings themfelves continuing for ma-
ny generations dukes of Normandy, they would not
honour any fubjeft with that title till the time of Ed¬
ward III.; who claiming to be king of France, and
thereby lofing- the ducal in the royal dignity, in the Dulcifying
11th year of his reign created his fon, Edward the ■!
black prince, duke of Cornwall : and many, of the Dllm ne.!'
royal family efpecially, were afterwards raifed to the
fame honour. However, in the reign of Queen Eliza¬
beth, A. D. 1572, the whole order became utterly ex-
tindl; but it was revived about 50 years afterwards by
her fuccefibr, who was remarkably prodigal of honours,
in the perfon of George Villiers duke of Buckingham.
A duke is created by patent, cincture of fword,
mantle of ftate, impofition of a cap and coronet of
gold on his head, and a verge of gold put into his
hand. His title is Grace ; and, in the ftyle of the he¬
ralds, Moft high, potent, high-born, and noble prince.
DULCIFYING, in chemiftry, is thefweetening any
matter impregnated with faks, by frequently wafhing
it in pure water.
DULL, in the menage. The marks of a dull horfe,
called by the French marquis de ladre, are white fpots
round the eye and on the tip of the nofe, upon any ge¬
neral colour whatfoever. Though the vulgar take
thefe fpots for figns of ftupidity, it is certain they are
great marks of the goodnefs of a horfe; and the hor-
fes that have them are very fenfible and quick upom
the fpur.
DULL ART (Heiman), a Dutch painter and poet^
He was a pupil to Rembrandt, for whole works the
few he left are often miftaken. He died in 1684..
DUMBNESS, the privation of the faculty of fpeech..
The moft general, or rather the foie caufe of dumbnefs,.
is the want of the fenfe of hearing. The ufe of lan¬
guage is originally acquired by imitating articulate
founds. From this fource of intelligence, deaf people
are entirely excluded: they cannot acquire articulate
founds by the ear: unlefs, therefore, articulation be
communicated to them by fome other medium, thefe
unhappy people muft for ever be deprived of the ufe of
language ; and as language is the principal fource of
knowledge, whoever has the misfortune to want the
feufe of hearing, muft remain in a ftate little fuperior
to that of the brute creation. Deafnefs has in all
ages been confidered as fuch a total obftru&ion ta
fpeech, or written language, that an attempt to teach
the deaf to fpeak or read has been uniformly regarded
as impradticable, till Do£lor Wallis and fome others
have of late fhewn, that although deaf people cannot
learn to fpeak or read by the direflion of the ear, there
are other fources of imitation, by which the fame effect
may be produced. The organs of hearing and of
fpeech have little or no connexion. Perfons deprived
of the former generally pofiefs the latter in fuch per-
feAion, that nothing further is neceflary, in order to
make them articulate, than to teach them how to ufe
thefe organs. This indeed is no eafy talk ; but expe¬
rience fhews that it is practicable. Mr Thomas
Braidwood, of Edinburgh, is perhaps the firft who
ever brought this furprifing art to any degree of per¬
fection. He began with a Angle pupil in 1764; and
for fome years paft, he has taught many people born
deaf, to fpeak diftinCtly, to read, to write, to under-
ftand figures, the principles of religion and morality,
&c. This, at firft fight, may appear to be altogether
incredible; but the fadt is certain. Mr Braidwood
has, at prefent, a confiderable number of deaf pupils,
fome of them above 20 years of age, all making a ra-
D U M [ 2559 ] ■ D U M
Dumbr.efs. pld and amazing progrefs in thofe ufeful branches of
education.
Mr Braidwood’s principal difficulty, after he had
difcovered this art, was to make people-believe in the
pra&icability of it. He advertifed in the public papers;
he exhibited his pupils to many noblemen and gentle¬
men ; ftill he found the generality of mankind unwilling
to believe him. A remarkable inftance of this incre¬
dulity occurred fome years ago. A gentleman in Eng¬
land feht a deaf girl of his to Mr Braidwood’s care.
A yfcar or two afterwards, Mr Braidwood wrote to
the father, that his daughter could fpeak, read, and
write diltindtly. The father returned an anfwer, beg¬
ging Mr Braidwood’s excufe, as he could not believe
it; however, he defired a friend of his, who was occa-
fionally going to Edinburgh, to call at Mr Braidwood,
and inquire into the truth of what he had wrote him:
he did fo; converfed with Mr Braidwood, faw the
young lady, heard her read, fpeak, and anfwer any
queftions he put to her. On his return, he told the
father the furprifing progrefs his child had made ; but
ftill the father thought the whole an impofuion : the
girl herfelf wrote to her father, but he looked upon the
letter as a forgery. About this time the father died ;
and the mother fent an uncle and coufin of the deaf
lady’s from Shrewftury, in order to be fatisfied of the
truth. Wh'en they arrived, Mr Braidwood told the
girl her uncle and coufin were in the parlour; and de¬
fired her to go and a(k them how they did, and how
her mother and other friends did. The friends were
aftoniffied, and could hardly credit their own ears and
eyes.
We have converfed with Mr Braidwood, concerning
the nature and method of teaching this wonderful art:
he feems to be very defirous of communicating and
tranfmitting his difcovery to pofterity; but fays, and,
from the nature of the thing, we believe it to be true,
that he cannot Communicate it fo fully in writing as to
enable any other perfon to teach it. The firft thing in
the method is, to teach the pupil to pronounce the
fimple founds of the vowels and confonants. We
have even feen him performing this operation j but
are unable to give a clear idea of it. He pronounces
the found of a {lowly, pointing out the figure of the
letter at the fame time ; makes his pupil obferve the
motion of his mouth and throat; he then put his fin¬
ger into'the pupil’s mouth, deprefles or elevates the
tongue, and makes him keep the parts in that pofition;
then he lays hold of the outfide of the windpipe, and
gives it fome kind of fqueeze, which it is impoffible to
defcribe : all the while he is pronouncing a, the pupil
is anxioufly imitating him, but at firft feems not to
underftand what he would have him to do. In this
manner he proceeds, till the pupil has learned to pro¬
nounce the founds of the letters. He goes on in the
fame manner to join a vowel and a confonant, till at
length the pupil is enabled both to fpeak and read.
That Mr Braidwood is capable of teaching his pu¬
pils not only the mere pronunciation, but alfo to under¬
ftand the meaning of what they read, may be afcer-
tained by a converfation with any of his pupils. Of
this Mr Pennant gives a remarkable inftance in a young
lady of about 13 years of age, who had been fome time
under the care of Mr Braidwood. “ She readily ap¬
prehended (fays he) all I faid, and returned me anfwers
with the utmoft facility. She read ; (he wrote well. Duir.hr.cfs*
Her reading was not by rote. She could clothe the
fame thoughts in a new fet of words, and never vary
from the original fenfe. I have forgot the book file
took up, or the fentences (he made a new verfion of;
but the effeft was as follows:
“ Original pajfage. Lord Bacon has divided the
whole of human knowledge into hiftory, poetry, and
philofophy; which are referred to the three powers of
the mind, memory, imagination, and reafoo.
“ VerJio7i. A nobleman has parted the total or all
of man’s ftudy, or underftanding, into An account of
the life, manners, religion or cuftoms of any people or
country ; verfe, or metre ; moral or natural knowledges
which are pointed to the three faculties of the foul or
fpirit; the faculty of remembering what is paft, thought
or conception, and right judgment.”
It is altogether in vain for us to attempt to fay any -
more concerning the mode of operation. Mr Braid-
wood undertakes every deaf perfon, who is not at the
fame time fooliffi or idiotical. The greateft misfor¬
tune is, that this art is confined to a fingle man, and
that his pupils muft live in the houfe with him for fonwr
years. The expence neceffarily attending education of
this kind, excludes all but people in opulent circum-
ftances from deriving any advantage from it. Mr
Braidwood fays, that the only way for preferving the
art, and communicating it to a number, is to take peo¬
ple in the way of apprentices: this he is unable to do
at his own expence. What a pity, that fuch a curious
and ufeful art fttould live and die with a fingle man !
There are many fums mortified in this kingdom, both
by govenrment and private perfons, for lefs important
purpofes, than the prefervation and extenfion of the art
of railing a great number of our fellow-creatures from
the rank of brutes, to that of reafonable beings and
ufeful members of fociety.
Periodical Dumbness. In the Ephemerides of the
Curious, we have an account of a periodical dumbnefs,
which had continued for more than 15 years, and had
not gone off at the time the account was wrote. The
perfon was fon to an inn-keeper at Jefing in the duchy
of Wirtemberg in Germany. He was one night taken
fo ill after fupper, that he could neither Hand nor fit.
He continued, for about an hour, oppreffed with fick-
nefs to fuch a degree as to be in danger of fuffocation.
At the expiration of this time he grew better; but, du¬
ring three months, he was much deje&ed, melan¬
choly, and, at times, fearful. He was then fuddenly
{truck dumb, and became unable to pronounce the lealt
word, or form the leaft found, though he could fpeak
very articulately before. The lofs of fpeech was at
firft inftantaneous, and continued only a few minutes:
but the duration of it began to lengthen every day; fo
that it foon amounted to half an hour, two hours, three
hours, and at laft to 23 hours, yet without any order.
At laft the return of fpeech kept fo conttant and regu¬
lar an order, that, for 14 years together, he could not
fpeak except from noon, during the fpace of one entire
hour, to the precife moment of one o’clock. Every
time he loft his fpeech, he felt fomething rife from his
ftomach to his throat. Excepting this lofs of fpeech,
he was affli&ed with no other diforder of any animal
fun&ion. Both his internal and external fenfes conti¬
nued found : he heard always perfectly well, and an-
14 X 2 fwered
DUN [ 2560 ] DUN
Dunferm¬
line
II
Dunbarton
fwered'tlie queftlons propofed to him l>y geftures or
writing. All fufpicion of deceit was removed by his
keeping exactly the fame hour, though he had no ac-
. cefs to any inftruments by which time can be meafured.
DUMFERMLINE, a parliament-townof Scotland,
fituated in the county of Fife, 15 miles north-weft of
Edinburgh: W. Long. 30. 20. N. Lat. 56. 15. Here
was formerly a_ magnificent abbey and palace of the
kings of Scotland, in which the princefs Elizabeth,
daughter of king James VI. and mother of the prin¬
cefs Sophia, from whom the prefent royal family are
defeended, was born.
DUMFRIES, a county of Scotland, comprehend^
Ing Annandale, Wachopdale, and Niddifdale, extends
in length from weft to eaft about 50 miles, and is about
34 miles in breadth where broadeft. It is bounded on
the weft by Galloway and Kyle; on the eaft by Sol¬
way frith, and the marches between Scotland and Eng¬
land; on the north by part of Clydefdale,. Tweedale,
and Teviotdaleand on the fouth by the Irifh fea.
The country is rough and mountainous, not fo well
adapted for corn as for pafture; and, of coofequence,
innumerable flocks of (beep and herds of black cattle
are bred in this county, and fattened for exportation
to England. The face of the country is bare and
brown, almoft deftitute of wood, and very deficient in
fuel; yet the valleys being watered and fertilized by
abundance of ft reams, produce good corn.—In the di-
vifion called Niddifdale, are mines of lead, and, as it is
faid, of filver and gold alfo; but the two laft mentioned
are not worked.
Dumfries, the capital of the above-mentioned coun¬
ty, is a large flouriftiing town, fituated at the mouth of
the river Nid, in W. Long. 3. 20. N. Lat. 54. 45. The
boufes are well built and commodious, the ftreets open
and fpacious: The town has air old eaftle in tolerable
repair; four gates; a ftately church; an exchange for
the merchants; a tolbooth; a large market-place with
a curious crofs; and a noble bridge of free-ftone over
the river, confiding of 13 arches, with a gate in the
middle as a boundary between the (hire of Dumfries
and the ftewartry of Galloway. This .town gives the
title of earl to the chief of the family of Crichton ; it
is the feat of a prefbytery and provincial fynod, and
carries on a confiderable foreign trade.
DUMONT (Francis), a Frenchman; compiler of
a general colle&ion of treaties of commerce, alliance,
and peace, between the powers of Europe. This cob
le&ion, with Barbeyrac’s, containing the treaties B. C.
makes 16 vols folio, very ufeful for hiftovical writers.
Dumont retired to Holland in 1-72Q. The time of his
death is uncertain.
DUMOSiE, (from dumus, a bufh), an order of
plants in the Fragmenta viethodi naturalis of Linnaeus,
containing the (oUow'mggenera, viz. Viburnum, Finns,
Opulus, Sambucus, Rondektia, Bellonia, Cajfine, Ilex,
Fotnax, &c.
DUNBAR, a-town of Scotland, in the (hire of Mid-
Lothian, memorable for the viftory obtained by Oli¬
ver Cromwell over the Scots in i6?o. W. Long. 2. 22.
N. Lat. 55. 58.
DUNBARTON, the chief town of Lenox or Dun-
barton-lhire in Scotland, fituated in W. Long. 4. 32.
N. Lat. 56. 30. It is remarkable for nothing but its
caftle. This is a fteep rock, rifing up in two points,
and every where innacceffible, except by a very narrow DvmeaMion>i
paflage or entry, fortified with a ftrong wall or ram- Duncards>|
part. Within this wall is the guard-houfe, with
lodgings for the officers ; and from hence a long flight
of ftone-fteps afcends to the upper part of the caftle,
where there are feveral batteries mounted with cannon,
the wall being continued almoft round the rock. In
the middle of this upper part where the rock divides,,
there are, commodious barracks with a deep well, in
which there is always plenty of water. Here likewife
are the remains of a gateway and prodigious high
wall, at the top of which there was a wooden bridge of
communication from one rock to another. This gate¬
way was fometimes blocked up during the inteftine
commotions of Scotland, fo that garrifons of different
factions poffeffed different parts of the caftle, and each
had a gate towards the water. The caftle ftands in the
angle formed at the conflux of the Clyde and Leven
fo that it is wholly furrounded by water, except a nar¬
row ifthmus, and even this is overflowed at every
fpring-tide : nor is there any hill or eminence within
a Scots mile of this fortrefs. It commands the navi¬
gation of the Clyde ; and, being deemed the key of the
weftern Highlands, is kept in fome repair, and gar-
rifoned with invalids, under the command of a gover¬
nor and fome fubaltern officers. The government of
it is worth 365 /. a-year.
DUNGANNON, a fort in the county of Wexford,
and province of Leinfter, in Ireland, feated on the ri¬
ver Rofs. It commands the river, iufcmuch that no
fhip can pafs to Waterford or Rofs without its permif-
fion. Here are barracks for three companies of foot..
W. Long. 6, 30. N. Lat. 52. 10.
DUNCARDS, Dukkards, or Dumplers, a reli¬
gious fedi in Penfylvania, in America. A German'
hermit, who fettled on the fpot where Ephratais now
built, was the founder of this extraordinary fedt. The
fame of his folitude infpired fome of his countrymen
with curiofity; and the fimplicity of his life, with the
piety of his converfation, induced them to join, and i-
mitate him. A people who leave their native country
to enjoy liberty of confcience, can bear all fubfequent
mortifications. The Germans of both fexes, who join¬
ed the hermit, foon accuftomed themfelves to his way
of thinking, and confequently to his manner of living;:
induftry became part of their duty, and divided their
time with devotion. Their gains are thrown into one
common flock, which fupplies all their exigencies, pri¬
vate as well as public : their females are cloiftered up
by themfelves in afeparate part of the town, the fitua-
tion of which is delightful, and fereens them from the
north wind. It is triangular, and fenced round with
thick rows of apple, beech, and cherry trees, befides
having an orchard in the middle. The houfes, which
are of wood, are moftly three ftories high ; and every
perfon has a feparate apartment, that he may not be
difturbed in his devotions. The women never fee the
men but at public worftiip, or when it is neceffary to
confult upon matters of public ceconomy; and the num¬
ber of both may be about 300. Their garb is the moft
Ample that can be well imagined, being a long white
woollen gown in winter, and linen in the fummer, with
a cap, which ferves them for a hat, like that of a ca¬
puchin behind, and fattened round the waift with a
belt. Under the gown, they wear a waiftcoat of the
feme.
DUN [ 2561 ] D V N
ikards, fame materials, a coarfe fhirt, trfiwfers, and flroes.
^£ff_.The drefs of the women is the fame : only, inftead of
trowfers, they wear petticoats; and when they leave
their nunnery (forfuchit is), they muffle up their faces
in their capuchins. The diet of the Dunkards confifts
of vegetables; but it is no principle with them to ab-
ftain from animal-food, only they think that fuch ab-
ftinence is moft agreeable to a Chriftian life. This tem¬
perance emaciates their bodies, and, as the men indulge
their beards to grow to their full length, gives them a
hollow, ghaftly appearance. Their beds are no bet¬
ter than benches; a little wooden block ferves them for
a pillow; and they celebrate ppblic worfflip twiceVvery
day, and as often every night. But though fuch modes
of life appear abfurd and impracticable, the Dunkards
are far from being extravagant. Their chapel is very
decent; and they have, upon a fine dream, a grift-
mill, a paper-mill, an oil-mill, and a mill for pearl-
barley, all of them moll ingenioufly conftrudted by
themfelves: they have even a printing-prefs; and they
are, efpecially the nuns, extremely ingenious in work¬
ing, and in embellilhments; which they perform with
a variety of beautiful colours, with gilding, in imita¬
tion of the initials in ancient manufcripts; and they
flick them up, by way of ornament, in their churches
and cells. By thofe different manufactures, the public
flock of this afcetic people is well fupplied, as no de¬
nomination of Chriftians can be their enemies, their re^
ligious tenets being mingled with the abfurdities of all.
Notwithftanding the two fexes live feparate from one
another in their town, yet the Dunkards are far from
being averfe to matrimony. In that cafe, the parties
muft indeed leave the town ; but they are fupplied out
of the public fund with whatever is neceffary for their
fettling elfewhere. This they generally do, as near as
they can to Ephrata, to which they fend their children
for education. The Dunkards adminifter baptifm by
dipping or plunging, but to adult perfons only : they
hold free-will; and think that the dodrine of original
fin, as to its effeCt upon Adam’s pofterity, is abfurd
and impious: they difclaim violence, even in cafes
of felf-defence ; and fuffer themfelves to be defrauded
or wronged, rather than go to law : they are fuperfti-
tious to the laft degree in obferving their fabbath; and
all their prayers and preachings, during their worlhip,
are extempore: humility, chaftity, temperance, and
other Chriftian virtues, are commonly the fubjeCls of
their difcourfes ; and they imagine, that the fouls of
dead Chriftians are employed in converting thofe of
the dead who had no opportunity of knowing the go-
fpel: they deny the eternity of hell-torments; but be¬
lieve in certain temporary ones, that will be inflided
on infidels and obftinate perfons who deny Chriftto be
their only Saviour ; but they think, that at a certain
period all will be admitted to the endlefs fruition of the
Deity
DUNDEE, the Allectum or Taiodunum of the
ancients; a well-built, flourifhing town of Scotland,
in the ftiire of Angus or Forfar, and ranking the 3d of
the royal boroughs. It is feated on the north-fide of
the river Tay, about eight miles from its mouth, in
W. Long. 2. 48. N. Lat. 56. 26. Its fituation for
commerce is very advantageous : trading veflels of the
Jargeft burden can get into its harbour ; and on the
key there are three very convenient and handfome
warehoufes, built in 1756; as well as good room for Dundee,
fhip-building, which is carried on to a confiderable ^
extent. The houfes are built of ftone, generally four
ftories high. The market-place, or high-ftreet, in
the middle of the town, is a very fpacious fquafe, from
whence branch out the four principal ftreets; which,
with feveral lefler ones, have been all lately well paved.
On the fouth-fide of the market-place, (lands the town-
houfe, an elegant ftnuSure, finilhed in the year 1734:
it contains the guild-hall, the court-room, a finely
painted mafon-lodge, the poft-offfce, the bank, and
vaulted repofitories for the records. At the call end
of the high-ftreet, there is a fine new edifice, ere&ed
principally for a trades-hall, but defigned alfo to an-
fwer cccafionally for a theatre. Three eftablifhed
churches, befides feveral chapels and meeting-houfes,
having been found infufficient for the number of inha¬
bitants, a new church has been lately built, which is
reckoned one of the moft. elegant in the kingdom.—
Here is alfo a magnificent fquare Gothic tower or
fteeple, now (landing by itfelf, but which formerly
made part of a venerable and fuperb building of
churches in the form of a crofs, erefted by David earl
of Huntingdon brother to William I. of Scotland, and
dedicated to the Virgin Mary. This he did on his
return from the third crufade, (in which, with 500 of
his countrymen, he had accompanied Richard I. of
England, rfwwnBp), in gratitude for his deliverance
from feveral imminent dangers ; and particularly from
fhjpwreck, by which he had nearly perifhed when in
fight of this place. At the fame time he changed
the name of the town from A lie cl um to Dei .Donumy
from which its prefent name is thought by many to
be derived ; and under this new name we find it in-
creafing confiderably in the 13th century. The de-
ftrudlion of the churches adjoining to this tower, was
the work of Edward I. of England, that barbarous de-
ftroyer of Scottifh monuments and records. He was
fo exafperated at the inhabitants Handing out againft
him, and aiding his inveterate foe tfie famous Wallace,
that he fct fire both to the churches and to the town
itfelf; the flames deftroying all but a part on the eait
end, now called the old kirk. The town fuffcred very
much about the middle of the laft century. For ju;t
fix years after it had been taken by (form by Mon-
trofe, it was befieged in form by General Monk: and
although it made a gallant defence under major-gene.-
ral Lumfden, it was at laft, on the ift of September
1651, carried by force, when all that were inarms
were put to the fword ; and fo great were .the riches
of the town, all the neigbouring gentlemen with their
beft effe&s having retired to it as a place of fafety,
tlyit every private foldier in general Monk’s army had
near 60 pounds Sterling to his fhare of the plunder.
This is reckoned the greatefl lofs ever Scotland fuf-
tained at one ftroke, there being above 60 veflels in
the harbour at that time. To enable the inhabitants to
recover from this calamity, and to repair their harbour
and other public works, Charles II. granted them an
excife of one third of an Englifh penny upon every
gallon of ale or beer fold in town for 25 years, which
has been continued by five fubfequent afts, and is
highly ferviceable. At prefent Dundee is in a very
flourifhing condition. The (hipping are reckoned near
too fail; and the manufa&ures go on brifkly. Thefe
confifl
DUN [ 2562 ] DUN
Dung couGlt of linen (efpecially ofnaburghs), fail-cloth,
i1 cordage, threads, thread-ftockings, buckrams (a new
Junkiik. work jn Scotland), tanned leather, fhoes, and hats ;
not only fufficient for their own confumpt, but for
exportation in confiderable Quantities. An excellent
fugar-houfe has alfo now fubfifted for about 10 years,
and does confiderable bufinefs. The Ofnaburgh trade
is undoubtedly the ftaple, of which there have been
above four millions of yards ftamped here annually of
late. Their coloured threads have been long famous ;
and are manufa&ured to a confiderable amount. The
number of inhabitants is reckoned near 16,000.
DUNG, in hufbandry. See Agriculture, n° 21.
Tivnc-Bird. SeeUrufA.
Dung Meers, in hufbandry, places where foils and
dungs are mixed and digefted together. Thefe conhft
of pits, prepared at the bottom with ftone and clay,
that they may hold water, or the moifture of the dung;
and ought to be fo (ituated, that the finks and drips of
th£ houfes and barns may run into them. Into thefe pits
they call refufe, fodder, litter, dung, weeds, &c. where
they lie and rot together, till the farmer have occafion
for them.
T)VHG-JVorms, a fpecies of fly-worms, of a fliortand
fomewhat flat body, found in great plenty among cow-
dung in the months of September and Odlober.
DUNGANNON, the chief town of the county of
Tyrone, in the province of Ulfter, in Ireland. It is
feated on a hill, and is a place of fome ftrength.
DUNGARVON, a town of Ireland, in the county
of Waterford. It Hands on a bay of the fame name,
has a commodious harbour for fliips, and' is a Walled
town with a caftle. W. Long. 7. 55. N. Lat. 51. 57.
DUNKELD, a town of Scotland, in the fliire of
Perth, pleafantly fituated on the north fide of the river
Tay. It was formerly a bilhop’s fee, and the remains
of the cathedral are ftill vifible. It is the chief mar¬
ket-town of the Highlands. W. Long. 3. 18. N. Lat.
56. 36.
DUNKIRK, a maritime town of the French Ne¬
therlands, fituated in E. Long. 2. 28. N. Lat. 51. 10.
and is the moft eafterly harbour on the fide of France
which is next to Great Britain.— It was originally a
mean hamlet, confrfting only of a few filhermens huts:
but a church being built there, it was from that, and
irom its fituation, which is a fandy eminence, called
Dunkirk; dun fignifying, in the old Gallic language, a
hill; and kirk being the old Flemifh name for church.
About the year 960, Baldwin, earl of Flanders,
thinking the fituation convenient, enlarged it into a
kind of town, and furrounded it with of wall. In
the year 1322, Robert of Flanders, who held it as
an appendage, built a caftle for its defence; which Was
afterwards demolifhed by the revolfers of Flanders.
Robert of Bar erefted a fortification round it, the re¬
mains of which are vifible on the fide next the harbour.
The emperor Charles V. who held it as part of Flan¬
ders, built another caftle to defend the harbour: but
this was alfo demolifhed foon afterwards. In 1558, the
French, under marftial de Thermes, took Dunkirk by
ftorm, and almoft ruined the place; the Spaniards re-
covered it again in about a fortnight, and put all the
French to the fword.
During a peace procpred forthe Dunkirkers by Phi-
Op II. of Spain, they rebuilt tluir town with greater
fplendor than before, and the inhabitants for a long Dunkiikl
time fubfifted by privateers fitted out againft the —|
Dutch; and at length, growing rich by thefe hoftili-
ties, they Fortified their town and harbour, and fitted
out no lefs than 15 fliips of war at their own charge.
In 1634, the Dunkirkers agreed with the inhabi¬
tants of Bergues, to dig a canal, at their joint expence,
for a communication between the two towns; which
was fome time afterwards effe&ed. By this time, Dun¬
kirk was become the bell harbour the Spaniards pof-
fefied in Flanders, which induced many foreigners to
fettle there ; and it being necefiary to enlarge the town
for their accommodation, a new fortified wall was built
at a confiderable diftance from the former. In 1646,
it was befieged and taken by the prince of Conde. In
1652, it was retaken by the archduke Leopold, then
governor of the Netherlands. France entering into a
treaty with England in 1655, the Dunkirkers, with
views of pecuniary advantage, fitted out privateers
againft both thofe powers: the confequente of which
was, that the French, aflifted by Cromwell, attacked
and took it; and it was put into the hands of the En-
glifli, in confequence of a treaty between them and the
French. To the Englifti it was even then of very great
importance; for, during the war in which it was taken,
the Dunkirkers had made prizes of no lefs. than 250 of
their (hips, many of which were of great value. They
therefore improved the fortifications, and built a cita¬
del: yet they kept it only four years; for in 1662,
two years after the reftoration, Charles II. fold this
valuable acquifition to France, for the paltry futn of
500,000/. In confequence of this fale, the town was
taken pofleflion of for the French king Lewis XIV.
by the count d’Eftrades, on the 29th of November 1662.
Lewis having acquainted the celebrated engineer Mon-
fieur Vauban, that he intended to make Dunkirk one
of the ftrongeft places in Europe, Vauban drew up a
plan with that view, which was gradually executed.
An arfenal was tre&ed, large enough to contain all the
ftores neceflary for fitting out and maintaining a large
fleet of men of war; the fortifications on the land-fide
were conftrucfed in a manner that was thought to ren¬
der them impregnable; and towards the fea, the en¬
trance of the harbour being properly formed, it was
fortified by the jetties, and the two forts called Green
Fortanik (hzFort of Goe.'/./fr/f attheir extremities; the
famous Rilbank was alfo erefted on one fide of the jet¬
ties, and Fort Galliard on the other, to fecure the town.
Thefe works were all completed in 1683; and in 1685,-
the whole circumference of the bafon was faced with
mafonry, and the keys completely formed: at the fame
time care was taken to build at the entrance of this
bafon a fluice, almort 45 feet wide, that the fliips within
might be confiamly afloat. In 1689, the fort called the
Cornkhm, and fome other works, were completed. But
though 30. years had been now employed in improving
the fortifications of Dunkirk, it was not yet in the ftate
in which Lewis intended to put it; and therefore, in
1701, he calrfed a new rilbank to be built, caHed Fort
Blanc.
At the treaty of Utrecht, it having been made ap¬
pear, that the privateers of Dunkirk had, during the
war then clofing, taken from the Englifli no lefs than
1614 prizes, valued at 1,334,375/.'Sterling, it was
ftipulated,: that the fortifications of the city and port
of
DUN [ 2563 ] DUN
of Dunkirk ftiould be entire)/ demaiifhed, and the
harbour filled up, fo as never to be an harbour again.
The treaty, of which this demolition of Dunkirk
was an article, was figned on the 28th of April 1713;
but the demolition did not take place till the Septem¬
ber following, when the queen deputed colonel Arm-
ftrong and colonel Clayton to overfee the execution of
the treaty as far as concerned the works and harbour of
Dunkirk.
Under the infpeftion of thefe gentlemen, the places
of arms were broken down, the ditches filled up, and
the demi-lunes, baftions, and covered way, totally de-
ftroyed ; the citadel was ra2ed, and the harbour and
bafon filled up ; the jetties were aifo levelled with the
flrand, and all the forts which defended the entrance
into the harbour were demoliihed. A large dam, or
bar, was alio built acrofs the mouth of the harbour be¬
tween the jetties and the town, by which all communi¬
cation between the harbour and the canal, which form¬
ed its entrance, was entirely cut off. The fluices were
alfo broken up, and the materials of them broken to
pieces.
But this was no fooner done, than Lewis XIV. or¬
dered 30,000 men to work inceffantly upon a new ca¬
nal, the canal of Mardick, which in a (hort time they
accompliihed/ by which the harbour was rendered al-
tnoft as commodious as ever: but in 1717 this likewife
was rendered unfervit table.
In the year 1720, during a great ftorm, the fea
broke up the bar or dam, and reftored to. the Dun-
kirkers the ufe of the harbour in a very confiderable
degree.
In the year 1740, when Great Britain was engaged
in a war with Spain, Lewis XV. fet about improving
the advantage which Dunkirk had derived from the
Ilorm in 1720, by reftoring the works, and repairing
the harbour. He rebuilt the jetties, and erected new
forts in the place of thofe which had been deftroyed ;
and foon afterwards he efpoufed the caufe of Spain,
and became a principal in the war agairdl us.
But at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, it was
ftipulated, that all the works towards the fea (houldbe
deftroyed a fecond time ; yet, before the declaration
of the laft war, the place was in as good a ftate of
defence towards the fea as it was at any time during
the war which was concluded by the treaty of Aix-la-
Chapelle.
DUNS, a market-town of Scotland, in the (hire of
Mers, feated in W. Long. 2. 15. N. Lat. 55. 42.
DUNS scotus (John), a Francifcan friar, com¬
monly called doftor fubtilis, was born in the year 1274;
but whether in England, Scotland, or Ireland, bath
Song been a matter of difpute among the learned of
each nation. Dempfler, Mackenzie,, and other Scot-
tiih writers, affert pofitively that he was born at Duns,
a town in Scotland, about fifteen miles from Berwick;
and, to fecure him more effe&ually, Mackenzie makes
him defeended from the Dunfes in the Mers. Mac
Caghwell, an Iriih author, who wrote the life of this
Scotus, proves him to have been born at Down in the
province of Ulfter in Ireland: but Leland, Bale, Cam¬
den,, and Pits, affure us, that he was born at Dunftone
in the parifh of Emildune, near Alnwick in Northum¬
berland; and this opinion is rendered probable by the
following conclufion of his manufeript works in the
library of Merton college in Oxford—“ Here end the Duns
writings of that fubtile dodtor of the univerfity of II
Paris, John Duns, who was born in a certain village. 1 1111 an‘
in the parilh of Emildune, called DunJIon, in the coun¬
ty of Northumberland.” We are told, that, when a
boy, he became accidentally known to two Francifcan
friars; who, finding him to be a youth of very extra¬
ordinary capacity, took him to their convent at New-
caftle, and afterwards perfuaded him to become one of
their fraternity. From thence he was fent to Oxford,
where he was made fellow of Merton college and pro-
feffor of divinity ; and Mackenzie fays, that not lefs
than 30,000 ftudents came to Oxford to hear his lec¬
tures. His fame was now become fo univerfal, that
the general of his order commanded him to go to Pa¬
ris, that the ftudents of that univerfity might alfo pro¬
fit from his leftures. He went to Paris in the year
1304, where he was honoured firft with the degree of
bachelor, then of do&or of divinity, and in 1307 was
appointed regent of the divinity fchools: during his
refidence here, the famous controverfy about the Im¬
maculate conception of the virgin Mary arqfe. Albertus
Magnus maintained that (he was born in original fin.
Scotus advanced 200 arguments in fupport of the con¬
trary opinion, and convinced the univerfity of Paris
that file was really conceived immaculate. This im¬
portant nonfenfe, however, continued to be difputed till
the year 1496, after the council of Bafil, when the
univerfity of Paris made a decree, that no ftudent, who
did not believe the immaculate conception, fiiould be ad¬
mitted to a degree. Our author had not been above
a year at Paris, when the fame general of the Francif-
cans ordered him to remove to Cologne; where he was
received with great pomp and ceremony by the magi-
ftrates and nobles of that city, and where he died of
an apoplexy foon after his arrival, in the year 1308,
in the 34th year of his age. Some writers have re¬
ported, that Scotus was buried in an epileptic fit; and
that, upon removing his bones, he appeared to have
turned himfelf in his coffin. This dodor fubtilis was
doubtlefs one of the fiaft wranglers of his time, admi¬
rably well verfed in fcbolaftic divinity, and a moft in¬
defatigable fcribbler; but the misfortune is, that all his
huge volumes do not contain a fingle page worth the
perufal of a rational being. He was the author of a
new fe£t of fchoolm.tn called Scotijls; who oppofed the
opinions of the Thornifts, fo called from St Thomas
Aquinas. The reader will find a more particular ac¬
count of Scotus in the Francifcan Martyrology, pub-
lifiied at Paris in 1638.—He was a moft voluminous
writer; his works making 12 vols folio, as publifiied at
Lyons by Luke Wadding, 1639.
DUNSTABLE, a town in Bedfordfiiire, with a
market on Wednefdays. It is feated on a chalky hill ;
and has ponds in the ftreet, which are never dr.y, tho*
only fupplied with rain water. It is remarkable for
feveral good inns, it being a great thoroughfare on the
northern road. It confifts of four ftreets, interfering
each other at right angles; nd in the centre.ftood one
of thofe beautiful croffes of queen Eleanor, which was
deftroyed by the enthufiafts in the time of the civil
wars. W. Long. o. 29. N. Lat. 51. 50.
DUNSTAN (canonized), archbiftiop of Canter¬
bury, in the reign of king Edwy, who was obliged to
banilh him for his overbearing infolence. He was an
encourages
D U P [ 2564 ] D U R
Duo encourager of learning, and an author of fome note
II for the age he lived in. He died about 988. There
—iiiin are many legendary ftories about his contefts with the
devil.
DUO, in mufic, a fong or compofition, to be per¬
formed in two parts only, one fung, the other played
on an inftrument, or by two voices.
Duo is alfo when two voices ling different parts, as
accompanied with a third which is a thorough bafs. It
is feldom that uni'fons and oftaves are ufed in duos, ex¬
cept at the beginning and end.
DUODECIMA, in mufic, is the twelfth, or the
fifth doubled.
DUODENUM. See Anatomy, n° 354, g.
DUPIN (Lewis Ellis), a learned doftorof the Sor-
bonne, and one of the greateft critics of his time, e-
fpecially in ecclefiaftical matters, was born at Paris in
1657. When he publifhed the firlt volume of his Bi-
Uiotheque Univerjelle des Auteurs Ecclejtajiiques, in
1686, the liberty with which he treated fome ecclefi¬
aftical writers, gave fuch offence, that M. de Harlay,
archbifhop of Paris, obliged Dupin to retraft many
propofitions, and fuppreffed the work. He was ne-
verthelefs fuffered to continue it, by altering the title
from Biblhtheque Univerfelle, to Bibliotkcque Nouvelle.
This great undertaking, continued in feveral fucceflive
volumes, though fufficient to occupy the life of an or¬
dinary man, did not hinder M. Dupin from obliging
the world with feveral other works. He was a man of
prodigious reading; and had an eafy, happy way of
writing, with an uncommon talent at analyfing the
works of an author; which makes his Ecclefiaftical Bi-
bliotheque fo valuable. M. Dupin was profeffor of
philofophy in the royal college ; but was banilhed fome
time from the chair to Chatelleraut, on account of the
famous Cas de Confcience; but was reftored, and died
in 1719.
DUPLE, among mathematicians, denotes the ratio
of 2 to 1. Thus the ratio of 8 to 4 is duple, or as
2 to 1.
*S«J-Duple is juft the reverfe of the former,
or as 1 to 2. Such is 4 to 8, or 6 to 12.
DUPLICATE, among lawyers, denotes a copy of
any deed, writing, or account. It is alfo ufed for the
fecond letters-patent, granted by the lord chancellor
in a cafe wherein he had before done the fame. Alfo
a fecond letter written and fent to the fame party and
purpofe as a former, for fear of the firft’s mifcarrying,
is called a duplicate.
Duplicate Proportion, or 'Ratio. See Ratio.
DUPLICATION, in general, fignifies the doubling
of any thing, or multiplying of it by 2: alfo the fold¬
ing of any thing back again on itfelf.
DUPLICATURE, among anatomifts, a term ufed
to denote the folds of any membrane, or veflel: thus
we fay, the duplicatures of the intejlines, peritoneeiim,
&c.
DUPONDUS, in antiquity, the weight of two
pounds: alfo a piece of money equal to two afes in
value.
DUPPA (Brian), a learned Englilh bifhop born in
1589 at Lpwilham in Kent, of which place his father
was then vicar. In 1634, he was inftituted chancellor
of the church at Sarum, and foon after made chaplain
to Charles I. He was appointed tutor to Charles
prince of Wales, and his brother James duke of York; Durandns
was made bifhop of Chichefter ; and in 1641 tranflated 4
to Salifbury, though the confufions that followed de- 1
prived him of all benefit from his promotion. Charles L
held him in high efteem, and he is faid to have affifted
the king in compofing the Eikon Bafilike. On the Re-
ftoration he was made bifhop of Winchefter, and lord
high almoner; but died in 1662. Pie bequeathed
large fums to charitable purpofes; and publifhed a few
fermons, with other religious pieces.
DURANDUS (William), born at Puimoiffion in
Provence, in the 13th century, was one of the molt
knowing lawyers of his time. Pope Martin made him
one of his nuncios, and then bifhop of Mende and Lan¬
guedoc. His Speculum Juris gave him the name of
Speculator ; his fecond piece was Rationale divinorum
officiorum, containing eight books. He wrrote feveral
others.
DURATION. See Metaphysics, n° 60, 61.
Duration, as marked by certain periods and mea-
fures, is what we moft properly call time. See Time.
Duration of Attion, according to Ariftotle, is con¬
fined to a natural day in tragedy; but the epopea, ac¬
cording to the fame critic, has no fixed time*. See Poet rj
DURER (Albert), defcended of an Hungarianchap'
family, and born at Nuremberg in 1471, was one of
the beft engravers and painters of his age. He was at
the fame time a man of letters and a philofopher; and
he was an intimate friend of Erafmus, who revifed fome
of the pieces which he publifhed. He was a man of
bufinefs alfo, and for many years the leading magiftrate
of Nuremberg. Though not the inventor, he was one
of the firft improvers of the art of engraving; and he
bethought himfelf of working alfo in wood, for expe¬
dition, having an inexhauftible fund of defigns. In
many of thofe prints which he executed on copper, the
engraving is elegant to a great degree. His Hell-Scene
particularly, which was engraved in the year 1513,
is as highly finiftied a print as ever was engraved, and
as happily executed. In his wooden prints too we are
furprifed to fee fo much meaning in fo early a mafter;
the heads fo well marked, and every part fo well exe¬
cuted.—This artift feems to have underftood the prin¬
ciples of defign. His compofition, too, is often plea-
fing ; and his drawing generally good. But he knows
very little of the management of light; and ftill lefs of
grace : and yet his ideas are purer and more elegant
than we could havefuppofed from the aukward arche¬
types which his country and education afforded. In a
word, he was certainly a man of a very extenfive ge¬
nius ; and, as Vafari remarks, would have been an ex¬
traordinary artift, if he had had an Italian inftead of
a German education. His prints are very numerous.
They were much admired in his own life-time, and
eagerly bought up; which put his wife, who was a teaz-
ing woman, upon urging him to fpend more time upon
engraving than he was inclined to do. He was rich ;
and chofe rather to pra&ife his art as an amufement,
than as a bufinefs. He died in the year 1527.
D’URFEY (Thomas), an eminent Englifh fatyrift
and fongfter, whofe name, though as well known as
that of any writer extant, yet there are very few par¬
ticulars of his life to be collected. He was born in
Devonfhire ; but when, where, or of what family, are
all uncertain. He was bred to the law, which he for-
fook
D U R [ 2565 ] D U R
Durham, fook for the more agreeable employment of writing
1 ” plays and fongs ; and the latter he had fo happy a ta¬
lent both of writing and finging, that he received many
favours from perfons of quality on that account. Even
crowned heads did not difdain his company. The
writer of the Guardian, N° 67. tells us, he has remem¬
bered to have feen Charles II. leaning on Tom D’Ur-
fey’s fhoulder more than once, humming over a fong
with him. This indeed was not extraordinary in hx
merry a monarch ; but even the phlegmatic king Wil¬
liam could relax his mufeles on hearing him fing. He
was certainly, by all accounts, a cheerful, honeft, good-
natured man; but as this character does not include
prudence, D’Urfey grew poor as he grew old ; and pre¬
vailing on the managers of the play-houfe to a6t his
comedy of the Plotting Sifters for his benefit, Mr Ad-
difon wrote the abovementioned paper in the Guardian,
with another, N° 82. reprefenting him in a good-hu¬
moured light, to procure him a full houfe. He died
very old, in 1723.
DURHAM, (bifhopric of), one of the counties of
England. It lies between Cumberland and Yorklhire,
being bounded on the weft by part of Cumberland and
Weftmoreland, and on the eaft waflied by the German
ocean. It is 39 miles long and about 35 broad, of
a triangular (hape, the bafis being formed by the fea-
coaft ; and contains 52 parifhes, four wakes, one city,
eight market-towns, a confiderable number of villages
and villas, and about 100,000 inhabitants. The cli¬
mate varies in different parts. Towards the weft, among
the inland hills, the air is keen, pure, and penetrating ;
on the fea-fidemore foft, though not fo wholefome. The
county is watered by 16 rivers, fome of which are navig-
ablebyboatsand lighters ;andmoft of them abound with
trout, pike, andfalmon. The face of thecountry isagree-
ably diverfified with hill and dale, wood and water;
and, except in the weftern part, where there is a great
number of naked hills* it generally exhibits the ap¬
pearance of extraordinary cultivation and fertility. The
foil in the hilly parts is barren; but the plains are re¬
markably fruitful. It produces corn and cattle in great
abundance and perfe&ion. The mountains yield iron,
vitriol, and a confiderable quantity offlead; and almoft
every part of the bilhopric affords plenty of coal, which
employs a great number of hands and veffelg.
Durham is a county palatine, governed by the bi-
fhop, who had formerly great prerogatives. He had
power to create barons, appoint judges, convoke par¬
liaments, raife taxes, and coin money. The courts of
juftice were kept in his name; and he granted pardons
for trefpaffes, alienations, rapes, murders, and felonies
of every denomination. He erefted corporations,
granted markets and fairs, created officers by patent,
was lord admiral of the feas and waters within the
county palatine ; great part of the lands were held of
the fee in capite. In a word, he exercifed all the power
and jurifdi&ion of a fovereign prince. How and at
what period thefe prerogatives were obtained, it is not
eafy to determine. Malmefbury fays, the lands were
granted by king Alfred, who likewife made the church
a fanfluary for criminals. This fee was anciently called
the patrimony of St Cuthbert, who had been biftiop
of Landisfarne or Holy Ifland near Berwick. His
bones being transferred to Durham, were long efteemed
as precious relics j and the people of the county con-
Vol. IV.
fidered themfelves as Halwerk men, exempted from all Durham,
other but holy work, that is, the defence of St Cuth-' " “
bert’s body. Certain it is, they pretended to hold their
lands by this tenure ; and refufed to ferve out of the
county either for the king or bilhop : but king Ed¬
ward I. broke through thefe privileges, and curtailed
the prerogatives of the bifhops, which were ftill further
abridged by Henry VIII. Neverthelefs, the bifhop
is ftill earl of Sadberg, a place in this county, which
he holds by barony. He is ftieriff paramount, and ap¬
points his own deputy, who makes up his audit to him,
in Head of accounting to the exchequer. He has all
the forfeitures upon outlawries ; and he and his tem¬
poral chancellor afl as juftices of the peace for the
county palatine, which comprehends Creke in York-
fhire, Bedlington, Northam, and Holy Ifland, in
Northumberland, the inhabitants of thefe places hav¬
ing the benefitof the courts at Durham. The judges of
affize, and all the officers of the court, have ftill their
ancient falaries from the bifhop; and he conftitutes the
ftanding officers by his letters patent. He has the
power of prefiding in perfon in any of the courts of
judicature. Even when judgment of blood is given,
this prelate may fit in court in his purple robes, tho*
the canons forbid any clergyman to be prefent in fuch
cafes: hence the old faying, Solum DunclmenfeJlola jus
dicet et enfe. It was not till the reign of Charles II.
that the bifhopric fent reprefentatives to parliament.
At prefent it fends only four ; two knights for the fhire,
and two burgeffes for the city.
Durham, the capital of the above mentioned county,
is fituated in W. Long. 1. 14. N. Lat. 54. 50. It
{lands on a hill almoft furrounded by the river Were ;
and is confiderable for its extent and the number of its
inhabitant?, as well as for being the fee and feat of
the bifhop, who is lord paramount. It Hands about
280 miles north from London ; being remarkable for
the falubrity of its air, and the abundance and cheap-
nefs of its provifions. Thefe circumftances have indu¬
ced a great deal of good company to take up their re-
fidence at Durham, which is ftill further animated by
the prefence and court of the bifhop and his clergy.
The town is faid to have been built about 70 years
before the Norman conqueft, on occafion of bringing
hither the body of St Cuthbert. It was firft incor¬
porated by king Richard I. but queen Elizabeth ex¬
tended its privileges. At length, in the year 1684, it
obtained a charter; in confequence of which, it is now
governed by a mayor, c 2 aldermen, x 2 common coun¬
cil men, with a recorder, and inferior officers. Thefe
can hold a court-leet and court-baron within the city ;
but under the ftyle of the bifhop, who as count pala¬
tine appoints a judge, fteward, fheriffs, and other in¬
ferior magiftrates. The mayor and aldermen alfo keep
a pie pouldres court at their fairs, and pay a yearly toll
to the bifhop. They have a weekly market on Satur¬
day, and three annual fairs. Durham is about a mile
in length, and as much in breadth, refembling the fi¬
gure of a crab, the market-place exhibiting the body,
and the claws being reprefented by the ftreets, which
bend according to the courfe of the river, that almoft
furrounds one part of the city. They are, moreover,
dark and narrow; and fome of them lying on the ac¬
clivity of a fteep hill, are very difficult and dangerous
to wheel-carriages. The houfes are in general ftrong
14 Y built.
D U R [ 2566 ] D U T
Durham* built, but neither light nor elegant. The mod remark-
" ' able edifices are the cathedral with fix other churches,
three Handing in the city, and as many in the fuburbs;
the college ; the cattle, or biihop’s palace; the tolbooth
near St Nicholas’s church; the crofs and conduit in the
market-place ; with two bridges over the Elvet. The
cathedral was begun by bilhop Carilepho in the 11th
century. It is a large, magnificent, Gothic ftruc-
ture, 411 feet long, and 80 in breadth, having a crofs
aile in the middle 170 feet in length, and two fmaller
ailes at each end. On the fouth-fide is a fine cloifter;
on the eaft, the old library, the chapter-houfe, and
part of the deanery 5 on the weft, the dormitory, under
which is the treafury and a chantry ; and on the weft
fide is the new library, an elegant building begun by
dean Sudbury about 70 years ago, on the fpot where
flood the old refeftory of the convent. The middle
tower of the cathedral is 212 feet high. The whole
building is arched and fupported by huge pillars. Se¬
veral of the windows are curioufly painted y and,there
is a handfome fcreen at the entrance into the choir.
Sixteen biihopaare interred in the chapter-houfe, which
is 75 feet long and 33 broad, arched over-head, with
a magnificent feat at the upper end for the inftalment of
the biihops. The confiftory is kept in the chapel or
weft aile called Galilee, which was built by biihop Pud-
fey, and had formerly 16 altars for women,, as they
were not allowed to advance farther than the line of
marble by the fide of the font; here likewife are de-
pofited the bones of the venerable Bede, whofe elogium
is written on an old parchment fcroll that hangs over
his tomb. The long crofs aile, at the extremity of the
church, was formerly diftinguiihed by nine altars, four
to the north, and four to the fouth, and the moft mag¬
nificent in the middle dedicated to the patron St Cuth-
bert, whofe rich ftirine was in this quarter, formerly
much frequented by pilgrims. The church is poffeffed
of fome old records relating to the affairs of Scotland,
the kings of. which were great benefa&ors to this ca¬
thedral. The ornaments here ufed for adminiftering
the divine offices, are faid to be richer than thofe of
any other cathedral in England. Before the reformation,
it was diftinguiffied by the name ecclejta fanthe Marine
et Janfti Cuthberti; but it obtained the appellation of
ecclefta cathedralis ChriJU et beat# Marine, in the reign
of Henry VIII. who endowed the deanery with 12
prebendaries, 12. minor canons, a deacon, fub-deacon,
16 lay finging men, a fchoolmafter and uiher, a maf-
ter of the choir, a divinity reader, eight alms-men, 18
fcholars, 10 choirifters, two vergers, two porters, two
cooks, two butlers, and two facriftans. On the fouth-
fide of the cathedral, is the college; a fpacious court
formed by the houfes of the prebendaries, who are
richly endowed and extremely well lodged. Above
the college-gate, at the eaft end, is the exchequer;
and at the weft, a large hall for entertaining ftrangers,
with the granary and’other offices of theconvent. The
college-fchool, with the mailer’s houfe, (lands on the
north fide of the cathedral. Between the churchyard
and caftle, is an open area called the palace-green ; at
the weft end of which Hands the ihire-hall, where the
affizes and feffions are held for the county. Hard by
is the library built by biihop Cofin ; together with the
exchequer railed by biihop Nevil, in which are kept
the offices belonging to the county-palatine court.
There is an hofpital on the eaft, endowed by biihop Dmy
Cofin, and at each end of it are two fchools founded II
by bifhop Langley. On the north, is the caftle built ut.y~'
by William the Conqueror, and afterwards converted
into the biihop’s palace, the outward gate of which
is at prefent the county-goal.
The city confifts of three manors the biihop’s ma¬
nor containing the city liberties and the bailey, held
of him by the fervke of caille-guard ; the manor of the
dean and chapter, conlifting of the Elvet’s crofs gate,
fouth-gate ftreet; and the manor of Gilligate, formerly
belonging to the diffolved hofpital of Kepyar in this
neighbourhood, but granted by Edward VI. to John
Cockburn, lord of Ormftoun, and late in the poffeffion
of John Tempeft, Efq. The biihopric of Durham is
one of the bell in. England, not only on account of its
ample revenues and prerogatives, but becaufe living is
remarkably cheap in this county, and the biihop has a
great number of rich benefices in his gift.
In the neighbourhood of this city is Nevil’s crofs,
famous for the battle fought in the year J346, againft
David II. king of Scotland, who was defeated and
taken..
DURY (John), a Scots divine, who travelled much,.
and laboured with great zeal to reunite the Lutherans
with the Calvinifts. His difcouragements in this
fcheme ftarted another ftill more impradlicable; and.
this was to reunite all Chriftians by means of a new ex¬
plication of the Apocalypfe, which her publifhed at
Frankfort in 1674. He enjoyed then a comfortable
retreat in the country of Heffe ; but the. time of bis
death is unknown : his letter to Peter du Moulin con¬
cerning,the date of the churches of England, Scotland,
and Ireland,, was printed at London in 1658, by the
care of du Moulin, and is efteemed to be curious.
DUSSELDORP, a city of Weftphalia in Germa¬
ny, and capital of the duchy of Berg. It is iituated at
the conflux of the river Duffel.with;the Rhine, in E.,
Long. 6. 20. N. Lat 51. 15.
DUTCHY. See Duchy.
DUTY, in general, denotes any thing that one is
obliged to perform.
Duty, in a moral fenfe; fee Moral Philofopby,
n° 73, &c.
Duty, in polity and commerce, fignifies the impoft
laid on merchandizes, at importation or exportation,
commonly called the duties of cuftoms; alfo the taxes
of excife, ftamp-duties, &c. See Custom's, Excise, &c.
The principles on which all duties and cuftoms fhould
be laid on foreign merchandizes which are imported
intothefe kingdoms, are fuch as tend to cement a mu¬
tual friendihip and traffick between one nation and ano¬
ther ; and therefore due care ihould be taken in the
laying of them, that they may anfwer fo good an end,
and be reciprocal in both countries: they ihould be fo
laid as to make the exports of this nation at lead equal
to our imports from thofe nations wherewith we trade,
fo that a balance in money ihould not be iffued out of
Great Britain, to pay for the goods and merchandizes
of other countries; to the end that no greater number
of our landholders and manufadlurers ihould be depri¬
ved of their revenues ariling from the produdl of the
lands, and the labour of the people, by foreign impor?
tations, than are maintained by exportations to fuch
countries. Thefe are the national principles on which
D W A [ 2567 ] DYE
all our treaties of commerce with other countries ought
to be grounded.
Duty, in the military art, is the exercife of thofe
functions that belong to a foldier: with this diftin&ion,
that mounting guard and the like, where there is no
enemy dire&ly to be engaged, is called duty; but their
marching to meet and fight an enemy is called going
on fervice.
DUUMVIRATE, the office or dignity of the du¬
umviri. See the next article.
The duumvirate lafted till the year of Rome 388,
when it was changed into a decemvirate.
DUUMVIRI, in Roman antiquity, a general ap¬
pellation given to magillrates, commiilioners, and offi¬
cers, where two Were joined together in the fame func-
tions.
Duumviri Capitales were the judges in criminal
caufes: from their fentence it was lawful to appeal to
the people, who only had the power of condemning a
citizen to death. Thefe judges were taken from the bo¬
dy of the decuriones; they had great power and au¬
thority, were members of the public council, and had
two lidlors to walk before them.
Duumviri Municipales, were two magiftrates in
fome cities of the empire, anfwering to what the con-
fuls were at Rome : they were chofen out of the body
of the decuriones ; their office lafted commonly five
years, upon which account they were frequently termed
quinquinales magiftratus. Their jurifdiftion was of
great extent: they had officers walking before them,
carrying a fmall fwitch in their hands; and fome of
them affumed the privilege of having lidors, carrying
axes and the fafces, or bundles of rods, before them.
Duumviri Navales, were the commilfaries of the
fleet, firft created at the requeft of M. Decius, tribune
of the people, in the time of the war with the Sam-
nites. The duty of their office confifted in giving or¬
ders for the fitting of fhips, and giving their commif-
fions to the marine officers, &c.
Duumviri Sacrorum, were magiftrates created by
Tarquinius Superbus, for the performance of the facri-
fices, and keeping of the fybils books. They were
chofen from among the patricians, and held their office
for life: they were exempted from ferving in the wars,
and from the offices impofed on the other citizens,
and without them the oracles of the fybils could not be
confulted.
DUYVELAND, or Diveland, one of theiflands
of Zealand, in the United Provinces, lying eaftward of
Schonen, from which it is only feparated by a narrow
channel.
DWAL, in heraldry, the herb nightftiade, ufed by
fuch as blazon with flowers and herbs, inftead of metals
and colours, for fable or black.
DWARF, in general, an appellation given to things
greatly inferior in fize to that which is ufual in their
feveral kinds: thus there are dwarfs of the human fpe-
cies, dwarf-dogs, dwarf-trees, &c.
The Romans were paffionately fond of dwarfs, whom
they called nani or name, infomuch that they often ufed
artificial methods to prevent the growth of boys de-
figned for dwarfs, by inclofing them in boxes, or by
the ufe of tight bandages. Auguftus’s niece, Julia,
was extremely fond of a dwarf-called Sonopasj who
was only two feet and an hand-breadth high.—We
have many other accounts of human dwarfs, but mod Dwarf
of them deformed in fome way or other befides the !1
fmallnefsof their fize. Many relations alfo concerning Dye*
dwarfs we muft necefiarily look upon to be fabulous,
as well as thofe concerning, giants.—The following
hiftory, however, which we have reafon to look upon
as authentic, is too remarkable not to be acceptable
to the generality of our readers.
Jeffery Hudfon, the famous Englifh dwarf, was born
at Oakham in Rutlandfhire in 1619; and about the
age of feven or eight, being then but 18 inches high,
was retained in the fervice of the duke of Buckingham,
who refided at Burleigh on the Hill. Soon after the
marriage of Charles I. the king and queen being en¬
tertained at Burleigh, little Jeffery was ferved up to
table in a cold pye, and prefented by the duchefs to the
queen, who kept him as her dwarf. From 7 years of
age till 30j he never grew taller; but after 30, he fhot
up to three feet nine inches, and there fixed. Jeffery
became a confiderable part of the entertainment of the
court. Sir William Davenant wrote a poem called
Jeffreidos, on a battle between him and a turkey-cock|
and in 1638 was publifhed a very fmall book, called the
New Tear's Gift, prefented at court by the lady Par-
vula to the lord Minimus (commonly called Little Jef¬
fery) her majefty’s fervant, &c. written by Microphi-
lus, with a little print of Jeffery prefixed. Before this
period, Jeffery was employed on a negociation of great
importance: he was fent to France to fetch a midwife
for the queen; and on his return with this gentlewo¬
man, and her majefty’s dancing-mafter, and many rich
prefents to the queen from her mother Mary de Medi-
cis, he was taken by the Dunkirkers. Jeffery, thus
made of confequence, grew to think himfelf really fo.
He had borne with little temper the teazing of the
courtiers and domeftics, and had many fquabbles with
the king’s gigantic porter. At laft, being provoked by
Mr Crofts, a young gentleman of family, a challenge
enfued: and Mr Crofts coming to the rendezvous armed
only with a fquirt, the little creature was fo enraged,
that a real duel enfued; and the appointment being on
horfeback with piftols, to put them more on a level,
Jeffery, with the firft fire, fhot his antagonift dead.
This happened in France, whither he had attended his
miftrefs in the troubles. He was again taken prifoner
by a Turkifh rover, and fold into Barbary. He pro¬
bably did not remain long in flavery : for at the be¬
ginning of the civil war, he was made a captain in the
royal army; and in 1644 attended the queen to France,
where he remained till the Reftoration. At laft, upon
fufpicion of his being privy to the Popifh plot, he was
taken up in 1682, and confined in the Gatehoufe,
Weftihinfter, where he ended his life, in the 63d year
of his age.
DWINA, the name of t wo large rivers; one of which
rifes in Lithuania, and, dividing Livonia from Cour-
land, falls into the Baltic fea a little below Riga : the
other gives name to the province of Dwina, in Ruffia,
difcharging itfelf into the White Sea, a little below
Archangel.
DYE, in architeclure, any fquare body, as the trunk,
or notched part of a pedeftal: or it is the middle of
the pedeftal, or that part included between the bafe #
and the corniche ; fo called becaufe it is often made in ^drcbi-
the form of a cube or dye *. ^
14 Y 2 DYER, *
DYE [ 2568 j DYE
Dyep. DYER, a perfon who profefies the art of dyeing all
' manner of colours. See Dyeing.
Dyer (Sir James), an eminent Englilh lawyer, chief
judge of the court of common pleas in the reign of
queen Elizabeth. He died in 1581; and about 20
years after, was publifhed his large colleftion of Re¬
ports, which have been highly etleemed for their fuc-
cin&nefs and folidity: he alfo left other writings be¬
hind him, relative to his profeffion.
Dyer (John), the fon of Robert Dyer, Efq; a Welih
folicitor of great capacity, was born in 1700, andedu-
D Y E
N the utmoft latitude of the word, may be defined,
The art of tingeing cloth, fluff, or other matter, with
a permanent colour, which penetrates the fubftance
thereof.—It is, however, commonly reflrained to the art
of tingeing filk, wool, cotton, and linen, with different
colours; and, as fuch, is praftifed as a trade by thofe
who do not meddle with any of the other branches,
1 as ftaining of leather, &c.
Antiquity The dyeing art is of great antiquity; as appears
£c art’ from the traces of it in the oldefl facred, as well as
profane, writers. The honour of the invention is at¬
tributed to the Tyrians; though what leffens the me¬
rit of it is, that it is faid to have owed its rife to chance.
The juices of certain fruits, leaves, &c. accidentally
crufhed, are fuppofed to have furnifhed the firft hint:
Pliny affure us, that even in his time the Gauls made
ufe of no other dyes: it is added, that coloured earths,
and minerals, waflied and foaked with rain, gave the
next dyeing materials.—But purple, an animal juice,
* See Mu- found in a fhell-fifh called murex *, conehylium, and pur-
rcx‘ pura, feems from hiftory to have been prior to any of
them. This indeed was referved for the ufe of kings
and princes ; private perfons were forbidden by law to
wear the leaft ferap of it. The difeovery of. its tingeing
quality is faid to have been taken from a dog, which
having caught one of the purple-fiflies among the rocks,
and eaten it up, ftained his mouth and beard with the
precious liquor; which flruck the fancy of a Tyrian
nymph fo ftrongly, that flie refufed her lover Hercules
any favours till he had brought her a. mantle of the
fame colour.
Pliny feems to aferibe the invention of the art of dye¬
ing wool to the Lydians of Sardis: “ Inficere lanas
Sardibus Lydiwhere the word incipere muft be un-
derftood. But a modern critic fufpe£ts a falfe reading
here ; and, not without reafon, for Lydi, fubftitutes
Lydda, the name of a city on the coafl of Phoenicia,
where the chief mart of the purple dye was.
After the Phoenicians, the Sardinians feem to have
arrived at the greateft perfe&ion in the dyeing art; in-
fomuch, that/Ba^aSa^maxov, Sardinian dye, pafled in¬
to a proverb among the Greeks. Till the time of A-
lexander, we find no other fort of dye in ufe among
the Greeks but purple and fcarlet.—It was under the
fucceflbrs of that monarch, that thefe people applied
themfelves to the other colours ; and invented, or at
leaft perfefted, blue, yellow, green, &c.—For the an¬
cient purple, it has been long loft; but the perfe&ion
to which the moderns have carried the other colours,
abundantly indemnifies them of the lofs. It is ftill,
cated a painter; for which purpofe he travelled to Dyer’s*.j||
Rome, where he collefted materials for his inftru&ive" T
poem called the Ruins of Rome', his ill health and lite¬
rary turn, however, induced him to turn clergyman;
and he obtained the living of Coningfby in Lincoin-
fhire, where he refided until his death. He diftinguifhed
himfelf by his poems of Grongar HilU the Ruins of
Rosne above-mentioned, and the Fleece, publilhed in
1757, which his bad health hardly permitted him to
finifti.
Dyer’s Weed, in botany. See Reseda.
I N G,
however, greatly to be doubted whether the perma¬
nency of the modern colours at all equals that of the.
ancient ones ; though it is certain, that the former
greatly exceed them in brightnefs.
Sect. I. Theory of Dyeing.
Before we can enter into any confideration of the
true theory of dyeing,, it is neceffary to make the fol¬
lowing obfervation concerning the praftice, namely, 2
That falls are almoft the only means we are acquainted Salts ,lie
with by which any colouring fubftance can be made to of
fix itfelf upon thofe matters wdiichare the common fub- coiourSi° 1
jefts of dyeing. A folution of cochineal, for inftance,
will of itfelf impart no permanent colour to a piece of
woollen cloth put into it. The red colour of the co¬
chineal will indeed ftain the cloth while it remains im-
merfed in the folution; but as foon as it is taken out
and waftred, this temporary ftain will immediately va-
nifti, and the cloth become as white as before. If now
the cloth is dipped in the folution of any faline fub¬
ftance, alkalies alone excepted, and then immerfed in
the folution of cochineal for fome time, it will come out
permanently coloured; nor will the colour be difeharged
even by walhing with foap and water. If a quantity
of fait is added to the folution of cochineal, and the
cloth put in without being impregnated with any fa-
line fubftance, the effeft will be the fame; the cloth
will come out coloured ; only in this laft cafe, it muft
be well dried before wafhing it with foap, or moft of
the colour will be difeharged. ,
By comparing this with what is delivered under the They ope-
article Colovk-Making, n° 13, 14. we (hall be able to rate by coa—
form a pretty rational theory of dyeing. It is there Sulation-
remarked, that a faline fubftance, (folution of tin in
aqua regia), had a furprifing power of coagulating the
colouring matter of certain folutions, fuch as cochineal.
Brazil-wood, logwood, &c. If therefore a piece of
cloth is previoufly impregnated with this folution, and
put into the colouring one, it is plain that fome part
of the colouring matter will be coagulated by the fo¬
lution remaining in the cloth, in the very fame manner
that it would have been if a fmall quantity of the fa¬
line folution had been poured into the other. The cloth
therefore will take up a part of the colouring matter,
which cannot be difeharged but by entirely difehar-
gingthe folution of tin. This, however, feems to unite
itfelf with the cloth very firmly, fo that fcarce a par¬
ticle of colour will be difeharged by waftiing in plain
water, or even with foap; nor can the whole be taken
out, without boiling the cloth in a folution of fixed
alkali...
> : Sed. I. DYEING.
Hypothefes
soncerning
theadhefion
of the
kur.
Mr Hellot’:
bypotfiefis
di/proved.
alkali.
ThougK folution of tin produces tin’s coagulation In
the moft remarkable manner, it is, not to be doubted
that the fame power is poffefTed in fome degree by moft
of the neutrals and imperfedl falls. Alum pofleffes it
very confiderably, though not fo much as folution of
tin; and hence that fait is very much ufed in dyeing, as
well as fugar of lead, which alfo has a very ftrong
power of coagulation. The procefs of dyeing, there¬
fore, feems to be moft analagous to that of the coagu¬
lation or curdling of milk. Before it has fufftred this
change, the milk is ealily mifcible with water; but
after it is once coagulated, the curd, or cafeous part, is
very difficultly foluble in any liquid whatever. In like
manner, the colouring matter in the folution of cochi¬
neal, before the cloth is put in, is eafily foluble in wa¬
ter, and may be diffufed through any quantity of fluid:
but no fooner is the cloth dipped in it, than the faline
fubftance contained in the cloth coagulates that part
of the colouring matter which lies in immediate con-
ta<ft with it; and, as all the fluid fucceffively comes into
contaft with it, the whole of the colour is by degrees
coagulated and depofited on the cloth.
To account for the ftrong adhefion of the colour to
the dyed cloth, feveral hypothefes have been formed.
One is, That the fibres of wool, filk, &c. are hol¬
low tubes; that the colouring matter enters them ; and,
after being there coagulated, {hews itfelf through the
fine tranfparent fides of the tubes.—Another confi-
ders thefe filaments as folid lengthwife, but having all
round their fides an infinite number of final] pores like
the extremities of the fine abforbing and exhaling vef-
fels of the human body. In thefe pores, according to
the hypothefis, the colour is lodged; and as the pores
are placed exceedingly clofe to one another, the fine
tlireads appear to our eyes of one uniform colour.—A
third is, That the fibres are folid, or at leaft with re-
fpedt to us maybe confidered as fuch. The faline fub¬
ftance, whatever it is, that is employed to make the
colour ftrike, finks into the furface, partly corrodes
and unites itfelf with it into a third kind of fubftance
no longer foluble in plain water, nor even eafily by
foap, but which ftill preferves its coagulating quality.
According to this hypothefis, the dye lies entirely on
the outfide of the fluff, and continues as long as the ef¬
fect of the fait continues upon the fibres of the matter
to be dyed.
Concerning the truth of thefe hypothefes, or indeed
any others that can be invented, it is impoffible to
bring any decifive proof. It feems, however, more
probable that the procefs of dyeing is accomplished by
a coagulation of the colouring matter itfelf, rather than
by any agglutination of it to the fibres by means of a
vitriolated tartar, as Mr Hellot fuppofes. According
to this gentleman’s theory, a vitriolated tartar is gene¬
rated in every procefs for dyeing, and proceeds from
the acid of the alum and alkaline bafis of the tartar
ufed in the preparations, or in fome of the dyeing in¬
gredients themfelves. He fuppofes that the pores of
the fluff are cleanfed and enlarged by the preparatory
falls, and by the boiling water, in fuch a manner as to
receive the colouring particles, which particles are af¬
terwards detained by the contraction of the pores oc-
cafioned by cold; and further, that thefe pores are li¬
ned with a faliae cruft of tartar or vitriolated tartar.
On this theory, the tranflator of the Chemical Dic¬
tionary has the following obfervations. “ Mr Hellot
has not fhown that pure fixed alkali is incapable of
producing the effects which he attributes to his tartar
and vitriolated tartar; and both thefe falls, though
they are difficult of folution, and require a great quan¬
tity of water for this purpofe, will yet difiblve at laft ;
and therefore, if the colouring particles were fixed
chiefly by means of thefe falts, they might be wafhed
out by a large quantity of water; which we find to be
contrary to experience.
“ We {hall find it more difficult to fubftitute a true
theory, than to refute that of Mr Hellot. Many ex¬
periments ought to be previoufly made. Neverthelefs
it may be obferved, That the colorific particles of moft
fubftances ufed in dyeing feem to be infoluble in wa¬
ter, in fpirit of wine, and even in alkaline lixiviums:
that their diffufion thro’ thefe liquids is caufed merely
by their adhefion to certain gummous and refinous par¬
ticles : and that they may be difengaged from thofe
gummy and refinous matters, by applying a piece of
fluff to which they have a greater adhefive power,
which feems to be the cafe of the root-coloured and
blue dyes; or by applying another fubftance to winch
thefe particles have a greater power of adhefion; fuch
as the earth of alum, in thofe dyes where that fait is
ufed, together with fome other fubftance, as fixed or vo¬
latile alkali, capable of decompofing alum ; or as the
ferruginous earth of the green vitriol in black dyes,
to which the colorific particles of the galls adhere ;
which earths are capable of applying themfelves and
of adhering to the fluffs. The feparation of the co¬
louring particles from the gummy and refinous mat¬
ters is probably facilitated by the addition of acids and
neutral falls, which may coagulate in fome meafurethe
vegetable matters, and leave the colorific particles dif-
engaged ; fo that they may apply themfelves to the
Huff, or to the earths above-mentioned.”
But, in whatever way the falts ufed in dyeing do
a£l, it is certain they are capable, except in a very few
inftances, of fixing and giving a luftre and permanency
to the colour which otherwife could never be obtained.
The exception to this general rule moft commonly
known, is that of indigo. This is a fine blue fecula
produced by fermentation from the leaves of the1 In¬
dian plant called anil. It is very difficult of folution ;
however, it may be diffolved by alkaline falts, concen¬
trated oil of vitriol, orpiment, or combinations of ful-
phur with quicklime. If a quantity of .indigo is dif¬
folved in a fixed alkali,(for volatile alkalies will not dif-
folve it), the folution is always green, which is the
natural colour produced in all vegetable blues by the
alkali: but if any piece of fluff is put into this folution,
though it remains green while immerfed in the liquid,
the moment it comes in contaft with the air, the dif-
folving power of the alkali is totally deftroyed; the in¬
digo is precipitated upon the cloth, refumes its native
colour, and dyes the cloth blue.
The caufe of this precipitation is very difficult to be
inveftigated. Perhaps it may be owing to an at¬
traction of fixed air by the alkali from the atmo-
fphere, which renders the fait unable to diffolye the
iudigo any longer. The adhefion of the colour feems
merely owing to an attraction between it and the cloth;:
for the alkaline fait can contribute nothing to this, but
would.
2569
Theory.
Another
hypothefis.
Exceptions
to the gene-
257°
Practice
S
True and
falfe dyes.
DYE
would rather have the contrary effe&. Perhaps, how¬
ever, the great folvent power pofiefled by alkaline falts,
by perfe&Ty clearing away every kind of fordes, may
bring the indigo and cloth into nearer conta6l with
each other, than when it is diflblved in any other way ;
and confequently the attraction will in thefe cafes be
the ftronger. This feems to have fome probability^
for when indigo is difiblved in vitriolic acid, as in dye¬
ing Saxon blue, the colour is much more eafily dif-
charged.
Another exception is in the juices of fome vegetables,
fuch as the nuts of the anarcadium. This produces,
without addition, a moft deep and lafting black, never
to be walhed out or difcharged by any means whatever.
Several other plants are to be found in different parts
of the world, which give an indelible black ftain upon
linen without addition ; and the colouring matter of
thefe feems to adhere by means of a very tenacious
gluten, with which it is mixed, and which, when once
thoroughly dried, can never be again diffolved. In this
refpeCt, thefe black ftaining colours feCm analogous to
the purpura of the ancients; which ftained indelibly
without addition, and was of an exceedingly vifcous
and adhefive nature.
Sect. II. PraSHce of Dyeing.
§ Of the colouring materials, and ingredients for
fixing the colours.
The materials for dyeing different colours are fo
many and various, that an enumeration of them all is
fcarce to be expeCted. The fame difference, however,
takes place among the materials for dyeing which we
have obferved to take place among thofefor Colour-
Making. Some ingredients produce durable colours,
which cannot be difcharged either by expofure to the
air, or by wafhing with foap : others, though they
may be made to hand the adlion of foap pretty well,
cannot by any means be enabled to refift the aftion of
the air. Thefe are diftinguifhed by the different names
of true and falfe, permanent and fading, &c. ; nor
is there any method yet difcovered of giving the falfe
colours an equal degree of durability with the true ones.
This hath been attempted by mixing a permanent and
a fading colour together ; in which cafe it was thought
that the former would impart fomewhat of its durabi¬
lity to the latter: but this hath always been found to
mifgive ; the fading colour foon flying off, and leaving
the permanent one behind. The fame hath alfo been
attempted by dyeing a piece of fluff partially with a
fading colour, and then completing the dye with a per¬
manent one. In this cafe, it was hoped, that the fading
colour being covered over, and defended from the in¬
juries of the air, by the permanent one, would necef-
farily become equally durable, or at lead remain a
much longer time than if the fluff was dyed with it a-
lone. But this alfo hath been found ineffedlual; and
the fading colour hath been diffipated as foon when co¬
vered with a permanent one, as when left without any
fuch cover.—Solution of tin in aqua regia will give
moft of thefe fading colours an high degree of beauty,
and fome fhare of durability, though even that is not
able to make them equal to the others The moft
permanent dyes we have are cochineal and gum lac for
fine reds and fcarlets: indigo and woad for blue; and,
I N G. Sea. IT.
when mixed in different proportions with cochineal, or PRArricifij
lac, for purple and violet colours. Weld, and fome
other vegetables, for yellow ; and madder for coarfe
reds, purples, and blacks.—The fading colours are
much more numerous. In thisclafs are included Bra¬
zil-wood, logwood, peach-wood, red-wood, fuftic, tur¬
meric root, annotto, archil, &c. &c.
With regard to the falts made ufe of in dyeing, it Salts to bi
hath been but too often cuftomary to jumble together _u,etl hi <lyfr|
fuch a quantity of different ones, that it was not only inS*
impoflible to know in what particular fait the virtue
refided, but often the efficacy of the whole hath been
totally deftroyed, and the colour entirely fpoiled by
fuch injudicious management. It is proper, therefore,
where a mixture of two or more falts is intended to be
made for dyeing, firft to try the change of colour pro¬
duced by each of the falts upon the colouring fubflance.
If the colours are nearly alike, the mixture may be fafe-
ly made as to that particular. But if the two colours
produced by the different falls are very different from
one another, to mix them together mull be very inju¬
dicious. Thus, fuppofe you want to dye fcarlet, fo-
lution of tin in aqua regia produces the neceflary
change of colour on the decoftion of cochineal, and
converts it into a high flame-colour, which fhews it to
be a proper ingredient; but, to the folution of tin, it
would furely be the greatert abfurdity to add a quanti¬
ty of faccharum faturni, the effedl of which is to change
the colour of cochineal to a dull purple. But, tho’the falts
taken feparately fhould produce a colour nearly fimilar,
another thing muft be regarded, namely, whether they
can be mixed with fafety to one another. It is the na¬
ture of many falts to deftroy one another whenever they
come into perfect contadl by being diflblved in water.
Thus, folution of tin and faccharum faturni deftroy one
another; and fodo folution of tin, and tartar, or cream
^ of tartar. To mix thefe together muft therefore beabfurd;
and yet we find this laft mixture ordered in almoft every
receipt for dyeing fcarlet. It is alfo to be obferved, that
a mixture of different falts ought never to be made, out
of a notion that the colour will keep the better on that
account; for moft commonly it will keep the worfe. A
Angle fait will anfwer for this purpofe, better than a
hundred. A mixture (hould only be made where it is
neceffary to produce the colour defired ; and if a dyer
proceeds in this fimple manner, he may not only attain
to great perfection in the art from his own experience
without being taught by others, but even make confi-
derable difcoveries ; as dyeing is at prefent far enough
from being brought to perfection.—The falts chief¬
ly to be ufed in dyeing are fixed alkalies; folutions of
tin in the vitriolic and marine acids, and in aqua re¬
gia ; fugar of lead; cream of tartar; alum ; oil of vi¬
triol ; and folution of iron in the acetous acid. By
means of thefe, almoft all kinds of colours may be dyed
at an eafy rate, and with very little trouble.
§ 2. Of the manner of ufing the ingredients, and of
producing the different colours.
As the art of dyeing is, by the principles above laid
down, reduced to a great degree of fimplicity, almoft
all the directions for the practice will be contained in 10
the following general rule. General
Having cleaned the fubftance to be dyed as well asIulefo^dye’
poffible, and made choice of the fait proper for produ- c0'
cing
fSea. II.
DYE
||k.actice cing the colour defired, diffolve the fait in water, and
fteep the fubftance in that folution for 24 hours. Then
take it out; and, without wringing, hang it up to dry,
but without heat: and for this it will be proper to al¬
low a pretty long time ; for the more ptrfeftly the fait
penetrates the cloth, the more durable will the colour
be. Having then prepared a coloured folntion or de-
co&ion, put the cloth into it. The lefs heat that is
applied during the time the cloth remains in the dye,
the finer the colour will be, but the longer time will be
required for completing the operation. If time cannot
be fpared, fo that a ftrong heatmuft be applied, it will
be neceffary to roll the cloth during the time of dyeing,
or the colour will be in danger of proving unequal.—
After the dyeing is completed, rinfe the cloth in cold
water, but do not wring it feverely; and then hang it
up to dry.
In this way may be dyed a great variety of colours,
on wool, filk, cotton, and linen, without any variation
in the procefs. Solution of tin in the vitriolic acid will
produce all degrees of red, from thepaleft pinkor 'rofe-
colour, to the higheft crimfon and fcarlet; and that on
all the above-mentioned fubftances without exception.
Method, of —A method of producing thefe fine colours upon cot-
dyeing cot- ton and linen, as well as wool, hath been a great deli-
ton and li- deratum jn dyeing ; but by the abovementioned folu-
car e " tion thefe fubitances may be dyed of the moft beautiful
red, crimfon, and fcarlet colours, as any one may very
readily fatisfy himfelf by a trial.—The fame thing may
be done by folution of tin in aqua regia ; but unlefs the
nitrous acid prevails greatly in the mixture, the co¬
lours produced by this laft will incline more to the
purple than the former. With folution of tin in the
marine acid, they incline remarkably to purple, and are
likewife deficient in lultre. The two firft folutions
I2 therefore are capital ingredients in dyeing red.
\nd a The fame preparations will alfo ferve for dyeing all
lumber of other colours,, blue and green only excepted. Thus, a
suk C°" P*ece °f ctath prepared with folution of tin in the vi¬
triolic acid, if boiled in a deco&ion of cochineal, will
come out of a fcarlet colour ; if with turmeric, weld,
fuftic, or many of the common yellow flowers, it will
come out of different degrees of yellow; with Brazil¬
wood, peach-wood, &c. it will give a fine purplifh
crimfon ; with logwood, a fine deep purple, 8c,c.; and
by combining thefe together in different ways, an in¬
finity of different {hades may be produced.
For the coarfe reds produced from madder, the fo-
Ipt-ions of: tin are not found/ to anfwer. The proper
falls for thefe are alum and cream of tartar. In dyeing
with madder, it is always neceffary, more than when
any other ingredient is ufed, to let the heat be gentle;
becaufe the root, befides the red colour it contains, has
alfo a great quantity of brownifh matter in it, which is
extra&ed by ftrong boiling, and debafes every colour
with which it is mixed. Sugar of lead produces a purple
with this root; which, however, will be brightened by
an addition of alum and fal ammoniac. A dark purple
may alfo be produced from madder by mixing alum
with a little folution of iron in the vegetable acids,
particularly the acetous. With regard to blue colours,
they are only to be dyed by means of indigo. This
fubftance may be diffolved, as we have already obfer-
ved, by alkaline falls, concentrated acids, and orpi-
ment. The firft of thefe produces the common blues;
Directions
for the
coarfer co-
lours.
I N G. 2571
the fecond, the Saxon blue; and the third, the blue Practice
which is ufed in callico-printing.—The method of dye- ~
ing the common blue requires only the fluff to be dip¬
ped in a folution of indigo in the alkaline fait; and if
the liquor is hot, the dyeing will be over almoft in-
ftantaneoufly. For cotton and linen, another method
hath been ufed. Lime is added to the pot-afh, and the
ftrength of the alkali being by this means increafed,
the indigo is very foon diffolved. Some raifins are now
to be beat in a brafs or marble mortar to a pulp, and
thrown into the folution of the indigo as foon as taken
off the fire. It foon throws up a copper-coloured fcum
to the furface; and the cotton being now put into the
liquor, receives the colour in an inftant. This is a very
beautiful blue ; but in what manner the raifins aft, is
a matter which yet remains to be determined. If a
piece of cloth is dipped in a folution of copper in the
nitrous acid, and then boiled in logwood, it will come
out of a purplifh blue colour. This dye, however, has
very little beauty or durability, and is therefore fcarce
worthy of notice.
Common green vitriol or copperas is thought to im¬
prove blue colours in general; but on what foundation,
is not very apparent. By means of it, however, the
colour of Pruffian blue may be {truck upon doth in
fuch a mariner as to produce a temporary ftain of ex¬
ceeding great beauty ; and could any method of fixing
this colour be fallen upon, it would undoubtedly be a
moft valuable acquifition. The method is, to digeft
fome Pruffian blue in fixed alkali till the colour is ex-
trafted. In this folution dip the cloth intended to be
dyed, and dry it; then let it lie for a little time in a
weak folution of copperas, and it will immediately be¬
come of a moft beautiful blue colour. This colour,
however, is difcharged by walking with foap, and even
with Ample water. ,4
A receipt was publifhed by MrWoulfe, in the Phi- Mr
'lofophical Tranfaftions, for an improved method of dye- Woulfe’s
ing the Saxon blue; which is done by difiblving indigo r^'Pt f',r
. & J •, r • • 1 r,,, , • 6 & Saxon blues
in concentrated oil of vitriol. Ihe only improvement
in Mr Woulfe’s procefs, confifted in digefting the oil
of vitriol and indigo in the heat of boiling water in-
ftead of a land-heat, becaufe the latter was often found
to fpoil the colour. After the indigo is diffolved, the
folution may be weakened at pleafure with water; and
any piece of fluff then dipped in it will imbibe the co¬
lour, in proportion to the ftrength of the folution.
This dye is very beautiful; but will neither keep its
colour, nor Hand walking with foap: unlefs great care
is taken, it is alfo very apt to prove unequal. JS
Green colours are to be produced only by a mixture Green cn-
of blue and yellow; for there is no ingredient yet dif- l°«r how
covered, that will, by itfelf, give a good green dye-
Sap-green will indeed communicate its own colour to
cloth of any kind, and for that purpofe is ufed in fome
places ; but the colours dyed with this ingredient are
by no mean* eligible. It is common firft to dye the
cloth blue with indigo, and then yellow with any yel¬
low colouring ingredient; by which means a green co¬
lour is produced. For the dyeing of Saxon green, Mr 16
however, it is neceffary to produce a particular kind of Woulfe’s
yellow froffi Indigo. This is obtained by diffolving receipt for
indigo in fpirit of nitre. Mr Woulfe recommends an Sax°n
ounce and an half of powdered indigo to be mixed with &reen*
two ounces of fpirit of nitre diluted with four times its
quantity
2572 DYE
Practice quantity of water. Tlie mixture is then to ftand for a
week; and, at the end of that fpace, muil be digefted in a
fand-heat for an hourormore ; after which, four ounces
more of water is to be added : the folution, when fil¬
tered, will be of a fine yellow colour.— Strong'fpirit of
nitre is apt to fee fire to indigo; for which reafon, as
well as to hinder the mixture from frothing up, it mull
be diluted with water. Two ounces and an half of
ftrong fpirit of nitre will fet fire to one ounce and an
half of indigo ; but if the acid is highly concentrated,
a lefs quantity will ferve.
If the indigo be digefted 24 hours after the fpirit of
nitre is poured on it, it will froth and boil over; but,
after (landing a week or lefs, it has not that property.
One part of the folution of indigo in the acid of
nitre, mixed with four Or five parts of water, will dye
lilk or cloth ofthepaleft yellow colour, or of any (hade
to the deepeft, and that by letting them boil more or
lefs in the colour. The addition of alum is ufeful, as
it makes the colour more lading. According as the fo¬
lution boils away, more water moft be added.
None of the colour in the operation feparates from
the water, but what adheres to the filk or cloth; of
confiequence, this colour goes far in dyeing.
Cochineal, Dutch litmus, archil, cudbear, and many
other colouring fubftances, treated in this manner, will
all dye filk and wool of a yellow colour.
The indigo which remains undifiblved 'in making
Saxon blue, and collefted by filtration, if digefted with
fpirit of nitre, dyes filk and wool of all (hades of brown
inclining to a yellow.
Cloth and filk maybe dyed green with indigo; but
they muft firft be boiled in the yellow dye, and then in
Xy the blue.
Black co- Black colours are dyed by preparing the cloth with
lours how any folution of iron, (but that in the acetous acid is
dyed* beft,) and then boiling it in a decoftion of any aftrin-
gent vegetable. Thofe chiefly made ufe of for the
purpofes of dyeing, are galls, fumach, logwood, and
madder. Of thefe the laft is the moft durable; though
galls will alfo produce a pretty lading colour, if pro¬
perly managed. Logwood dyes a very pretty, but
fading, black colour. It appears, however, from fome
experiments made by Mr Clegg, that, by a proper pre¬
paration of the cloth with fixed alkaline falls, black
PerdvaFs co^ours dyed w^h logwood might be improved both as to
Effays m beauty and durability. —“ I took (fays he) two veffels,
j). 335. - containing equal meafures of a ftrong aftringent liquor,
compofed of galls and logwood: into one veffel I put
a fmall quantity of pearl-afhes; the other remained as
a ftandard. Pieces of linen and cotton cloth, after
maceration in thefe liquors, were thrown together into
a ftrong folution of copperas; they were foon after ta¬
ken out, and wafhed in cold water. When dry, the
pieces prepared in allies were, all of them, much deeper
than the others.
“ I made ufe of different kinds of pearl and pot
afhes, as well as many kinds of aftringents: the afhes
had the fame effeft whatever aftringent was made ufe
of, and the ftrongeft alkali always produced the deepeft
colour; and though afhes, ufed with an aftringent, al¬
ways gave a deeper colour than the fame aftringent
without afhes, yet logwood, which without afhes gave
rot fo deep a colour as galls with them, gave a much
deeper black than galls with the fame addition.
I N G. Sea. If.
“ There was a remarkable difference in this cafe be- Practic fc
tween lime and afhes in their effeft upon logwood; with "■ f
lime it gave no blacknefs, but with afhes it produced a
deeper black than any other aftringent 1 made ufe of.
“ Being defirous of trying the duration of colours
produced by aftringents, in which different quantities
of pearl-afhes had been diffolved; in two pints of river
water I boiled one ounce of logwood during ten mi¬
nutes ; I then added half an ounce of Aleppo galls,
and boiled them together ten minutes longer ; the li¬
quor having flood to cool, was decanted off, and di¬
vided into fix equal quantities. N° 1 remained as a
ftandard; into N° 2, Iput fix grains of fine pearl-afhes ;
N° 3, twelve grains; N° 4, eighteen grains; N° 5,
twenty-four grains; N° 6, thirty grains. To fix drops
of each of thefe liquors, I added two drops of a fatu-
rated folution of copperas. N°2 and 3 (truck a deep
black; N° I and 4, black, but inferior to 2 and 3;
N° 5, a brown black; N° 6, brown.
“ From this experiment it appears, that N°5 and 6
were fpoiled by an over proportion of afhes.—All thefe
colours were tried by writing with them on paper, and
the writings have now been expofed fix months to the
air. In N° 5 and 6, the blacknefs is quite deftroyed;
N° 4 is fomething faded; N° 1, 2, 3, remain nearly as
they were, N° 2 and 3 being (till fuperior to the ftan¬
dard.”
The fineft blacks are firft dyed blue, with indigo; ’
and afterwards black with folution of iron, and fome
aftringent vegetable, according to the dire&ions alrea¬
dy given.
Thefe are the beft methods for producing permanent
colours of all kinds. As it is neceffary, however, often
to give another colour to fluffs which have been al¬
ready dyed, it is plain, that it is as neceffary for a dyer
to know how to difeharge colours, as how to make the jg
cloth imbibe them.—Concerning this, it is only necef- How to dif-:
fary to obferve, that alkaline falls are in general the cl,arge j-0*
beft, and, where the colours are well dyed, the only ^ed.'* ^
means of difeharging them. If a piece of cloth is
dyed with logwood, and the colour ftruck upon it with
alum, that colour will be nearly difeharged by oil of
vitriol, or any other ftrong acid; but if folution of
tin has been employed in flriking the colour, acids have
then no effe&, and alkalies only can be employed.
Neither will they difeharge the colour totally, but the
Huff muft be bleached for fome time to get out the re¬
mainder. If alkaline falls cannot be employed with
fafety to the fluff, it is then impoffible to dye it any
other colour than black; unlefs it be dyed a compound
colour, of which the original one is a component part. *9
Concerning the weight that colours give to filk, (in
which it is mofl takeq notice of, being fold by weight, wg^ht in
and a commodity of great price), it is obferved, that dyeing,
one pound of raw filk lofeth four ounces by wafhing
out the gums and the natural fordes; that the fame
fcoured filk may be raifed to above thirty ounces from
the remaining twelve, if it be dyed black with fome ma¬
terials. Of all the materials ufed in dyeing, efpecially of
black, nothing increafes weight fo much as galls, by which
black filks are reftored to as much weight as they loft
by wafhing out their gum : nor is it counted extraor¬
dinary, that blacks fhould gain about four or fix ounces
in the dyeing upon each pound. Next to the galls, old
fuftic increafes the weight about if in 12; madder,
about
DRY [ 2573 ] DRY
about one ounce; weld, half an ounce. The blue vats weight; neither do logwood, cochineal, nor even cop¬
in deep blues of the fifth flail, give no confiderable peras, where galls are not.
Dynafty YIyzivig of Hats. See Hats.
" Dyeing of Leather. See Leather.
Dyeing, or Staining, of paper, wood, bone, marble,
&c. See Bone, Marble, Paper, Wood, &c.
DYNASTY, among ancient hiftorians, fignifies a
race or fucceflion of kings of the fame line or family.
Such were the dynafties of Egypt. The word is form¬
ed from the Greek ^as-sia, of to be power¬
ful, or king.
The Egyptians reckon 30 dynafties within the fpace
of 36,525 years ; but the generality of chronologers
look upon them as fabulous. And it is very certain,
that thefe dynafties are not continually fucceflive, but
collateral.
DYSCRACY, among phyficians, denotes an ill ha¬
bit or ftate of the humours, as in the fcurvy, jaundice,
&c.
DYSENTERY, in medicine, a diarrhoea or flux,
wherein the ftools are mixed with blood, and the bowels
miferably tormented with gripes. See (the jWex fub-
joined to) Medicine.
DYSENTERIC fever. Ibid.
DYSERT, a parliament-town of Scotland, in the
county of Fife, fituated on the northern fhore of the
frith of Forth, about 11 miles north of Edinburgh. Dyforexy
DYSOREXY, among phyficians, denotes a want Eac}|'ar(j
of appetite, proceeding from a weakly ftomach. a
DYSPEPSY, a difficulty of digeftion.
DYSPNOEA, a difficulty of breathing, ufually
called afthma.
DYSURY, in medicine, a difficulty of making urine,
attended with a fenfation of heat and pain. See (the
Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
DYTISCUS, water-beetle, in zoology, a genus
of infedls of the order of the coleoptera ; the antenna;
of which are flender and fetaceous, and the hind feet
are hairy and formed for fwimming. There are 23
fpecies, diftinguifhed by their antennae, the colour of
the elytra, &c.
DYVOUR, in Scots law; otherwifeBarc-man: A
perfon who, being involved in debt, and unable to pay
the fame,—for avoiding imprifonment and other pains,
makes ceffion of his effects in favour of his creditors;
and does his devoir and duty to them, proclaiming him-
felf bare man and indigent, and becoming debt-bound
to them of all that he has. The word is ufed in the
fame fenfe as Bankrupt : fee that article; and Law,
N°clxxxv. m, 12. clxxii. 10, 11, 12, &c.
E-
ETHE fecond vowel, and fifth letter, of the al-
’ phabet. The letter E is moft evidently derived
from the old charadler 7[ in the ancient Hebrew and
Phoenician alphabets, inverted by the Greeks to this
pofition E, and not from the Hebrew He n. From the
fame origin is alfo derived the Saxon e, which is the
firfl: letter in their alphabet that differs from the Latin
one. It is formed By a narrower opening of the la¬
rynx than the letter A; but the other parts of the
mouth are ufed nearly in the fame manner as in that
letter.
It has a long and fhort found in moft; languages.
The fhort found is audible in bed, fret, den, and other
words ending in confonants: its long found is produ-
by a final e, or an e at the end of words ; as in glebe,
here, hire, feene, fphere, interfere, revere, fncere, 8c c.
iii moft of which it founds like ee; as alfo in fome o-
thers by coming after i, as in believe, chief, grief re¬
prieve, See. and fbmetimes this long found is expref-
fed by ee, as in bleed, beer, creed. See. Sometimes the
final e is filent, and only ferves to lengthen the found
of the preceding vowel, as in rag, rage, fag, fage,
hug, huge, &c. The found of e is obfeure in the fol¬
lowing words, oxen, heaven, bounden, fire, majfacre,
maugre, &c.
The Greeks have their long and fhort <?, which they
call epfilon and eta. The French have at lead fix kinds
Vol. IV.
ofe’s: the Latins bave likewife a long and fhort e; they
alfo write e inftead of a, as dicem for dicam, &c. and
this is, no doubt, the reafon why « is fo often changed
intoe, in the preter tenfe, as, ago, egi; facto, feci, &c.
As a numeral, E ftands for 25c*, according to the
verfe,
E, quoque duccntos et quiriquaginta tenelit-
In mufic it denotes the tone e-la-mi. In the calen¬
dar it is the fifth of the dominical letters. And in fea-
charts it diftinguifhes all the eafterly points: thus, E
alone denotes eaft ; and E. by S. and E. by N. Eaft
by South, and Eaft by North.
EACHARD (John), an Englifh divine of great
learning and wit in the 17th century, bred at Cam¬
bridge, author (in 1670) of The Grounds and Occafons
of the Contempt of the Clergy and Religion inquired into.
In 1675 he was chofen mailer of Catharine-hall upon
the deceafe of Dr John Lightfoot; and the year fol¬
lowing was created D. D. by royal mandate. He died
in 1696.
Eachard (Laurence), an eminent Englifh hiftorian
of the 18th century, nearly related to Dr John Eachard.
He was the fon of a clergyman, who, by the death of
his elder brother, became mafter of a good eftate in
Suffolk. He was educated in the univerfity of Cam¬
bridge, entered into holy orders, and was prefented to
the living of Welton and Elkinton in Lincolnfhire,
14 Z where
EAR L 2574 ] EAR.
Eagle where he fpent above 20 years of his life, and diftin-
il guilhed himfelf by his writings, efpecially his Hiftory
'Ear' of England, which was attacked by Dr Ednaund Ca-
lamy, and by Mr John Oidmixon. His “ General Ec-
cleflaftical Hiftory from the Nativity of Chrift to the
firft Eftablifhnaent of Chriftianity by Human Laws un¬
der the emperor Conftantine the Great,” has paffed
through feveral editions. He was irtllalled archdeacon
of Stowe and prebend of Lincoln in 1712. He died
in 1730.
EAGLE, in ornithology. See Falco.
Eagle, in heraldry, is accounted one of the moft
noble bearings In armoury; and, according to the learn¬
ed in this fcience, ought to be given to none but fuch
as greatly excel in the virtues of generofity and cou¬
rage, or for having done fingular fervices to their fove-
reigns ; in which cafes they may be allowed a whole
eagle, or an eagle naiflant, or only the head or other
parts thereof, as maybe moft agreeable to. their ex¬
ploits.
The eagle has been ber-ne, by way of enfign or ftand-
ard, by feveral nations. The firft whofeem to have af-
fumed the eagle, are the Perfians; according to the
teftimony of Xenophon. Afterwards, it was taken by
the Romans; who, after a great variety of ftandards,
at length fixed on the eagle, in the fecond year of the
confulate of C. Marius; till that time, they ufed in¬
differently wolves, leopards, and eagles,, according to
the humour of the commander.
The Roman eagles, it muft be obferved, were not
painted on a cloth, or flag: but were figures in relievo,
of filver or gold, borne on the tops of pikes; the wings
being difplaytd, and frequently a thunder-bolt in their
talons. Under the eagle on the pike, were piled buck¬
lers, and fometimes crowns. Thus much we learn from
the medals.
Eagle, in aftronomy. See there, n° 203, 206.
YjAGIsV.-Stone. See ^Etites.
Black Eagle, an order of knighthood, inffituted by
the ele&or of Brandenburgh, in 1701, on his being
crowned king of Pruffia.
The knights of this order wear an orange-coloured
ribband fufpending a black eagle.
White Eagle, a like order in Poland, inftituted in
1325> by Uladiflaus V. on occafion of the marriage of
his fon Cafimir to the daughter of the great duke of
Lithuania.,
The knights of this order wear a chain of gold, fuf¬
pending a filver eagle crowned.
EAGLET, a diminutive of eagle, properly figni-
fying a young eagle. In heraldry, when there arc fe¬
veral eagles on the fame efcutcheon, they are termed
eaglets.
EAR, in anatomy. See there, n° 405.
Ear, in mufic, denotes a kind of internal fenfe,
whereby we perceive and judge of harmony and mufi-
cal founds. See Music.
.In mufic we feem univerfally to acknowledge fbme-
thing like a diftinft fenfe from the external one of
hearing ; and call it a good ear. And the like diftinc-
tion we fliould probably acknowledge in other affairs,
had we got diftina names to denote thefe powers of
perception by. Thus a greater capacity of perceiving
the beauties of painting, architeaure, &c. is called a
Sue tajte.
Ear is alfo ufed to fignify a long clufter of flowers,
or feeds, produced by certain plants ; ufually called by
botanifts, /pica. The flowers and feeds of wheat, rye,
barley, &c. grow in ears. The fame holds of the
flowers of lavender, &c. We fay the Jlem of the ear,
i. e. its tube, or ftraw: the knot of the ear; the lobes,
or cells wherein the grains are inclofed ; the beard of
the ear, &c.
'E.A.K-Ach. See (the Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
Ear-P/'H, an .inftrument of ivory, filver, or other
metal, fomewhat in form of a probe, for cleanfing the
ear.
The Chinele have a variety of thefe inftruments,
with which they are mighty fond of tickling their ears}.
but this praftice, Sir Hans Sloane obferves, muft be
very prejudicial to fo delicate an organ, by bringing
too great a flow of humours on it.
Ear-P/V/j*. See Pendent.
EAR-IPirv. See Ear-VJ&.x.
EARWIG, in zoology. See Forficula.
EARING, in the fea-language, is that part of the
bolt-rope which at the four corners of the fail is left
open, in the fhape of a ring. The two uppermoft parts
are put over the ends of the yard-arms, and fo the
fail is made faft to the yard ; and into the lowermoffc
earings, the ftieets and tacks are feized or bent at the
clew.
E ARL, a Britifh title of nobility, next below a mar¬
quis, and above a vifcount.
The title is fo ancient, that its original cannot be’
clearly traced out. This much, however,-feems tole¬
rably certain, that among the Saxons they were called
eatdbrmen, quafi elder men, fignifying the fame witfi
fenior or fcnator among the Romans; and alfo fchire-
men, becaufe they had each of them the civil govern¬
ment of a feveral divifion or {hire. On the irruption of
the Danes they changed their names to eorles, which,
according toCambden, fignified the fame in their lan¬
guage. In Latin they are called comites, (a title firft
ufed ia the empire), from being'the king’s attendants;
a focietate nomen fumpferunt, regis enim tales ftbi af-
fociant. After the Norman conqueft they were for
fome time called counts, or countees, from the French ;
but they did not long retain that name themfelves, tho’
their (hires are from thence called counties to this day.
It is now become a mere title: they have nothing to do
with the government of the county ; which is now en¬
tirely devolved on the flieriff, the earl’s deputy, or vice*
comes. In writs, commiffions, and other formal in¬
ftruments, the king, when he mentions any peer of the
degree of an earl, ufually ftyfes him “ trufty and well-
beloyed couftnan appellation as ancient as the reign
of Henry IV ; who being either by his wife, his mo¬
ther, or his fifters, a£1 naily related or allied to every
earl in the kingdom, artfully and conftantly acknow¬
ledged that connexion in all his letters and other public
ails: from whence the ufage his defcended.to his fuc-
ceffors, though the reafon has long ago failed.
An earl is created by clnfture of fword, mantle of
ftate put upon him by the king himfelf, a cap and a co¬
ronet put upon his head, and a charter in his hand. All
the earls of England are denominated from fome {hire*
town, or place,'except three ; two of whom, viz. earl
Rivers, and earl Paulet, take their denomination from
illuftrious families: the third is not only honorary as
EAR [ 2575 ] EAR
E=n all the reft, but alfo officiary, as the earl-mar(hal of
EJ|h England.
  —!— E^ R l Marfral of England, is a great officer who
had anciently feveral courts under his jurifdi&ion, as
the court of chivalry, and the court of honour. Under
him is alfo the herald’s office or college of arms. He
hath fome pre-eminence in the court of Marlhalfea,
where he may fit in judgment againll thofe who. offend
within the verge of the king’s court. The office is of
great antiquity in England, and anciently of greater
power than now: and has been for feveral ages heredi¬
tary in themoft noble family of Howard.
EARNEST, arrh^:, money advanced to bind the
parties to the performance of a verbal bargain. By the
civil law, he who recedes from his bargain lofes his
earneft, and if the perfon who received the earneftgive
back, he is to return the earneft double. But with us,
the perfon who gave it, is in ftri&nefs obliged to abide
by his bargain ; and in cafe he decline it, is not dif-
charged upon forfeiting his earneft, but may be fued
for the whole money ftipulated.
EARTH, among ancient philofophers and chemifts,
one of the four elements of which the whole fyftem of
nature was thought to be compofed. See Element ;
and Chemistry, n° 10.
Earth, in aftronomy and geography, one of the
primary planets; being this terraqueous globe which
we inhabit.
The cofmogony, or knowledge of the original for¬
mation of the earth, the materials of which it was com¬
pofed, and by what means they were difpofed in the
order in which we fee them at prefent, is a fubjedt
which, though perhaps above the reach of human fa-
gacity, has exercifed the wit of philoiophers in all
ages. To recount the opinions of all the eminent phi¬
lofophers of antiquity upon this fubjeft would be very
tedious: it may therefore fuffice to obferve, that, ever
fince the fubjeft began to becanvaffed, the opinions of
thofe who have treated it may be divided into two claf-
, fes. 1. Thofe who believed the earth, and whole
'Different vifible fyftem of nature, to be the Deity himfelf, or
•opimons conne&ed with him in the fame manner that a human
ttacofmo- body is with its foul. 2. Thofe who believed the ma-
■gouy. terials of it to have been eternal, but diltinel from the
Deity, and put into the prefent order by fome power
either inherent in themfelves, or belonging to the Dei¬
ty. Of the firft opinion were Xenophanes, the foun¬
der of the eleatic feS, Strato of Lampfacus, the Pe¬
ripatetics, &c.
The fecond opinion, namely, that the fubftance of
the earth or univerfe (for it is impoffible to fpeak of
the one without the other) was eternal, though not
the form, was moft generally held among the ancients.
From that eftablifhed axiom, that “ nothing can be
produced from nothing,” they concluded that creation
was an impoffibility; but at the fame time they thought
they had good reafon to believe the world had not been
always in its prefent form. They who held this opi¬
nion may again be divided into two claffes : firft, thofe
who endeavoured to account for the generation of the
world, or its redu&ion into the prefent form, by prin¬
ciples merely mechanical, without having recourfe to
any affiftance from divine power ; and fecondly, thofe
who introduced an intelligent mind as the author and
difpofer of all things. To the firft of thefe claffes be¬
longed the cofmogony of the Babylonians, Phoenicians, Earth,
and Egyptians; the particulars of which are too ah- "
furd to deferve notice. Of the fame opinion alfo'were
moft of the poets; the philofophers Thales, Anaximan¬
der, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, &c. The latter at¬
tempted to reform the philofophy of his matter Anaxi¬
menes by introducing^ an intelligent principle into the
world, diftindf from matter ; thus making his intelli,
gent principle, or God, the foul of the world. Dio-
enes of Apollonia fuppofed air, which he made the
rft principle of all things, to be endued with reafon :
His manner of philofophifing differed very little from
that of Des Cartes. “ All things, (fays he,) being in
motion, fome became condenfed, and others rarefied.
In thofe places where condenfation prevailed, a whirl¬
ing motion, or vortex, was formed; which by its revo¬
lution drew in the reft, and the lighter parts flying
upwards formed the fun.” 2
The moft remarkable of the atheiftic fyftems, how- Syftems of
ever, was the atomic one, fuppofed to have been in- Democritus
vented by Democritus ; though Laertius attributes it and Epicu-
to Leucippus, and fome make it much older. Ac- rus‘
cording to this fyftem, the firft principles of all things
were an infinite multitude of atoms, or indivifible par¬
ticles of different fixes and figures ; which, moving
fortuitoufly, or without defign, from all eternity, in
infinite fpace, and encountering with one another, be¬
came varioufly entangled during their confiift. This
firft produced a confufed chaos of all kinds of particles;
which afterwards, by continual agitation, ftriking and
repelling each other, difpofed themfelves into a vortex,
or vortices, where, after innumerable revolutions, and
motions in all poffible dire&ions, they at laft fettled
into their prefent order.
The hypothefis of Democritus agrees in the main
with that of Epicurus as reprefented by Lucretius;
excepting that no mention is made of thofe vortices,
which yet were an effential part of the former. To
the two properties of magnitude and figure which De¬
mocritus attributed to his atoms, Epicurus added a
third, namely, weight; and without this, he did not
imagine they could move at all. The fyftem of De¬
mocritus neceffarily introduced abfolute fatal neceffity;
which Epicurus not choofing to agree to, he invented
a third motion of the atoms, unknown to thofe who
had gone before him. His predeceffors allowed
them to have a perpendicular and reflexive motion : but
Epicurus, though he allowed thefe motions to be ab-
folutely neceffary and unavoidable, afferted that the
atoms could alfo of themfelves decline from the right
line; and from this declination of the atoms, he ex¬
plained the free-will of man.—The moft material dif¬
ference between the two fyftems, however, was, that
Epicurus admitted no principle but the atoms them¬
felves ; whereas Democritus believed them to be ani¬
mated.
Of thofe who held two diftinfl and coeternal prin- of Pytha-
ciples, viz. God and Matter, we (hall only take notice goras, Pla-
of the opinions of Pythagoras, Plato, and Ariftotle, as t0»,and
being the moft remarkable. Pythagoras is faid to have Ariflot!e'
afferted two fubftantial felf-exiftent principles: a monad,
or unity ; and a dyad, or duality. The meaning of
thefe terms is now fomewhat yncertain. .Some, think,
that by the monad, he meant the Deity; and, by the
dyad, matter. Others think, that the Pythagoric mo-
14 Z 2 nads
EAR
Earth, nads were atoms. The dyad Is fometimes thought to
lignify a demon or evil principle; but Porphyry’s in¬
terpretation, which feems the moft probable, is as fol¬
lows. The caufe, fays he, of that fympathy, harmony,
and agreement which is in things, and of the conferva-
tion of the whole, which is always the fame and like
itfelf, was by Pythagoras called that unity which
is in the things themfelves, being but a participation of
the firft caufe: but the reafon of difference, inequality,
. and conftant irrregularity in things, was by him called
a dyad. This philofopher held numbers to be the prin¬
ciples of all things, and from them he accounted for
the produftion of the world in the following manner.
He fuppofed that the monad and dyad were the two
fources of numbers, from whence proceeded points;
from points, lines; from lines, plane figures; from
planes, folids ; from folids, fenfible bodies. The ele¬
ments of ferifible bodies are four ; but befides thefe,
there was a fifth (never yet difcovered.) The four ele¬
ments which manifeft themfelves to our fenfes are fire,
air, earth, and water. Thefe are in a perpetual change,
and from them the world was formed ; which is ani¬
mated, intelligent, and fpherical ; containing, in the
midft of it, the earth, a globofe and inhabited body.
The world, he faid, began from fire, and the fifth ele¬
ment ; and that as there were five figures of folid bo¬
dies, called mathematical or regular, the earth was
made of the cube, fire of the pyramid or tetrahedron,
the air of the oftahedron, water of the icofahedron,
and the fphere of the univerfe of the dodecahedron.—
This method of philofophizing, which has no manner
of foundation fa nature, was adopted by Plato and A-
riftotle ; and hence proceeded all the abfurdities con¬
cerning ideas, forms, qualities, &c. with which the A-
riftotelian philofophy was loaded.
For a long time, however, the philofophy of Ari-
ftotle prevailed, and the world was thought to be up¬
held by forms, qualities, and other unintelligible and
imaginary beings.—At laft the French philofopher,
Defcartes, fuperfeded the Ariftotelian, by introducing
the atomic, or Democritic, and Epicurean philofo-
f See phyf. The Cartefian fyftem w^as quickly fuperfeded
AjtfOMmy, the Newtonian; which ftill continues, though
confiderably different from what it was left by that
Newtonian Sreat mat1,—His opinions, indeed, concerning the cof-
fyftem fn- mogony feem to have been in a flu&uating {fate ; and
perfedes the hence he delivers himfelf in fuch a manner, that he hath
Jian^d* °^ten *DCUrred the charge of contradicting himfelf.—
Cartefian He maintained, for inftance, that matter was infinitely
divifible, and the mathematical demonftrations of this
propofition are well known. Notwithrtanding this,
However, when he comes particularly to fpeak of the
original conftru&ion of the world, he feems to retrad
this opinion, and adopt the atomic philofophy. He
tells us, that it feems probable, that in the beginning
God formed matter in folid, maffy, impenetrable, par-
* See Coke- tides, &c.*; and that of thefe particles, endowed with
Jim, n j. various powers of attraction and repulfion, the prefent
$ fyftem of nature is formed. His primary laws of na-
Three laws tore are only three in number, and very fimple. The
kid down ,matper has a tendency to continue in
fcySirlfaac. that ftate in which it is once placed, whether of reft or
motion. If it is at reft, for example, it wijl continue
at reft for ever, without beginning motion of itfelf; but
if it is once fet in motion, by any caufe whatever, it
EAR
will for ever continue to move in a right line, until Earth.;
fomething either ftops it altogether, or forces it to
move in another dire&ion. 2. That the change of
motion is always equivalent to the moving force em¬
ployed to produce it, and in the direction of the right
line in which it is impreffed; that is, if a certain force
produces a certain motion, double that force will pro¬
duce double that motion, ice. 3. ReaCtion is always
contrary and equal to aCtion; or the aCtions of two bo¬
dies upon one another are always equal and contrary to
one another.
From thefe three laws, together with the two con¬
trary forces of attraction and repulfion, Sir Ifaac New¬
ton and his followers have attempted to explain all the
phenomena of nature. When they come to explain the
nature of the attractive and repulfive forces, however,
they are exceedingly embarraffed. Sir Ifaac hath
expreffed himfelf in two different ways concerning
them. In his Principia, he pretty pofitively deter¬
mines them to be owing to a caufe that is not mate¬
rial; and in his Queries, he fuppofes they may be ef- 6
feCts of fame fubtile matter which he calls ether. This Difagrce-.
difagreement with himfelf hath produced no fmall dif- ment a-
agreement among his followers. One party, laying mong his
hold of his affertions in the Principia, determine the Shower*,
world to be upheld by immaterial powers; while the
other, neglecting the Principia, and taking notice on¬
ly of the Queries at the end of the Optics, ftrenuoufly
maintain, that attraction and repulfion are owing to
the aCtion of forne exceedingly fine and fubtile ether.—
The firft of thefe fuppofitions, it is argued, neceffarily in¬
volves us in one of the following dilemmas. 1. If the at¬
tractive and repulfive forces are not material, they muft
either be occafioned by fpiritual beings, or they muft be
qualities of matter. If they are occafioned by the aCtion
of immaterial beings, thefe beings muft either be cre¬
ated or uncreated. If they are produced by the aCtion
of created beings, we run into the fuppofition of.fome
of the ancient heathens, that the world is governed by
demons or fubordinate intelligences; and thus may
make an eafy tranfition to polytheifm. If attraction
and repulfion are the immediate aCtion of the Dei y
himfelf, we run into the doCtrine of making God the
foul of the world.—This laft hypothefis hath been moft
ftrenuoufly adopted by Mr Baxter in his treatife of the 7
Immateriality of the human Soul. Mr Bofcovich, Mr Mit-
MrMitchel, and Df Prieftley, have likewife adopted the c^e!>
hypothefis of immaterial powers to fuch a degree, that, j)r Prieft-'1
according to them, the whole world conlifts of nothing ley’s 0pi-
elfe but attractions and repuljions mixed with phyjical nions.
poisits*. 2. If we fuppofe the attractive and repulfive * See Cohe*
powers to be only properties, qualities, or laws, im- fw“> II0 a*
preffed on matter by the Deity, we might as well have
been contented with the occult qualities of Ariftotle.
—If attraction and repulfion are occafioned by the ac¬
tion of mere matter, and all the powers in nature are
only material, the charge is incurred of making nature
direCt itfelf in fuch a manner, that there is no occafion
for the interpofition, or even the exiftence, of a Deity
at all.
Thus we fee, the Newtonian cofmogony muft incline
either to the Platonic and Ariftotelian, or to the Ato¬
mic or Epicurean ; according to the hypothecs we lay
down concerning the nature of attraction. Des Car-,
tes’s fyftem was plainly a revival of that of Democri¬
tus
[ 2576 1
EAR [25
Bij Earth, tus and Epicurus, with fome corre&ions and iinprove-
Ti' ^  ments. It was farther improved and corre&ed by Mr
i •!.: Mr Hut- Hutchinfon, who added to it the authority of Revela-
Hchinfon’s tion. The created agents he chofe in his cofmogony
Hfyftctn. were flrej light, and air. Thefe, we fee, have indeed
a very confiderable (hare in the operations of nature ;
but unlefs we explain the manner in which they operate,
our knowledge is not at all increafed, and we might as
well have been contented with the Newtonian attrac¬
tion and repullion, or even the occult qualities of Ari-
ftotle. Attempts have indeed been made to folve the
phenomena of nature, from the adtion of thefe three
agents, both by Hutchinfon himfelf, and many of his
followers.—Thefe attempts, however, have always
proved unfuccefsful. Some phenomena indeed may be
explained pretty plaulibly from the known adtion of
thefe three; but when we come to fpeak of what may be
called the nicer operations of nature, fuch as the growth
of plants and animals, we are utterly at a lofs. A fhort
account of the Hutchinfonian cofmogony is given under
p the article Deluge, par. 6.
i A-deficien- The manifeft deficiency of a’dlive principles in all the
ey of a£Hve theories of the earth that have yet been invented, hath
Slif'u'tlJr occaf,oned a conftant fearch after others which (hould
tpories'yct ke able, by their fuperior adlivity, to fill up the blank
kvcuted. which necefiarily remained in the fyftem.—Pythagoras,
Plato, and Ariftotle, being unable to account for the
formation of the earth from their four elements, called
in the afiiftance of a fifth', which was never yet difco-
vered. Epicurus, finding the motions attributed to
his atoms by Democritus to be infufficient, had recourfe
to an imaginary, and on his own principles impofiihle,
declination of the atoms. Defcartes finding the atoms
themfelves infufficient, afferted that they were not atoms,
but might be broken into fmaller parts, and thus con-
J * See ilitute matter of various degrees of fubtilty*. The New-
I Wfr1' ton,an ph'l0f°phers l>ave found Des Cartes’s fyftem
infufficient; but being greatly diftrefied in their at¬
tempts to folve all the phenomena of nature by mere
attradlion and repulfion, have been obliged to call in
the adtion of mind to their affiftance. The Hutchin-
fonians were hardly put to it in accounting for every
thing by the adtion of fire, light, and air, when
luckily the difcoveries in eledtricity came to their
affiftance. It muft be owned, that this fluid does
indeed come in like a kind of fifth element, which
in many caies appears to be the animating principle of
nature. For fome time paft, almoftallthe remarkable
phenomena in nature have been explained by electricity,
or the aftion of the eledtric fluid. But unlefs this ac¬
tion is explained, we are got no farther than we were
before. To fay any thing is done by ele&ricity, is not
more intelligible than to fay it was done by attra&ion.
If we explain an effe& by a material caufe, it ought
to be done'upon mechanical principles. We ought to
be fenfible how one part of matter adts upon another
part in fuch a manner as to produce the effedt we de-
lire to explain. The eledtrical philofophers, however,
have not yet been able to inveftigate the manner in
which this fubtile fluid operates ; and hence the many
difcoveries in eledtricity have not contributed to throw
that light on the theory of the earth, which perhaps
they may do hereafter. With fome philofophers, how¬
ever, the eledftric fluid itfelf, and indeed all the powers of
mature, feem in danger of being fuperfeded by a pvin-
77 ] E A R
ciple, at prefent very little known, called thephlogifion. Earth.
—Thus, Mr Henly tells us*, that Mr Clarke, an inge- •phn. '
nious gentleman in Ireland, hath difcovered allthedifle- Trum:
rent kinds of air produced from metals, 8cc. by Dr vol. 6j,
Prieftley, to be only phlogijlic vapours arifing from thefe
fubftances. Dr Prieftley himfelffuppofes,thattheeledlric
light is a modification of phlogifton; and confequently
thinks it probable, that all light is a modification of the
fame. Fire or flame is thought to be a chemical combina¬
tion of air with the phlogifton ; andphlogifton is thought
to give the elafticity to air, and every other elaftic fluid,
&c.—Be this as it will, however, the late difcoveries in
eledlricity have tended very much to change the form of
the Newtonian philofophy, and to introduce that ma-
terialifm into our theories of the natural phenomena
which is by fome people fo much complained of. 10
From this general hiftory of the different agents Litfte Pro*
which philofophers have chofen to account for the ori- made in ^
ginal formation of the earth, and for its prefervation in true philo-
the prefent form, it appears, that fcarce any advance in fophy.
true knowledge hath yet been made. All the agents
have been prodigioufly defective; ele&ricity itfelf, as u
far as yet known, not excepted. But, before entering Difficulties
into a particular confideration of thofe theories which ™ r‘j1 oc*
feem molt worthy of notice, it will be neceffary to forming a
point out the principal difficulties which ftand in the theory 0f
way of one who attempts to give a complete theory ofthe earth*
the earth.
1. The earth, although pretty much of a fpherical
figure, is not completely fo; but protuberates confider-
ably about the equatorial parts, and is proportionably
flattened at the poles, as is undeniably proved by the
obfervations of modern mathematicians *. The que-
ftion here is, Why the natural caufe which gave the
earth fo much of a fpherical figure, did not make it a
complete and exa& fphere ?
* See Geo*
grapky.
2. The terraqueous globe confifts of a vaft quantity
of water as well as dry land. In many places, fuch as
the Ifthmus of Darien, a narrow neck of land is inter-
pofed betwixt two vaft oceans. Thefe beat upon it on
either fide with vaft force; yet the Ifthmus is never
broke down nor diminiffied. The cafe is the fame with
the ifthmus of Suez which joins Afia and Africa, and
with that which joins the Morea or ancient Pelopon-
nefus to the continent. The difficulty is, By what na¬
tural power or law are thefe narrow necks of land pre-
ferved amidft the waters wftiich threaten them on both,
fides with deftru&ion ?
3. The furface of the earth is by no means, fmooth
and equal; but in fome places raifed into enormous
ridges of mountains; and in others funk down in fuch-
a manner as to form deep valleys. Thefe mountains,
though they have been expofed to all the injuries of
the weather for many thoufand years, exhibit no figns
of decay. They ftill continue of the fame fize as be-;
fore, though vaft quantities of earth are frequently
waffied down from them by the rains, which, together
with the force of gravity, tending to level and bring
them on an equality with the plains on which they
ftand, we might reafonably think, ought by this time
to have rendered them fmaller than before. It muft
therefore be inquired into, By what natural caufe the
mountains were originally formed, and how they come
to preferve their fize without any remarkable dimi¬
nution?
4*
Eafth.
EAR [ 2578 ] EAR
4. The internal parts of the earth are ftill more won-
'derful than the external. The utmoft induftry of man,
indeed, can penetrate but a little way into it. As far
as we can reach, however, it is found to be compofed of
diffimilar ftrata lying one upon another, not common¬
ly in a horizontal dire&ion, but inclined to the ho¬
rizon at different angles. Thefe ftrata feem not to be
difpofed either according to the laws of gravity or ac¬
cording to their denfity, but as it were by chance. Be-
fides, in the internal parts of the earth are vaft chafms
and vacuities. By what means were thefe ftrata origi¬
nally depofited, the fiffures and chafms made, &c. ?
5. In many places of the earth, both on the furface,
and at great depths under it, vaft quantities of marine
productions, fuch as ftlells, &c. are to be met with.
Sometimes thefe fhells are found in the midft of folid
rocks of marble and limeftone. In the very heart of
the hardeft ftones alfo, fmall vegetable fubiiances, as
leaves, See. are fometimes to be found. The queftion
is, By what means were they brought thitheri1
Thefe are fome of the moft ftriking difficulties which
prefent themfelves to one who undertakes to write a
natural hiftory or theory of the earth. The moft re4
markable attempts to produce a theory of this kind are
thofe of Burnet, Woodward, Whifton, and Buffon.
BrK niet's According to Dr Burnet, the earth was original*
theory1”" ' if a fluid mafs, or chaos, compofed of various fub-
ftances differing both in denfity and figure. Thofe
which were moft heavy funk to the centre, and formed
there a hard folid body: thofe which were fpecifically
lighter remained next above ; and the waters, which
were lightell of all, covered the earth all round. The
air, and other ethereal fluids, which are ftill lighter
than water, floated above it, and furrounded the globe
alfo. Between the waters, however, and the circum¬
ambient air, was formed a coat of oily and un&uous
matters lighter than water. The air at firft was very
impure, and muft neceffarily have carried up with it
many of thofe earthy particles with which it was once
blended : however, it foon began to purify itfelf, and
depofit thofe particles upon the oily cruft abovemen-
tioned ; which, foon uniting together, the earth and
oil became the cruft of vegetable earth, with which the
whole globe is now covered. His account of the de-
ftrudlion of the primasval world by the flood, by the
falling down of the ftiell of earth into the waters of the
abyfs, is given under the article Deluge. It only re¬
mains then to give his account of the manner in which
he relieves the earth from this univerfal deftrudtion ; and
this he does as follows. Thefe great maffes of earth,
fays he, falling into the abyfs, drew down with them
vaft quantities alfo of air; and by daffiing againfteach
other, and breaking into fmall parts by the repeated
violence of the (hock, they at length left between
them large cavities filled with nothing but air. Thefe
cavities naturally offered a bed to receive the influent
waters; and in proportion as they filled, the face of
the earth became once more vifible. The higher parts
of its broken furface, now become the tops of moun¬
tains, were the firft that appeared; the plains foon af¬
ter came forward; and at length the whole globe was
delivered from the waters, except the places in the
lovveft fituations ; fo .that the ocean and feas are ftill a
part of the ancient abyfs, that have had no place to
which they might return. Iflands and rocks are frag¬
ments of the earth’s former cruft ; continents are larger Earth/
maffes of its broken fubftance ; and all the inequalities ‘
that are to be found on the furface of the prefent earth
are effetfts of the confufion into which both earth and
water were at that time thrown. I?
Dr Woodward begins with afferting, that all ter- Dr Wood-
rene fub(lances are difpofed in beds of various natures, ward s<
lying horizontally one over the other, fomewhat like
the coats of an onion : that they are replete with (hells,
and other produ&ions of the fea; thefe (hells being
found in the deepeft cavities, and on the tops of the
higheft mountains. From thefe obfervatians, which
are warranted by experience, he proceeds to obferve,
that thefe (hells, and extraneous foffils, are not produc¬
tions of the earth, but are all aftual remains of thofe
animals which they are known to refemble ; that all the
ftrata or beds of the earth lie under each other in the
order of their fpecific gravity, and that they are dif¬
pofed as if they had been left there by fubfiding wa¬
ters. All this he very confidently affirms, tho’ daily
experience contradi&s him in fome of them ; particu¬
larly, we often find layers of (lone over the lighted
foils, and the fofteft earth under the hardeft bodies.
However, having taken it for granted, that all the lay¬
ers of the earth are found in the order of their fpecific
gravity, the lighteft at top, and the heavieft next the
centre, he confequently afferts, that all the fubftances
of which the earth is compofed, were originally in a
(late of diflblution. This diffolution he fuppofes to
have taken place at the flood: but being aware of an
obje&ion, that the (hells, &c. fuppofed to have been
depofited at the flood are not diffolved, he exempts them
from the folvent power of the waters, and endeavours to
(hew that they have a ftronger cohefion than minerals ;
and that, while even the hardeft rocks are diffolved,
bones and (hells may remain entire. 14
Mr Whiffon fuppofes the earth to have been origi- Mr Whif-
n ally a comet; and :Confiders the Mofaic account oftons"
the creation as commencing at the -time when the
Creator placed this comet in a more regular manner,
and made it a planet in the folar fyftem. Before that
time, he fuppofes it to have been a globe without beau¬
ty or proportion ; a world in diforder, fubjedl to all
the viciffitudes which comets endure ; which, accord¬
ing to the prefent fyftem of.philofophy, muft be alter¬
nately expofed to the extremes of heat and cold. Thefe
alternations of heat and cold, continually melting and
freezing the furface of the earth, he fupppfes to have
produced, to a certain depth, a chaos refembling that
deferibed by the poets, furrounding the folid contents
of the earth, which ftill continued unchanged in the
midft ; making a great burning globe of more than
2000 leagues in diameter. This furrounding chaos,
however, was far from being folid : he refemhlcs it to
a denfe, though fluid atmofphere, compofed of fub¬
ftances mingled, agitated, and (hocked againft; each
other ; and in this diforder he fuppofes the earth to
have been juft at the eve of the Mofaic creation. But
upon its orbit being then changed, when it was more
regularly wheeled round the fun, every thing took its
proper place, every part of the furrounffing fluid then
fell into a certain fituation according as it was light or
heavy. The middle, or central part, which always re¬
mained unchanged, ftill continued fo ; retaining a part
of that heat which it received in its primaeval approaches
to-
EAR [ 2579 ] E A R
Earth, towards the fun ; which heat he calculates may conti-
”” nue about 6000 years. Next to this fell the heavier
parts of the chaotic atmofphere, which ferve to fuitain
the lighter : but as in defcending they could not en-r
tirely be feparated from many watery parts, with which
they were intimately mixed, they drew down thefe
alfo along with them ; and thefe could not mount
again after the furface of the earth was confdidated :
they therefore furrounded the heavy fiift-defcending
parts in the fame manner as thefe furrounded tbe cen¬
tral globe. Thus the .entire body t>f the earth is
compofed next the centre of a great burning globe:
■next this is placed an heavy terrene fubftance that
encompaffes it ; round which is circumfufed a body
of water. Upon this body of waters is placed the
cruft, of earth on which we inhabit : fo that, accord¬
ing to Mr Whifton, the globe is compofed of a num¬
ber of coats, or fhells, one within the other, all of
different denfities. The body of the earth being thus
■formed, the air, which is the lighted fubftance of all,
furrounded its furface ; and the beams of the fun dart¬
ing through, produced the light, which, we are told
by Mofes, firft obeyed the Divine command-
The whole ceconomy of the creation being thus ad-
jufted, it only remained to account for the rifnigs and
deprefiions on the furface of the earth, with the other
feeming irregularities of its prefent appearance. The
hills and valleys are by him confideied as formed' by
their prefling upon the internal fluid which fuftains the
external-fliell of earth, with greater or lefs weight :
thofe parts, of the earth which are heavieft fink the
^oweft into the fubjacent fluid, and thus become valleys:
thofe that are lighted rife higher upon the earth’s fur¬
face, and: are called mountains.
Such was the face of nature,before the deluge': the
earth was then more fertile and populous than it is at
prefent; the life of men and animals was extended to
ten times its prefent duration;, and all thefe advantages
arofe from the fuperior heat of the central globe, which
has ever fince been cooling. As its heat was then in
•its full power, the genial principle was alfo much
greater than at prefeut; vegetation and animal increafe
were carried on with more vigour; and all nature
feemed teeming with the feeds of life. But as thefe
advantages were produdiive only of moral evil, it was
found neceffary to deftroy all living creatures by a flood ;
and in what manner this punilhment was accomplilhed,
according to Mr Whifton, is particularly taken notice
of under the article Deluge.
Mr Buffon’s theory differs very widely from all the
reft. He begins with attempting to prove, that this
,j world which we inhabit is no more than the ruins of a
Mr Buf- world. “ The furface of this immenfe globe, fays he,
ton’s the- exhibits to our obfervation, heights, depths, plains,
feas, marlhes, rivers, caverns, gulfs, volcanoes; and,
on a curfory view, we can difcover in the difpofition
of thefe objefis neither order nor regularity. If we
penetrate into the bowels of the earth, we find metals,
minerals, ftones, bitumens, fands, earths, waters, and
mattter of every kind, placed as it were by mere acci¬
dent, and without any apparent defign. Upon a nearer
and more attentive infpetftion, we difcover funk moun¬
tains, caverns filled up, ftiattered rocks, whole coun¬
tries fwallowed up, new iflands emerged from the ocean,
heavy fubftances placed above light ones, hard bodies
inclofed within foft bodies: in a word, ye find matter
in every form, dry and humid, warm and cold, folid
and brittle, bknded in a chaos of confufion, which can
be compared to nothing but a heap of rubbiflr, or the
ruins of a world.”
When taking a particular furvey of the external
furface of the globe, he begins with the ocean, and
the motion communicated to it by the influence of the
fun and moon which produces the tides.—“ In exa¬
mining the bottom of the fea, (fays he), we perceive
it to be equally irregular as the furface of the dry land.
We difcover hills and valleys, plains and hollows, rocks
and earths of every kind ; we difcover likewife, that
iflands are nothing but the fummits of vaft mountains,
whofe foundations are buried in the ocean. We find
•other mountains whofe tops are nearly on a level with
the furface of the water; and rapid currents which run
contrary to the general movement. Thefe currents
fometimes. run in the fame dire&ion ; at other times
their motion is retrograde; but they never exceed their
natural limits, which feem to be as immutable as thofe
which bound the efforts of land-rivers. On one hand
we meet with tempeftuous regions, where the winds
blow with irrefiftible fury ; where the heavens and the
ocean, equally convulfed, are mixed and confounded in
the general fliock; violent inteftine motions, tumultu¬
ous fwellings, water-fpouts, and flrange agitations,
produced by volcanoes, whofe mouths, though many
fathoms below the furface, vomit forth torrents of fire;
and pufh, even to the clouds, a thick vapour, compo¬
fed of water, fulphur, and bitumen ; and dreadful gulfs
or whirlpools, which feem to attraft veffels for no o-
ther purpofe than to fwallow them up. On the other
hand we difcover va,ft regions of an oppofite nature,
always ftnooth and calm, but equally dangerous to the
mariner. To conclude, direfting our eyes toward the
fouthern or northern extremities of the globe, we dif¬
cover huge maffes of ice, which, detaching themfelves
from the polar regions, advance, like floating moun¬
tains, to the temperate climates, where they diffolve and
vauifh from our view. The bottom of the ocean and the
ftielving fides of rocks produce plentiful crops of plants
of many different fpecits : its foil is compofed of fand,
gravel, rocks, and (hells; in fome places it is a fine
clay, in others a compact earth: and in general, the
bottom of the fea has an exadl refemblance to the dry
land which we inhabit.
“ Let us next take a view of the dry land. Upon;
an attentive obfervation of this, we will find, that
the great chains of mountains lie nearer the equator
than the poles.; that in the old continent their direc¬
tion is more from eaft to weft than from fouth to north;
and that, on the contrary* in the new continent they
extend more from north to fouth than from eaft to weft*
But what is ftill more remarkable, the figure and di¬
rection of thefe mountains, which have a moft irregu¬
lar appearance, correfpond fo wonderfully, that the pro¬
minent angles of one mountain are conftantly oppofite
to the concave angles of the neighbouring mountain,
and of equal dimenfions, whether they be feparated by
an exteniive plain or a fmall valley. I have further
remarked, that oppofite hills are always nearly of the
fame height; and that mountains generally occupy the
middle of continents, iflands, and promontories, divi-
viding them by their greateft lengths. I have likewifei
traced.
EAR [ 2580 I EAR
Earth, traced the courfes of the principal nversj and find that
their direftion is nearly perpendicular to the fea-coaits
into which they empty themfelves; and that, during
the greateft part of their courfes they follow the direc¬
tion of the mountains from which they derive their o-
rigin. The fea-coafts are generally bordered with rocks
of marble, and other hard itones; or rather with earth
and fand accumulated by the waters of the fea, or
brought down and depofited by rivers. In oppofite
coafts, feparated only by fmall arms of the fea, the
different ftrata or beds of earth are of the fame mate¬
rials. I find that volcanoes never exift but in very high
mountains ; that a great number of them are entirely
extinguifhed; that fome are eonne&ed to others by
fubterranean paflages, and their eruptions not unfre-
quently happen at the fame time. There are fimilar
communications between certain lakes and feas. Some
rivers fuddenly difappear, and feem to precipitate them¬
felves into the bowels of the earth. We likewife find
certain mediterranean or inland feas, that conftantly
receive from many and great rivers prodigious quan¬
tities of water, without any augmentation of their
bounds ; probably difeharging by fubterraneous paf-
fages all thofe extraneous fupplies. It is likewife eafy
to diltinguifh lands which have been long inhabited,
from thofe new countries where the earth appears in a
rude ftate, where the rivers are full of cataradts, where
the land is nearly overflowed with water or burnt up
with drought, and where every place capable of pro¬
ducing trees is totally covered with wood.
“ Proceeding in our examination, we difeover that
the upper ffratum of the earth is univerfally the fame
fubftance: that thisfubftance, from which all animals and
vegetables derive their growth and nourifhment, is no¬
thing but a compofition of the decayed parts of animal
and vegetable bodies, reduced into fuch fmall particles
that their former organic ftate is not diftinguiftiable.
Penetrating a little deeper, we find the real earth, beds
of fand, limeftone, clay, fhells, marble, gravel, chalk,
See. Thefe beds are always parallel to each other, and
of the fame thicknefs throughout their whole extent.
In neighbouring hills, beds or ftrata of the fame ma¬
terials are uniformly found at the fame levels, though
the hills be feparated by large and deep valleys. Strata
of every kind, even of the molt folid rocks, are uni¬
formly divided by perpendicular fiflures. Shells, fl<e-
letons of fifties, marine plants, &c. are often found in
the bowels of the earth, and on the tops of mountains,
even at the greateft diftances from the fea. Thefe
(hells, fifties, and plants, are exaftly fimilar to thofe
which exift in the ocean. Petrified ftiells are to be met
with almoft everywhere in prodigious quantities: they
are not only inclofed in rocks of marble and limeftone,
as well as in earths and clays, but are a&ually incorpo¬
rated and filled with the very fubftances in which they
are inclofed. In fine, I am convinced, from repeated
obfervation, that marbles, Ihneftones, chalks, marles,
clays, fand, and almoft all terreftrial fubftances, where-
ever fituated, are full of ftiells and other fpoils of the
ocean.’’
From tbefe pofitions, which he lays down as fa£s,
Mr Buffon draws the following conclufions:
. \'^'^e c^anges which the earth has undergone
■within thefe laft 2000 or 3000 years muft be inconfi-
derable, when compared with the great revolutions
that took place in thofe ages immediately fucceeding E
the creation. The reafon he gives for this aflertion is,
that terreftrial fubftances could not acquire folidity but
by the continued a&ion of gravity: hence, the earth
muft have been originally much fofter than it is now,
and therefore more apt to be changed by caufes which
cannot now affedl it.
2. It feejns an uncontrovertible faff, that the dry¬
land which we now inhabit, and even the fummits of
the higheft mountains, were formerly covered with the
waters of the fea; for fhells and other marine bodies
are ftill found upon the very tops of mountains.
3. The waters of the fea have remained for a long
track of time upon the furface; becaufe in many places,
fuch immenfe banks of (bells have been difeovered, that
it is impoffible fo great a multitude of animals could
exift; at the fame time.
4. From this circumftance it likewife appears, that,
although the materials on the furface of the earth were
then foft, ealily difunited, moved, and tranfported by
the waters, yet thefe tranfportations could not be fud¬
denly effefied : they muft have been gradual and fuc-
cefiive, as fea-bodies are fometimes found more than 1000
feet below the furface ; and fuch a thicknefs of earth, or
(tone, could not be accumulated in a fhort time.
5. It is impofiible thefe effefts could be owing to
the univerfal deluge. For, though, we ftiould fuppofe
that all the fhells in the bottom of the ocean fhould
be depofited upon the dry land ; yet, befides the dif¬
ficulty of eftabliftiing this fuppofitipn, it is plain, that
as ftiells are found incorporated in marble, and in the
rocks of the highefl: mountains, we muft fuppofe thefe
rocks and marbles to have been formed all at the very
inftant when the deluge took place; and that before this
grand revolution, there were neither mountains, nor
marbles, nor rocks, nor clays, nor matter of any kind
fimilar to what we are now acquainted with ; as they
all, with few exceptions, contain fhells, and other pro-
dudlions of the ocean. Befides, at the time of the
univerfal deluge, the. earth muft have acquired ,a
confidtrable degree of folidity, by the aftion of gra¬
vity for more than 16 centuries. During the fhort
time the deluge lafted, therefore, it is impoffible
that the waters fhould have overturned and diffolved
the whole furface of the earth to the greateft depths.
6. It is certain, (for what reafon he does not men¬
tion), that the waters of the fea have, at fome period
or other, remained for a fucceffion of ages upon what
we now know to be dry land ; and confequently that
the vaft continents of Afia, Europe, Africa, and Ame¬
rica, were then the bottom of an immenfe ocean, re¬
plete with every thing which the prefent ocean pro¬
duces.
7. It is likewife certain, that the different ftrata of
the earth are horizontal and parallel to each other.
This parallel fituation muft therefore be owing to the
operation o{ the waters, which have gradually accu¬
mulated the different materials, and given them the
fame" pofrtion which the water itfelf invariably affumes.
8. It is certain that thefe ftrata muft have been gra¬
dually formed^ and are not the effed of any fudden re*
volution; becaufe nothing is more frequent than ftrata
compofed of heavy materials placed above light ones ;
which never could have happened, if, according to
fome authors, the whole had been blended and'diffol¬
ved
EAR [ 2J
ved by the deluge, and afterwards precipitated.
9. No other caufe than the motion and fediments of
wafer could poffibly produce the regular pofition of
the various ftrata of which the fuperficial part of this
earth confifts. The higheft mountains are compofed of
parallel ftrata, as well as the lowed; valleys. Of courfe,
the formation of mountains cannot be attributed to the
fiiocks of earthquakes, or to the eruptions of volcanoes.
•Such fmall eminences as have been raifed by volcanoes
or convulfions of the earth, inftead of being compofed
of parallel ftrata, are mere mafles of weighty materials,
blended together in the utmoft confufion.
Having now, as he thinks, proved, that the dry and
habitable part of the earth has remained for a long
time under the waters of the fea, and confequently
muft have undergone the fame changes that now take
place at the bottom of the fea, he proceeds to inquire
what thefe changes are.
10. The ocean, fince the creation of the world, has
been conftantly agitated by the tides, occafioned by
the a&ion of the fun and moon; and this agitation is
' greater in the equatorial than in the other parts of the
globe, becaufe the a&ion of the fun and moon is there
ftrongeft.
11. The earth performs a rapid motion on its axis;
and confequently its parts have a centrifugal force,
which is alfo greateft at the equator.
12. From the combined aftion of the two laft men¬
tioned caufes, the tides, and the motion of the earth,
it may be fairly concluded, that although this globe
had been originally a perfedt fphere, its diurnal mo¬
tion, and the ebbing and flowing of the tides, muft ne-
ceflarily, in a fucceffion of time, have elevated the
equatorial parts, by gradually carrying mud, earth,
fand, ftiells, &c. from other climates, and depoftting
them at the equator.
13. On this fuppofition, the greateft inequalities on
the furface of the earth ought to be found, and in fadt
are found, in the neighbourhood of the equator.
14. As the alternate motion of the tides has been
conftant and regular fince the exiftence of the world,
it is natural to think, that, at each tide, the water car¬
ries from one place to another a fmall quantity of mat¬
ter, which falls to the bottom as a fediment, and forms
thofe horizontal and parallel ftrata that every where
appear. Here it may indeed be objedted, that as the
flux is equal to, and regularly fucceeded by, the re¬
flux, the two contrary motions will balance each other;
and whatever is brought in by the flux will be carried
back by the reflux. The motion of the ocean, therefore,
could never be the caufe of the formation even of pa¬
rallel' ftrata; much lefsof mountains, and all the ine¬
qualities to be obferved in this globe. To this Mr
Buffon replies, that the alternate motion of the waters
is by no means equal; for the fea has a continual mo¬
tion from eaft to weft: the agitations occafioned by the
winds likewife produce great inequalities in the tides.
It muft alfo be acknowledged, that, by every motion
of the fea, particles of earth and other matter muft be
carried from one place and depofited in another; and
that thefe collediions of matter muft aflume the form
of parallel and horizontal ftrata. Laftly, this objec¬
tion is obviated by a well known fadt. Oh all coafts
where the ebbing and flowing of the fea is difcernible,
numberlefs materials are brought in by the flux, which
Vol. IV.
81 ] EAR
are not carried back by the reflux. The fea gradually
increafes on fame places and recedes from others; nar-'
rowing its limits by depofiting earth, fand, ftiells, &c.
which naturally take a horizontal pofition. Thefe ma¬
terials when accumulated, and elevated to a certain de¬
gree, gradually /hut out the water, and remain for ever
in the form of dry land.
15. The poflibility of a mountain’s being formed at
the bottom of the fea by the motion and fediments of
the water, will appear from the following confidera-
tions. On a coaft which the fea wa/hes with violence
during the flow of tide, fome part of the earth muft be
carried off at every ftroke of the waves. Even where
the fea is bounded by rock, it is a known fadt, that
the rock itfelf is greatly wafted by the water; and con¬
fequently that fmall particles are carried off by the re¬
treat of every wave, Thofe particles of earth or ftone
are neceffarily tranfported to fome diftance. Whenever
the agitation of the water ceafes, the particles are pre¬
cipitated in the form of a fediment, and lay the foun¬
dation of a firft ftratum, which is either horizontal or
inclined, according to the fituation of the furface on
which they fail. This ftratum is foon fucceeded by
another, produced by the fame caufe; and thus a con-
fiderable quantity of matter will be amaffed, and de¬
pofited in parallel beds. In procefs of time this gra¬
dually accumulating mafs will become a mountain in
the bottom of the fea, exadtly refembling, both in ex¬
ternal and internal ftnldture, thofe mountains which we
fee on the dry land. If there happened to be (hells in
that part of the bottom of the fea where we have fup-
pofed the fediments to be depofited, they will be co¬
vered, filled, and incorporated with the depofited mat¬
ter, and form a part of the general mafs. Thefe /hells
will be lodged in different parts of the mountain, cox-
refponding to the times in which they were depofited:
thofe which lay at the bottom before the firft ftratum
was formed, will occupy the loweft ftation; the others
will be found in places more elevated.
16. It has been imagined that the agitation of the
fea^roduced by the winds and tides is only fuperficial,
and does not affeft the bottom, efpecially where it lies
very deep. But it ought to be remembered, that what¬
ever be the depth, the whole mafs, is put in motion by
the tides at the fame time; and that, in a fluid globe,
this motion would be communicated even to the centre.
The attraftive power, which occafions the flux and re¬
flux, is penetrating. It a&s equally upon every par¬
ticle of the mafs; fo that the quantity of its force gt
different depths may be determined by calculation. We
cannot therefore hefitate in pronouncing, that the tides,
the winds, and all other caufes of motion in the fea,
muft produce heights and inequalities in its bottom ;
and that thefe heights muft uniformly be compofed of
regular ftrata either horizontal or inclined. The heights
thus produced will gradually augment; like the waves
which formed them, they will mutually refpeft each
other; and if the extent of the bafe be great, in a courfe
of years they will form a vaft chain of mountains.
17. Whenever eminences are formed, they interrupt
the uniform motion of the waters, and produce cur¬
rents. Between two neighbouring heights in the bot¬
tom of the ocean there muft be a current which will fol¬
low their common direftion, and, like a river, cut a
channel, the angles of which will be alternately oppo-
Earth.
EAR [ 2582 ] EAR
karth- fite through the whole extent of its courfe. Thefe
heights mud continually increafe: for, during the flow,
the water will depofne its ordinary fediment upon their
ridges; and the waters which are impelled by the cur¬
rent will force along, from great diftances, quantities
of matter, which will fubfide between the hills, and,
at the fame time, fcoop out a valley with correfpond-
ing angles at their foundation. Now, by means of thefe
different motions and fediments, the bottom of the
ocean, though formerly fmooth, muff foon be furrow¬
ed and interfperfed with hills and chains of mountains,
as we actually find it at prefent. The foft materials of
which the eminences were originally compofed, would
gradually harden by their own gravity. Such of them
as confided of fandy and crydalline particles, would
produce thofe enormous maffes of rock and flint, in
which we find crydals and other precious dones. Ci¬
thers, compofed of dony particles mixed with Ihells,
give rife to thofe beds of limeflone and marble in which
vad quantities of fea-fhells are dill found incorporated.
18. Thefe caufes, as before obferved, adl with grea¬
ter force under the equator than in other climates;
for there the tides are higher, and the winds more uni¬
form. The mountains of Africa and Peru are the high-
ed in the world; often extending through whole con¬
tinents, and dretching to great didances under the wa¬
ters of the ocean. The mountains of Europe and Afia,
which extend from Spain to China, are not fo high as
thofe of Africa and South America. According to the
relations of voyagers, the mountains of the north are
but fmall hills, when compared with the mountains of
the equatorial regions. Thofe prodigious chains of
mountains which run from ead to wed in the old con¬
tinent, and from north to fouth in the new, mud have
been formed by the general motion of the tides. But
the origin of the lefs confiderable hills mud be afcri-
bed to particular motions occafioned by winds, cui1-
16 rents, and other irregular agitations of the fea.
How the Having thus difcuffed fome very important points
defcrtedb l^e theory of the earth, our author now
the^ccan ^ proceeds to anfwer other quedions which feem dill
and left ’ more difficult of folution.
dry. 19. But how has it happened that this earth, which
we and our ancedors have inhabited for ages, which,
from time immemorial, has b«m an immenfe continent,
dry, compaft, and removed from the reach of water,
fhould,if formerly the bottom of an ocean, be now ex¬
alted to fuch a height above the waters, and fo com¬
pletely feparated from them. Since the waters remained
io long upon the earth, why have they now deferted it ?
What accident, what caufe, could introduce a change fo
great? A little refle&ion, fays he, will furnifh us with
at lead plaufible folutions to thefe feemingly fo diffi¬
cult quedions. We daily obferve the iea gaining
round on certain coads, and lofing it on others. We
now that the ocean has a general and uniform motion
from ead to wed: that it makes violent efforts agair.d
the rocks and low grounds which encircle it; that there
are whole provinces which human indudry can hardly
defend againd the fury of the waves; and that there
are indances of iflands which have but lately emerged
from the waters, and of regular inundations. Hidory
informs us of inundations and deluges of a more exten-
five nature. Ought not all this to convince us, that
the furface of the earth has experienced very great re¬
volutions, and that the fea may have adlualiy given up Earth,
poffeffion of the greated part of the ground which it for- “
merly occupied? For example, let us fuppofe, that the
old and new worlds were formerly but one continent;
and that, by a violent earthquake, the ancient Atlan¬
tis of Plato was funk. The confequence of this mighty
revolution mud neceffarily be, that the fea would rulh
in from all quarters, and form what is now called the
Atlantic ocean; and vad continents, perhaps thofe we
now inhabit, would of courfe be left dry. This great
revolution might be effe&ed by the fudden failure of
fome immenfe cavern in the interior parts of the globe,
and an univerfal deluge would infallibly fucceed.
20. But, however conjedtures of this kind may
dand, it is certain that fuch a revolution hath hap¬
pened : and we may even believe that it hath happen¬
ed naturally ; for if a judgment of the future is to be
formed from the pad, we have only to attend careful¬
ly to what paffes before our eyes. It is a fadl edablifli-
ed by the repeated obfervation of voyagers, that the
ocean has a condant motion from ead to wed. This
motion, like the trade-winds, is not only perceived be¬
tween the tropics, but through the whole temperate
climates, and as near the poles as navigators have ap¬
proached. Asa neceffary confequence of this motion,
the Pacific Ocean mud make continual efforts againd'
the coads of Tartary, China, and India; the Indian-
ocean mud aft againd the ead coad of Africa ; and the
Atlantic mud in a fimilar manner aft againd all the ead-
ern coads of America. Hence the fea muff have gain¬
ed, and will always continue to gain, on the ead, and to
lofe on the wed. This of itfelf would be fufficient to
prove the poffibility of the change of the fea into land,
and land into fea. If fuch is the natural effeft of the
fea’s motion from ead to wed, may it not reafonably
be fuppofed, that Afia, and all the eadern continent,
is the mod ancient country in the world; and that Eu¬
rope, and part of Africa, efpecially the wed parts of
thefe continents, as Britain, France, Spain, &c. are
countries of a more recent date ?
21. The caufe of the perpendicular fiffures with
which the earth abounds, iseafily invedigated. As va¬
rious materials condituting the different drata were
tranfported by the waters, and depofited in the form
bf fediments, they would at fird be in a very diluted
date, and would gradually harden and part with the
fuperfluous quantity of moidure they contained. In
procefs of time, drying, they would naturally contraft
and fplit at irregular didances. Thefe fiffures neceffa¬
rily affumed a perpendicular direftion : becaufe in this
direftion the aftion of gravity of one particle upon an¬
other is equal to nothing: but it afts direftly oppofite
to this defcription, in a horizontal lituation : the di¬
minution in bulk could have no fenfible effeft but in a
vertical line. The contraftion of the parts in drying,
therefore, and not the contained water forcing an iffue,.
as has been alleged by fome, is the caufe of perpendi¬
cular fiffures ; for it may be often remarked, that the
fides of thofe fiffures, through their whole extent,
correfpond as exaftly as the two fides of a fplit piece
of wood.
22. Perpendicular fiffures vary greatly as to the ex¬
tent of their openings. Some are about half an inch
or an inch; others a foot or two feet; fome extend fe-
veral fathoms, and give rife to thofe vad precipices
which
EAR [ 2583 ] EAR
Earth, which fo frequently occur between oppofite parts of the
fame rocks, in the Alps and other high mountains. It
is plain, that the fiffures, the openings of which are
fmall, have ,been occafioned folely by drying. But
thofe which extend feveral feet are partly owing to an¬
other caufe ; namely, the finking of the foundation
upon one Gde, while that of the other remains firm. If
the bafe finks but a line or two, when the height is
confiderable, an opening of feveral feet, or even fa¬
thoms, will be the confequence. When rocks are
founded on clay or fand, they fometimes flip a little to
one fide ; and the fiffures are of courfe augmented by
this motion.
23. The large openings, however, and prodigious
cuts, which are to be met with in rocks and mountains,
are to be afcribed to another caufe. They could be
' produced no other way than by the finking of immenfe
fubterraneous caverns, that were unable any longer to
fuftain their incumbent load. But thefe cuts or inter¬
vals in mountains are not of the fame nature with the
perpendicular fiffures: they appear to have been ports
opened by the hand of nature for the communication
of nations. This feems to be the intention of all large
openings in chains of mountains, and of thofe ftraits by
which different parts of the ocean are conne&ed; as
the ftraits of Thermopylae, of Gibraltar, &c. the gaps
or ports in mount Caucafus, the Cordileras, &c.
24. But the greatell changes upon the furface of'
the earth are occafioned by rains, rivers, and torrents
from the mountains. Thefe derive their origin from
vapours raifed by the fun from the furface of the o-
cean, and which are tranfported by the winds through
I every climate. The progrefs of thefe vapours, which
are fupported by the air, and tranfported at the plea-
fure of the winds, is interrupted by the tops of the
mountains, where they accumulate into clouds, and
fall down in the form of rain, dew, or fnow. At firft,
thefe waters defcended into the plains without any fix¬
ed courfe ; but they gradually hollowed out proper
channels for themfelves. By the power of gravity they
ran to the bottom of the mountains; and penetrating
or diffolving the lower grounds, they carried along
with them fand and gravel, cut deep furrows in the
plains, and thus opened paffages to the fea, which al¬
ways receives as much water by rivers as it lofes by e-
vaporation. The windings in the channels of rivers
have uniformly correfponding angles on their oppofite
banks; and as mountains and hills, which may be re¬
garded as the banks of the valleys by which they are
feparated, have likewife finuofities with correfponding
angles, this circamftance feems to demonftrate, that
the valleys have been gradually formed by currents of
the ocean, in the fame manner as the channels of ri¬
vers have been produced. Rivers produce eonfider-
able changes on the furface of the earth ; they carry
off the foil, wear away the moft folid rocks, and re¬
move every thing that oppofes their paffage. The
waters of the clouds alfo, which defcend upon the
mountains, by continually wafhing away fome part of
the earth, tend to level them with the plains; and would
undoubtedly do fo, if time enough were allowed for
that purpofe.
25. From what has been advanced, we may conclude,
that the flux and reflux of the ocean have produced all
the mountains, valleys, and other inequalities on the
furface of the earth : that currents of the fea have Earth.
fcooped out the valleys, elevated the hills, and bellowed  
on them the correfponding dire&ions: that the fame
waters of the ocean, by tranfporting and depofiting
earth, &c. have given rife to the parallel ftrata: that
the waters from the heavens gradually deftroy the ef-
fe&s of the fea, by continually diminilhing the heights
of the mountain, filling up the valleys, and choaking
up the mouths of rivers ; and by reducing every thing
to its proper level, they will in time reftore the earth
to the fea, which by its natural operations will again
create new continents interfperfed with mountains and
valleys, and. every way fimilar to thofe which we now
inhabit. Iy
Thus far our author preferves fome degree of plau- BnfFon’s ae-
fibility in his reafoning; but in his account of the ori- count of tht
ginal formation of the earth, he certainly goes to the
utmoft verge of probability, or perhaps of pojfibility, in ”,'etse P 1
his fuppofitions. According to him, all the planets
in our fyftem were originally parts of the fun himfelf.
They were detached from his body all at once by a
mighty ftroke of a comet. The pollibility of driving
off fuch a quantity of matter from the fun by a fingle
ftroke, he labours hard to prove ; but this is far from
being the greateft difficulty in his fyftem.—“ To this
theory, fays he, it may be objedled, that if the pla¬
nets had been driven off from the fun by a comet, in
place of defcribing circles round him, they mull, ac¬
cording to the law of proje&iles, have returned to the
fame place from whence they had been forced; and
therefore, that the projeftile force of the planets can¬
not be attributed to the impulfe of a comet.
“ I reply, that the planets iffued not from the fun
in the form of globes, but in the form of torrents; the
motion of whofe anterior particles behoved to be ac¬
celerated by thofe behind, and the attra&ion of the
anterior particles would alfo accelerate the motion of
the pofterior; and that this acceleration, produced
by one or both of thefe caufes, might be fuch as
would neceffarily change the original motion arifing
from the impulfe of the comet; and that, from this
caufe, might refult a motion fimilar to what takes place
in the planets; efpecially when it is confidered, that
the (hock of the comets removes the fun out of its
former ftation. This reafoning may be illuftrated by
an example. Suppofe a mulket-ball difcharged from
the top of a mountain, and that the force of the powder
was fufficient tp fend it beyond a femidiameter of the
earth : it is certain that this ball would revolve round
the earth, and return at every revolution to the place
from whence it had been difcharged. But, inftead of
a mulket-ball, if a rocket were employed, the conti¬
nued aClion of the fire would greatly accelerate the o-
riginal impulfive motion. This rocket would by no
means return to the fame point like the ball; but, ca¬
ter is paribus, would defcribe an orbit, the perigee of
which would be more or lefs diftant from the earth in
proportion to the greatnefs of the change produced in
its direftion by the accelerating force of the fire. In
the fame manner, if the original proje&ile force im-
preffed by the comet on the torrent of folar matter was
accelerated, it is probable, that the planets formed by
this torrent acquired their circular or elliptical move¬
ments around the fun.”
In like manner, he accounts for the formation and
15 A 2 circu-
EAR
[ 2584
circulation of the fecondary planets. The revolutions
of the primaries on their axes, he accounts for from
the obliquity of the original ftroke imprefled by the co¬
met. The oblate fpheroidal figure of the earth is eafily
deduced from its diurnal motion, and the fluidity, of the
whole at its firft.formation. The flattening at the poles
he eftimates at about one 230th part of the whole. As
this computation differs confiderably from the account
given by the mathematicians who were fent to diffe¬
rent parts of the world on purpofe to determine the. fi¬
gure of the earth, and who made the flatnefs at the
poles equal to one 175th part of the whole, he fuppofes
this difference to have arifen from changes that have
fince taken place on the furface of the earth, occafion-
ed by the caufes already mentioned. He then pro¬
ceeds to account for the formation of all things, in the
following manner.—“ It is therefore evident, that the
earth affumed its figure when in a melted ftate: and,
to purfue our theory, it is natural to think, that the
earth, when it iffued from the fun, had no other form
but that of a torrent of melted and inflamed matter :
that this torrent, by the mutual attraftion of its parts,
took on a globular figure, which its diurnal motion
changed into a fpheroid : that when the earth cooled,
the vapours, which are expanded like the tail of a co¬
met, gradually condenfed, fell down in the form of
water upon the furface, depofiting at the fame time a
flimy fubftance mixed with fulphur and falts; part of
which was carried by the motion of the waters into the
perpendicular fiffures of the llrata, and produced me¬
tals ; and the reft remained on the furface, and gave
rife to the vegetable mould, which abounds in diffe¬
rent places, with more or lefs of animal or vegetable
particles, the organization of which is not obvious to
the fenfes.
“ Thus the interior parts of the globe were origi¬
nally compofed of vitrified matter; and, I believe, they
are fo at prefent. Above this vitrified matter were
placed thofe bodies which the fire had reduced to the
fmalleft particles, as fands, which are only portions of
glafs; and above thefe, pumice-ftones, and the fcoriae
of melted matter, which produced the different clays.
The whole was covered with water to the depth of 500
]
EAR
the equator than towards the poles. The higheft F^thy !
mountains lie between the tropics and the middle of
the temperate zones, and, the loweft1 from the polar
circles towards the poles. Indeed, both the land and
fea have moft inequalities between the tropics, as is
evident from the incredible number of iflands peculiar
to thofe regions.” ,g
From the preceding extracts, the theories of Drs Bur- All theories
net and Woodward, as well as Meffrs Whifton and Buf- inAifficient. j
fon, will be eafily underftood ; but the deficiency of all
of them muft be exceedingly obvious even to the moft tp
fuperficial reader. They all affume only the powers of Powers of j
attraction and repuifion as agents; without confidering, |
that thefe two powers, or indeed any other two with ^"r)
which we are acquainted, could only have compofed cjcr,t.
matters nearly fimilar to each other. If the original
particles of matter are homogeneous, and endowed with
fimilar powers, all the matter we fee ought to be ho¬
mogeneous alfo. But this is far from being the cafe.
Some parts of it we fee, are exceedingly hard, others
proportion ably foft. The parts of fome bodies attradl
each other violently; thofe of others have hardly any
attra&ion for each other, but are feparable by the
fmalleft force. And though it Ihould be granted, that
the powers of attraction and repuifion were originally
different in different parts of matter, we have Hill to
explain by what means the fimilar parts of matter found
out-each other in fueh a chaos as the earth originally
was. This feems aminfuperable difficulty in the fy-
ftems of Drs Burnet and Woodward ; and is equally,
though lefs eonfpicuoufly fo, in thofe of Whifton and
Buffon. 20
Mr Whifton’s fyftem has another and very remark- Defic,ei?fy.
able defeft. He fuppofes the earth to have been or*- theo-
ginally a comet, and at a certain time to have become ry<
a planet: but he forgets to tell us by what means this
comet was originally formed, or what kind of bodies
the comets are. Yet certainly this theory of the comet
was as neceffary to his fyftem, as the theory of the
earth itfelf: for all the fubftar.ces now exifting on the
earth muft originally have exifttd in the comet; and if
the natural powers were known which made a diftinc-
tion between one fubftance and another in the comet,
600 feet, which originated from the condenfation of we would alfo know thofe which diftinguiftied terre-
the vapours when the earth began to cool. This wa¬
ter depofited a ftratum of mud, mixed with all thofe
matters which are capable of being fublimed or ex¬
haled by fire: and the air was formed of the moft
fubtile vapours, which, from their, levity, rofe above
the water.
“ Such was the condition of the earth when the
tides, the winds, and the heat of the fun, began to in¬
troduce changes on its furface. The diurnal- motion
of the earth, and that of the tides, elevated the waters
in the equatorial regions, and neceffarily tranfported
thither great quantities of flime, clay, and fand ; and.
by thus elevating thofe parts of the- earth, they per¬
haps funk thofe under the poles about two leagues, or
a 230th part of the whole, as was formerly remarked :
for the waters would eafily reduce into powder pumice-
ftones, and other fpongy parts of the vitrified matter
upon the furface; and by this means- excavate fome
places and elevate others, which, in time, would pro¬
duce iflands and continents, and all thofe inequalities
®n the. furface, which are more confiderable towards
ftrial fubftances from one another. But though even
this great deficiency (hould be overlooked, .the fuppo-
fition of a chaos or original confufion of any kind in¬
volves us in the greateft difficulties. If the whole fur¬
face of the earth confifted of a chaos of melted matter,
we cannot reafonably think it would have appeared o-
therwife when cool than the lavas of burning moun¬
tains do juft now ; and this is a consequence of his fyftein
which Mr Whifton feems to have entirely overlooked. xl
Mr Buffon’s theory is liable to the fame difficulties of Mr Buf*-
with the reft. He places his chaos in the fun, and foil’s,
therefore ought to have given a. theory; of the fun be¬
fore he gave one of the earth. It ought alfo to have
been ffiewn for what purpofe the fun was created when
he had nothing to fhine upon, or what probability there
is that-comets exifted when there were no planets. His
account of the formation of the planets by the ftroke
of a comet, is juft within the verge of fojfibility ; but his
account of the formation of mountains by the motion
of the winds and tides, is certainly Inconfiftent with
the common principles of mechanics. Though it fliould
be
EAR [ 2585 ] EAR
Sarth. be granted, that water can diflblve every terreftrial fub-
ftance when vitrified by a heat 10,000 times greater
than our hotteft furnaces, fun muft neceffarily
be; and though the water mould let fall this matter
as a fediment in what quantities and forms we think
proper to imagine, it is impoflible any of it could be
thrown two or three miles above the furface of the wa¬
ter, in order to form thofe high mountains which are
to be met with in different parts of the world. It is
indeed very plain, that though by the motion of the
waters their fediment might be collefted in great heaps,
it could never reach higher than their furface. The
mountain, once formed, muft then be for ever covered
with water; for the fediment would take up precifely
the fame bulk when a mountain that it did when in a
ftate of diffolution, and the water could never retire
from it as he fuppofes. If the waters retired into vaft
fubterraneoiis caverns, according to another of Mr
Buffon’s fuppofitions, they muft have remained for ever
in thefe caverns, from whence they could not have re¬
turned to effeft thofe wonderful changes he afcribes to
them. But what in the ftrongeft manner (hews the
fallacy of Mr Buffon’s hypothefis, is the analogy he
draws between mountains on dry land, and iflands in
the fca. The iflands, he fays, are only the tops of
great mountains in the ocean. If therefore the ocean
had for a feries of many ages covered the prefent ha¬
bitable part of the world, as our author fuppofes, we
fhoukl undoubtedly find many mountains upon the dry
land, the tops of which had formerly been iflands. But
no fuch thing is to be found. There is not on earth a
mountain with a top broad and flat like the ifland of
Great Britain or Ireland, or even like iflands of much
lefs confideration.
Thefe, and many other objeftions that will naturally
occur to an attentive reader, {hew the extreme difficul-
17, ties under which the hypothefis of Mr Buffon labours,
A number as well as others. Thefe difficulties arife, in the firft
Gowers'be P^ace» ^rom t^le’r affuming too few natural powers.
fidesTttrac- Though it is certain that the powers of attraftion and
tion and re- repulfion exift in nature, it is no lefs certain that there
pulfion pro- are many others. One very remarkable power en-
vetl to exift. t;reiy different from th0fe 0f attra&ion and repul¬
fion, may be called the power of ajfimilation or tranf-
mutation. By this, each animal, and each plant,
changes the nutritious particles thrown into its fto-
mach, or which it meets with in the earth, into a fub-
ftance of its own peculiar kind. Thus, a ftalk of
wheat, by means of its roots, always affimilates the nu¬
tritious particles of the ground into that particular
grain we call wheat, and no other. This power natu-
ralifts have not been able to explain on the principles of
attradlion and repulfion,or anyothers with which we are
acquainted; and therefore it may juftly be called one of
the primary laws of this earth at leaft, whether v\'e un-
derftand the manner in which it operates or not.—Ano¬
ther power which feems to be diffufed throughout this
terraqueous globe, and common to all fubftances, wa¬
ter alone excepted, is that of multiplying themfelves;
or producing others of the fame fpecies.. With regard
to plants and animals, this is exceedingly evident; but
may be difputed in the cafe of minerals. It is certain,
however, that mines which have been exhaufted, will
in time be again repleniflied with ore; that fpars and
cryftals, if broken or cut while their connexion with
the earth remains, will protrude a fubftance fimilar to Earth,
the reft, as certainly as the wounded body of an animal
will protrude fleftt of a kind fimilar to what was taken
away. The earth itfelf is capable of this multiplica¬
tion. We fee how it hath a tendency to afcend, and
cover ftones, &c. which lie a long time on its furface ;
and thus does this element, feemingly themoft fluggith
of all others, fwallow up every thing that lies for feme
time undifturbed upon it. Hence we now meet with
many monuments of antiquity below ground, which
formerly were undoubtedly above it. Yet we have no
right from thence to conclude, that there was at that time
any confiderable difference between the height of the
dry-land above the water and what it is now. This mul¬
tiplication of earth is chiefly owing to vegetation ; which
continually produces a new cruft on the top, and
thus tends to bury all fuch matters as reft upon the
furface. This cruft, however, does not produce a con¬
tinual increafe in the height of the dry land ; for what¬
ever quantity the vegetables add to the furface, they
take from the under parts by the fuftion of their roots.
Thus the ground becomes more porous, and the weight
of ancient buildings, ftones, &c. gradually forcing them
downwards, they are at laft buried under ground to a
confiderable depth.—Hence it is eafy to account for Appear-
the finking of the marine bodies that are to be found at ance of
different depths in the earth, even fuppofing them to ^le**s at
have been left on its furface by the deluge. Mr Buf- f^unted *
fon’s obje&ion, drawn from the great quantities of for.
them, feems but very weak: for it is certain, that ma¬
rine animals, both of the cruftaceous and other kinds,
are found in the fea at this day in amazing quantities ;
and there is no bed of fhells fo large, that we can
reafonably think it impojjible for all the animals to have
exifted in it at once.
With regard to the ftrata, it feems undeniable-that Changes
they may be produced from natural eaufest Clay will may natu-
fometimes be confolidated into rtone; flint, marble,
and limeftone, are all found to grow naturally in the ftrata of the
earth; fo that we cannot draw any conclufion from the earth,
order in which we now find them. Though we find a
bed of {hells, then, in the heart of a folid rock, this
makes no difficulty in the theory of the earth; fince
we know that the rock hath by fome natural caufe
been confolidated around them. In fatft, this is not fo
wonderful, as what is related by Mr Price in his trea-
tife of minerals, mines, &c. viz. That at the town of
Redruth in Cornwall, “ fome labourers being put to
clear and level the ftreet for a pavement, they found a
piece of hard (lone in the ground, with abundance of
common fmall pins of brafs interfperfed in and through¬
out the ftone, in fuch manner and form, that all thofe
who faw it afterwards, were convinced it was not done
artificially, but that the ftone was formed and produced
by petrifa&ion, fubfequent to the time the pins were
dropped into the ground. Dodlor Plot, in his Na¬
tural Hiftory of Staffordftiire,. fays, that near New-
caftle under Lyne, there was found a ftone with a
man’s fkull, teeth and all, inclofed in it.”—From thefe
and other fads in fome meafure fimilar, this author
concludes, that “ every earth or, clay, in fome places,
may be converted into ftone in procefs of time, at fuch a
depth where it is undifturbed by being never lacerated
nor molefted, and alfo where it abounds with an. un¬
common quantity of juices of a lapidefeent quality:
EAR [ 4586 ] EAR
Earth, but this property being extenuated or deftroyed, the
——earthy ftones may not improbably again return to their
primitive clay. Thus we fee fome forts of ftone, when
dug out of the ground and expofed to the air for a
confiderable time, do moulder again into earth, at lead
in appearance ; while others, of an earth-like quality,
are indurated, and become more compact and durable
is by lying above ground.”
No fuffi- With regard to the extraordinary changes which
cient proof Mr Buffon and others imagine to have taken place on
of extraor- tjle furface 0f the earth, they do not appear to have any
changes on folid foundation. Changes, no doubt, have happened
the furface in particular parts; new iflands have been thrown up
of the from the bottom of the fea by the force of fubterrane-
earth. oug an(j otjjers have been fwallowed up. But
thefe appear to be merely the effefts of volcanoes,
which are common in many parts of the world; and
we are not warranted to conclude, becaufe we fee a
fmall volcanic ifland arife, and another fwallowed up,
a<s that this has been the cafe with the whole habitable
Volcanic world. —An imperfect theory hath indeed been fug-
theory. gefted by Sir William Hamilton, Mr Brydone, and
others, concerning the ufe of volcanoes and fubterra-
neous fires; from whence it might feem probable,
though they do not indeed fay fo in direft terms, that
all the dry land was originally thrown up from the bot¬
tom of the fea by the force of thefe fires. Sir William
Hamilton, in his letter to Do&or Maty, broaches this
theory in the following words. “ I am myfelf con¬
vinced, that the whole circuit, fo far as I have exami¬
ned, within the boundaries marked in the map, (ex¬
tending at lead; 50 Italian miles in length, and 30 in
breadth where broadeft,) is wholly and totally the pro-
du£lion of fubterraneous fires; and that moft probably
the fea formerly reached the mountains that lie behind
Capua and Caferta, and are a continuation of the Ap-
penines. If I may be allowed to compare fmall things
with great, I imagine the fubterraneous fires to have
worked in this country under the bottom of the fea, as
moles in a field, throwing up here and there a hillock;
and that the matter thrown out of fome of thefe hil¬
locks formed into fettled volcanoes, filling up the fpaee
between the one and the other, has compofed this part
of the continent, and many of the iflands adjoining,
“ From the obfervations I have made upon Mount
iEtna, Vefuvius, and the neighbourhood, I dare fay,
that, after a careful examination, moft mountains that
are, or have been, volcanoes, would be found to owe
their exiftence to fubterraneous fire ; the dired reverfe
of what I find the commonly received opinion.—Na¬
ture, though varied, is certainly in general uniform in
her operations ; and I cannot conceive, that two fuch
confiderable volcanoes as ^Etna and Vefuvius, ftiould
have, been formed otherwife than every other confider¬
able volcano of the known world. I do not wonder
that fo little progrefs hath been made in the improve¬
ment of natural hiftory, and particularly in that branch
of it which regards the theory of the earth : nature
ads (lowly; it is difficult to catch her in the fad.
“ From repeated obfervations I have made in the
neighbourhood of Vefuvius, I am fure that no virgin
•foil is to be found there; and that all is compofed of
different ftrata of erupted matter, even to a great depth
below the level of the fea. In fhort, I have not any
doubt jn my own mind but that this volcano took its
rife from the bottom of the fea; and as the'whole plain Earth. |
between Vefuvius and the mountains behind Caferta, * *1
which is the beft part of Campagna Felice, is (under
its good foil) compofed of burnt matter, I imagine the
fea to have waftied the feet of thofe mountains, until
the fubterrjneous fires began to operate, at a period
certainly of a moft; remote antiquity.
“ The foil of the Campagna Felice is very fertile ;
I faw the earth opened in many places. The ftratum
of good foil was in general four or five feet thick; un¬
der which was a deep ftratum of cinders, pumice, frag¬
ments of lava, and fuch burnt matter as abounds near
Mount Vefuvius and all volcanoes. The mountains at
the back of Caferta are moftly of a fort of limeftone,
and very, different from thofe formed by fire ; though
Signior Van Vitelli, the celebrated architeft, has aflu-
red me, that in the cutting of the famous aquedudf of
Caferta through thefe mountains, he met with fome
foils that had evidently been formed by fubterraneous
fires. The high grounds which extend from Caftel-a-
Mare to the point of Minerva towards the ifland of
Caprea, and from the promontory that divides the bay
of Naples from that of Salerno, are of limeftone. The
plain of Sorrento, that is bounded by thefe high
grounds, beginning at the village of Vico, and ending
at that of Mafia, is wholly compofed of the fame fort
of tufa as that about Naples; except that the cinders or
pumice-ftones intermixed in it, are larger than in the
Naples tufa. I conceive, then, that there has been an
explofion in this fpot from the bottom of the fea. This
plain, as I have remarked to be the cafe with all foils
produced by fubterraneous fire, is extremely fertile;
whilft the ground about it, being of another nature, is
not fo. The ifland of Caprea does not (hew any figns
of having been formed by fubterraneous fire; but is of
the fame nature as the high grounds laft mentioned,
from whence it has been probably detached by earth¬
quakes, or the violence of the waves. Rovigliano, an
ifland, or rather a rock, in the bay of Caftel-a-Mare,
is likewife of limeftone, and feems to have belonged to
the original mountains in its neighbourhood: in fome
of thefe mountains alfo, there are petrified fifh and fof-
file (hells, which I never have found in the mountains
which I fuppofe to have been formed by explofion.
Bracini, however, in his account of the eruption of
1613, fays, that he found many forts of fea (hells on
Vefuvius after that eruption ; and P. Ignatio, in his
account of the fame eruption, fays, that he and his
companions picked up many (hells likewife at that time
upon the mountain : this circumftance would induce
one to believe, that the water thrown out of Vefuvius
during that formidable eruption, came from the fea.”
This may ferve to (hew upon what grounds the vol-
canic theory Hands; but though we ftiould; admit it in ency of the
its utmoft extent, the theory of the earth can receive volcanic
but very little affiftance from it. Mr Hamilton him- theory-
felf does not fay that all the mountains have been vol¬
canoes, or that all the foil throughout the different
quarters of the world-hath been thrown up from the
bottom of the fea. If, therefore, there remains but
one mountain in the whole world which never was a
volcano, we (hall be as much diffieulted to account for
the production of that one, as though there were ever
fo many; and at any rate our theory will be abfolutely
ufelefs, becaufe. what will account for the origin of that
IflSj Earth.
EAR [ 2587 ] EAR
mountain, will alfo account for the origin of others. If which tend to preferve, and are capable of countera&ing Earth.
we go a ftep beyond Mr Hamilton, and fay, thanhere thofe which tend to deftroy, the mountains; and perhaps”
are no mountains whatever that have not been origi- the late difcovery concerning the attraction of mountains
nally, volcanoes, but that all the dry land is the pro- may fome time or other throw fome light on the nature
duction of fubterraneous fire, our difficulties are fo far of thefe powers. See Mountain.
from being removed, that they are greatly increafed. The like may be faid of the ifthmufes or narrow ^I)(i
The lavas and volcanic aihes, though in time they be- necks of land which in fome parts of the world join ifthmufes.
come covered with an exceedingly fertile foil, remain different countries together; fuch as the iithmus of
abfolutely barren for a great number of years, infomuch Darien, of Suez, the Morea, &c. Though the ocean
that, by the adopters of the volcanic hypothefis, the feems to beat on thefe with great violence, they are
period at which Mofes fixes the creation is reckoned by never diminiihed in bulk, or waffied away, as, accord-
far too late to have given time for covering the many rng to Buffon’s theory, they ought to be. It is plain,
lavas of Italy and Sicily with the depth of earth they therefore, that there is in nature fome power by which
juft now have upon them. The whole world therefore thefe narrow necks of land are preferved from the fury
muft have remained for many ages in a ftate of abfo- of the ocean ; for hiftory does not afford one inftance
lute fterility ; and by what means vegetation firft be- of any neck of land of this kind being broken down by
gan, or in what corner of the world, remains to be in- the fea.—The difficulties with regard to the ftrata and
quired into. fhells feem infolveable by any other means than fup-
Without entering further into the theories either of pofing that there are in the terreitrial matter feveral
Mr Hamilton, or any other perfon, it is eafy to fee, diftinft powers, by which the ftrata of any particular
i3 that all of them are infuflicient to folve the difficulties kind are qccafionally transformed into others; and that
Centrifugal mentioned n° 11. It is common to account for the fphe- the (hells and other marine bodies were originally de-
..>rce not roidal figure of the earth, from the greater centrifugal pofited on the furface by the deluge. The volcanic
the earth’s^ ^orce ^ie etluatc,rial Parts than of the polar ones ; hypothefis, by which fome attempt to account for the
Fpheroidal ^ut expiicat'on can by no means be deemed fuffi- appearance of thefe bodies, will in no (hape an-
figuie. cient. The globe we inhabit is compofed of two very fwer the purpofe. By the explofions of a volcano,
different kinds of matter, earth and water. The for- fhells, mud, fand, &c. might be indifcriminately thrown
mer has a very confiderable power of cohefion, befides up, and fcattered irregularly about; but we could never
the gravitating power ; the latter has very little cohe- find the large beds of (hells which are frequently to be
fion, and its parts may be feparated from each other met with of a confiderable extent, in different parts of
by whatever will overcome its weight. It follows, there- the earth.
fore, that the folid parts of the earth, refilling, by With regard to any degree of certainty, it is fcarcely 1^0,'0f
their cohefion, the centrifugal force more than thewa- to be hoped for on this fubjeft. The common notion 5 chaos
ter, ought not to dilate fo much. The waters of the of the earth’s being originally a chaos, feems neither ought not
ocean therefore ought, about the equator, to fwell up to have a foundation in reafon, nor in the Mofaic ac-
and overflow the land; and this they ought to do at count of the creation. It is furely inconfiftent with
this prefent moment as much as at the firft creation, the wifdotn afcribed to the Deity, to think that he
That this ought to be the cafe, is evident from the phe- would create this vifible fyftem in confufion, and then
rtomena of the tides. It is not to be doubted but that employ it to put itfelf in order. It feems more pro-
the attra&ion of the moon affects the folid earth as well bable, that the earth was originally created with the
as the fea ; but becaufe of the greater cohefion of the inequalities of furface we fee it have, and that the .na-
former, it cannot yield as the ocean does, and therefore tural powers for preferving it were afterwards fuperad-
the waters are raifed to fome height above it. The ded. Thus, according to Mofes, the firft natural
height to which the waters would have covered the agent created, or produced, by direding matter to move
equatorial parts by the centrifugal force, muft have in a certain manner, was light. This, we know, was ab-
been equal tothe depreffion at the poles; which, accord- folutely neceffary for the evaporation of the water which
ing to Mr Buffon, is about 17 miles, according to other took place on the fecond day. Mofes tells us, that
mathematicians 25 or 26 miles. the earth was originally covered with water: and we
The other difficulties are fo totally inexplicable, fee a natural reafon why it (hould be fo; namely, that
that Buffon, who feems to exert himfelf as much as the evaporation by the atmofphere might more eafiiy
poffibie in order to remove them, is obliged at laft to take place. When this was done, there being then no
own, that the earth is in a perifiiing ftate; that the more occafion for the waters in that diffnfed itate, they
hills will be levelled, and the ocean at laft cover the rvere commanded to retire into the place appointed for
whole face of the earth ; a prophecy which wears no them, and thus formed the ocean. Whether this was
very favourable afped to the inhabitants of this globe, done by the adion of gravity then firft taking place,
—For thefe imaginations, however, there does not feem or by any other means, we have it not in our power
to he the fmalleft foundation in nature. The moun- to know, nor will our fpeculations on this fubjed pro-
tains have continued what they were, from the earlieft bably be attended with much benefit. We fee, how-
accounts of time, without any figns of decay. Mount ever, that the Mofaic account of thecreationisper-
iEtna, befides the wade common to it with other moun- fedly confident with itfelf. and free from thofe diffi-
tains, hath been exhaufting itfelf by throwing out in- culties with which other fyftems are clogged. It is
credible quantities of its own fubftance; yet it (till impoffible to (hew, how, by any natural power, a con-
powers for feems to be what it was called by Pindar 2200 years fufed mafs of matter, fuch as the chaos of the ancient
the momf- aS0» t^ie Pt^ar °f heaven. It feems extremely probable poets, of Drs Burnet and Woodward, the hollow globe
tains. therefore, that there are powers in the fyftem of nature of Mr Hutchinfon, the comet of. Mr Whifton, or the
vitrified,
Natural
EAR [ 2588 ] EAR
Earth, vitrified matterofMr Buffon, could put itfelf in the order
in which we fee it. The facred hiftorian fimply tells us,
that God created the heavens and the earth; that the
heavens gave no light, and the earth was covered with
water. He firft commanded the light to Ihine, then
the air to take up what quantity of water he thought
proper for the purpofes of vegetation. After this, the
dryland was made to appear; and the dilferent powers
of vegetation already taken notice of, were given to it.
Next the fun and moon were created as fubordinate
agents, to do what we are told the deity had done be^
fore by his own immediate action, namely, to divide the
light from the darknefs, &c. Then followed the for-
32 mation of animals and of man.
Mofaic ac- According to this account, it would appear, that
creation ' ' w^at we call the la^ivs of nature, were given to preferve
perfetfly earth in that Ihape which the Deity thought proper
confiftent. to give it originally by his own power; and by no means
to form it in any particular way, much lefs to put it out
of the form which he had already given it : and thus
the world, according to the belt accounts we have, is
very little altered in its appearance; and, according to
what we can judge, will continue unaltered for ever,
unlefs the Creator thinks proper to interpofe in fuch a
manner as to fuperfede all the laws he hath given it,
and change it into’fome other form.
Objections From fome obfervations of Mr Hamilton and others,
to the Mo- obje&ions have been drawn, as hath been already men-
faicchrono-tioned, to the Mofaic chronology. Thefe objeftions
IoSy* are in fubftance as follows. In pits, and other natu¬
ral and artificial openings of the ground, in the neigh¬
bourhood of Vefuvius and iEtna, feveral beds of lava
have been difcovered at confiderable depths below each
other. Thefe beds of lava in fome places are covered
with fucceffive ftrata of vegetable mould. From this
difpofition of materials, Sir William concludes that the
world muft have been created at a much more remote
period than is generally believed. The different ftra¬
ta of lava found belowground, he obferves, muft have
proceeded from an equal number of eruptions from the
mountain ; and, fuch of them as are covered with ve¬
getable foil muft have remained at leaft 1000 years on
the furface before they could acquire a foil fufficient for
the purpofes of vegetation. Ten or twelve fucceffive
ftrata overlaid with foil, have already been difcovered
in the bowels of the earth; and it has been ftrongly
afferted, that, by digging deeper, many more might
have been found. Now, allowing; 1000 years for each
ftratum of lava, which the fupportersof this theory af¬
firm to be too little, the antiquity of the earth cannot
be lefs than 12,000 years, which is more than double
its age according to the Mofaic account.
The principal fail in this theory is, that 1000 years
are neceffary to the produftion of a foil fufficient for
the nourilhment and growth of vegetables upon volca¬
nic lavas. This notion is confirmed by a conjecture
of the Canonico Recupero, that ftreams of lava in Si¬
cily have lain for centuries without acquiring a vege¬
table mould; and by fomeobfcure accounts, that thefe
lavas have proceeded from eruptions of iEtna above
1000 years ago. The following confiderations, how-
34 ever, will render this theory at leaft extremely dubious.
Anfwered. Sir William informs us, that fome lavas are very folid,
and refill the operation of time much longer than an¬
other kind, which, he fays, “ is farinaceous, the par¬
ticles feparating as they force their way out, juft like Earth,
meal coming from under the grindftones. A ftream
of lava of this fort, (he juftly obferyes) being lefs
compadt, and containing more earthy particles, would
certainly be much fooner fit for vegetation than one
compofed of the more perfedt vitrified matter.” He
has not, however, ventured to determine whether thefe
lavas found below ground were of the former or latter
quality; a circumftance which materially affedis the
juftnefs of his calculation.
That foil gradually increafes by decayed vegetables,
and the fediment depofited by fnow and rain, is an un¬
deniable fadl. The thicknefs or thinnefs of foil indi¬
cates a greater or lefs time of accumulation. But
Sir William has not informed us of the dimenfions of
his fubterraneous vegetable ftrata ; a circumftance of
great moment in inftituting a calculation of their dif¬
ferent seras.
Befides, eruptions of volcanoes are often accom¬
panied with incredible quantities of afiies, which fall
thick upon all the ground for many miles round, in¬
tended by nature, it would appear, quickly to repair
the barrennefs occafioned by the lava. The muddy
water fometimes thrown out may co-operate power¬
fully with the allies in producing the fame happy ef*
fedl.
But Sir William has furnilhed us with fadts of a
more important nature. The town of Herculaneum
was deftroyed by an eruption in the 97th year of the
Chriftian aera. There are evident marks, fays he,
that the matter of fix eruptions has taken its courfe
over Herculaneum ; for each of the fix ftrata of lava
is covered with a vein of good foil. Here we have
Sir William’s own authority for fix ftrata of good
foil, accumulated in lefs than 1700 years; which, fup-
pofing them to be all of equal thicknefs, inftead of
1000 years, leaves not 300 to the prodn&ion of each.
From the fame authority we learn, that the crater
on the top of the Monte Nuovo, or New Mountain,
which was thrown up by fubterraneous fire no farther
back than the year 1538, is now covered with Ihrubs.
There is not on record any eruption from the great
crater of Vefuvius from the year 113910 1631, a pe¬
riod of only 492 years. But, Bracini, who defcend-
ed into it not long before the 1631, tells us, “ that
the crater was five miles in circumference, and about
1000 paces deep. Its fides were covered with brulh-
wood, and at the bottom there was a plain on which
cattle grazed. In the woody parts, boars frequently
harboured,” &c.
The correfpondence of thefe fadls, related by Sir
William himfelf, with his favourite notion that 1000
years are neceffary for the produdlion of a vegetable
foil, we leave the reader to determine ; and ffiall con¬
clude with a few remarks of a different kind.
The appearance of a ftratum of lava below ground,
though not covered with vegetable foil, our author con-
fiders as demonftrative evidence, that fuch ftratum for¬
merly lay above the furface, and was thrown out by
an eruption. This inference, however, feems not al¬
together juft.’ Nothing, with propriety, receives the
denomination of an eruption, unlefs when lava or other
matter is vomited from the crater, or from fome new
opening made in the mountain. But it deferves notice,
that, in the environs of volcanoes, earthquakes are fre¬
quent.
E A R [ 25S9 ] EAR
r'h. q'.ier.t. That thefe violent concuflions are the genuine a hot-bed in the fpring of the year; and when the wea- EauL-
produce of fubtert-aneous fire expanding itfelf in every ther proves warm, they may be expofed to the open quake-
dirtftion, and making ftrong efforts againft every fub- air by degrees. The branches of the plant trail upon
fiance which refifts the natural tendency of its courfe, the ground; and the flowers, which are yellow, are
is a fadl that cannot admit of doubt. It is no lefs produced Angle upon long footftalks; and as foon as
certain, that thefe frequent concufiions fhake and diflo- the flower begins to decay, the germen is thruft un-
eate the internal parts of the earth. They cannot fail der ground, where the pod is formed and ripened ; fo
to (hatter and dilarrange the natural diredlion of the that unlefs the ground is opened, they never appear :
original ftrata; and, of courfe, they muft give rife to the roots are annual, but the nuts or feeds fufficiently
many fubterraneous cavities and fiffures. The nearer flock the ground in a warm country where they are
the great furnace, which confines the fury of the flames, not carefully taken up-
the greater and more frequent will be the cavities. EARTH-iV«/j-, ox Pig-nuts. See Bcnium.
Every earthquake occafioned by a volcano is nothing Ear rin natural hiftory, a name given
elfe than an effort of the burning matter to enlarge the by authors to a fpecies of puceron very fingnlar in its
boundaries by which it is ufually limited. If the quan- place of abode. In the month of March, if the turf
tity of matter and degree of inflammation require a be raifed in feveral places in any dry pa (lure, there will
fpace greatly fuperior to the internal cavities, an erup- be found, under fome parts of it, clufters of ants; and,
tion above the furface is an infallible conftquence. But, on a farther fearch, it will be ufually found, that thefe
when the quantity of matter, or the expaw five force oc- animals are gathered about fome pucerons of a pecu-
cafioned by the degree of inflammation, is infufficient liar fpecies. Thefe are large, and of a greyifli colour,
to raife the lava to the top of the mountain, an earth- and are ufually found in the midft of the clufters of
quake may he produced; and the lava, without ever ants.
appearing above the furface, may run below ground in The common abode of the feveral other fpecies of
plentiful ftreams, and fill up all the fubterraneous ca- pucerons is on the young branches or leaves of trees;
vities and channels. Thefe internal ftrata of lava may as their only food is the fap or juice of vegetables, pfo-
often lie fo deep as to be below the level of the fea. bably thefe earth kinds draw out thofe juices from the
In this manner, we conceive it to be not only poflible, roots of the graffes, and other plants, in the fameman-
but extremely probable, that beds of lava, having no ner that the others do from the other parts. The ants
covering of vegetable foil, may be found at great depths, that conduct us to thefe, are alfo our guides where to
although they never were above the furface. find the greater part of the others; the reafon of which
It is much more reafonable to conclude, that lavas is, that as thele creatures feed on the faccharine juices
with a layer of foil were produced by eruptions, and of plants, they are evacuated from their bodies in a H*
once lay above the furface, till covered by the opera- quid form, very little altered from their original ftate;
tion of time, or fubfequent.ftreams from the mouth of .and the ants, who love fuch food, find it ready prepa-
the volcano. But, even in this cafe, the argpment is red for them, in the excrements which thefe little ani-
not altogether complete; for, as above remarked, mals are continually voiding *. It has been fuppofed * See^bV,
earthquakes, with which countries adjacent to volca- by fome, that thefe were the common puccrons of other
noes are perpetually infefted, often fink large tra&s of kinds, which had crept into the earth to preferve rf<rn,‘
land to great depths. themfelves from the rigour of the winter. But this
The other parts of the theory of the earth regard does not appear to be the cafe; for they are ufually met
the fituation of the different parts of its furface with with in places very diftant from trees or plants, on
refpeil to each other; its annual motion round the fun which they (hould be fuppofed before to have fed; and
as a planet; its diurnal motion round its axis; and the it is very certain, that though many of thefe infefts
different ffrata whereof it is compofed, as far as it hath are killed by the cold, yet many efcape, and are
been hitherto found practicable to penetrate into it : .found very early in the fpring, fucking the buds of the
for all which, fee the articles Geography, Astrono- peach-tree. There is no doubt of thefe creatures be-
my, Mines, Strata, fac. ing in a feeding condition when underground ; becaufe
Smell and Bath of the Earth. See Agriculture, otherwife the ants would have no temptation fb follow
n° 11. - them : and it is equally certain, that the feveral fpecies
Bread made of Earth. Sec Bread. of the pucerons, like thofe of the caterpillar kinds, have
Earth-AAx. See Amianthus. each their peculiar herbs on which they feed, as many
Earth-IV^.;, or Ground-Nuts, the roots of the A- of them will die of hunger rather than feed on any o-
rachis hypogaea of Linnaeus. They are compofed of thers ; and it is not at all likely, that thefe earth puce-
feveral fmall round bulbs or knobs ; whence they were rons had been ufed to feed on leaves of trees and plants,
termed by Dodonaeus, terrx glandss, or earth-nuts, and had left that food for the roots of grafs.
They are efteemed an excellent food by the Siberians. Earth-IFsrm. See Lumbricus.
In Holland likewife, they are fold in the markets and EARTHX^UAKE, in natural hiftory, a fudden
ufed for food. The native country of this-plant feems and violent conculfion of the earth, generally attended
to be Africa; though, at prefent, all the American with firange nodes under-ground or in the air; often
fetth ments abound with it; but many perfons who have deftroying whole cities at once, throwing down rocks,
refitted in that country “affirm that they were origi- altering the courfe of rivers, and producing the mod
nally brought by the Haves from Africa. .The plant terrible devailations.
multiplies very fail in a warm country; but being very Though there is ha"dly any country knawn in which
impatient of cold, it cannot be propagated in the open (hocks of an earthquake have not at fome time dr other
air in Britain. The feeds tnuft therefore be planted in been felt, yet there are fome much more fubjedi to
Vol. IV. 15 B then*
EAR [ 2590 ] EAR
Earth- them than others. It hath been obferved, that nor-
quake. them conntries in general are lefs ftibjedl to earth-
1 quakes than thofe fituated near the equator, or in
Whatcoun-the fouthern latitudes ; but this does not hold univer-
,rie^®re. fally. The iflands of Japan, which are fituated pret-
to^arth-6 ty far north> are neverthelefs exceedingly liable to
quakes. thefe deftruftive phenomena. Iflands, in general, are
alfo more fubjedd to earthquakes than continents ; but
neither does this hold without exceptions. Some par¬
ticular parts of continents, and fome particular iflands,
are more fubjeft to them than others lying in the
neighbourhood, and differing very little from them in
external appearance. Thus, Portugal is more fubjedt
to earthquakes than Spain, and the latter much more
than France ; Mexico and Peru more than the other
countries of America, and Jamaica more than the o-
ther Caribbee Iflands. Earthquakes are frequent, tho’
not often violent, in Italy ; but in Sicily they are often
terribly deltrudtive. Alia Minor hath been remark¬
ably fubjedt to them from the remoteft antiquity, and
the city of Antioch in particular hath fuffered more
from earthquakes than any other in that country. The
fame phenomena are faid alfo to occur very frequently
in the north-eaftern extremities of Afia, even in very
% high latitudes.
Hiftory of Though there are no phenomena in nature morecal-
their phe- cu]ated to imprefs the human mind with terror, and
complete!0' conh;queRtly to be well remembered and taken notice
of, than earthquakes, yet the philofophy of them is but
lately arrived at any degree of perfeftion ; and even
at this day, the hiftory of earthquakes is very incom¬
plete. The deftrudtion occafioned by them engrofles
the mind too much to admit of philofophical fpecula-
tions at the time they happen : the fame thing pre¬
vents the attentive confideration of the alterations that
take place in the atmofphere after the earthquake is
over, and which might probably throw fome light on
the caufes which produced it; and the fuddennefs of
its coming on prevents- an exaft attention to thofe
flight appearances in the earth or air, which, if care¬
fully obferved, might ferve as warnings to avoid the de-
ftrudtion.—From what obfervations have been made,
however, the following phenomena may be deduced,
3 and reckoned pretty certain.
Account of /• Where there are any volcanoes or burning moun-
the pheno- tains, earthquakes may reafonably be expected more
mena as far frequently than in other countries.
UinecL CCr" 2‘ ^ vo^cano ^ath been for a long time quiet, a
violent earthquake is to be feared, idr vice verfa. But to
this there are many exceptions.
5. Earthquakes are generally preceded by long
droughts; but they do not always come on as foon as
the drought ceafes.
4. They are alfo preceded by eleflrical appearances
in the air ^ fuch as the aurora borealis, falling ftars,
&c. : but this does not hold univerfally.
5. A (hort time before the (hock,, the fea fwells up
and makes a great noife; fountains are troubled, and
fend forth muddy water ; and the beafts feem frighted,
as if fenfible of an approaching calamity.
6. The air at the time of the fhock is generally calm
and ferene ; but afterwards commonly becomes obfeure
andcloudy.
7* The fhock comes on with a rumbling noife, fome-
times like that, of carriages; fometimes a rufhing noife
like wind, and fometimes explofions like the firing of Earth-
cannon are heard. Sometimes the ground heaves per-
pendicularly upwards; and fometimes rolls from fide to
fide. Sometimes the (hock begins with a perpendicu- a:
lar heave, after which the other kind of motion com¬
mences. A fingle fliock is but of very fliort duration,
the longeft fcarcely lading a minute ; but they fre¬
quently fucceed each other at fliort intervals for a con-
fiderable length of time.
8. During the (hock, chafms are made in the earth;,
from which fometimes flames, but oftener great quan¬
tities of water, are difeharged. Flame and fmoke are
alfo emitted from places of the earth where no chafms
can be perceived. Sometimes thefe chafms are but fmall;
but, in violent earthquakes, they are not unfrequently
fo large, that whole cities fink down into them at once.
9. The water of the ocean is afFe&ed even more than
the dry-land. The fea fwells to a prodigious height;
much more than we could fuppofe it raifed by the mere
elevation of its bottom by the (hock. Sometimes it is
divided to a confiderable depth ; and great quantities of
air, flame, and fmoke, are difeharged from it. The like
irregular agitations happen to the waters of ponds,
lakes, and even rivers.
10. The (hock is felt at fea as well as on land. Ships
are afFe&ed by a fudden ftroke, as if they run aground
or (truck upon a rock.
11. The effedts of earthquakes are not confined to one
particular diltridt or country, but often extend to very
diftant legions; though no earthquake hath yet been
known extenfive enough to affedt the whole world at
one time. In thofe places alfo where the (hock is
not felt on dry land, the irregular agitation of the
waters abovementioned is perceived very remarkably.
All thefe pofitions are verified by the accounts of Acco*nt
thofe earthquakes which have been particularly deferi- the earth
bed by witnefles of the beft charader. In 1692, an qnake in
earthquake happened in Jamaica, attended with almoft. Jamaica
all the terrible circumflances abovementioned. In two 1
minutes, it deftroyed the town of Port Royal, at that
time the capital of the ifland ; and funk the houfes
in a gulph 40 fathoms deep. It was attended with an
hollow rumbling noife like that of thunder : the ftreets
rofe like the waves of the fea ; firft lifting up the houfes,
and then immediately throwing them down into deep
pits. All the wells difeharged their waters with the
moll" violent agitation. The fea burft over its bounds,
and deluged all that flood in its way. The fiffures of
the earth were in fome places fo great, that one of the
ftreets appeared twice as broad as formerly. In many
places it opened and clofed again ; and continued this
agitation for fome time. Of tbefe openings, great
numbers might be feen at once. In fome of them, the
people were fwallowed up at once ; in others, the earth
caught them by the middle, and cruftied them to death;.
while others, more fortunate, were fwallowed up in one
chafm, and thrown out alive by another. Other chafms
were large enough to fwallow up whole ftreets; and
others, ftill more formidable, fpouted up immenfe quan¬
tities of water, drowning fuch as the earthquake had
fpared. The whole was attended with flenches and
offenfive faiells, the noife of falling mountains at a di-
ftance, &c.; and the Iky, in a minute’s time, was turn¬
ed dull and reddifti, like a glowing oven. Yet, as
great a fufferer as Port-Royal was, more houfes wer>e
EAR [ 2591 ] EAR
lefts ftanding therein, than on the whole ifland befide.
Scarce a planting-houfe, or fugar-houfe, was left
ftanding in all Jamaica. A great part of them were
fwallowed up, houfes, people, trees, and all, in one
gap : in lieu of which, afterwards appeared great pools
of water; which, when dried up, left nothing but fand,
without any mark that ever tree hr plant had grown
thereon. The ftiock was fo violent, that it threw
people down on their knees or their faces as they
were running about for (belter. Several houfes were
(huffled fome yards out of their places, and yet conti¬
nued ftanding. One Hopkins had his plantation re¬
moved half a mile from the place where it flood, with¬
out any.confiderable alteration. All the wells in the
ifland, as well as thofe of Port-Royal, from one fa¬
thom to fix or feven deep, threw their water out at the
top with great violence. Above 12 miles from the fea,
the earth gaped and fpouted out, with a prodigious
force, vaft quantities of water into the air : yet the
greateft violences were among the mountains and rocks;
and it is a general opinion, that the nearer the moun¬
tains, the greater the (hock ; and that the caufe there¬
of lay among them. Moft of the rivers were flopped
up for 24 hours, by the falling of the mountains ; till,
fwelling up, they made themfelves new tracks and
channels ; tearing up, in their paflage, trees, &c. Af¬
ter the great (hock, thofe people who efcaped got
on board (hips in the harbour, where many continued
above two months; the (hocks all that time being fo
violent, and coming fo thick, fometimes two or three
in an hour, accompanied with frightful noifes like a
ruffling wind, or a hollow rumbling thunder, with
brimftone-blafts, that they durft not come aftiore. The
confequence of the earthquake was a general ficknefs,
from the noifome vapours belched forth, which fwept
away above 3000 perfons.
the A (till more terrible account, if poflible, is that gi-
thquake ven by Kircher, of the earthquake which happened in
Calabria in the year 1638. This inftance is an excep¬
tion to the fecond general pofition above laid down. In
Italy, there had been an eruption of Mount Vefuvius,
five years before ; and in Sicily there had been an e-
ruption of iEtna, only two years before this earth¬
quake. The event, however, plainly (hewed, that the
caufe of the earthquake, whatever it was, had a con¬
nexion not only with Mount JEtna, which lies in the
neighbourhood, but alfo with the volcano of Strombo-
li, which is 60 miles diftant. “ On the 24th of March,
(fays Kircher,) we lanched (in a fnSall boat) from the
harbour of Medina in Sicily, and arrived the fame day
at the promontory of Pelorus. Our deftination was
for the city of Euphemia in Calabria ; but on account
of the weather, we were obliged to continue three days
at Pelorus. At length, wearied with the delay, we
refolved to profecute our voyage ; and, although the
fea feemed more than ufually agitated, yet we ventu¬
red forward. The gulf of Charybdis, which we ap¬
proached, feemed whirled round in fuch a manner as
to form a vaft hollow, verging to a point in the centre.
Proceeding onward, and turning my eyes to mount
AUtna, I faw it caft forth large volumes of fmoke, of
mountainous fixes, which entirely covered the ifland,
and blotted out even the (hores from my view. This,
together with the dreadful noife, and the fulphureous
ftench, which was ftrongly perceived, filled me with
apprehenfions that fome more dreadful calamity was
impending. The fea itfelf feemed to wear a very un-
ufual appearance ; thofe who have feen a lake in a vio¬
lent (hower of rain all covered over with bubbles, will
have fome idea of its agitations. My furprife was dill
increafed by the calmnefs and ferenity of the weather ;
not a breeze, not a cloud, which might be fuppofed to
put all nature thus into motion. I therefore warned
my companions, that an earthquake was approaching ;
and, after fome time, making for the (hore with all
poflible diligence, we landed at Tropaea. But we had
fcarce arrived at the Jefuits college in that city, when
our ears were dunned with an horrid found, refemblifig
that of an infinite number of chariots driven fiercely
forward, the wheels rattling, and the thongs cracking.
Soon after this, a moft dreadful earthquake enfued ; fo
that the whole track upon which we flood feemed to
vibrate, as if we were in the fcale of a balance that con¬
tinued wavering. This motion, however, foon grew
more violent; and being no longer able to keep my
legs, I was thrown proftrate upon the ground. After
fome time, however, finding that I remained unhurt
amidft the general concuflion, I refolved to venture for
fafety ; and running as fait as I could, reached the
(hore. I did not fearch long here, till I found the
boat in which I had landed, and my companions alfb.
Leaving this feat of defolation, we profecuted our voy¬
age along the coafts ; and the next day came to Ro-
chetta, where we landed, although the earth {till con¬
tinued in violent agitations. But we were fcarce ar¬
rived at our inn, when we were once more obliged to
return to our boat; and in about half an hour, we faw
the greateft part of the town, and the inn at which we
had fet up, daftied to the ground, and burying all its
inhabitants beneath its ruins. Proceeding onward in
our little veflel, we at length landed at Lopizium, a
caftle mid-way between Tropaea and Euphemia the
city to which we were bound. Here, wherever I turn¬
ed my eyes, nothing but feenes of ruin and horror ap¬
peared ; towns and caftles levelled to the ground;
Stromboli, though at 60 miles diflance, belching forth
flames in an unufual manner, and with a noife which
I could diftinXly hear. But my attention was quickly
turned from more remote, to contiguous, danger. The
rumbling found of an, approaching earthquake, which
by this time we were grown acquainted with, alarmed
us for the confequences. It every moment feemed to
grow louder, and to approach more near. The place
on which we flood now began to (hake moft dreadful¬
ly ; fo that, being unable to (land, my companions and
I caught hold of whatever (hrub grew next us, and
fupported ourfelves in that manner. After fome time,
the violent parpxyfm ceafing, we again flood up, in
order to profecute our voyage to Euphemia, which lay
within fight. In the mean time, while we were pre¬
paring for this purpofe, I turned my eyes towards the
city; but could fee only a frightful dark cloud, that
feemed to reft upon the place. This the more fur-
prifed us, as the weather was fo very ferene. We wait¬
ed, therefore, till the cloud was paffed away: then
turning to look for the city, it w'as totally funk ; and
nothing but a difmal and putrid lake was to be feen
where it ftood.”
In 1693 an earthquake' happened in Sicily, which
may juftly be accounted one of the moft terrible of
15 B 2 which
Eaath-
Earth¬
quake.
6
Of the
earthquake
in Sicily in
Phenomena
of the great
earthquake
Novem. i.
*7JS-
8
At Lifbon.
EAR [ 2592 ] EAR
which we have any account. It (hook the whole
illand: and not only that, but Naples and Malta (ha¬
red in the (hock. It was impoffible for any body, in
this country, to keep on their legs on the dancing
earthy nay, thofe that lay on the ground were toffed
from fide to fide, as on a rolling billow: high walls
leaped from their foundations feveral paces, &c. The
mifchief it did is amazing: almoft all the buildings in
the countries were thrown down. Fifty-four cities and
towns, befide an incredible number of villages, were ei¬
ther deftroyed or greatly damaged. We (hall only in-
ftanee the fate of Catania, one of the tnoft famous, an¬
cient, and ftourifhing cities in the kingdom; the reli-
dence of feveral monarchs, and an univeritty. This
once famous city had the greateffi (hare in the tragedy.
Father Anthon. Serrovita, being on his Way thither,
and at the diftance of a few miles, obferved a black
cloud like night hovering over the city; and there a-
rofe from the mouth of Montgibello, great fpires of
flame, which fpread all around. 'The fea all of a fud-
den began to roar, and rife in billows; and there was
a blow, as if all the artillery in the world had' been at
once difcharged. The birds flew about aftoniflied ;
the cattle in the fields ran crying, &.e. His and his
companions horfes flopped fnort, trembling ; fo that
they were forced to alight. They were no fooner off,
but they were lifted from the ground above two palms;
when, calling his eyes, towards Catania, he with amaze¬
ment faw nothing but a thick cloud of dud in the air.
This was the fcene of their calamity: for of the mag¬
nificent Catania, there was not the lead fo&tftep to be
feen. S. Bonajutus affure us, that of 18900 inhabi¬
tants, 18000 perilhed therein.
The great earthquake, however, which happened on
the id of November 1755, affords the cleared example
of all the phenomena above-mentioned ; having been
felt violently in many places both on land and at fea,
and extended its effetts to the waters in many other
places where the (hocks were not perceived. At Lilbon
in Portugal, its effects were mort fevfire. In 1750,
there had been a fenfible trembling of the earth felt in
this city : for four years afterwards, there had been an
exceflive drought; infomuch, that fome fprings, former¬
ly very plentiful of water, were dried, and totally loft:
the predominant winds were north and north-eaft, ac¬
companied with various, though very frtiall, tremors of
the earth. The year 1755 proved very wet and rainy,
the dimmer cooler than ufual; and for 40 days before
the earthquake, the weather was clear, but not remark¬
ably fo. The kft day of October, the fun was obfcu-
red, with a remarkable gloominefs in the atmofphere.
The firft of November, early in the morning, a thick,
fog arofe, which was foon diflipated by the heat of the
fun; no wind was ftirring, the fea was calm, and the
weather as warm as in June or July in this country. At
35 minutes after nine, without the lead warning, ex¬
cept a rumbling noife not unlike the artificial thunder
in our theatres, a moft dreadful earthquake (hook, by
fhort but quick vibrations, the foundations of all the
city, fo that many buildings inftantly fell. Then, with
a fcarce perceptible paufe, the nature of the motion
Was changed, and the houfes were toffed from fide to
fide, with a motion like that of a waggon violently
driven over rough (tones. This fecond (hock laid al-
zboft the whole city in ruins, with prodigious (laughter
of the people. The earthquake laded in all about fix Earth-
minutes. At the moment of its beginning, fome per- j
fons on the river, near a mile from the city, heard their
boat make a noife as if it had run aground, though
they were then in deep water; and at the fame time
they faw the houfes falling on both fides of the river.
The bed of the river Tagus was, in many places, rai*
fed to its furface. Ships were drove from their an¬
chors, and joftled together with great violence; nor did
their mafters know whether they were afloat or a-
ground. A large new quay funk loan unfathomable
depth, with feveral hundreds of people who were upon
it; nor was one of the dead bodies ever found. The
bar was at firft feen dry from (hore to (bore: but fud-
denly the fea came rolling in like a mountain; and a- ^
bout Belem Caftle, the water rofe 50 feet almoft in an
inftant. About noon, there was another (hock; when
the walls of feveral houfes that yet remained, were feen
to open from top to bottom more than a quarter of a
yard, and afterwardsdoled again fo exadlly that fcarce
any mark of the injury was- left. p ||
At Colares, about 20 miles from Liibon, and twd At Colarej
miles from the fea, on the laft day of O&ober, the wea¬
ther was clear, and uncommonly warm for the feafofi:
about four o’clock in the afternoon there arofe a fog,
which came from the fea, and covered the valleysa
thing very unufual at that feafon of the year. SoOrl
after, the wind changing to the call, the fog returned’
to the fea, colledliug it ft If, and becoming exceeding
thick. As the fog retired, the fea rofe with a prodi¬
gious roaring.-—The firft of November, the day broke
with a ferene (ky, the wind continuing at call : but,
about nine o’clock, the fun began to grow dim; and
about half an hour after was heard a rumbling noife
like that of chariots, which increafed to fuch a degree,,
that it became equal to the explofions of the largeft
cannon. Immediately a (hock of an earthquake was
felt, which was quickly fucceeded by a ftcond and
third; and at the fame time feveral light flames of fire
iffued from the mountains, refembling the kindling of
charcoal. In thefe three (hocks, the walls of the build¬
ings moved from eaft to weft. In another fituStion,.
from whence the fea-coaft could be difcovered, there
iffued from one of the hills called the jFojo, a great
quantity of fmoke, very thick, but not very black.
This (till increafed with the fourth (hock, and after¬
wards continued to iffue in a greater or lefs degree. Juft
as the fubterraneous rumblings were heard, the fmoke
was obferved to burft forth at the Fojo ; and thd quan¬
tity of fmoke was always proportioned to the noife.
On vifiting the place from whence the fmoke was ffeeh
to arife, no figris of fire could be perceived near it. ?
At Oporto (near the moutbof the river Douro), the>^t oporto*!
earthquake began about 40 minutes paft nine. The
Iky was very ferene ; when a dreadful hollow noife like
thunder, or the rattling of coaches at a diftance, was
heard, and almoft at the fame inftant the earth began
to (hake. In-the fpace of a minute or two, the river
rofe and fell five or fix feet, and continued to do fo for
four hours. It ran up at firft with fo much violence,
that it broke a (hip s hawfer. In fome parts the river
opened, and feemed to difcharge vaft quantities of air;
and the agitation in the fea was fo great about a league
beyond the bar, that air was fuppofed to have beea
difcharged there alfo.
Tlate XCOX
EAR [ 2593 ] EAR
Earth- St Ubes, a fea-port town, about 20 miles fouth of
quake. Lifbon, was entirely fwallowed up by the repeated
11 fliocks, and the vaft furf the fea. Huge pieces of rock
it St Ubes. Were detached at the fame time from the promontory
at the weft end of the town, which con fills of a chain
of mountains containing fine jafpcr of different colours.
\t A*a The fame earthquake was felt all over Spain, except
mlntcTri in Catalonia, Arragon, and Valencia.—^At Ayatnonte,
’ ain. (near where the Guadiana falls into the Bay of Cadiz),
a little before 10 o’clock on the firft of November, the
earthquake was felt; having been immediately pre¬
ceded by a hollow rulhing noife. Here the ftiocks
continued for 14 or 15 minutes, damaged almoftall the
buildings, throwing down fome, and leaving others ir¬
reparably (hattered. In little move than half an hour
after, the fea and river, with all the canals, overflowed
their banks with great violence, laying under water all the
coafts of the iflands adjacent to the city and its neigh-
bourhood, and flowing into the very ftreets. The water
came on in vaft black mountains, white with foam at the
top, and demolifhed more than one half of a tower at the
bar named de Canala. In the adjacent ftrands every
thing was irrecoverably loft; for all that was overflow¬
ed funk, and the beadi became a fea, without the leaft
refemblance of what it was before. Many perfons pe-
rifhed: for, although they got aboard fome veffels, yet
part of thefe foundered; and others being forced out to
fea, the unhappy paflengers were fo terrified, that they
threw themfclves over board. The day was ferene,
and not a breath of wind ftirring.
At Cadiz, fome minutes after nine in the morning
the earthquake began, and lafted about five minutes.
The water of the citterns under ground wafived back¬
wards and forwards, fo that a great froth arofe. At
ten minutes after eleven, a wave was Seen coming from
the fea, at eight miles diftance, at leaft 60 feet higher
than ufual. It dallied againlt the weft part of tire
town, which is very rocky. Though thefe rocks
broke a good deal of its force, it at lall came upon the
city Walls, beat in the bread-work, and carried pieces
of the building of eight or ten ton weight to the di-
llance of 40 or 50 yards.—When the wave was gone,
fome parts that are deep at low water, were left quite
dry; for the wafer returned with the fame violence with
which it came. At half an hour after 1 x came a fecond
wave,and after that four other remarkable ones; the firft
at ten minutes before twelve ; the fecond, half an hour
before one ; the third, ten minutes after one ; and the
fourth, ten minutes before two. Similar waves, but
fmaller, and gradually leffening, continued with uncer¬
tain intervals till the evening.
GiUral- At Gibraltar, the earthquake was not felt till after
. ten. It began with a tremulous motion of the earth,
which lafted about half a minute. Then followed a
violent (hock; after that, a trembling of the earth for
five or fix feconds ; then another ffeock not fo violent:
as the firft, which went off gradually as it began. The
whole lafted about two minutes. Some of the guns on
the battery were feen to rife, others to fink, the earth
having an undulating motion. Moft people were ftized
with giddinefs and ficknefs; and fome fell down : fathers
were ftupified ; and many that were walking or riding
felt no motion in the earth, but were fick. The fea
rofe fix feet every 15 minutes; and then fell fo low, that
boats, and all the fmall craft near the ftiore, were left a-
ground, as were alfo numbers of fmall filh. The flux Earth-
and reflux lafted till next morning, having decreafed qualte'
gradually from two in the afternoon. IS
At Madrid the earthquake came on at the fame time At Madrid,
as at Gibraltar, and lafted about fix minutes. At firft Malaga,&c.
every body thought they were feized with a fwimming
in their heads; and afterwards, that the houfes were
falling. It was not felt in coaches, nor by thofe who
walked on foot, except very flightly; and no accident
happened, except that two lads were killed by the fall
of a ftone-crofs from the porch of a church.
Malaga (a fea-port on the Mediterranean) felt a
violent Ihock ; the bells rung in the fteeples; the wa¬
ter of a well overflowed, and as fuddenly retired.
Saint Lucar (at the mouth of the Guadalquiver)
was violently Ihocked, and the fea broke in and did a
great deal of mifchief.
At Seville, (16 leagues above the mouth of the
Guadalquiver), feveral houfes were fliaken down ; the
famous tower of the cathedral called /a Giralda opened
in the four fides; and the waters were fo violently agi¬
tated, that 3II the veffels in the river were driven afhore.
In Africa, the earthquake was felt almoft as fevere-
ly as it had been in Europe. Great part of the town ic
of Algiers was deftroyed. At Arzilla, (a town in the ^ Auilta
kingdom of Fez), about ten in the morning, the fea in Afr‘cd.
fuddenly rofe with fuch impetuofity, that it lifted
up a vsffel in the bay, and dropped it with fuch force
on the land, that it was broke to pieces; and a boat
was found two mufleet-lhot within land from the fea. At
Fez, and Mequinez, great numbers of houfes fell down-,
and a multitude of people were buried in the ruins. I7
At Morocco, by the felling down of a great mim- At Moroc-
ber of houfes, many people loft their lives : and about C0,
eight leagues from the city, the earth opened and
fwallowed up a village with all the inhabitants, who
were known by the name of the fons ofHefumba, to
the number of about 8000 or 10,000 perfons, toge¬
ther with all their cattle, &c.; and, foon after, the
earth clofed again in the fame manner as before. ,3
At Salle, a great deal of damage was done. Near At other
a third part of the houfes were overthrown ; the wa- places 011
ters rulhed into the city with great rapidity, and left
behind them great quantities of fifh.
At Tangier, the earthquake began at ten in the
morning, and felled 10. or 12 minutes. The fea came
up to the walls (a thing never heard of before) ; and
went down immediately with the feme rapidity with
which it arofe, leaving a great quantity of filh behind
it: thefe commotions were repeated 18 times, and laft¬
ed till fix in the evening.
At Tetuan, the earthquake began at the fame
time it did at Tangier, but felled only feven or eight
minutes. There were three Ihocks, fo extremely vio¬
lent, that it was feared the whole city would be de¬
ftroyed. i'
In the city of Funchal, in the ifland of Madeira, a inthe^fland
flxock of this earthquake was firft perceived at 38 mi- of Madeira,
nutes pall nine in the morning. It was preceded by a
rumbling noife in the air, like that of empty carriages
paffing haftily over a Hone pavement. The obferver
felt the floor immediately to move with a tremulous
motion, vibrating very quickly. The Ihock continued
more than a minute; during which fpace, the vibra¬
tions, though continual, were weakened and iucreafed
ia
EAR [ 1594 ] ' EAR
Eatth- |n force twice very fenfibly. The increafe after the
firft remiffion of the fhock, was the moft intenfe. The
noife in the air accompanied the (hock during the whole
of its continuance, and lalted feme feconcfs after the
motion of the earth had ceafed ; dying away like a
peal of diftant thunder rolling through the air. At
three quarters pad eleven, the fea, which was quite
calm, it being a fine day, and no wind ftirring, re¬
tired fuddenly fome paces; then rifing with a great
fwell without the lead noife, and as fuddenly advan¬
cing, overflowed the (hore, and entered the city. It
rofe 15 feet perpendicular above the high-water mark,
although the tide, which flows there feven feet, was
then at half ebb. The water immediately receded ; and
after having flu&uated four or five times between high
and low water mark, it fubfided, and the fea remain¬
ed calm as before. In the northern part of the ifland
the irnundatron was more violent, the fea there reti-
ring above 100 paces at fird, and fuddenly returning,
overflowed the (hore, forcing open doors, breaking
down the walls of feveral magazines and dorehoufes,
leaving great quantities of fi(h afliore and in the dreets
of the village of Machico. All this was the effeft of
one rifing of the fea, for it never afterwards flowed
high enough to reach the high-water mark. It con¬
tinued, however, to flu&uate here much longer be¬
fore it fubfided than at Funchal; and in fome pla-
\ ces farther to the wedward, it was hardly, if it all,
perceptible.
Thefe were the phenomena with which this remark¬
able earthquake was attended in thofe places where it
was violent. The effe&s of it, however, reached to
an immenfe didance; and were perceived chiefly by the
agitations of the waters, or fome (light motion of the
earth. The utmofi boundaries of this earthquake to
the fouth are unknown; the barbarity of the African
nations rendering it impoffible to procure any intelli¬
gence from them, except where the effe&s were dread-
10 ful. On the north, however, we are aflured, that it
Effefls of it reached as far as Norway and Sweden. In the former,
in Norway the waters 6f feveral rivers and lakes were violently a-
den SW£* 8'tated* In the latter, (hocks were felt in feveral pro¬
vinces, and all the rfvers and lakes were drongly agi¬
tated, efpecially in Dalecarlia. The river Dala fud¬
denly overflowed its banks, and as fuddenly retired.
At the fame time a lake at the didance of a league from
it, and which had no manner of communication with
it, bubbled up with great violence. At Fahlun, a town
lt in Dalecarlia, feveral drong (hocks were felt.
In Get- In many places of Germany the effefts of the earth-
many, quake were very perceptible. Throughout the duchy
of’Holdein, the waters were violently agitated, parti-
culary thofe of the Elbe and Trave. In Branden¬
burg, the water of a lake called Libfec,, ebbed and
flowed fix times in half an hour, with a dreadful noife,
the weather being then perfeflly calm. The fame agi¬
tation was obferved in the waters of the lakes called
Muplgqft and Netzo; but at this lad place they alfo
l3 emitted an intolerable dench.
In Holland. In Holland, the agitations were more remarkable.
At Alphen on the Rhine between Leyden and Woer-
den, in the afternoon of the fird of November, the wa¬
ters were agitated to fiich a violent degree, that buoys
were brok from their chains, large veffels fnapped
their cables, fmaller ones wire thrown out of the wa¬
ter upon the land, and others lying on land Were fet Earth* '
afloat. At Amderdam, about eleven in the forenoon, ;
the air being perfectly calm, the waters were fuddenly
agitated in their canals, fo that ftveral boats broke
loofe; chandeliers were obferved to vibrate in the
churches ; but no motion of the earth, or concuflion of
any building, was obferved. At Harlem, in the fore¬
noon, for near four minutes together, not only the
water in the rivers, canals, &c. but alfo all kinds of
fluids in fmaller quantities, as in coolers, tubs, backs,
&c. were furprifingly agitated, and dalhed over the
fides, though no motion was perceptible in the veflels
themfelves. In thefe final! quantities alfo the fluid ap¬
parently afeended prior to its turbulent motion; and in
many places, even the rivers and canals rofe 12 inches
perpendicular. At Leyden, between half an hour af¬
ter 10 and 11 in the forenoon, the waters rofe fudden¬
ly in fome of the canals, and made feveral very fenfible
undulations, fo that the boats were ftrongly agitated.
The fame motion was perceived in the water of the
backs of two brew-houfes.
Round the ifland of Corfica, the fea was violently
agitated, and mod of the rivers of the ifland overflowed
their banks.—In the city of Milan in Italy, and through¬
out that diftridf, (hocks were felt. At Turin in Sa¬
voy, there was felt a very violent (hock.
In Swiflerland, many rivers turned fuddenly muddy In Italy anA i
without rain. The lake of Neufchatel fwelled to the Switzer- |
height of near two feet above its natural level, for the land' i|
fpace of a few hours.—An agitation was alfo perceived
in the waters of the lake of Zurich.
At the ifland of Antigua, there was fuch a fea with- At t;. J
out the bar as had not been known in the memory of gUa and 1
man; and after it, all the water at the wharfs, which Barbadoes. '
ufed to be fix feet deep, was not two inches.—At Bar¬
badoes, about two in the afternoon, the fea ebbed and
flowed in a furprifing manner. It ran over the wharfs
and ftreets into the houfes, and continued thus ebbing
and flowing till ten at night. j
The agitation of the waters was perceived in great in England. !
numbers of places in Great Britain and Ireland.— |
Accounts of the mod remarkable of them follow.
At Barlborough in Derbyfliire, between 11 and 12 in
the forenoon, in a boat-houfe on the weft fide of a large
body of water called Pibley Dam, fuppofed to cover at
lead 30 acres of land, was heard a furprifing and ter¬
rible noife ; a large fwell of water came in a current
from the fouth, and rofe two feet on the (loped dam-
head at the north end of the water. It then fubfided;
but returned again immediately, though with lefs vio¬
lence, The water was thus agitated for three quar¬
ters of an hour ; but the current grew every time
weaker and weaker, till at laft it entirely ceafed.
At Bufbridge in Surrey, at half an hour after ten in
the morning, the weather being remarkably dill, with¬
out the lead wind, in a canal near 700 feet long and
58 feet broad, with a fmall fpring conftantly running
through it, a very unufual noife was heard at the eaft
end, and the water there obferved to be in great agita¬
tion. It raifed itfelf in a heap or ridge in the middle;
and this heap extended lengthwife about 30 yards,
rifing between two or three feet above the ufual level.
After this, the ridge heeled or vibrated towards the
north fide of the canal with great force, and flowed
above eight feet over the grafs walk on that fide. On
EAR [ 2595 ] EAR
Earth- Its return back into the canal, it again ridged in the
ttna!te- middle, and then heeled with yet greater force to the
fonth fide, and flowed over its grafs walk. During
this latter motion, the bottom on the north fide was
left dry for feveral feet. This appearance lafted for
about a quarter of an hour, after which the water be¬
came frhooth and quiet as before. During the whole
time, the fand at the bottom was thrown up and mixed
w ith the w'ater; and there was a continual noife like
that of water turning a mill.
At Cobham in Surrey, between 10 and 11 o’clock,
a perfon was watering a horfe at a pond fed by fprings.
Whilfl: the animal was drinking, the water fuddenly
ran away from him, and moved towards£he fouth with
|| ,fuch fw'iftnefs, that the bottom of the pond was left
, bare. It returned again with fuch impetuofity, that
the man leaped backwards to fecure himfelf from its
hidden approach. The ducks were alarmed at the
firft agitation, and infiantly flew all out of the pond.
At Dunftall in Suffolk, the water of a pond rofe
gradually for feveral minutes in the form of a pyramid,
and fell down like a water-fpout. Other ponds in the
neighbourhood had a fmooth flux and reflux from one
end to the other.
Near the city of Durham, about half an hour after
ten, a gardener was alarmed by a hidden rufhing noife
from a pond, as if the head of the pond had been bro¬
ken down : when, cafting his eye on the water, he faw
it gradually rife up, without any flu&uating motion,
till it reached a grate which ftood fome inches higher
than the common water level. After this it fubfided,
and then fwelled again ; thus continuing to rife and
fall during the fpace of fix or feven minutes, making
four or five returns in the fpaee of one minute. The
pond was about 40 yards long, and IO broad.
At Early Court, Berks, about 11 o’clock, as a
gardener was {landing by a fifli pond, he felt a violent
trembling of the earth, which lafted about a minute.
Immediately after, he obferved-a motion of the water
from the fouth ta the north end of the pond, leaving
the bottom at the fouth end altogether dry for about
fix feet. It then returned, and flowed at the fouth
end, rifing three feet up the flope bank; and immedi¬
ately after returned to the north bank, rifing there
alfo about three feet. In the time between the flux
and reflux, the water fwelled up in the middle of the
pond, colledled in a ridge about 20 inches higher than
the level on each fide, and boiled like a pot. This
agitation from fouth to north lafted about four minutes.
At Eaton-bridge, Kent, in a pond about an acre in
fize, a dead calm, and no wind ftirring, fome perfons
heard a noife, and imagining fomething had been
tumbling in, ran to fee what was the matter. On
their arrival at the pond, to their furprife they faw the
water open in the middle, fo that they could fee a poft
a good way down, almott to the bottom. The water
in the mean time dafhed up over a bank two feet high,
and perpendicular to the pond. This was repeated fe¬
veral times with a great noife.
At Eyam bridge, Derbyfhire, (in the Peak), the
overfeer of the lead-mines fitting in his writing-room
about 11 o’clock, felt a hidden fhock, which very fen-
fibly raifed him up in his chair, and caufed feveral
pieces of plafter to drop from the fides of the room.
The roof was fo violently fhaken, that he imagined the
engine ftiaft had been falling in. Upon this he imme- Earth-
diately ran to fee what was the matter, but found every qnake~
thing in perfect fafety. - At this time two miners were
employed in carting, or drawing along the drifts of the
mines, the ore, and other materials, to be raifed up at
the fhafts. The drift in which they were working was
about 120 yards deep, and the fpace from one end to
the other 50 yards or upwards. The miner at the end
of the drift had juft loaded his cart, and was drawing
it along; but he was fuddenly furprifed by a fhock,
which fo terrified him, that he immediately quitted his
employment, and ran to the weft end of the drift to his
partner, who was no lefs terrified than himfelf. They
durft not attempt to climb the fhaft, left that fhouldbe
running in upon them : but while they were confulting
what means they fhould take for their fafety, they
were furprifed by a fecond fhock more violent than the
firft; which frightened them fo much, that they both
ran precipitately to the other end of the drift. They
then went down to another miner who worked about
12 yards below them. He told them that the violence
of the fecond (hock had been fo great, that it cabled
the rocks grind upon one another. His account was
interrupted by a third fhock, which, after an interval
of four or five minutes, was fucceeded by a fourth;
and, about the fame fpace of time after, by a fifth ;
none of which were fo violent as the fecond. They
heard, after every fhock, a loud rumbling in the bowels
of the earth, which continued about half a minute,
gradually decreafing, or feeming to remove to a greater
diftance.
At Shireburn caftle, Oxfordfhire, at a little after
ten in the morning, a very ftrange motion was obfer-
^ved in the water of a moat which encompafles the houfe.
There was a pretty thick fog, not a breath of air, and
the furface of the water all over the moat as fmooth as
a looking-glafs, except at one corner, where it flowed,
into the fhore, and retired again fucceffively, in a fur-
prifing manner. It) what manner it began to move is
uncertain, as nobody obferved the beginning of its
motion. The flux and reflux, when feen, were quite
regular. Every flood began gently ; its velocity in-
creafed by degrees, when at laft itrufhed in with great
impetuofity, till it had attained its full height. Ha¬
ving remained for a little time flationary, it then re¬
tired, ebbing gently at firft, but«fterw'ards finking a-
way with great fwiftnefs. At every flux, the whole
body of water feemed to be violently thrown againft
the bank 4 but neither during the time of the flux nor
that of the reflux, did there appear even the leaft
wrinkle of a wave, on the other parts of the moat. Lord
Vifcount Parker, who had obferved this motion, being
defirous to know whether it was univerfal over the
moat, fent a perfon to the other corner of it, at the
fame time that he himfelf ftood about 25 yards from
him, to examine whether the water moved there or
not. He could perceive no motion there, or hardly
any : but another, who went to the north-eaft corner of
the moat, diagonally oppofite to his lordfhip, found it
as confiderable there as where he was. His lordfhip
imagining, that in all probability the water at the cor¬
ner diagonally oppofite to where he was would fink
as that by him rofe, he ordered the perfon to fignify
by calling out, when the water by him began to fink, ,
and when to rife. This he did; but, to his lordfhip’s
great
EAR [ 2596 ] EAR
Earth- great furprlfe, immediately after the water began to
rife at his own end, he heard his voice calling that it
began to rife with him alfo; and in the fame manner
he heard that it was finking at his end, foon after he
perceived it to fink by himfeif. A pond juft below
was agitated in a fimilar manner ; but the rifings and
finkings of it happened-at different times from thofe
at the pond where lord Parker flood.
At White Rock in Glamorganfhire, about two hours
ebb of the tide, and near three quarters after fix in the
evening, a vail quantity of water rufhed up with a pro¬
digious noife; floated two large veffels, the lead of
them above 200 tons ; broke their moorings, drove
them acrofs the river, and had like to have overfet
them. The whole rife and fall of this extraordinary
hotly of water did not laft above ten minutes, nor was
it felt in any other part of the river, Co that it feemed
to have guflied out of the earth at that place.
In Scot- At Loch Lomond in Scotland, about half an hour
land. after nine in the morning, all of a fudden, withoutthe
leaft gnft of wind, the water rofe againft its banks
with great rapidity, but immediately fubfided, till it
was as low in appearance as any body then prefent had
ever feen it in the greateft fummer-drought. Inftantiy
it returned towards the fhore, and in five minutes time
rofe again as high as before. The agitation continued
at the fame rate till 15 minutes after ten the fame
morning; taking five minutes to rife, and as many to
fabfide. From 15 minutes after 10 till 11, the height
of every rife came fomewhat fhort of that immediately
preceding, taking five minutes to flow, and as many
to ebb, till the water was entirely fettled. The great-
eft perpendicular height of this fwell was two feet four
inches.
In Loch Nefs, about half an hour after nine, a very
great agitation was obferved in the water. About ten
the river Oich, which runs on the north fide of Fort
Augttllus, into the head of the loch, was obferved to
fwell very much, and run upwards from the loch with
a pretty high wave, about two or three feet higher
than the ordinary furfaoe. The motion of the wave
was againft the wind, and it proceeded, rapidly for a-
bout 200 yards up the river. It then broke on a (hal¬
low, and flowed three or four feet on the banks, after
which it returned gently to the loch. It continued eb¬
bing and flowing in this manner for about an hour,
without any fuch remarkable waves as the firft ; but a-
bout 11 o’clock, a wave higher than any of the reft
came up, and broke with fo much force on the low
ground on the north fide of the river, that it run up-
17 on the grafs upwards of 30 feet from the river’s bank.
In Ireland. At Cork, in Ireland, about 36 minutes after nine,
Ihocks of an earthquake were plainly felt, at about
half a minute’s interval. At Kinfale, between two and
three in the afternoon, the weather being very calm,
and the tide near full, a large body of water fuddenly
poured into the harbour with fuch rapidity, that it
broke the cables of two (loops, each moored with two
anchors, and of feveral boats lying between Sicily and
the town. They were driven up and down the har¬
bour with prodigious velocity. But, juft at the time
that a great deal of mifehief was apprehended by all
the veffels running foul of each other, an eddy whirled
them round feveral times, and then hurried them back
again with the fame rapidity as before. This was fe¬
veral times repeated; and while the current ruffled up Earth-!
at one fide of the harbour, it poured down with equal cluake',
violence at the other. A veffel that lay all this
time in the pool did not feem to be any ways af-
fedted by it; nor was the violence of the currents
much perceived in the deeper parts of the harbour, but
raged with mod violence on the flats. The bottom of
the harbour, which is muddy, was much altered; the
mud being walhed from Come places, and depofited in
others. The perpendicular rife of the water at one quay
was meafured, and found to be five feet and an half;
and is faid to have been much higher at another, where i |
it overflowed, and poured into the market-place with
fuch rapidity, that fome people who were on.the quay
immediately ran off, and yet could not prevent them-
felves from being overtaken and immerfed knee-deep in
the water. The agitations extended feveral milts up ^
the river; but, as in the harbour, were mod perceived
in the (hallowed places. The fucceffive rifings and fal¬
lings of the water continued about ten minutes, and
then the tide returned to its natural courfe. Between /
fix and feven in the evening, the water rofe again, tho’
not with fo great violence as before, and it continued j
to ebb and flow alternately till three in the morning.
The waters did not rife gradually at firft; but, with a
hollow and horrid noife, ruffled in like a deluge, rifing
fix or feven feet in a minute, and as fuddenly fubfiding. ;
They were as thick as puddle, very black, and (tank 5
intolerably.—From different accounts it appeared, that '
the water was affedied in a fimilar manner all along the
coaft to the weftward of Kinfale. 33 I1
In France, (hocks were perceived in feveral places; In Francj n
as at Bayonne, Bourdeaux, and Lyons. Commotions '
of the waters alfo were obferved at Angoulefme, Ble- 1
ville, Havre de Grace, See. but not attended with the
remarkable circumftances above-mentioned.
Thefe are the mod (Inking phenomena with which jts ^
the earthquake of TIov. 1. 1755 was attended on the on (jirinj ii
furface of the earth. Thofe which happened below and on t n
ground cannot be known but by the changes obferved eart^ ^
in fprings, &c. which were in many places very re¬
markable.—At Colares, on the afternoon of the 31ft
of October, the water of a fountain was greatly de-
creafed: on the morning of the firft of November it ran !
very muddy ; and, after the earthquake, returned to
its ufual (late both as to quantity and clearnefs. On j
the hills, numbers of rocks were fplit; and there were l|
feveral rents in the ground, but none confiderable. In
fome places where formerly there had been no water, |
fprings burft forth, which continued to run Some |
of the largeft mountains in Portugal were impetaotufly J
(haken as it were from their foundation ; moft-ofthem (I
opened at their fummits, fplit and rent in a wonderful
manner, and huge maffes of them were thrown down
into the fubjaoent valleys.—From the rock called Pedra .
de Alvid-ar, near the hill Fojo, a kind of parapet was :
broken off, which was thrown up from its foundation in
the fea.—At Varge, on the river Maeaas, at the time
of the earthquake, many fprings of water burft forth, ^
fome fpouted to theiheight of 18 or 20 feet, throwing up
fand of various colours, which remained on the ground.
A mountainous point, ft veil or eight leagues from St j;
Ubes, cleft afunder, and threw off feveral vaft maffes of
rock.—In Barbary, a large hill was rent in two ; the
two halves fell different ways, and buried two large
towns.
EAR [ 2597 ] EAR
H Earth- towns. In another place, a mountain burft open, and
' tIl';‘ke' a ftream iffued from it as red as blood. At Tangier,
all the fountains were dried up, fo that there was no
water to be had till night.—A very remarkable change
was obferved on the medicinal waters of Toplitz, a vil¬
lage in Bohemia famous for its baths. Thefe waters
were difcovered in the year 762 from which time the
principal fpring of them had conftantly thrown out
hot water in the fame quantity, and of the fame quali¬
ty. On the morning of the earthquake, between 11
and 12 in the forenoon, the principal fpring call forth
I fuch a quantity of water, that in the fpace of half an
L hour all the baths ran over. About half an hour be-
I »! fore this great increafe of the water, the fpring flowed
turbid and muddy ; then having flopped entirely for a
minute, it broke forth again with prodigious violence,
driving before it a confiderable quantity of reddiih o-
ker. After this it became clear, and flowed as pure
|. as before. It dill continues to do fo; but the water is
in greater quantity, and hotter, than before the earth-
9 , quake. At Angoulefme in France, a fubterraneous
noife like thunder was heard ; and prefently after, the
earth opened, and difcharged a torrent of water mixed
with red fand. Mod of the fprings in the neighbour¬
hood funk in fuch a manner, that for feme time they
were thought to be quite dry. In Britain, no confi¬
derable alteration was obfawed in the earth, except
that, near the lead mine abovementioned in Derbyfliire,
a cleft was obferved about a foot deep, fix inches
I 30 wide, and 150 yards in length.
teffetts of At fea, the docks of this earthquake were felt moft
* nik^at* v;°lently-—Lucar, the captain of the Nancy
fca? C 31 frigate felt his Ihip fo violently ftiaken, that he thought
fhe had {truck the ground ; but, ort heaving the lead,
found he was in a great depth of water. Captain Clark
from Denia, in Lat. 36. 24. between nine and ten in
the morning, had his fhip fliaken and ftrained as if Ihe
had ftruck upon a rock, fo that the feams of the deck
opened, and the compafs was overturned in the bi-
nacle. The mafter of a velfel bound to the American
iflands, being in N. Lat. 250, W. Long. 40°, and wri¬
ting in his cabin, heard a violent noife, as he imagi¬
ned,' in the fteerage; and while he was alking what
the matter was, the fhip was put into a ftrange agita¬
tion, and feemed as if Ihe had been fuddenly jerked up
and fufpended by a rope faflened to the maft-head. He
immediately ftarted up with great terror and afionifli-
ment; and looking out at the cabin-window, faw land,
as he took it to be, at the diftance of about a mile.
But, coming upon the deck, the land was no more to
be feen, but he perceived a violent current crofs the
Ihip’s way to the leeward. In about a minute, this
current returned with great impetuofity, and at a
league’s diftance he faw three craggy-pointed rocks
throwing up water of various colours refembling fire.
This phenomenon, in about two minutes, ended in a
black cloud, which afeended very heavily. After it
had rifen above the horizon, no rocks were to be feen ;
though the cloud, ftill afeending, was long vilible, the
weather being extremely clear.—Between nine and ten
in the morning, another fhip, 40 leagues weft of St Vin¬
cent, was fo ftrongly agitated, that the anchors, which
were laftied, bounced up, and the men were thrown a
foot and an half perpendicularly up from the deck.
Immediately after this, the fhip funk in the water as
Voo. IV.
low as the main chains. The lead /hewed a great Earth-
depth of water, and the line was tinged of a yellow
colour and fmelt of fulphur. The /hock lafted about
ten minutes, but they felt fmaller ones for the fpace of
24 hours.
Thefe are the phenomena which attended this moft
remarkable earthquake in many parts of the world.
We have accounts of its effedls over the fpace of
4,000,000 fquare miles, and undoubtedly it would be
felt in a fmall degree much farther to the fouthward jr
than we can have any account of.—To expl ain the Hypothe/es
phenomena of earthquakes, various hypothefes have c°ncern'l1§,
been invented. Till lately, the hypotheiis of the mo- earth- 04
dern philofophers was much the fame with that of the quakes,
ancients. Anaxagoras fuppofed the caufe of earth¬
quakes to be fubterraneous clouds burfting out in¬
to lightning, which /hook the vaults that confined
them. Others imagined, that the arches, which had
been weakened by continual fubterraneous fires, at
length fell in : Others derived thefe accidents from the
rarefied fleam of waters, heated by fome neighbour¬
ing fires ; and feme, among whom was Epicurus, and
feveral of the Peripatetic fchool, aferibed thefe terrible
accidents to the ignition of certain inflammable exha¬
lations.
This laft hypothefis has been adopted by many of the
moft celebrated moderns, as Gaflendus, Kircher, Schot-
tus, Varenius, Des Cartes, Du Hamel, Honorius Fa-
bri, &c. The philofopher laft mentioned indeed fup¬
pofed, that waters prodigioufly rarefied by heat might
fometimes occafion earthquakes. The others fuppo¬
fed, as their hypothefis neceflarily requires, that there
are many and vaft cavities underground which have a
communication with one another; fome of which a-
bound with waters; others with vapours and exhala¬
tions, arifing from inflammable fubftances, as nitre, bi¬
tumen, fulphur, &c. Thefe combuftible exhalations
they fuppofed to be kindled by a fubterraneous fpark,
or by fome aftive flame gliding through a narrow fif-
fure from without, or by the fermentation of fome
mixture ; and when this happened, they muft necefla-
rily produce pulfes, tremors, and ruptures at the fur-
face, according to the number and diverfity of the ca¬
vities, and the quantity and activity of the inflammable
matter. This hypothefis is illuftrated by a variety of
experiments, fuch as mixtures of iron-filings and brim-
ftone buried in the earth, gun powder confined in pits,
&c. by all which a /baking of the earth will be pro¬
duced.
Dr Woodward fuggefts another hypothefis. He Hypothe/is
fuppofes that the fubterraneous heat or fire, which is of Dr ^ S
continually'elevating water out of the abyfs, which, Woodward,
according to him, occupies the centre cf the earth, to
furni/h rain, dew, fprings, and rivers, may be flopped
in fome particular part. When this obftru&ion hap¬
pens, the heat caufes a great levelling and commotion
in the waters of the abyfs: and at the fame time, ma¬
king the like effort againft the fupcrincumbent earth,
that agitation and concuflioa of it is occafioned which
we call an earthquake.
Mr Amontons of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Mr A*
fuggefts an hypothefis entirely different from any of montons,
the abovementioned ones. According to the recei¬
ved philofophical principles, which fuppofe the atmo-
fphere to be about 45 miles high, and that the denfi-
15 C ty
EAR [ 2598 ] EAR
Earth- ty of the air increafes in proportion to the abfolute
quake, height of the fuperincumbent column of fluid; it is
fhewn, that at the depth of 43,528 fathoms below the
furface of the earth, air is but one fourth lighter
than mercury. Now, this depth of 43,528 fathoms is
only a 74th part of the femi-diameter of the earth.
And the vaft fphere beyond this depth, in diameter
6,451,538 fathoms, may probably be only filled with
air ; which will be here greatly condenfed, and much
heavier than the heavieft bodies we know of in nature.
But it is found by experiment, that the more air is
comprefled, the more does the fame degree of heat in-
creafe its fpring, and the more capable does it render
it of a violent effeft ; and that, for inftance, the de¬
gree of heat of boiling water increafes the fpring
of the air above what it has in its natural ftate, in
our climate, by a quantity equal to a third of the
weight wherewith it is prefled. Whence we may
conclude, that a degree of heat, which on the furface
of the earth will only have a moderate effeA, may be
capable of a very violent one below. And as we are
aflured, that there are in nature degrees of heat much
more confiderable than that of boiling water, it is very
poflible there may be fome, whofe violence, further af-
fifted by the exceeding weight of the air, may be more
than fufficient to break and overturn this folid orb of
43,528 fathoms; whofe weight, compared to that of
34 the included air, would be but a trifle.
All thefe Though none of thefe hypothefes were fufficient for
rejetted by exP^a>ning the phenomena of earthquakes in a fatisfac-
®r Stuke- tory manner, one or other of them continued to be
!y. adopted by almoft all philofophers, till the year 1749.
In the month of March that year, an earthquake was
felt at London and feveral other places in Britain.
Dr Stukely, who had been much engaged in eledtrical
experiments, began to fufpedt that phenomena of this
kind ought to be attributed not to vapours or fermen¬
tations generated in the bowels of the earth, but tq e-
le&ricity. In a paper publifhed by him on thisfubjedf,
he reje&s all the above-mentioned hypothefes for the
following reafons.
1. That there is no evidence of any remarkable
cavernous ftrudure of the earth; but that, on the con¬
trary, there is rather reafon to prefume that it is in a
great meafure folid, fo as to leave little room for inter¬
nal changes and fermentations within its fubftance; nor
do coal-pits, he fays, when on fire, ever produce any
thing refembling an earthquake.
2. In the earthquake at London, in March 1749,
there was no fuch thing as fire, vapour, fmoke, fmell,
or an eruption of any kind obferved, though the fhock
affedfed a circuit of 30 miles in diameter. This confi-
deration alone of the extent of furface fliaken by an
earthquake, he thought fufficient to overthrow the fup-
pofition of its being owing to the expanfion of any fub- .
terraneous vapours. For as fmall fire-balls burfting in
the air propagate a fulphureous fmell to the diftance of
feveral miles, it cannot be fuppofed, that fo immenfe a
force adting inftantaneoufly on thatcompafs of ground
/hould never break the furface of it, nor become difco-
verable either to the fight or the fmell: befides, that
the operation of fuch a fermentation would be many
days in continuance, and the evaporation of fo much
inflammable matter would require alongfpace of time.
'Ihat fuch an effedt, therefore, fliould be produced in¬
ftantaneoufly, can be accounted for by eledlricity only; Earth#
which acknowledges no fenfible tranfition of time, no 8llake-t
bounds.
3. If vapours, and fubterraneous fermentations, ex-
plolions, and eruptions, were the caufe of earthquakes,
they would abfolutely ruin the whole fyftem of fprings
and fountains, wherever they had once been ; which is
contrary to fadt, even when they have been frequently
repeated. Even in the earthquake in Afia Minor,
A. D. 17, which deftroyed 13 great cities, and fhook
a mafs of earth 300 miles in diameter, nothing fuffered
but the cities; neither the fprings nor the face of the
country being injured, which indeed remains the fame
to this day.
4. That any fubterraneous power fufficient to
move 30 miles in diameter, as in the earthquake which
happened at London, muft be lodged at lead 15 or 20
miles below the furface ; and therefore muft move an
inverted cone of folid earth, the bafe of which is 30
miles in diameter, and the axis 15 or 20; an effedt im-
poffible to any natural power whatever, except eledtri-
city. So in Afia Minor, fuch a cone muft have been
300 miles in the diameter of the bafe, and 200 in the
axis; which not all the gun-powder that has been made
ftnce the invention of it, much lefs any vapours gene¬
rated fo far below the furface, could poffibly effedt.
5. A fubterraneous explofion will not account for
the manner in which ftvips, far from land, are affedted.
during an earthquake: which feem as if they (truck i
upon a rock, or as if fomething thumped againft their
bottoms. Even the fifties are affedted. A fubterrane¬
ous explofion could only produce a gradual fwell, and
not give fo quick an impulfe to the water as would make
it feel like a ftone. ^
From comparing thefe circumftances, the Dodlor His metho
fays, he had always thought that an earthquake was a accounj
ftrock of the fame kind as thofe which commonly occur !
in eledtrical experiments. And this hypothefis was qUa^i;s> v
confirmed by tire phenomena attending earthquakes;
particularly thofe of 1749 and 1750, which gave rife
to his publication.
The weather, for five or fix months before, had
been uncommonly warm ; the wind fouth and fouth-
weft, without rain; fo that the earth muft have been in
a ftate peculiarly ready for an eledlrical fhock. The
flat country of Lincolnfhire had been under an exceed-
ing great drought. The uncommonnefs of the firft of
thefe circumftances, he remarks, is‘the reafon why
earthquakes are lefs frequently experienced in the
northern than in the fouthern regions of the world,
where the warmth and drynefs of theair, fo neceffary to
eledlricity, are more ufual: And the latter fhows how
fit the dry furface was for an eledlrica! vibration; and
(which is of great importance) that earthquakes reach;
but Httle below the furface of the earth.
Before the earthquake at London, all vegetables
had been uncommonly forward. And eledfricity is=
well known to quicken vegetation. The aurora bo¬
realis had been frequent about that time ; and, juft be¬
fore the earthquake, had been twice repeated in fuch
colours as had never been feen before. It had alfo re¬
moved foutherly, contrary to what is common in Eng¬
land ; fo that the Italians, and thofe among whom
earthquakes were frequent, adlually foretold the earth¬
quake. The year had been remarkable for fire-balls,,
Earth-
Hypothcfis
cfS. Becca
ria.
EAR [ 2599 ] EAR
lightning, and corufcations; and thefe are rightly
judged to be meteors of an eleftrical nature.
In thefe circumttarces of the earth and air, no¬
thing, he fays, is wanting to produce an earthquake,
but the touch of fome 'non-eledtric body; which muft
neceffsrily be had ab extra, from the region of the air
or atmofphere. Hence he infers, that, if a non-ele&ric
cloud difcharge its contents upon any part of the earth,
in that highly eledlrical ftate, an earthquake muft ne-
ceffarily enfue. As the difcharge from an excited tube
produces a commotion in the human body, fo the dif¬
charge of eleftric matter from the compafs of many
miles of folid earth, muft needs be an earthquake; and
the fnap from the contact, the horrid uncouth noife at¬
tending it.
The Do&or had been informed, by thofe who
were up and abroad the night preceding the earthquake,
and early in the morning, that corufcations in the air
were extremely frequent; and that a little before the
earthquake, a large and black cloud fuddenly covered
the atmofphere, which probably occafioned the ftiock
by the difcharge of a Ihower.
A found was obferved to roll from the Thames to¬
wards Temple Bar before the houfes ceafed to nod,
juft as the ele&rical fnap precedes the ftiock. This
noife (which generally precedes earthquakes) the Doc¬
tor thought could be accounted for only on eleftrical
principles : for, in a fubterraneous eruption, the direft
contrary would happen.
The flames and fulphureous fmells, which are fome-
times obferved in earthquakes, might, he thought, be
more eafily accounted for, on the fuppofition of their
being eleArical phenomena, than from their being oc¬
cafioned by eruptions from the bowels of the earth.
So alfo the fuddennefs and expedition of the con-
cuffion, it being felt at the fame inftant over a furface
of 4000 fquare miles; and the little damage alfo which
earthquakes generally occafion; fufficiently point out
what fort of a motion it is: not a convulfion of the
bowels of the earth; but an uniform vibration along its
furface, like that of a mufical firing or a glafs when
rubbed on the edge with one’s finger.
The. circumftance of earthquakes chiefly affe&ing
the fea-coaft, places along rivers, (and, adds Do&or
Pi ieftley, eminences) is a farther argument of their
being ele&rical phenomena. This is illuftrated by a
particular account of the diredlion in which the earth¬
quake was conveyed.
The laft argument he ufes is taken from the ef¬
fects which it had on perfons of weak conftitutions,
who were, for a day or two after it happened, troubled
with pains in the back, rheumatifms, hyfterics, and
nervous diforders; juft in the fame manner as they
would have been after an aftual eleftrification : to fome
thefe diforders proved fatal.
As to the manner in which the earth and atmo¬
fphere are put into this ftate, which prepares them to
receive fuch a ftiock, and whence the ele&ric matter
comes, the Do&or does not pretend to determine; but
thinks it as difficult to be accounted for, as magnetifm,
gravitation, and many other fecrets of nature.
The fame hypothefis was advanced by Signior
Beccaria, without knowing any thing of Doflor Stuke-
ley’s difcoveries. But this learned Italian imagined
the ele&ric matter which occafions earthquakes, to be
lodged deep in the bowels of the earth, agreeably to
his hypothefis concerning lightning.
Now, as it appears that the quantity of ele&ric
matter in the fimplcft thunder-ftorms i^fo inconceivably
great, that it is impoffible to be contained by any
cloud or number of clouds; and as, during the progrefs
of a thunder-ftorm which he obferved, though the
lightning frequently ftruck to the earth, the fame
clouds were the next moment ready to make a ftill
greater difcharge ; it was evident, that they muft have
received at one place, the moment a difcharge was
made from them in another. Let us fuppofe thefe
clouds ever fo great, if the lightning proceeded only
from them, the quantity muft be lefiened by every dif¬
charge ; and no recruits that ,any new clouds might
bring can bear any proportion to the difcharge which
muft enfue from the collifion of fo great a number as
combine to form a thunder-ftorm. It feems therefore
moft likely, that the electric matter is continually dart¬
ing from the clouds in one place, at thedame time that it
is difcharged from the earth in another; and, confequent-
ly, that the clouds ferve as condu&ors to convey the
eledtric fluid from thofe places of the earth which are
overloaded with it, to thofe which are exhaufted.
This theory being admitted, there will, he thinks, be
little difficulty in attributing earthquakes to the fame
caufe. For if the equilibrium of the eleftric matter be by
any means loft in the bowels of the earth; fo that the belt
method of reftoring it ftiall be by the fluid burfting in¬
to the air, and traverfing feveral miles of the atmo¬
fphere, to come at the place where it is wanted; it
may be eafily imagined, that violent concuffions will
be given to the earth by the hidden paflage of fo power¬
ful an agent. This, in his opinion, was confirmed by
the flalhes of light, exa&ly refembling lightning, which
have been frequently feen to rufh from the top of
Mount Vefuvius, at the time that allies and other light
matters have been carried out of it into the air, and
difperfed uniformly over a large tradt of country. And
it is well known, that volcanoes have a near connexion
with earthquakes.
A rumbling noife like thunder, and flalhes of light
rifing from the ground, have been generally obferved
to attend earthquakes. And lightning itfelf has be$n
known to be attended with fmall (bakings of the earth.
So alfo ignes fatui, in mines, he looked upon as an ar¬
gument that the ele&ric fluid was fometimes colledled
in the bowels of the earth.
Dr Prieftley,inhis Hift. of Eledlricity, obferves upon
thefe theories, that a more probable hypothefis may per¬
haps be formed out of both of them. “Suppofe (fays he)
“ the eledfric matter to be, fome way or other, accu-
“ ululated on one part of the furface of the earth, and,
“ on account of the drynefs of the feafon, not eafily to
“ diffufe itfelf; it may, as Signior Beccaria fuppofes,
“ force its way into the higher regions of the air,
“ forming clouds in its paflage, out of the vapours
“ which float in the atmofpfiere, and occafion afudden
“ (bower, which may further promote the paffage of
“ the fluid. The whole furface, thus unloaded, will
“ receive a concuffion, like any other condudting fub-
“ ftance, on parting with, or receiving, a quantity of
“ the eledtric fluid. The rufliing noife will likewife
“ fweep over the whole extent of the country. And,
“ upon this fuppofition alfo, the fluid, in its difcharge
15 C 2 “ from
Earth¬
quake.
Of Dr
Prieftley.
EAR [ 2600 ] EAR
Earth- « from the country, will naturally follow the courfe of
: quake‘ “ the rivers, and alfo take the advantage of any eminen-
“ ces to facilitate its afcent into the higher regions of
“ the air.”
The Do&or, making experiments with a battery
on the pafiage of the ele&rieal fluid over different con-
dufting fubitances, and, among thefe, over water;—
and remarking a refemblance between its paffage over
the furface of the water, and that which Dodtor, Stuke-
ley fuppofed to fweep the furface of the earth, when a
confiderabVe quantity of it is difcharged to the clouds
during an earthquake; immediately fufpedted that the
water over which it paffed, and which was vifibly
thrown into a tremulous motion, mull receive a con-
cuflipn rtfembling that which is given to the waves of
the fea on fuch an occafion.
To try this, he himfelf and others prefent put their
hands into the water at the time that the eledfrical
flafh pafied over its furface; and they felt a fudden con-
cuflion given to them, exactly like that which is fup¬
pofed to affedt (hips at fea during an earthquake. This
percuffion was felt in various parts of the water, but
was ftrongeft near the place where the explofion was
madev The fame experiment, with a little variation,
being afterwards made with a Angle jar, at fome di-
ftance below the furface of the water, produced the
like effedt, though in a weaker degree. “ This fimi-
“ larky in the effedt,” the Dodtor obferves, “ is a con-
“ fiderable evidence of a fimilarity in the caufe.”
“ Pleafed with this refemblance of the earthquake,
Ci (fays he) I endeavoured to imitate that great natu-
“ ral phenomenon in other refpedts: and, it being
“ frofty weather, I took a plate of ice, and placed two
“ flicks, about three inches high, on their ends, fo that
“ they would juft ftand with eafe; and upon another
“ part of the ice, I placed a bottle, from the cork of
“ which was fufpended a brafs ball with a fine thread.
“ Then, making the eledtrical flafh pafs over the fur-
“ face of the ice, which it did with a very loud report,
**. the nearer pillar fell down, while the more remote
“ flood; and the ball, which had hung nearly ftiil,
** immediately began to make vibrations about an inch
“ in length, and nearly in a right line from the place
<( of the flafh.”
“ I afterwards diverfified this apparatus^ ere&ing
“ more pillars,, and fufpending more pendulums, &c.
“ fometimes upon bladders ftretched on the mouth of
8‘ open veffels, and at other times on wet boards
“ fwimming in a veffel of water. This laft method
“ feemed to anfwer the beft of any: for the board re-
M prefenting the earth, and the water the fea, the phe-
“ nomena of them both during an earthquake may be
“ imitated at the fame time; pillars, &c. being erected
“ on the hoard, and the eleftric flafh being made to
“ pafs either over the board, over the water, or over
^ “ them both.”
Beficiency Thefe three hypothefes concerning the caufe of
®f all ihefe earthquakes, tho’ fomewhat differing from one another,
hypothefes. yet agree in the main ; but, if a particular folution of
the phenomena is required, every one of them will be
found deficient.
If, according to Dr Stukeley’s hypothefis, the elec¬
tric matter is lodged only on the furface of the earth,
or but at a fmall depth below; how are we to account
for thofe violent effe&s which often take place in the
bowels of the earth. In the earthquake at Lilhon, a
large quay funk to an unfathomable depth. We are
certain, that the caufe of the earthquake muft have
been below this depth however great it was, and have
opened the earth for an immenfe way downwards.. At
the fame time an hill in Barbary clave afunder, and the
two halves of it fell different ways. This (hews, that
the caufe of the earthquake operated not on the fur¬
face of the hill, but on the folid foundation and con ¬
tents of it; nor can it be explained by any fuperficiai
action whatever. From what the miners atEyam bridge
in Derbyfhire obferved, it is alfo evident, that the
fhock was felt at the depth of 396 feet below the fur¬
face of the ground more than at the furface itfelf;
and confequently there is all the reafon in the world
to think that the caufe lay at a depth valtly greater.
Again, tho’ the earthquake at London was fuppo¬
fed to begin with a black cloud and fhower; yet in that
of 1755, the effects of which were incomparably great¬
er,, the air was calm and ferene almoft in every place
where it was felt. Itdoth not appear that there is at any
time a conliderable difference between the ele&ricity of
the atmofphere and that of the earth, or indeed that
there can be fo. For, if the earth is eleftrified plus,
and the atmofphere minus, there are innumerable points
on the furface of the e?rth which muft be imperceptibly
drawing off the fuperfluous eledtric matter into the air.
The vapours alfo, with which the atmofphere abounds,
would always be ready in the fame fervice ; and thus
thunder and lightning might indeed fometimes be pro¬
duced, but not earthquakes. But laftly, neither the
air nor the earth does always (how any remarkable figns
of eledlricity before earthquakes happen. For, the
fummer before the earthquake at Manchefter in 1777,
there had fcarce been any thunder, lightning, or o-
ther figns of eledlricity in the atmofphere, and vege¬
tation had been extremely backward ; and, according
to the beft accounts, the weather continued remark¬
ably fine..
For thefe reafons, Dr Stukeley’s hypothefis feems
not to be fatisfadlory. That of Signior Beccaria is not
indeed liable to the above-mentioned obje&ions; but
feems highly improbable, on another account. The
atmofphere is known to be a fubftance through which
the ele&ric matter makes its way with the utmoft diffi¬
culty. It is a vaflly worfe condudtor than water, or
than moift earth. If therefore the equilibrium of this
fluid is loft in the bowels of the earth, it is-impoffible
to give a reafon why it fliould not rather go to the
places where it is vvanted through the earth itfelf, than
through the atmofphere. Befides, if this was the cafe,
the (hock.of an earthquake could only be felt at thofe
places where the eledtric fluid iffued from tlie earth,
and where it entered. All the intermediate places
ought to be free from any (hock, and to be feuflble
only of a violent concuffion in the atmofphere ; but of
this we have no example in any hiftory of earthquakes,
whatever.
Dr Prieftley’s hypothefis is liable to the fame objec¬
tions with that of Dr Stukeley ; for any fuperficiai
operation will never account for thofe effedts above
mentioned, which take take at great depths below
the furface. His experiment cannot be admitted as
any way conclufive with regard to the caufe of earth¬
quakes, becaufe no quantity of eledtric fire is feen tp
Earth*
quake.,
E A R [ 2601 ] EAR
il! Sanh- pafs over the earth and fea, like the flaft attending the
i| <3uake- explofion of an eleftric battery; and the force of his
Tl earthquake, (being but juft able to throw down a ftick
that could hardly ftand by itfelf) feems by far too little'.
The utmoft force of eleftricity which man can raife, is
indeed very trilling, when compared with the great
operations of nature: but it ia certain, that the force
of an eleftric battery is by no means contemptible) and
was its whole power to be employed in producing an
imitation of an earthquake, it certainly would do much
I more than throw down a fmall ftick. The bad fuccefs
of this experiment therefore Ihows, that the Doftor’s
theory is erroneous : for, almoft the whole of his elec¬
tric power was fpent another way; and we cannot
fuppofe, that any confiderable part of the force which
produces earthquakes is fpent any other way than in
i 39 the very production of the earthquake itfelf.
Principles Jf it is attempted to give an explanation of thephe-
"dieW'heno• nomena °f earthquakes, which (hall be free from the
mem may objections abovementioned, and from all others, it will
be explain- be neceffary, in the tirft place, to conftder thofe parts of
e(h the fyftem of nature which feem to be moft affeCied
during the terrible phenomena we treat of. Thefe
parts are, the air, the folid earth, and the water. Of
ft See Elec- thefe the two former are eleClrics per fe; the latter is a
trkitj. conduftor, though a bad one *. Hence it follows,.
i. That in proportion to the quantity of earth which
is mixed with any quantity of water, that mixture will
approach nearer to the nature of an qleCtricper.fe, and
vice verfa. .
2. It alfo follp\ys, that whatever quantity of eleCtri-
city is communicated to the folid earth, will.be quick¬
ly taken off fcom it by the water which is.mixed with
it, in .the fame manner that the eleftric matter is
carried off from an efxcited globe by a metallic con¬
ductor.
3. The whole earth is moift, and therefore in fome
degree a conductor. Neverthelefs, as earth of all
kinds, when peufe&ly dry, is found to be an eleftric
capable of receiving a charge like glafs, it is therefore
ppfiible, that the eleftric power of the earth may be
excited to fuch a degree, that the moifture of the fo-
lid parts cannot ealily contain the quantity of electri¬
city communicated.
4. In this cafe, tire earth muft either give undoubt¬
ed figns of its being excited in the fame manner that
other excited elcCtrics do, or the electricity muft be
difcharged fomewhere elfe.
5. To receive any fuperfluous quantity of electric
matter that may be communicated to the folid earth,
the waters of the ocean are always ready. Thefe, being
a much better conductor than earth, mull be a princi¬
pal mean of preferring the equilibrium of eleCtricity in
the different parts, of the earth ; and hence we fee a
natural reafon why the waters of the ocean fhould co¬
ver fo large a proportion of the globe as they are
known to do. See Ocean,
6. It is known, that fire is alfo a conductor of elec¬
tricity. Therefore, wherever a quantity of eleCtric
matter is collected in any part of the folid earth, if it
can neither be conveniently received by the moifture
which the earth naturally contains, nor by the ocean
in its neighbourhood, it will difcharge itfelf by any vol¬
cano that happens to be in an aCtive ftate, near the
place where that colleCtiop of eleCtric matter is.
7. It is alfo found, that the eleCtric fluid, being vio- Eaith-
lently refifted by the fuperincumbent atmofphere, hath
always a tendency to difcharge itfelf in thofe places '
where that refiftance is leaft. The tops of very high
mountains, therefore, where the weight of the atmo¬
fphere is greatly diminilhed, will alfo afford a ready
paffage for the eleCtric fluid when it is collected in very
great quantity in the bowels of the earth.
8. If, from fome natural caufes, the eleCtric matter
(hall happen to be collected in the bowels of the earth
in any particular place; and at the fame time fuch oh-
ftacles are thrown in its way, that it can neither dif¬
charge itfelf into the ocean, nor into the atmofphere,
by the tops of high mountains, nor by the more open
paffages of volcanoes; the moft terrible confequences
muft enfue: the matter being pent up, and the caufe
by which it is colleCfed continuing ftill to aft, its im-
pulfe becomes at laft irrefiftible. It then flies againft
every obftacle with inconceivable violence. It breaks
out in all thofe places where there is the leaft refiftance,
and therefore the (hock is direfted a great number of
different ways at once. Houfes, fteeples, trees, &c,
by their height take off fome what of the preffure of
the atmofphere ; and therefore the eleftric matter flies
againft them very violently. The houfes and other
buildings being bad conduftors, are thrown down ; the
trees affording a readier paffage to the fluid are not
hurt, though even they alfo are fometimes fplit. The
height of the mountains renders them the objeftsofthe
deftruftive force of this fluid much more than any
buildings whatever. Hence they are often rent, and
rocks thrown down from them. The water contained
in the folid parts of the earth, being a conduftor of
eleftricity, becomes overloaded with it; and, when it
can receive no more, is forced to yield to the impulfa
of the reft, and therefore is thrown out of the earth in
great quantities. For the fame reafon, the waters on
the furface of the earth are moft violently agitated.
The fmall quantities contained in wells are thrown out
at the tops of them: The rivers and lakes, which con¬
tain too great a quantity of water to be thrown off
from the earth, rife in billows: The ocean itfelf, recei¬
ving more eleftric matter than can immediately be dif-
perfed through the whole body of water, or evaporate
into the atmofphere, retreats from the land, and is rai-
fed in vaft mountains. The folid earth itfelf, being un¬
able either to condiift the fluid quietly to thofe parts
where it is wanted, or to retain it, is violently ftvaken,
or rent in multitudes of places; and this not only on
the furface, but to great depths. The eleftricity be¬
ing now in. fome meafure difcharged from the earth,
the ocean rulhes forward with fury to difcharge in its
turn the excefs of eleftric matter it juft before received
from the earth. If there are volcanoes in the neigh¬
bourhood, the violent difcharge of eleftricity is fore to
manifeft itfelf by fetting them in a flame; and thus,
till the equilibrium is reftored, all nature feems to be
threatened with diffolution.—Even in thofe places
where the force of the eleftric fluid is not able to lhake
the folid parts of the earth, it manifefts its power by
agitating the waters in the manner above deferibed.
Water being a much better conduftor of eleftricity
than earth, this fubtile fluid, as foon as it can get out
from the folid earth, flies to the water. The con-
fequence is, that the water immediately fwells up,
andi
Earth¬
quake.
3°
Ultimate
caufe of al
the pheno¬
mena.
EAR [ 2602 ] EAR
and is attrafted by whatever part of the earth has lefs
ele&ricity than itfelf. Hence thofe ftrange irregular
motions of the waters in different places, fo particular¬
ly obferved at the time of the earthquake at Lifbon;
and which it feems impofiible to account for from any
other caufe than an immediate difcharge of eledtric
matter from the earth into them.
9. As it is impoffible that any part of the earth can
be electrified without communicating a "proportionable
fhare of electricity to the animals that live upon it, and
have a conftant communication with it, it thence fol¬
lows, that there can be no confiderable commotion in
the eledtric matter lodged in the bowels of the eaftb,
without affedting that which is contained in the bodies
of the animals. Hence the brutes, who feem to be
more fenfible of fuch commotions than we, run about,
and (hew figns of fear, before the earthquake comes on;
and hence the giddinefs, •ficknefs, &c. which the hu¬
man race are fubjedt to during the time of the (hock,
even though they do not feel it, as was the cafe at
Gibraltar.
10. As the atmofphere hath a communication with
the earth, it is fcarce to be fuppofed that the earth can,
for any length of time, contain a confiderable quanti¬
ty of eledtric matter, without communicating to the
atmofphere a proportionable quantity. Before an
earthquake, therefore, we mud fuppofe the eledtricity
of the earth and air to be in perfedt equilibrio. Hence
the weather is ferene, there is no wind, nor any other
fign in the atmofphere, of the terrible cataftrophe that
is about to enfue. But the moment the difcharge is
made from the earth, the equilibrium between the ter-
reftrial and atmofpherical eledfricity is broken ; the air
either begins to receive the fluid from the earth, or the
%earth from the air. As there is not then time for the
colledlion of thunder-clouds by which the eledtricity
may be brought down in fudden flafhes of lightning,
the fluid breaks through the fubftance of the air itfelf
with difmal and horrid noifes, which always accompany
an earthquake. That this is the cafe, feemg highly
probable from an experiment of M. de Romas, when,
having brought down a vaft quantity of eledtric matter
from the clouds by means of a kite, he heard the noife
it made in the air, like the continual blowing of a
fmall forge bellows. In general, there is a confi¬
derable change of weather takes place at the time of
an earthquake, tho’ not always. In the earthquake
which happened in England in 1777, there -was no
remarkable change of weather there; but, foon af¬
ter, there was a great deal of thunder and light¬
ning in the fouthern parts of Scotland: which feems
to indicate, that the eledtric fluid difcharged from
the earth in England had taken its courfe northward,
and produced the phenomena before mentioned in
Scotland.
j Having thus explained all the phenomena attending
earthquakes, it remains only to (how by what means
the eouilibrium of ele&ricity can be broken in the bow¬
els of the earth in fuch a manner as to produce thefe
phenomena. The ultimate caufe of this is mentioned u n-
der the article Aurora Borealis, n° 5, It is there
(hown, that the warmth of the fun muft neceflarily
bring, down to the earth much greater quantities oi*
eledtric matter in the regions within the tropics, than
in the northern and fouthern climates, Tt is impoffible,
as is there alfo obferved, that there can be a perpetual Earth-
accumulation of eledtricity in one part of the earth, ctua^e-
unlefs there is a paffage for it into the atmofphere
through fome other. Hence, if the eledtric matter
defeends from the air into one place of the earth, it
muft neceflarily afeend from the earth into the air in
fome other place. There muft be therefore a continual
current of eledtricity through the bowels oTthe earth,
beginning at the equator, and extending northward
and fouthward to both poles. While this current nas
a free paflage from the earth in the northern and fouth¬
ern regions, every thing goes on quietly; and whate¬
ver ftorms may happen in the atmofphere, the folid
earth cannot be affedfed. Innumerable circumftances,
however, may tend to hinder this difeharge, and con-
fequently to accumulate the elediric matter in particu¬
lar places. One very obvious caufe of this kind, is an
exceffive froft taking place in any part of the earth
whence the eledtric matter was wont to be difcharged.
This renders the air itfelf fo elediric, that it cannot re¬
ceive the fluid; at the fame time that the water on the
furface of the earth, being hard frozen, becomes elec¬
tric alio, and incapable ol condudting. Very dry fea-
fons likewife contribute to produce the fame effedf; and
thus the accumulation of eledlricity in the warmer cli¬
mates becomes prodigioufly great.
It muft here be obferved, that, with regard to the
operations of nature, we cannot always reafon analogi¬
cally from our elediric experiments.—If a quantity of
eledlricity is colledled in any fubftance by artificial
means, that quantity is taken off in a moment by the
touch of any metallic fubftance, or other good con-
dudtor. As the whole earth, therefore, is filled with
a condudling fubftance, namely water, it may very na¬
turally be aiked, Why does not the fuperfluous quantity
of elediric matter colledled in one place, immediately
difperfe itfelf through all other parts of the earth by
means of the water with which it abounds?—To ob¬
viate this difficulty, however, it needs only be remem¬
bered, that as the earth is quite full of elediric matter
all round, no quantity can enter any particular part,
without being refitted by the reft w'hich is diffufed
through the whole globe. This refiftance will be pro¬
portioned to the facility with which it can efcape at
other places; and this it never can do, unlefs the earth
is in a proper condition for emitting, and the atmo¬
fphere for receiving, it. The preflure, therefore, upon
the accumulated quantity of elediric matter foon be¬
comes exceedingly great, and its difpofition to burft
out with violence is every day increafed. At laft, as
the fun (till continues to occafion the defeent of more
and more of the elediric fluid, that particular part of
the earth becomes fully charged. The confequence of
this is, that the waters of fountains become foul; the
elediric matter being lodged in great quantity in the
water, forces it into unufual agitations, by which the
earth is mixed with it. The ocean, for the fame reafon,
is raifed in huge billows, &c.; and thefe appearances
prognofticate the (hock, in the fame manner that flight
flatties from the knob of an eledlrified bottle pronofti-
cate a difcharge of all the eledlricity contained in it.
Befides the earthquakes above deferibed, whofe
caufe feems to depend entirely on a colledlion of elec¬
tric matter in the bowels of the earth, there are others
frequently felt in the neighbourhood of volcanoes,
which
E A S [ 2603 ] E A S
Eafel which are plainly owing to the efforts of the burning
!l matter to difcharge itfelf., Thefe, however, are but
^'3^er' flight, and feldom extend to any confiderable diftance
from the burning mountain. For a particular account
of them, fee the article Voucano.
EASEL pieces, a denomination given by painters
to fuch pieces as are contained in frames, in contradi-
ftindtion from thofe painted on cielings, &c.
EASEMENT, in law, a privilege or convenience
which one neighbour has of another, whether by char¬
ter or prefcription, without profit t fuch are a way
through his lands, a fink, or the like. Thefe, in ma¬
ny cafes, may be claimed.
EASING, in the fea-Janguage, fignifies the flacken-
ing a rope, or the like : thus, to eafe the bow-line or
fheet, is to let them go flacker; to eafe the helm, is to
let the flrip go more large, more before the wind, or
more larboard.
EAST, one of the four cardinal points of the world;
being that point of the horizon, where the fun is feen
to rife when in the equinoftial.
EASTER, a feftival of the Chriftian church, ob-
ferved in memory of our Saviour’s refurre&ion.
The Greeks call it pafga, the Latins pafcha, an He¬
brew word fignifying pajfage, applied to the Jewifli
feaft of the paffover. It is called softer in Englilh,
from the goddefs Eoftre, worlhipped by the Saxons
with peculiar ceremonies in the month of April.
The Afiatic churches kept their eafter upon the ve¬
ry fame day the Jews obferved their paffover; and o-
thers, on the firft Sunday after the firft full moon in the
new year. This Controverfy was determined in the
council of Nice; when it was ordained, that eafter Ihould
be kept upon one and the fame day, which fliould al¬
ways be a Sunday, in all Chriftian churches in the
world. For the method of finding eafter by calcula¬
tion, fee Astronomy, n° 308.
Easter Iftand, an ifland in the South Sea, lying in
N. Lat. 27. 5. W. Long. 109. 46. It is thought to
have been firft difcovered in 1686 by one Davis an
Engliihman, who called it Davis’s Land. It was next
vilited by Commodore Roggewein, a Dutchman, in
1722; who gave it the name of Eqfter Ifland, and
publifhed many fabulous accounts concerning the coun¬
try and its inhabitants. It was alfo vifited by a Spa-
niih fltip in 1770, the captain of which gave it the
name of St Carlos. The only authentic accounts of
this ifland, however, which have yet appeared, are thofe
publilhed by Captain Cook and Mr Forfter, who vi¬
fited it in the month of March 1774.—According to
thefe accounts, the ifland is about 10 or 12 leagues in
circumference, and of a triangular figure ; its greateft
length from north-weft to fouth-eaft is about four leagues,
and its greateft breadth two. The hills are fo high, that
they may be feen at the diftance of 15 or 16 leagues.
The north and eaft points of the ifland are of a confi¬
derable height; between them, on the fouth-eaft fide,
the fhore forms an open bay, in which Captain Cook
thinks the Dutch anchored in 1722. He himfelf an¬
chored on the weft fide of the ifland, three miles north¬
ward from the fouth point. This, he fays, is a good
road wdth eafterly winds; but a dangerous one when
the wind blows from the contrary quarter, as the other
on the fouth-eaft fide muft be with eafterly winds: fo
that there is no good accommodation to be had for
fliipping'round the whole ifland. Kulci-
The ifland itfelf is extremely barren; andbearsevi-
dent marks not only of a volcanic origin, but of having
been not very long ago entirely ruined by an eruption.
As they approached the fouth point, Mr Forfter in¬
forms ps, that they obferved the fliore to rife perpen¬
dicularly. It conlifted of broken rocks, wdiofe caver¬
nous appearance, and black or ferruginous colour,
feemed to indicate that, they had been thrown up by
fubterraneous fire. Two detached rocks lie about a
quarter of a mile off this point: one of them is Angu¬
lar on account of its fhape, and reprefents a huge co¬
lumn or obelifk ; and both thefe rocks were inhabited
by multitudes of fea-fowls. On landing and walking
into the country, they found the ground covered with
rocks and ftones of all fizes, which appeared to have been
expofed to a great fire, where they feemed to have ac¬
quired a black colour and porous texture. Tw o or three
Ihrivelled fpecies of graffes grew among thefe ftones,
and in fome meafure foftened the defolate appearance
of the country. The farther they advanced, the more
ruinous the face of the country feemed to be. The
roads were intolerably rugged, and filled with heaps of
volcanic ftones, among which the Europeans could not
make their way but with the greateft difficulty ; but
the natives leaped from one ftone to another with fur-
prifing agility and eafe. As they went northward a-
long the ifland, they found the ground ftill of the fame
nature; till at laft they met with a large rock of black
melted lava, which feemed to contain fome iron, and
On which was neither foil nor grafs, nor any mark of
vegetation. Notwitbftanding this general barrennefs,
however, there are feveral large trafts covered with
cultivated foil, wdiich produces potatoes of a gold yel¬
low colour, as fweet as carrots, plantains, and fugar-
canes. The foil is a dry hard clay; and the inhabi¬
tants ufe the grafs which grows between the ftones in
other parts of the ifland as a manure, and for preferving
their vegetables wdien young, from the heat of the fun.
The moft remarkable curiofity belonging to this
ifland is, a number of Coloffian ftatues; of which, how¬
ever, very few remain entire. Thefe ftatues are placed
only on the fea-coaft. On the eaft fide of the ifland
were feen the ruins of three platforms of ftonework, on
each of which had ftood four of thefe large ftatutes ;
but they were all fallen down from two of them, and
one from the third: they were broken or defaced by
the fall. Mr Wales meafured one that had fallen,
which was 15 feet in length, and fix broad over the
ffioulders : each ftatue had on its head a large cylin-
dric ftone of a red colour, wrought perfedlly round.
Others were found that meafured near 27 feet, and up¬
wards of eight feet over the (boulders; and a ftill lar¬
ger one was feen (landing, the (hade of which was fuf-
ficient to (belter all the party, confiding of near 30
perfons, from the rays of the fun. The workmanftiip
is rude, but not bad, nor are the features of the face
ill formed ; the ears are long, according to the diftor-
tion pradlifed in the country, and the bodies have hard¬
ly any thing of a human figure about them. How
thefe iflanders, wholly unacquainted with any mecha¬
nical power, could raife fuch ftupendous figures, and
afterwards place the large cylindric ftones upon their
heads, is truly wonderful! The moft probable conjec¬
ture feems to be, that the ftone is fadlitious; and that
each.
EAR [ 2604 ] E B I
each figure was gradually erefted, by forming a tem-
porary platform round it, and railing it as the work
advanced : but they are at any rate very ftrong proofs
of the ingenuity and perfeverance of the ifiandersin the
age -when they were built, as well as that the anceftors
of the prefent race had feen better days than tbeir de-
fcendants enjoy. The water of this ifland is in general
brackifh, there being only one well that is perfectly
frefh, which is at the eaft end of the ifland : and when¬
ever the natives repair to it to flake their thirft, they
waifh themfelves all over; and if there is a large com¬
pany, the fir ft leaps into the middle of the hole, drinks,
and waflies himfelf without ceremony; after which an¬
other takes his place, and fo on in fucceflion. This
cullom was much difrelilhed by their new friends,
who ftood greatly in need of this valuable article, and
did not wilh to have it contaminated by fuch ablu¬
tions.
The people are of a middle fize. In general, they are
rather thin ; go entirely naked ; and have punctures on
their bodies, a cuftom common to all the inhabitants
of the South-Sea Iflands, Their greateft•Angularity
is the fize of their ears, the lobe of which is ftretched
out fo that it almoft refts on their {boulder;'and is
pierced with a very large hole, capable of admitting
four or five fingers with eafe. The chief ornaments
for their ears are the white down of feathers and rings
which they wear in the infide of the hole, made of the
leaf of the -fugar-cane, which is very elaftic, and for
this purpofe is rolled up like a watch-fpring. Some
were feen cloathed in the fame cloth ufed in the ifland
of Otaheite, tinged of a bright orange-colour with
turmeric:; and thefe our voyagers fuppofed to be chiefs.
Their colour is a chefnut-brown ; their hair black,
curling, and remarkably ftrong; and that on the head
as well as the face is cut ftiort. The women are fmall,
and flender-limbed : they have pundtures on the face,
refembling the patches fometimes ufed by European
ladies; they paint their face all over with a reddi/h
brown ruddle, and above this they lay a fine orange-
colour extradted from turmeric-root; the whole is then
variegated with ftreaks of white (hell-lime. But the
moft furprifing circumftarjce of all with regard to thefe
people, is the apparent fcarcity of women among them.
The niceft calculation that could be made, never
brought the number of inhabitants in this rfland to
above 700, and of thefe the females bore no proportion
in number to the males. Either they have but few fe¬
males ; or elfe their women were reftrained from appear¬
ing during the ftay of the fhip, notwithftanding, the
men {hewed no figns of a jealous difpofition, or the
women any fcruples of appearing in public: in fadl,
they feemed to be neither referved nor ehafte ; and the
large pointed cap which they wore, gave them the ap¬
pearance of profefled wantons : but as all the women
who were feen were liberal of their favours, it is more
than probable, that all the married and modeft ones had
concealed themfelves from their impetuous vifitants, in
fome infcrutable parts of the ifland ; and what further
ftrengthens this fuppofition is, that heaps of ftones
were feen piled up into little hillocks, which had one
ftcep perpendicular fide, where a hole . went under
ground. The fpace within, fays Mr Forfter, could be
but fmall; and yet it is probable, that thele cavities
ferved, together with their miferable huts, to give {bel¬
ter to the people at night; and they may communicate Eaton
with natural caverns, which are very common in the .11. I
lava currents of volcanic countries. The few women Ehion‘te?-
that appeared, were the moft lafcivious of their fex that
perhaps have been ever noticed in any country, and
fliame feemed to be entirely unknown to them.
EATON, a town of Buckinghamfliire, fituated on
the north fide of the Thames, oppofite. to Windfor,
and famous for its collegiate fchool, founded by king
Henry VI. being a feminary for king’s college Cam¬
bridge, the fellows of which are all from this fchool.
EAU de Carmes. See Pharmacy, n° 571.
Eau de Luce. See Chemistry, n° 335. and Phar¬
macy, n0 671.
EAVES, in architefture, the margin or edge of the
roof of an houfe ; being the lowed tiles, flates, or the
like, that hang over the walls, to throw off water to a
diftance from the wall.
Eaves-Droppers, arefuch perfons as ftand under the
eaves, or walls, and windows of a houfe, by night or
day, to hearken after news, and carry it to others, and
thereby caufe ftrife and contention in the neighbour¬
hood. They are called evil members of the common¬
wealth, by the ftat. of Weft. 1. c. 33. They may
be punifhed, either in the court-leet, by way of pre-
fentmentand fine; or in the quarter-fefltons, by indict¬
ment, and binding to good behaviour.
EBBING of the Tides. See Tide.
EBDOMARIUS, in ecclefiaftical writers, an offi¬
cer formerly appointed weekly to fuperintend the per¬
formance of divine fervice in cathedrals, and prefcribe
the duties of each perfon attending in the choir, as to
reading, finging, praying, &c.
EBENUS, the ebony-tree; a genus of the de-
candria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of
plants. There is but one fpecies, thecretica, a native
of the ifland of Crete, and fome others in the Archipe¬
lago. It rifes with a fhrubby ftalk three or four feet
high ; which puts out feveral fide-branches garniflied
with hoary leaves at each joint, compofed of five nar¬
row fpear-rtiaped lobes, which join at their tails to the
footftalk, and fpread out like the fingers of a hand.
The branches are terminated by thick fpikes of large
purple flowers, which are of the butterfly or pea-
bloom kind. The plants may be propagated from feeds
fownfin the autumn. In this country, the plants mull
be protefted during the winter, as they are unable to
bear the cold.
EBION, the author of the herefy of the Ebionites,
was a difciple of Cerinthus, and his fucceffor. He
improved upon the errors of his mafter, and added to
them new opinions of his own. He began his preach¬
ing in Judea : he taught in Afia, and even at Rome :
his tenets infefted the ifle of Cyprus. St John oppo-
fed both Cerinthus and Ebion in Afia; and it is
thought, that this apoftle wrote his gofpel, in the year
9.7, particularly againft this herefy.
EBIONITES, in church hiftory, heretics of the
firft century, fo called from their leader Ebion. They,
as well as the Nazarenes, had their origin from the
circumcifed Chriftians, who had retired from Jerufa-
lem to Pella during the war -between the Jews and
Romans; and made their firft appearance, after the
deftruftion of Jerufalem, about the time of Domitian,
or a little before.
.The
E C C [ 2605 ] E C C
Ebony They held the fame errors with the Nazarenes, ti¬
ll nited the ceremonies of the Mofaic inftitution with the
2?' precepts of the gofpel, obferved both the Jewifli fab-
0 s*. bath and Chriftian Sunday, and in celebrating the eu-
charift made ufe of unleavened bread. They abftained
from the flefh of animals, and even from milk. In re¬
lation to Jefus Chrift, fome of them held that he was
born like other men, of Jofeph and Mary, and acqui¬
red fan&ification only by his good works. Others of
them allowed, that he was born of a virgin; but de¬
nied that he was the Word of God, or had any ex¬
igence before his human generation. They faid, he
was indeed the only true Prophet; but yet a mere
man, who, by his virtue, bad arrived at being called
Chrijl, and the Son of God. They alfo fuppofed,
« that Chrift and the devil were two principles, which
God had oppofed to each other. Of the New Tefta-
ment they only received the gofpel of St Matthew,
which they called the gofpel according to the Hebrews.
EBONY. See Ebenus.—This wood is .exceed¬
ingly hard, heavy, and fufceptible of a very fine polifli;
on which account it is ufedin Mofaic and inlaid works,
toys, &c. The belt is of a jet black, free of veins
and rind, very maflive, aftringent, and of a fliarp pun¬
gent tafte.
The cabinet-makers, inlayers, &c. make pear-tree
and other woods pafs for ebony, by ebonifing, or gi¬
ving it the black colour. This fome do by a few
waihes of a hot deco&ion of galls, and when dry ad¬
ding writing ink thereon, and polifhing it with a ftiff
brufh and a little hot wax. Others heat, or burn
their wood black.
EBRO, anciently Iberus, a large river of Spain,
which, taking its rife in Old Caftile, runs thro’ Bifcay
and Arragon, paffes by Saragofa, and, continuing its
courfe thro’ Catalonia, difcharges itfelf with great ra¬
pidity into the Mediterranean, about 20 miles below
the city of Tortofa.
EBULLITION, the fame with Boiling. The
word is alfo ufed in a fynonymous fenfe with Effer¬
vescence.
ECCHELLENSIS (Abraham), a learned Maro-
nite, whom the prefidcnt le Jai employed in the edition
of his Polyglott Bible. Gabriel Sionita, his country¬
man, drew him to Paris, inorderto make him his fel¬
low-labourer in publifhing that bible. They fell out:
Gabriel complained to the parliament, and cruelly de¬
famed his aflbciate; their quarrel made a great noife.
The, congregation de propaganda fide aflbciated him,
1636, with thofe whom they employed in making an
Arabic tranflation of the fcripture. They recalled him
from Paris, and he laboured in that tranflation at Rome
in the year 1652. While he was profeffor of the O-
ri -vtal languages at Rome, he was pitched upon by
the great duke Ferdinand II. to tranflate from Arabic
into Latin the 5th, 6th, and 7th books of Apollonius’s
Conics; in which he was aflifted by John Alphonfo
Borelli, who added commentaries to them. He died
at Rome in 1664.
ECCHYMOSIS, from t*xva> to pour out, or from
*»5. out of, and WW’ juice. It is an effulion of hu¬
mours from their refpeftive veflels, under the integu¬
ments ; or, as Paulus JEgineta fays, “ When the flefh
is bruifed by the violent collifion of any objeft, and its
fmall veins broken, the blood is gradually difcharged
Vol. IV.
from them.” This blood, when co!le£bed under the Ecclairciffe-
fkin, is called an ecchymofs, the fltin in the mean time rn®,nt
remaining entire; fometimes a tumour is formed by it, EcCiefjaftj.
W'hich is foft and livid, and generally without pain. If Cal.
the quantity of blood is not confiderable, it is ufually   *
reforbed ; if much, it fuppurates : it rarely happens
that any further inconvenience follows ; though, in
cafe of a very bad habit of body, a mortification may
be the refult, and in fuch a cafe regard muft be had
th ereto.
ECCLAIRCISSEMENT. See Esclaircisse-
MENT.
ECCLESIASTES, a canonical book of the Old
Teftament, the defign of which is- to (hew the vanity
of all fublunary things.
It was compofed by Solomon; who enumerates the
feveral objeifts on which men place their happinefs,
and then fhews the infufficiency of all worldly enjoy¬
ments.
The Talmudifts make king Hezekiah to be the
author of it ; Grotius afcribes it to Zorobabel, and o-
thers to Ifaiah; but the generality of commentators
believe this book to be the produce of Solomon’s re¬
pentance, after having experienced all the follies , and
pleafures of life.
ECCLESIASTICAL, an appellation given to
whatever belongs to the church : thus we fay, ecclefia-
ftical polity, jurifdiftion, hiftory, &c.
Ecclesiastical Courts. In the time of the An¬
glo-Saxons there was no fort ofdiftinttion between the
lay and the eccleiiaftical jurifdi&ion: the county-court
was as much a fpiritual as a temporal tribunal: the
rights of the church were afcertained and afferted Blaclfi.
at the fame time, and by the fame judges, as the Commtnl,
rights of the laity. For this purpofe the bilhop of the
diocefe, and the alderman, or in his'abfence the fiieriff
of the county, ufed to fit together in the county-court,
and had there the cognizance of all caufes as well ec-
clefiaftical as civil; a fuperior deference being paid (To
the bifliop’s opinion in fpiritual matters, and to that
of the lay-judges in temporal. This union of power
was very advantageous to them both: the prefence of
the bifliop added weight and reverence to the flieriff’s
proceedings; and the authority of the flieriff was equal¬
ly ufeful to the bifliop, by enforcing obedience to his
decrees in fuch refraftory offenders as would other-
wife have defpifed the thunder of mere ecclefiaftical
cenfures.
But fo moderate and rational a plan was wholly in-
confiftent with thofe views of ambition that were then
forming by the court of Rome. It foon became an e-
ftabliflied maxim in the papal fyftem of policy, that all
ecclefiafticalperfons and all ecclefiaftical caufes fhouldbe
folely and entirely fubjed to ecclefiaftical jurifdiftion
only : which jurifdiiftion was fuppofed to be lodged in
the firft place and immediately in the Pope, by divine
indefeafible right andinveftiture from Chrift himfelf, and
derived from the Pope to all inferior tribunals. Hence
the canon law lays it down as a rule, that 11 facer dotes
a regibus henorandi funt, non judicandi; and places an
emphatical reliance on a fabulous tale which it tells of
the emperor Conftantine, That when fome petitions
were brought to him, imploring the aid of his au¬
thority againft certain of his bifliops accufed of op-
preffion and injuftice, he caufed (fays the holy canon)
15 D the
Ecclefia-
iiical.
Mlackjl.
Gumment.
E C C r 2606 1 E c c
the petitions to be burnt in their prefence, difmiffing
them with this valediction; “ Jte, et inter vos caufas
“ veftras difcutite, quia dignmn non eft at nos ju die emus
“ Deos ”
It was not, however, till after the Norman conqueft,
that this dodtrine was received in England; when Wil¬
liam I. (whofe title was warmly efpoufed by the mo-
nafteries which he liberally endowed, and by the fo¬
reign clergy, whom he brought over in fhoals from
France and Italy, and planted in the belt preferments
of the Englilh church), was at length prevailed upon
to eftablifh this fatal encroachment, and feparate the
ecclefiaftical court from the civil: whether aftuated by
principles of bigotry, or by thofe of a more refined po¬
licy, in Order to difcountenance the laws of king Ed¬
ward abounding with the fpirit of Saxon liberty, is not
altogether certain. But the latter, if not the caufe,
was undoubtedly the confequence, of this feparation :
for the Saxon laws were foon overborne by the Nor¬
man jufticiaries, when the county-court fell into difre-
gard by the bilhop’s withdrawing his prefence, in obe¬
dience to the charter of the conqueror ; which prohi¬
bited any fpiritual caufe from being tried in the fecu-
lar courts, and commanded the fuitors to appear be¬
fore the bifliop only, whofe decifions were dire&ed to
conform to the canon law.
King Henry the firft, at his acceffion, among other
rellorations of the laws of king Edward the Confeffor,
revived this of the union of the civil and ecclefiaflical
courts. Which was, according to Sir Edward Coke,
after the great heat of the conqueft was paft, only a
reftitution of the ancient law of England. This how¬
ever was ill reliflied by the Popifh clergy, who, under the
guidance of that arrogant prelate archbifhop Anfelm,
very early difapproved of a meafure that put them on
a level with the profane laity, and fubjefted fpiritual
men and caufes to the infpeftion of the fecular magi-
ftrates: and therefore, in their fynod at Wettminfter,
3 Hen. I. they ordained, that no bilhop Ihould at¬
tend the difeuffion of temporal caufes; which foon dif-
folved this newly effected union. And when, upon the
death of king Henry the firft, the ufurper Stephen was
brought in and fupported by the clergy, we find one
article of the oath which they impofed upon him was,
that ecclefiaftical perfons and ecclefiaftical caufes ftiould
be fubjeft only to the bilhop’s jurifdi&ion. And as it
was about that time that the conteft and emulation be¬
gan between the laws of England and thofe of Rome,
the temporalcourts adhering to the former, and the fpi¬
ritual adopting the latter, as their rule of proceeding ;
this widened the breach between them, and made a co¬
alition afterwards impra&icable; which probably would
elfe have been effe&ed at the general reformation of the
church.
Ecclefiaftical Courts are various; as the Archdea¬
con’s, the Consistory, the Court of Arches, the
Peculiars, the Prerogative, and the great court of
appeal in all ecclefiaftical caufes, viz. the Court of De¬
legates. See thefe articles.
As to the method of proceeding in the fpiritualcourts,
it muft (in the firft place) be acknowledged to their
honour, that though they continue to this day to de¬
cide many queftions which are properly of temporal
cognizance, yet juftice is in general fo ably and im¬
partially adminiftered in thofe tribunals,, (efpecially of
the fuperior kind,) and the boundaries of their power
are now fo well known and eftablilhed, that no mate¬
rial inconvenience at prefent arifes from this jurifdic-
tion ftill continuing in the ancient channel. And,
ftiould any alteration be attempted, great confufion
would probably arife, in overturning long eftablifhed
forms, and new-modelling a courfe of proceedings that
has now prevailed for feven centuries.
The eftabliftiment of the civil-law procefs in all the
ecclefiaftical courts was indeed a mafterpiece of papal
difeernment, as it made a coalition imprafticable be¬
tween them and the national tribunals, without mani-
feft inconvenience and hazard. And this confideration
had undoubtedly its weight in caufing this meafure ta
be adopted, though many other caufes concurred. In
particular, it may be here remarked, that the pande&s,
or colleftions of civil law, being written in the Latin
tongue, and referring fo much to the will of the prince
and his delegated officers of juftice, fufficiently recom¬
mended them to the court of Rome, exclufive of their
intrinfic merit. To keep the laity in the darkeft ig¬
norance, and to monopolize the little fcience which
then exifted entirely among the monkifh clergy, were
deep-rooted principles of papal policy. And, as the.
bifhops of Rome affe&ed in all points to mimic the
imperial grandeur, as. the fpiritual prerogatives were
moulded on the pattern of the temporal, fo the canon-
law procefs was formed on the model of the civil law ;.
the prelates embracing, with the utmoft ardor, a method
of judicial proceedings, which was carried on in a lan¬
guage unknown to the bulk of the people,, which ba-
nilhedthe intervention of a jury (that bulwark of Go¬
thic liberty), and which placed an arbitrary power b£
decifion in the breaft of a Angle man.
The proceedings in the ecclefiaftical courts are there¬
fore regulated according to the pra&ice of the civil and.
canon, laws ; or rather to a mixture of both, corre&ed
and new-modelled by their own particular ufages, and
the interpofition of the courts of common law. For,
if the proceedings in the fpiritual court be ever fo re¬
gularly confonant to the rules of the Roman law, yet
if they be manifeftly repugnant to the fundamental
maxims of the municipal laws,, to which, upon prin¬
ciples of found policy, the ecclefiaftical procefs ought
in every ftate to conform ; (as if they require two wit-
nefles to prove a fa&, where one will fuffice at common
law); in fuch cafes, a prohibition will be awarded a-
gainft them. But, under thefe reftri&ions, their or¬
dinary courfie of proceeding is, firft, by citation^ to
call the party injuring beforethem. Then by libel, (//-
bellus, a little book,) or by articles drawn out in a for¬
mal allegation, to fet forth the complainant’s ground
of complaint. To this fucceeds the defendant’s anfwer
upon oath ; when, if he denies or extenuates the chars,e,
they proceed to proofs by witneffes examined, and their
depofitions taken down in writing by an officer of the
court. If the defendant has any circumftances to offer
in his defence, he muft alfo propound them in what is
called his defenfive allegation, to which he is entitled in
his turn to the plaintiff’s anfwer upon oath, and may
from thence proceed lo proofs as well as his antagonift.
The canonical do&rine of purgation, whereby the par¬
ties were obliged to anfwer upon oath to any matter,
however criminal, that . might he objefted againft
them, (though long ago over-ruled in the court of
chan-
Ecclefra?
itical.
‘Ecclefia-
■ ftical
E C H [ 2607 ] E C H
chancery, the genius of the Englilh law having bro¬
ken through the bondage impofed on it by its clerical
chancellors, and aflerted the doftrines of judicial as well
. as civil liberty) continued till the middle of the laft
century, to be upheld by the fpiritual courts; when
the legiflature was obliged to interpofe, to teach them
a leffon of limilar moderation. By the ftatute of
13 Car. II. c. 12. it is enadled, that it fhall not be
lawful for any bilhop, or ecclefiaftical judge, to ten¬
der or adminifter to any perfon whatfoever, the oath
iifually called the oath ex officio, or any other oath
whereby he may be compelled to conftfs, accufe, or
purge himfdf of any criminal matter or thing, where¬
by he may be liable to any cenfure or punilhment.
When all the pleadings and proofs are concluded, they
are referred to the confideration, not of a jury, but of
a Angle judge; who takes information by hearing ad¬
vocates on both fidesr and thereupon forms his interlo¬
cutory decree or definitive fentence, at his own difcre-
tion : from which there generally lies an appeal, in the
feveral ttages mentioned in the articles above referred
to; tho’ if the fame be not appealed from him in 15
days, it is final, by the ftatute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19.
But the point in which thefe jurifdi&ions are the
moft defe&ive, is that of enforcing their fentences when
pronounced ; for which they have no other procefs,
but that of excommunication; which would be often
defpifed by obftinate or profligate men, did not the ci¬
vil law ftep in with its aid. See Excommunication.
Ecclesiastical Corporations, are where the mem¬
bers that compofe them are fpiritual perfons. They
were ere&ed for the furtherance of religion and perpe¬
tuating the rights of the church. See Corporations.
Ecclesiastical iS/ate. See Clergy.
ECCLESIASTICUS, an apocryphal book, gene¬
rally bound up with the fcriptures, fo called, from its
being read in the church, ecclefta, as a book of piety
and mftru&ion, but not of infallible authority.
The author of this book was a Jew, called the
fon of Sirach. The Greeks call it the JVifdom of thefon
of Sirach.
ECCOPROTICS, in pharmacy. See Cathar¬
tics, and Evacuants.
ECHAPE, in the menage, a horfe begot between
a ftallion and a mare of different breeds and countries.
ECHAPER, in the menage, a gallicifm ufed in the
academies, implying to give a horfe head, or to put
on at full fpeed.
ECHENEIS, in ichthyology, a genus belonging to
the order of thoracici. The head is fat, naked, de-
preffed, and marked with a number of tranfverfe ridges;
it has ten rays in the branchioftege membrane ; and the
body is naked. There are two fpecies, vie. 1. The
remora, or fucking-fifti, with a forked tail, and 18
ftrise on the head. It is found in the Indian ocean.
2. The neucrates, with an undivided tail, and 24
ftrias on the head. It islikewife a native of the Indian
ocean. See Plate CII.
ECHEVIN, in the French and Dutch polity, a
magiftrate ele&ed by the inhabitants of a city or town,
to take care of their common concerns, and the decora¬
tion and cleanlinefs of the city.
At Paris, there is a prevot, and four echevins; in o-
ther towns, a mayor and echevins. At Amfterdam,
there are nine echevins; and, at Rotterdam, feven.
In France, the echevins take cognizance of rents, Echinate
taxes, and the navigation of rivers, &c. In Holland, II
they judge of civil and criminal caufes ; and if the cri- c 0'
minal confeffes himfelf guilty, they can fee their fen¬
tence executed without appeal.
ECHINATE, or Echinated, an appellation given
to whatever is prickly, thereby refembling the hedge-
hog.
ECHINITES,in natural hiftory,the name by which
authors call the fofiiie centronia, frequently found in
our chalk-pits. See Centronia.
ECHINI Marini. See Echinus.
ECHINUS, in zoology, a genus of infe<Sls belong¬
ing to the order of vermes mollufca. The body is
roundifii, covered with a bony cruft, and often befet
with moveable prickles ; and the mouth is below, and
confifts of five valves. I. The fpecimen on Plated. v
is the efculentus, or eatable echinus. It is of a he-
mifpherical form, covered with (harp ftrong fpines,
above half an inch long ; commonly of a violet colour;
moveable ; adherent to fmall tubercles elegantly dif-
pofed in rows. Thefe are their inftruments of motion
by which they change their place. This fpecies is ta¬
ken in dredging, and often lodges in cavities of rocks
juft within low water mark. They are eaten by the
poor in many parts of England, and by the better fort
abroad. In old times they were a favourite difh. They
were dreffed with vinegar, honied wine or mead, parfley
or mint; and thought to agree with the ftomach.
They were the firft diih in the famous fupper of Lentu-
lus, when he was made flamen Martialis, or prieft of
Mars. By fome of the concomitant dirties, they feetn
defigned as a whet for the fecond courfe, to the holy
perfonages, priefts and veftals invited on that occafion.
Many fpecies of ftiell-filh made part of that entertain¬
ment. 2. The lacunofus, or oval echinus, is of an
oval depreffed form; on the top it is of a purple co¬
lour, marked with a quadrefoil, and the fpaces between
tuberculated in waved rows ; the lower fide ftudded,
and divided by two fmooth fpaces. Length, four inches.
When clothed, it is covered with fhort thfckfet briftles
mixed with very long ones.—There are 15 other fpe¬
cies, all natives of the fea.
Echinus, in architedlure, a member or ornament
near the bottom of the Ionic, Corinthian, and Compo-
fite capitals.
ECHIUM, Viter’s bugloss; a genus ofthemo-
nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. There are feven fpecies, three of which are
natives of Britain. None of them have any remarkable
property, except that the flowers of one fpecies (the
vulgare) are very grateful to beeS. It is a native
of many parts of Britain. The item is rough with
hairs and tubercles. The leaves are fpear-fhaped, and
rough with hair. The flowers come out in lateral
fpikes. They are firft red, afterwards blue ; fometimes
purple or white.—Cows and (beep are not fond of the
plant; horfes and goats refufe it.
ECHO, or Eccho, a found refle&ed or reverbera¬
ted, from a folid, concave, body, and fo repeated to the
ear*. The word is formed from the Greek
found, which comes from the verb fono. n° T? ^
The ancients being wholly unacquainted with the
true caufe of the echo, afcribed it to feveral caufes fuf-
ficiently whimfical. The poets, who were not the
15 D 2 worft
E C H [ 2C0S ] E C H
worft of their philofophers, imagined it to be a perfon
of that name metamorphofed, and that fhe affe&e<tto
take up her abode in particular places ; for they found
by experience, that fhe was not to be met with in all.
(See below, Echo in fabulous bijlory.) But the mo¬
derns, who know found to conliil in a certain tremor
or vibration in the fonorous body communicated to the
contiguous air, and by that means to the ear, give a
more conliftent account of echo.
For a tremulous body, ftriking on another folid bo¬
dy, it is evident, may be repelled without deftroying
or diminifhing its tremor; and confequently a found
may be redoubled by the refilition of the tremulous
body, or air.
But a fimple reflexion of the fonorous air, is not
enough to folve the echo: for then every plain furface
of a folid hard body, as being fit to refleft a voice or
found, would redouble it; which we find does not
hold.
To produce an echo, therefore, it fhould feem that a
hind of concameration or vaulting were neceffary, in
order to colled, and by colle&ing to heighten and in-
creafe, and afterwards refled, the found; as we find is
the cafe in refleding the rays of light, where a concave
mirror is required.
In effed, as often as a found ftrikes perpendicularly
on a wall, behind which is any thing of a vault or
arch, or even another parallel wall; fo often will it be
reverberated in the fame line, or other adjacent ones.
For an echo to be heard, therefore, it is neceflary
the ear be in the line of refledion: for the perfon who
made the found to hear its echo, it is neceflary he be
perpendicular to the place which refleds it: and for a
manifold or tautological echo, it is neceflary there be
a number of walls, and vaults or cavities, either placed
behind or fronting each other.
A Angle arch or concavity, &c. can fcarce ever flop
and refled all the found ; but if there be a convenient
difpofition behind it, part of the found propagated thi¬
ther, being colleded and refleded as before, will pre¬
sent another echo : or, if there be another concavity,
oppofed at a due diftance to the former, the found re¬
fleded from the one upon the other will be tofled back
again by this latter, &c.
Many of the phenomena of echos, are well confidered
by the bifliop of Leighs, &c. who remarks, that any
found, falling either diredly or obliquely on any denfe
body of a fmooth, whether plain or arched, fuperficies,
is refleded, or echoes, more or lefs. The furface, fays
he, muft be fmooth; otherwife the air, by reverbera¬
tion, will be put. out of its regular motion, and the
found thereby broken and extinguiffied. He adds, that
it echoes more or lefs, to fliow, that when all things
are as before defcribed, there is ftill an echoing, tho’
it be not always heard; either becaufe the dired found
is too weak to beat quite back again to him that made
it; or that it does return to him, but fo weak, that it
cannot be difcerned; or that he Hands in a wrong place
to receive the refleded found, which pafles over his
head, under his feet, or on one fide of him; and which
therefore may be heard by a man Handing in the place
where the refleded found does come, provided no in-
terpofed body intercepts it, but not by him that firH
made it.
Echoes may be produced with different circumHatir
ces. For, 1. A plane obflacle refleds the found back in
its due tone and loudnefs;' allowance being made for
the proportionable decreafe of the found, according to
its diHance.
2. A convex obffacle refleds the found fomewhat
fmaller and fomewhat quicker, though weaker, than
otherwife it would be.
3. A concave obflacle echoes back the found, big¬
ger, flower, and alfo inverted; but never according to
the order of words. ,
Nor does ft feem poflible to contrive any Angle echo,
that (hall invert the found, and repeat backwards; be¬
caufe, in fuch cafe, the word laff fpoken, that is, which
laff occurs to the obflacle, mufl be repelled firff; which
cannot be. For where in the mean time fhould the
fir A words hang and be concealed ; or how, after fuch
a paufe, be revived, and animated again into motion ?
From the determinate concavity or archednefs of
the refleding bodies, it may happen that fome of them
fhall only echo back one determinate note, and only
from one place.
4. The echoing body being removed farther off, it
refleds more of the found than when nearer; which is
the reafon why fome echoes repeat but one fyllable,
fome one word, and fome many.
5. Echoing bodies may be fo contrived and placed,
as that refleding the found from one to the other, ei¬
ther diredly and mutually, or obliquely and by fuc-
ceffion, but of one found, a multiple echo or many
echoes fhall arife.
Add, that a multiple echo may be made, by fo pla¬
cing the echoing bodies at unequal diflances, that
they may refled all one way, and not one on the other;
by which means, a manifold fucceflive found will be
heard: one clap of the hands, like many; on ha, like
a laughter ; one Angle word, like many of the fame
tone and accent; and fo one viol, like many of the
fame kind, imitating each other.
Laflly, echoing bodies may be fo ordered, that, from
any one found given, they fhall produce many echoes
different both as to tone and intention. By which
means a mufical room may be fo contrived, that not
only one inflrument playing therein, fhall feem many
of the fame fort' and fize, but even a concert of diffe¬
rent ones, only by placing certain echoing bodies fo,
that any note played, fhall be returned by them in
3ds, yths, and 8ths.
Echo, is alfo ufed for the place where the repetition
of the found is produced or heard.
Echoes are diflinguifhed into divers kinds, viz.
1. Single, which return the voice but once. Whereof
fome are tonical, which only return a voice when mo¬
dulated into fome particular mufical tone: Others,
polyfyllabtcal, which return many fyllabks, words, and
fentences. Of this lafl kind is that fine echo in Wood-
flock-park, which Doftor Plot affures us, in the day¬
time, will return very diflinftly feventeen fyllables, and
in the night twenty.
2. Multiple, ox tautological; which return fyllables
and words the fame oftentimes repeated.
In echoes, the place where the fpeaker Hands is cal¬
led the centrum phonicum; and the objedlor place that
returns the voice, the centrum pkonocampticum.
At the fepulchre of Metella, wife of Craffus, was an ,
echo, which repeated what a man faid,. five times.
Authors
E G T
E C L [ 2609 ]
Iifeo Authors mention a tower at Cyzicus, where the echo
II repeated feven times. One of the fineft echoes we read
c eftics- of is that mentioned by Barthius, in his notes on Sta¬
tius’s Thebais, lib. vi. 30. which repeated the words
a man uttered 17 times: it was on the banks of the
Naha, between Coblentz and Bingen. Barthius affures
us, he had proved what he writes; and had told 17
repetitions. And whereas, in common echoes, the re¬
petition is not heard till feme time after hearing the
word fpoke, or the notes fung; in this, the perfon who
fpeaks, or lings, is fcarce heard at all; but the repeti¬
tion moft clearly, and always in furprifing varieties ; the
echo feeming fometimes to approach nearer, and fome-
times to be further off. Sometimes the voice is heard
very diftin&ly, and fometimes fcarce at all. One hears
only one voice, and another feveral: one hears the
echo on the right, and the other on the left, &c. At
Milan in Italy, is an echo which reiterates the report
of a piftol 56 times; and if the report is very loud, up¬
wards of 60 reiterations may be counted. The firft
20 echoes are pretty diftinft ; but as the noife feems
to fly away, and anfwer at a greater diftance, the re¬
iterations are fo doubled, that they can fcarce be
counted.
Echo, in archite&ure, a term applied to certain
kinds of vaults and arches, moft commonly of the el¬
liptic and parabolic figures, ufed to redouble founds,
and produce artificial echoes.
Echo, in poetry, a kind of compofition wherein the
la ft words or fyllables of each verfe contain fome mean¬
ing, which, being repeated apart, anfwers to fome que-
ftion or other matter contained in the verfe; as in this
beautiful one from Virgil :
CrudelU mater magis, an puer mprobus lilt' ?
Jmprobus tile puer, crudelis tu quoque mater.
The elegance of an echo confifts in giving a new fenfe
to the laft words; which reverberate, as it were, the
motions of the mind, and by that means affeft it with
furprife and admiration.
Echo, in fabulous hiftory, a nymph in love with Nar-
cifius ; but being defpifed by him, pined herfelf to
death, having nothing but her voice left.
ECHOMETER, among muficians, a kind of fcale
or rule, with feveral lines thereon, ferving to meafure
the duration and length of founds, and to find their in¬
tervals and ratios.
ECKIUS (John), an eminent and learned divine,
profeflbr in the univerfity of Ingoldftadt, memorable
for the oppofition he gave to Luther, Melandthon,
Caralofladius, and other leading Proteftants in Ger¬
many. He wrote many polemical traits; and among
the reft, a Manual of Controverfes, printed in 1535,
in which he difeourfes upon moft; of the heads contefted
between the Proteftants and Papifts. He was a man
of uncommon learning, parts, and zeal, and died in
1543-
ECLECTICS, ancient philofophers, who, without
attaching themfelves to any particular fed, felefted
whatever appeared to them the belt and moft rational,
from each.
Potamon of Alexandria was the firft of the eclectics:
he lived in the reigns of Auguftus and Tiberius; and
being tired with the fcepticifm of,the Pyrrhonians, he
refolved upon a fcheme that would allow him to believe
fomething, but without being fo implicit as to fwallow
any entire hypothefis.
ECLIPSE, inaftronomy, the deprivation of the light
of the fun, or of fome heavenly body, by the interpo-
fition of another heavenly body between our fight and
it. See Astronomy, n° 227.
ECLIPTIC, in aftronomy, a great circle of the
fphere, iuppofed to be drawn through the middle of the
zodiac, making an angle with the equinc&ial of about
23° 30,> which is the fun’s greateft declination ; or,
more ftriftly fpeaking, it is that path or way among
the fixed ftars, that the earth appears to deferibe to an
eye placed in the fun. See Astronomy.
Some call it via Solis, “ the way of the fun;” becanfe
the fun in his apparent annual motion never deviates
from it, as all the other planets do more or lefs. It is
called ecliptic, by reafon "all eclipfes happen when the
planets are in, or near, its Node.
Ecliptic, in geography, a great circle on the tcr-
reftrial globe, not only anfwering to, but falling with¬
in, the plane of the celeftial ecliptic. See Geography.
ECLOGUE, in poetry, a kind of paftoral com¬
pofition, wherein ftiepherds are introduced converfing
together.
The word is formed from the Greek txxopu, choice;
fo that, according to the etymology, eclogue ftiould be
no more than a fele£t or choice piece ; but cuftom has
determined it to a farther fignification, viz. a little ele¬
gant compofition in a Ample, natural ftyle and manner.
Idyllion and eclogue, in their primary intention, are
the fame thing : thus, the idyllia, uJvxxia, of Theocri¬
tus, are pieces wrote perfectly in the fame vein with the
ecloga of Virgil. But cuftom has made a difference
between them, and appropriated the name eclogue,'io
pieces wherein fhepherds are introduced fpeaking; idyl-
lion, to thofe wrote like the eclogue, in a Ample natu¬
ral ftyle, but without any Ihepherds in them.
ECLUSE, a fmall but ftrong town of the Dutch
Low Countries, in the county of Flanders, with a good
harbour and fluices. The Englifh befieged it in vain
in 1405, and the people of Bruges in 1436. But the
Dutch, commanded by Count Maurice of Naffau, took
it in 1644. It is defended by feveral forts, and ftands^
near the fea. E. Long. 3. to. N. Lat. 50. zy.
ECPHRACTICS, in medicine, remedies which at¬
tenuate and remove obftrudlions. See Attendants,
and Deobstruents.
ECTHESIS, in church-hiftory,.a confefiion of faith,
in the form of an edidt, publilhed in the year 639, by
the emperor Heraclius, with a view to pacify the
troubles occafioned by the Eutychian herefy in the
eaftern church. However, the fame prince revoked it,
on being informed that pope Severinus had condemned
it, as favouring the Monothdites; declaring at the
fame time, that Sergius, patriarch of Conftantinople,
was the author of it.
ECTHLIPS1S, among Latin grammarians, a fi¬
gure of profody whereby the m at the end of a word,
when the following word begins with a vowel, is elided,
or cut off, together with the vowel preceding it, for the
fake of the meafure of the verfe: thus they read juult'
tile, for rnultum Me,.
ECTROPIUM, in furgery, is when the eye-lids are
inverted, or retraced, fo that they Ihew their internal or
red furface, and cannot fufficiently cover the eye.
ECTYLOTICS, in pharmacy, remedies proper for
con-
Edipfe
II
Edtropium.
EDI [26
Ecu. confuming callofities.
II , ECU, or Escu, a French crown ; for the value of
Edinburgh, which, fee Money.
EDDISH, or Eadish, the latter pafture, or grafs
that comes after mowing or reapipg; otherwife called
ea'grafs, or earjh, and etch.
EDDOES, or Edders, in botany; the American
iiame of the Arum peregrinum.
EDDY tide, or Eddy water, among feamen, is
where the water runs back contrary to the tide; or
that which hinders the free paffage of the ftream, and
fo caufes it to return again.
Eddy-^F/W is that which returns or is beat back
from a fail, mountain, or any thing that may hinder
its paifage.
EDELINCK (.Gerard), a famous engraver, born
at Antwerp, where he was inftrufted in drawing and
engraving. He fettled at Paris, in the reign of Lewis
XIV. who made him his engraver in ordinary. Ede-
linck was alfo counfellor in the Royal Academy of
Painting., His print of the Holy Family, copied from
Raphael, thofe of Alexander vifiting the family of Da¬
rius, and the Penitent Magdalen, from le Bruq, are
particularly admired. His works are particularly e-
fteemed for the neatnefs of the engraving, the brilliant
call, and the prodigious eafe apparent in the execution;
and to this facility is owing the great number of plates
we have of his, among which are excellent portraits of a
great number of illultrious men of his time. He died
in 1707, in an advanced age, at the Hotel Royal at
the Gobelins, where he had an apartment. He had a
brother named John, who was a fkilful engraver, but
died young.
EDGINGS, in gardening, the feries of fmall but
durable plants, fet round the edges or borders of flower¬
beds,. &c. The belt and moft durable of all plants for
this ufe, is box ; which, if well planted, and rightly
managed, will continue in ftrength and beauty for ma¬
ny years. The feafons for planting this, are the au¬
tumn, and very early in the fpring: and the beft fpe-
cies for this purpofe is the dwarf Dutch box.
Formerly, it was alfo a very common praftice to
plant borders, or edgings, of aromatic herbs; as thyme,
favory, hyflbp, lavender, and the like : but thefe are all
apt to grow woody, and to be in part, or wholly,
deftroyed in hard winters. Daifies, thrift, or fea july-
flower, and chamomile, are alfo ufed by fome for this
purpofe: but they require yearly tranfplanting, and a
great deal of trouble, elfe they grow out of form ; and
they are alfo fubjeft to perifh in very hard feafons.
EDICT, in matters of polity, an order or inftru-
ment, figned and fealed by a prince, to ferve as a law
to his fubjefts. We find frequent mention of the e-
difts of the prcetor, the ordinances of that officer in the
Roman law. In the French law, the edi&s are of fe-
veral kinds: fome importing a new law or regulation ;
others, the ereftion of new offices ; eftablilhments of
duties, rents, &c.; and fometimes articles of pacifica¬
tion. In France, edicts are much the fame as a pro¬
clamation is with us: but with this difference, that the
former have the authority of a law in themfelves, from
the power which iffues them forth; whereas the latter
are only declarations of a law, to which they refer, and
have no power in themfelvas.
EDINBURGH, a city of Mid-Lothian in Scot-
10 ] EDI
land, and capital of the whole kingdom; fituated in EJinbBrjh
W. Long. 30. N. Lat. 56°. —7 ^
The origin of the name of Edinhurgh,\C&s. that of moft Origin of j
other cities, is obfcure and uncertain. Some think it is 1116 name.]
derived from Etfi, fuppofed to be a king of the Pi&s ;
others from Edwin, a Saxon prince of Northumber¬
land, who, about the year 617, over-ran great part of
the Pidtifh territories: others choofe to derive it from
two Gaelic words. Dun Edin, which fignify the face
of a hill.—The name Edinburgh itfelf, however, feems
to have been unknown in the time of the Romans.
The moft ancient title by which we find this city di-
ftinguifhed, is that of Cq/ielh Mynyd /Igned; which, in
the Britifh language, fignifies “ the fortrefs of the hill
of St Agnes.” Afterwards it was named Cajlrutn
Puellarum, becaufe the Pidtifh princeffes were educated
in the caftle (a neceffary protedtion in thofe barbarous
ages) till they were married.—The ages in which thefe
names were given, cannot indeed now be exadlly afcer-
tained ; but the town certainly cannot boaft of very
great antiquity, fmce, as Mr Whittaker informs us,
the celebrated king Arthur fought a battle on the fpot
where it is fituated, towards the end of the fifth cen¬
tury.
The Romans, during the time they held the domi¬
nion of part of this ifland, divided their poffeffions into
fix provinces. The moft northerly of thefe was called
Valentiq, which comprehended all the fpace between %
the walls of Adrian and Severus. Thus, Edinburgh, Time of it$
lying on the very out-fkirts of that province which was foundation '
moft expofed to the ravages of the barbarians, became uncertain. |
perpetually fubjedt to wars and devaftations; by means
of which, the time of its firft foundation cannot now
be gueffed at.
The caftle is certainly very ancient. It continued
in the hands of the Saxons or Englifh from the inva-
fion of Otta and Ebufa in the year 452, till the defeat
of Egfrid king of Northumberland in 685 by the Pidls,
who then repoffeffed themfelves of it. The Saxon
kings of Northumberland reconquered it in the 9th
century, and it was retained by their fucceffors till
the year 956, when it was given up to Indulphus
king of Scotland. In 1093 it was unfuccefsfully be-
fieged by the ufurper Donald Bane. Whether the city
was at that time founded or not, is uncertain. Moft
probably it was : for as protedliop from violence was
neceffary in thofe barbarous ages, the caftle of Edin¬
burgh could not fail of being an inducement to many
people to fettle in its neighbourhood; and thus the
city would gradually be founded, and increafe.—In
1128, king David I. founded the Abbey of Holy-
roodhoufe, for certain canons regular; and granted
them a charter, in which he ftyled the town, Burgo 3
visa de Edwinejburg, “ my borough of Edinburgh.” Caftle fur-
By the fame charter he granted thefe canons 40 ffiil-
lings yearly out of the town revenues; and likewife 48 s
{hillings more, ..from the fame, in cafe of the failure of
certain duties payable from the king’s revenue ; and
likewife one half of the tallow, lard, and hides, of all
the beafts killed in Edinburgh.
In 1174, the caftle of Edinburgh was furrendered to
Henry II. of England, in order to purchafe the liberty '
of king William I. who had been defeated and taken
prifoner by the Englifh. But when William recovered
his liberty, he entered into an alliance 'with Plenry,
and
fdinburof
tcomes
le capital
{ Scotland
Jeftroyed
ly the
Englifh.
EDI [26
l- and fnarried his coufin Ermengarde ; upon which the
' caftle was reftored, as part of the queen’s dower.
In 1215, this city was firft diftinguiihed by having
a parliament and provincial fynod held in"it.— In 1296,
the caftle was befieged and taken by Edward I. of
England; but was recovered from the Englifh in 1313
by Randolph earl of Moray, who was afterwards regent
of Scotland during the minority ofking David II. At
laft: king Robert deftroyed this fortrefs, as well as all
others in Scotland, left they fhould afford fhelter to the
Englifh in any of their after incurfions into Scotland.
—•It lay in ruins for a confiderable number of years;
but was afterwards rebuilt by Edward III. of Eng¬
land, who placed a ftrong garrifon in it. In 1341 it
was retaken by ftratagem, and the Englifh were finally
driven out of the kingdom.
Towards the end of the 14th century, the city of
Edinburgh began to be confidered as the capital of
‘Scotland. King Robert I. in 1329, had bellowed
upon the burgeffes, the town of Edinburgh, with the
harbour and mills of Leith. His great grandfon, John
earl of Garrick, who afterwards affumed the name of
Robert III. conferred on all the burgeffes of Edin¬
burgh the fingular privilege of building houfes to them-
felves within the caftle, without any other limitation
than that they fhould be perfons of good fame.—In
1461, the inhabitants received Henry VI. of England
when exiled, with fuch humanity, that, in requital, he
granted them liberty to trade in all the Englifh ports,
fubjedt only to the duties which were paid by the citi¬
zens of London ; but as Henry was never reftored to
the throne, this grant proved of no ufe.
Till the year 15*42, nothing remarkable occurs in
the hiftory of Edinburgh. At that time a war was
commenced with Henry VIII. of England through
the treachery of cardinal Beaton. An Englifh fleet
of 200 fail entered the Forth; and having landed their
forces, quickly made themfelves mafters of the towns
of Leith and Edinburgh. They next attacked the
caftle, but were repulfed from it with lofs; and by this
they were fo enraged, that they not only deftroyed the
towns of Edinburgh and Leith, but laid wafte the
country for a great way round.—Thefe towns, how¬
ever, fpeedily recovered from their ruinous ftate; and,
in 1547, Leith was again burned by the Englifh after
the battle of Pinkey, but Edinburgh was fpared'.
Several difturbances happened in this capital at the
time of the reformation ; but nothing of confeqtience
till the year 1570.—A civil war had commenced a few
years before, on occafion of queen Mary’s forced refig-
nation. The regent, who was one of the contending
parties, bought the caftle from the perfidious governor
for 5000I. and the priory of Pittenweem. He did
not, however, long enjoy the fruits of this infamous
bargain. Sir William Kirkaldy, the new governor, a
man of great integrity and bravery, declared for the
queen. The city in the mean time was fometimes in
the hands of one party, and fometimes of another; du¬
ring which contentions, the inhabitants, as may ea-
fily be imagined, fuffered extremely. In the year 1570
above-mentioned, queen Elizabeth fent a body of 1000
foot and 300 horfe, under the command of Sir Wil¬
liam Drury, to affift th? king’s party. The caftle was
fummoned to furrender; and feveral flrirmifhes happened
during the fpace of two years, in which a kind of pre-
11 ] EDI
■ datory war was carried- on. At laft a truce was agreed Edmburgli.
on till the month of January 1573 ; and this opportu¬
nity the earl of Morton, now regent, made ufe of to
build two bulwarks acrofs the high-ftreet, nearly op-
pofite to the tolbooth, to defend the city from the fire
of the caftle. 6
On the firft of January, early in the morning, the The cafile
governor began to cannonade the city. Some of the C<1
cannon were pointed againft the. fifti-market; and the t0 1 ien’'
bullets falling among the fifties, fcattered them about
in a furprifing manner ; and even drove them up fo
high in the air, that they fell down upon the tops of
the houfes. This unufual fpeftacle having brought a
number of people out of their houfes, fome* of them were
killed, and others dangeroufly wounded. Some little
time afterwards, feveral houfes were fet on fire by fliot
from the caftle, and burned to the ground; which
greatly enraged the people againft the governor.—A
treaty was at laft concluded between the leaders of the
oppofite fa&ions ; but Kirkaldy refufed to be com¬
prehended in it. The regent therefore folicited the
affiftance of queen Elizabeth, and Sir' William Drury
was again fent into Scotland with 1500 foot, and a
train of artillery. The caftle was now befieged in
form, and batteries raifed againft it in different places.
The governor defended himfelf with great bravery for
33 days; but finding moft of the fortifications demo-
lifhed, the well choaked up with rubbilh, and all fup-
plies of water cut off, he was obliged to furrender.
The Englifh general, in the name of his miftrefs, pro-
mifed him honourable treatment; but the queen of
England fhamefully gave him up to the regent, by
whom he was hanged.
Soon after this, the fpirit of fhnaticifm which fome
how or other fucceeded the reformation, produced vio¬
lent commotions, not only rn Edinburgh, but thro’ the
whole kingdom. The foundation of thefe difturbances,
and indeed of moft others which have ever happened
in Chriftendom on account of religion, was that perni¬
cious maxim of Popery, that the church is independent
of the ftate. It is not to be fuppofed that this maxim
was at all agreeable to the fovereign ; but fuch was the
attachment of the people to the doftrines of the cler¬
gy, that king James found himfelf obliged to com¬
pound matters with them. This, however, anfwered
the purpofe but very indifferently; and at laft fuch fu¬
rious uproars were excited, that the king thought pro- The city
per to declare Edinburgh an unfit place of refidence incurs the
for the court, or the adminiftration of juftice. In con- difplcafure
fequence of this declaration, he commanded the col- yj
lege of juftice, the inferior judges, and the nobility-
and barons, to retire from Edinburgh ; and not to re¬
turn without exprefs licenfe. This unexpe&ed decla¬
ration threw the whole town into confternation, and
brought back the magiftrates and principal inhabitants
to a fenfe of their duty. With the clergymen it was
far otherwife. They railed againft the king in the
moft furious manner; and endeavouring to perfuadethe
people to take up arms, the magiftrates were ordered
to imprifon them ; which, however, they efcaped by
a timely flight. A deputation of the moft refpe&able
burgeffes was then fent to the king at Linlithgow,
with a view to mitigate his refentment. But he refu¬
fed to be pacified ; and, on the laft day of December
1596, entered the town between two rows of his fol-
diem
EDI f 2612 1 EDI
Edinburgh, diers who lined the ftreets, while the citizens were eom-
manded to keep within their houfes. A convention of
the eftates was held in the tolbooth, before whom the
magiftrates made the moft abjeft fubmiffions, but all in
vain. The convention declared one of the late tumults,
in which an attack had been made upon the king’s per-
fon, to be high treafon; and ordained that, if the magi-
Urates did not find out the authors, the city itfelf fhouid
be fubjefled to all the penalties due to that crime. It was
even propofed to raze the town to the foundation, and
ere& a pillar on the fpot where it had flood, as a mo¬
nument of its crimes. The inhabitants were now re¬
duced to the utmofl defpair ; but queen Elizabeth in-
terpofing in behalf of the city, the king thought proper
to abate fomewhat of his rigour. A'criminal profecu-
tion, however, was commenced, and the town coun¬
cil were commanded to appear at Perth by the firft of
February. On their petition, the time for their ap¬
pearance was prolonged to the firft of March; and the
attendance of 13 of tlie common-council was declared
fufficient, provided they had a proper commifiion from
the reft. The trial commenced on the fifth day of
the month ; and one of the number having failed in his
attendance, the caufe was immediately decided againft
the council: they were declared rebels, and their reve-
g nues forfeited.
Received ^or I5 t^ie continued in the utmoft confu-
again into fion ; but at laft, on their earned fupplication, and of-
favour. fering to fubmit entirely to the king’s mercy, the com¬
munity were reftored, on the followingconditions, which
they had formerly proffered : That they fhouid conti¬
nue to make a moft diligept fearch for the authors of
the tumult, in order to bring them to condign punifh-
ment; that none of the feditious minifters fhouid be
allowed to return to their charges, and no others ad¬
mitted without his majefty’s confent; and that in the
eledlion of their magiftrates, they fhouid prefent a lift
of the candidates to the king and his lords of council
and feffion, whom his majefty and their lordfhips might
approve or rejed at pleafure. To thefe conditions, the
king now added fome others; viz. that the houfes
which had been poffeffed by the minifters fhouid be de¬
livered up to the king; and that the clergymen fhouid
afterwards live difperfed through the town, every one
in his own parifh : That the town-council houfe fhouid
be appointed for accommodating the court of exche-
quer ; and that the town fhouid become bound for the
fafety of the lords of fefiion from any attempts of the
burgeffes, under a penalty of 40,000 merks; and laftly,
that the town fhouid immediately pay 20,000 merks to
his majefty.
Upon thefe terms a reconciliation took place. The
king, in a fhort time, fuffered the degraded minifters
to be replaced, and nothing remarkable happened till
the reign of king Charles I. It was in the city of E-
dinburgh that the difturbances about religion commen¬
ced ; which ended not but with the death of that un¬
happy monarch, and the total fubverfion of the Britifh
^ conftitution. Here the covenants were framed, and
the reft of thofe violent and enthufiaftical meafures
concerted, an account of which is given under the ar¬
ticle Britain, n° 76. et feq.
From this time, to the prefent, the hiftory of Edin¬
burgh fcarce affords any thing worthy of notice, except
the remarkable execution of John Porteous, captain of
the city-guard, in 1736. This was conduced in a tu- Edinburgh^
multuous manner, but at the fame with fuch impene- 9 . ;
trable fecrecy as muft render it memorable to the lateft Remark- ;
pofterity. The origin of the whole affair was the exe- a!’le
cution of a fmuggler in the grafs-market. Some di- .^n Por-^
fturbance being raifed on this occafion, captain Porteous cons. A
ordered his men to fire among the mob which ufually
affembles in fuch cafes. By the difcharge of their muf-
kets fix people were killed, and eleven dangeroufly
wounded : and for this offence, Porteous was profe-
cuted at the city’s expence ; and after trial, fentenced
■to die. King George II. happening to be at that
time in Hanover, queen Caroline was regent in his
abfence, who reprieved the criminal. This highly en¬
raged the people ; who, confidering the unprovoked
cruelty of Porteous, (or perhaps for fome other ;ea-
fons), did not think him a proper objedl of meicy.
On the night before that on which his execution (hould
have taken place according to his fentence, a number
of people affembied from different quarters varioufiy
difguifed. They furprifed and difarmed the town-
guard, and tookpoffeffion of the city gates to prevent
the entrance of troops who were quartered in the fub-
urbs. They then proceeded to the prifon ; the doors
of which, being too ftrong to be broke open, they
burnt, and difmiffed all the prifoners, Porteous alone
excepted. The magiftrates endeavoured to difperfe
them ; but they were pelted with ftones, and threaten-
ed to be fired upon. General Moyle was requefted by
the member of parliament for the city, to fend a body
of troops to the afliftance of the magiftrates; but this
he refufed, becaufe no written order could be procured
for that purpofe. In the mean time, Porteous was
condufted to the Grafs -market, near to the place where
the people had been killed: there the ringleaders of
the affair, having broke open a ffiop, and paid for a
coil of ropes, hanged him upon a dyer’s fign-poft; af¬
ter which, the whole body difperfed without committing
any other diforder. r#
This was highly refented, and confidered as an in- Govern-
fult to government. A pardon was promifed to the of- ment high*
fenders provided they would difcover their accompli-
ces ; and a reward of 2001. was offered for every per- ^>unt^ * i
fon fo difcovered : but notwithftanding all the inquiry
that could be made, there hath not, to this day, tran-
fpired the leaft intelligence concerning the matter, nor
even the name of a lingle perfon who had a hand in it.
The vengeance of government then fell upon the ma¬
giftrates of Edinburgh. The lord provoit was taken
into cuftody, and confined almoft three weeks before
he was admitted to bail. He was then ordered to at¬
tend the houfe of lords, along with four bailies of Edin¬
burgh, and three of the lords of judiciary. Thefe laft,
after fome debate, were ordered to attend the bar in
their robeS. The houfe firft took into confidera-
tion the legality of the fentence by which Porteous had
been condemned. Both the fentence of the conrt, and
the verdidl of the jury, were cenfured by fome of the
members, and a motion was made to declare them er¬
roneous ; but, by a majority of voices, both the fen-,
tence and verdift were fully juftified. A bill was then
brought in for imprifoning the provoft of Edinburgh
for a full year, difabling him for ever from bearing
any public office in that city, or any other in Great
Britain; for abolilhing the city-guard, and taking
down
EDI [ 2613 ] EDI
• fdir.burgh, down the gate at the Netherbow-port. This bill paf-
i ■. fed the houfe of lords without any amendment. When
fent down to the houfe of commons, the imprifonment
of the provoft, the abolifhing of the city-guard, and
the taking down of the gate, were left out; and in place
Phedt t^e^e’ a iine 2000 ^ v as impofed on the city, to
jui.ifhed. applied to the ufe of Porteous’s w'idow: and with
this amendment the bill pafftd with the majority of a
fmgle voice.—To prevent fuch cataftrophes in time
coming, the town-council enafted, that, on the firft
appearance of an infurredfion, the chief officers in the
different focieties and corporations fhould repair to the
council, to receive the orders of the magiftrates for the
quelling of the tumult, under penalty of 81. 6 s. 8 d. for
each omifiion.
In 1745, the city was invefted by the Pretender’s
army; and on the 17 th of September, the Netherbow-
gate being opened to let a coach pafs, a party of High-
B landers, who had reached the gate undifcovered, rufh-
Taken by ed in, and took poffeffion of the city. The inhabi-
die High- tantfc were commanded to deliver up their arfns at the
ins'* 'n Pa'ace Holyroodhoufe; a certain quantity of mili-
■ ’ tary {lores were required from the city, under pain of
military execution ; and an affeffment of 2 s. 6 d. upon
the pound was impofed upon the real rents within the
city and liberties, for defraying that expence.
The Pretender’s army guarded all the avenues to the
caftle; but no figns of hoftility enfued till the 25th of
the month, when the garrifon being alarmed from fome
unknown caufe, a number of cannon were difcharged
at the guard placed at the Weft-port, but with very
little effeft. This gave occafion to an order to the
uard at the weigh-houfe, to prevent all intercourfe
etween the city and caftle; and then the governor
acquainted the provoft by letter, that unlefs the com¬
munication was preferred, he would be obliged to dif-
lodge the guard by means of artillery. A deputa¬
tion was next fent to the Pretender; acquainting him
with the danger the city was in, and intreating him to
withdraw the guard.- With this he refufed to comply;
and the Highland centinels firing at fome people who
were carrying provifions into the caftle, a pretty fmart
cannonading enfued, which fet on fire feveral houfes,
killed fome people, and did other damage. The
Pretender then confeuted to difmifs the guard, and the
cannonading ceafed.—After the battle of Culloden,
the provoft of Edinburgh was obliged to ftand a very
long and fevere trial, firft at London and then at Edin¬
burgh, for not defending the city againft the rebels;
which, from the fituation and extent of the walls, every
one muft have feen to be impoffible. At laft, howe¬
ver, he was exculpated; and, fince that time, no other
differences have happened between the government and
magiftrates of Edinburgh.
The rebellion in 1745 put a temporary flop to the
exiftence of the city of Edinburgh as a body corpo¬
rate. The time for elefting magiftrates happened
while the town was in pofleffion of the rebels, fo that
the eleftion could not be held; and thus, for a w’hole
year, Edinburgh was left deftitute of any civil govern-
I4 ment.—Application, however, was made to the king
New magi- f°r reftoring the government. He was gracioufly
rtrates el:o pleafed to grant their rcqncft, and the eleftion of ma-
ted. giftrates proceeded accordingly. The following year
they addreffed his majefty on the fuppreffion of the re¬
bellion, and prefented the duke of Cumberland with Edinburgh,
the freedom of the-city inclofed in a gold box.—Since ~
that time, the city hath remained free from every kind ,
of trouble; hath flourifhed in a remarkable manner; and *
been enlarged and embellilhed with many new and fine
buildings, of which an account is given in the fubfe-
quent defeription. ,j
Edinburgh is fituated upon a deep hill, rifing from Defcriptiois
eaft to weft, and terminating in a high and inacceffible of the
rock, upon which the caftle (lands. At the eaft end town>
or lower extremity of this hill, Hands the abbey of
Hoiyrood-houfe, or king’s palace, diftant from the
caftle upwards of a mile ; and betwixt which, along
the top of the ridge, and almoft in a ftraight line,
runs the high-ftreet. On each fide, and paral¬
lel to this ridge or hill, is another ridge of ground
lower than that in the middle, and which does not ex¬
tend fo far to the eaft; that on the fouth being inter¬
cepted by Saliftjury-rocks, and Arthur’s-feat, a hill of
about 650 feet of perpendicular height; and that on
the north by the Calton-hill, confiderably lower than
Arthur’s-feat: fo that the fituation of this city is moft
fingular and romantic; the eaft or lower part of the
town lying between two hills; and the weft or higher
part riling up towards a third hill, little inferior in
height to the higheft of the other two, upon which,
as has been obferved, the caftle is built, and overlooks
the town.
The buildings of the town terminate at the diftance
of about 200 yards from the caftle-gate ; which fpacc
affords a moft delightful as well as convenient and
healthful walk to the inhabitants. The profpeft from
this fpot is perhaps the fined any where to be met with,
for extent, beauty, and variety.
In the valley or hollow betwixt the mid and fouth
ridge, and nearly parallel to the high-ftreet, is ano¬
ther ftreet called the Cowgate ; and the town has now
extended itfelf over moft part of that fouth ridge alfo.
Betwixt the mid and north ridge was a loch, which, till
of very late, terminated the town on that fide. From
the high-ftreet towards the loch on the north, and Cow-
gate on the fouth, run narrow crofs ftreets or lanes,
called 'wynds and clojbs, which grow deeper and deeper
the farther weft or nearer the caftle; fo that, were it
not for the clofenefs and great height of the build¬
ings, this city, from its fituation and plan, might na¬
turally be expe&ed to be the bed aired, as well as the
cleanlieft, in Europe. The firft, notwiftanding thefe
difadvantages, it enjoys in an eminent degree; but we
cannot compliment it upon the latter, notwithftanding
every poffible means has been ufed by the magiftrates
for that purpofe.
The fteepnefs of the afeent makes the accefs to the
high-ftreet from the north and fouth very difficult;
and has no doubt greatly retarded the enlargement of
this city. To remedy this inconvenience on the north,
and with a view to extend the town on that quarter, a
moft elegant bridge has been thrown ovet the north
loch, which joins the north ridge to the middle of the
high-ftreet, by fo eafy an afeeut as one in fixteen;
and in purfuance of the defign, a plan of a new town
to the north was fixed upon, and has for feveral years
pad been carrying into execution with an elegance and
tafte that does honour to this country.
The gradual inereafe of the city of Edinburgh may
15 E in
Edinburgh
EDI [ 2C14 ] EDI
.■Edinburgh. Jn fome degree be underftood from the traces of its an-
' Ts dent walls that ftill remain. James II. in 1450, firft
Account of beftowed on the community the privilege of fortify-
duaTin t^ie c,ty vv't^1 a vva^> an^ empowered them to levy
treW. " a tax upon the inhabitants for defraying the expence.
When the city was firft fortified, the wall reached no
further than the prefent water-houfe, or refervoir, on
the-caftle-hill: from thence to the foot of Halker-
ftown’s vvynd, juft below the new-bridge, the city was
defended by the north-loch; an inconfiderable morafs,
which, being formerly overflowed, formed a fmall lake,
that hath fince been drained. From this place to
the foot of Leith-wynd, it doth not appear how
the city was fortified, but from the foot of Leith-
wynd to the netherbovv-port, it was defended only
by a range of houfes; and when thefe became ruin¬
ous, a wall was built in their place. The original
wall of Edinburgh, therefore, began at the foot
of the north-eaft rock of the callle. Here it was
ftrengthened by a fmall fortrefs, the ruins of which are
ftill to be feen, and are called the •well-houfe tower,
from their having a fpring in their neighbourhood.
When it came oppoiite to the refervoir, it was carried
quite acrofs the hill, having a gate on the top for ma¬
king a communication between the town and caftle.
In going down the hill, it went flaming in an oblique
direction to the firft angle in going down the weft-
bow; where was a gate named the Upper-bow port, one
of the hooks of which ftill remains. Thence it pro¬
ceeded eaftward in fuch a manner, as would have cut
off not only all the Cowgate, but fome part of thepar-
liament-houfe; and being continued as far as the mint-
clofe, it turned to the north-ealf, and conne&ed itfelf
with the buildings on the north-fide of the high ftreet,
where was the original Aether bow port, about 50
yards weft from that which afterwards went by the
fame name.
Soon after the building of this wall, a new ftreet
was formed on the outfide of it, named the Cowgate,
which in the 16th century became the refidence of the
nobility, the fenators of the college of juftice, and o-
ther perfons of the firft diftinefion. After the fatal
battle of Flowden, however, the inhabitants of the
Cowgate became very anxious to have tbemfelves de¬
fended by a wall as well as the reft. The wall of
the city was therefore extended to its prefent limits.
This new wall begins on the fouth-eaft fide of the
rock on which the caftle is built, and to which the
town-wall comes quite clofe. From thence itdefeends
obliquely to the weft port; then afeends part of a hill
on the other fide, called the High Riggs ; after which,
it runs eaftwards, with but little alteration in its
courfe, to the Brifto and Potter-row ports, and from
thence to the Pleafance. Here it takes a northerly di-
reftion, which it keeps from thence to the Cowgate-
port; after which the inclofure is completed to the
Netherbow by the houfes of St Mary wynd. The
original Netherbow-port being found not well adapted
for defence was pulled down, and a new one built in
1571 by the adherents of queen Mary. In 1606, the
late handfeme building was erected about 50 yards be¬
low the place where the former flood. It was two fto-
ries high, and had an elegant fpire ini the middle; but
being thought to encumber the ftreet, and the whole
building being m a crazy fituation, it was pulled down
by order of the magiftrates in 1764.
In the original wall of Edinburgh there was, as has'
been already obferved, a port on the caitle-hill. On
the extenfion of the wall, after building the houfes.
in the Gowgate, this gate was palled down. That in
the upper or weft bow, flood for a much longer time,
and was pulled down within the memory of tome per¬
fons ftill living. Befides thefe, there was a third, about
50 yards above the head of the Canongate ; but whe¬
ther there were any more, is uncertain. The ports or
gates of the new walls are, 1. The Wejl-port, which is
fituated at the extremity of the Grafs-market; beyond
which lies a fubui'b of the town and a borough of re¬
gality, called Portjborough. Next to this is a wicket,
ftruck out of the town-wall in 1744, for the purpofe
of making an eafier communication between the town
and the public walks in the meadows, than by Brifto-
port. The next to this is Brijio-port, built in 1515 ;
beyond which lies a fuburb called BriJio-Jireet. At a
fmall diftance from Brifto, is the Patter row -port, which
took this name from a manufactory of earthen ware in
the neighbourhood. Formerly it was called Kirk of
Field Port. Between this and the Cowgate port flood
another, called St Mary Wynd Port, which extended
from eaftjio weft acrofs the foot of the Pleafance, and
which was demolifhed only fince the middle of the laft
century.—Clofe to the place where this port was, Hands
the Cowgate-port; which opens a communication be¬
tween the Cowgate and St Mary’s Wynd, and the
Pleafance.—The Nethcrbow-portV^ been already fpoke
of.—At the foot of Leith-wynd was another gate,
known by the name of Leith-wynd port; and within
it was a wicket giving accefs to the church of Trinity
College, and which ftill remains. At the foot of Hal-
kerfton’s-wynd was another, which, as well as the
former, was built about the year 1560. Both were
pulled down fome years ago.—Another ftiil remains at
the foot of the Canongate, known by the name of the
Water-gate.
For 250 years the city of Edinburgh occupied the
fame fpace of ground, and it is but very lately that its
limits have been fo confiderably enlarged. In the
middle of the 16th century, it is deferibed as extending
in length about an Italian mile, and about half as much
in breadth; which anfwers very nearly to its prefent
limits, the late enlargements only excepted.—This fpace
of ground, however, was not at that time occupied in
the manner it is at prefent. The houfes were neither
fo high nor fo crowded upon each other as they are now.
This was a confequence of the number of inhabitants
increafing, which has occafioned the railing of the
houfes to fuch an height as is perhaps not to be paral¬
leled in any other part of the world. Till the time of
the Reformation, the burying ground of the city
extended over all the fpace occupied by the Par-
liament-fquare, and from thence to the Cowgate.
The lands lying to the fouthward of the Cowgate were
chiefly laid out in gardens belonging to the convent of
Black-friars, and the church of St Mary in the Field.
Thefe extended almoft from the Pleafance to the Pot-
terrow-port. From the Brifto to the Weft Port, the
ground was laid out in gardens belonging to the Gray-
friars. The magiftrates, on their application to queen
Mary, obtained a grant of the Gray-friars gardens for a
burying place.; for which it was given as a reafon, that
EDI [ 2615 ] EDI
ilinburgh. they were fomewhat diftant from the town. Here,
however, it muft be underftood, that thefe gardens
were diftant from the houfes, and not without the
walls ; for they had been enclofed by them long be¬
fore.—In the time of James I. the houfes within, the
walls feem to have been in general, if not univerfally,
covered with thatch or broom; and not above 20 feet
high. Even in the year 1621, thefe roofs were fo
common, that they were prohibited by aft of parlia¬
ment, in order to prevent accidents from fire.—In the
middle of the laft century, there were neither courts
nor fquares in Edinburgh. The Parliament clofe or
fquare is the oldeft of this kind in the city. Milne’s
fquare, James’s court, &c. were built long after; and
17 Argyle’s and Brown’s fquares within thefe 30 years.
ewTown. The New Town was projefted in the year 1752 ;
but as the magiftrates could not then procure an
extenfion of the royalty, the execution of the de-
fign was fufpended for fome time. In 1767, an
aft was obtained, by which the royalty was ex¬
tended over the fields to the northward of the city ;
upon which, advertifements were publiflied by the
magiftrates, defiring proper plans to be given in.
Plans were given in accordingly, and that defigned by
Mr James Craig architeft was adopted. Immediately
afterwards, people were invited to purehafe lots from
the town-council ; and fuch as purchafed, became
bound t.o conform to the rules of the plan. In the
mean time, however, the town-council had fecretly re-
ferved to themfelves a privilege of departing from their
own plan; which they afterwards made ufe of in fuch
a manner as produced a law-fuit. According to the
plan held forth to the purchafers, a canal was to be
made through that place where the north-loch had
been, and the bank on the portb fide of it laid out in
terraces: but, inftead of this, by an aft of council, li¬
berty was referved to the town to build upon this fpot;
and therefore, when many gentlemen had built genteel
houfes in the new town, on faith of the plan, they were
furprifed to find the fpot appointed for terraces and a
canal, beginning to be covered with mean irregular
buildings, and work-houfes for tradefmen. This de¬
viation was immediately complained of; but as the ma-
giilrates (hewed no inclination to grant any redrefs, a
profecution was commenced againft them before the
Lords of Seffion. In that court the caufe was given
againft the purfuers, who thereupon appealed to the
Houfe of Lords. Here the fentence of the court of
feffion was reverfed, and the caufe remitted to the con-
fideration of their lordftiips. At laft, after an expen-
five couteft, matters were accommodated. The prin¬
cipal term of accommodation was, that fome part of
the ground was to be laid out in terraces and a canal;
but the time of difpofing it in that manner, was refer¬
red to the lord prefident of the court of feffion and the
lord chief baron of the exchequer.—The fall of the
bridge proved a very confiderable difadvantage to the
new town ; as it neceflarily induced a fufpicion that the
paffage, by means of the bridge, could never be ren¬
dered fafe. An overfight of the magiftrates proved of
more efiential detriment. A piece of ground lay to
the fouthward of the old town, in a fituation very pro¬
per for building. This the magiftrates had an oppor¬
tunity of purchafing for 12001.; which, however, they
negltfted, and it was bought by a private perfon, who
immediately feued it out in lots for building. The Edinburgh,
magiftrates then forefaw the confequence, namely, that
this fpot being free from tire duties to which the roy¬
alty of Edinburgh is fubjeft, people would choofe to
refide there rather than in the new town. Upon this
they offered the purchafer 2000I. for the ground for
which he had paid 12001.; but as he demanded
20,000!. the bargain was not concluded.—Notwith-
ftanding thefe difcouragements, the new town hath
made a very confiderable progrefs ; and from the
advantages of its fituation, and its being built ac¬
cording to a regular plan, it hath undoubtedly a fu-
periority over any city in Britain. By its fituation,
however, it is remarkably expofed to ftorms of wind,
which, at Edinburgh, fometimes rage with uncommon
violence.
The moft remarkable public buildings of Edinburgh
are, 19
1. TTr CaJUe. This (lands on a high rock, acceffible Account of
only on the eaft fide. On all others it is very deep, and Public
in fome places perpendicular. It is about 300 feet high ^ In^s>
from its bale: fothat, before the invention of artillery,
it might well have been deemed impregnable; though
the event (howed that it was not. —The entry to this
fortrefs is defended by an outer barrier of pallifadoes;
within this is a dry ditch, draw-bridge, and gate, defend¬
ed by two batteries which flank it; and the whole is com¬
manded by an half-moon mounted with brafs cannon,
carrying balls of 12 pounds. Beyond thefe are two
gate-ways, the firft of which is very ftrong, and has two
portcullifes. Immediately beyond the fecond gate¬
way, on the right hand, is a battery mounted with
brafs cannon, carrying balls of 12 and 18 pounds
weight. On the north fide are a mortar and fome
gun batteries.—The upper part of the caftle contains
feveral half-moon batteries, a chapel, a parade for exer-
cife, and a number of houfes in the form of a fquare,
which are laid out in barracks for the officers. Be-
fides this there are other barracks, which are able to
contain 1000 men; a powder-magazine bomb-proof;
a grand arfenal, capable of containing 8000 Hand of
arms; and other apartments for the fame ufe, which
can contain 22,000 more: fo that 30,000 (land of
arms may'be conveniently lodged in this caftle.— On
the eaft fide of the fquare above-mentioned, were for¬
merly royal apartments, in one of which king James
VI. was born, and which is dill fhewn to thofe who
vifit the caftle. In another, the regalia of Scotland
w'ere depofned on the 26th of March 1707, and are
faid to be ftill kept there; but they are never fhown
to any body.
The caftle is defended by a company of invalids, and
four or five hundred men belonging to fome marching
regiment, though it can accommodate 1000, as above-
mentioned ; and this number has been fometimes kept
in it. It hath a governor, fort-major, gunner, ftore-
matter, &c. &c.—Its natural (Length of fituation v'as
not able to render it impregnable, even before the
invention of artillery, as we have already obferved.
Much lefs would it be able to fecure it againft the
attacks of a modern army well provided with can¬
non. It could not, in all probability, withftand, even
for a few' hours, a well direfted bombardment; for no
part but the powder-magazine is capable of refitting
thefe deftruftive machines; and the fplinters from the
15 E 2 rock
EDI [26
Edinburgh, rock on w’f'ch the caftle is built, could not fail to ren-
 tier them Hill more formidable. Befides, the water of
the well, which is very bad, and drawn up from a depth
of too feet, is apt to fubfide on the continued difcharge
of artillery, which produces a concuffion in the rock.
2. The palace of Holy rood-houfe is of a quadrangular
form, and bears fome refemblance to that of Hampton
court. In the centre is a court furrounded with pi¬
azzas. The front is two ftories high; the roof flat ;
but at each end the front projects, and is ornamented
with circular towers at the angles. Here the building
is much higher, and the reft of the palace is three fto¬
ries in height. Over the door of the front is a clock
and fmall cupola, the roof of which is an imperial
crown in ftone-work. The north-weft towers were
built by James V. for his own refidence : his name is
Sill to be feen below a nitch in one of thcfe towers. Du¬
ring the minority of queen Mary, this palace was burn¬
ed by the Englifh; but foon after repaired,, and enlar¬
ged beyond its prefent fize. At that time it confrfted
of five courts, the moft wefterly of which was the lar-
geft. It was bounded on the eaft by the front of the pa¬
lace, which occupied the fame fpace it does at prefent;
but the building itfelf extended further to the fouth.
At thenorth-weft corner was a ftrong gate, with Gothic
pillars, arches, and towers, part of which was but late¬
ly pulled down.—Great part of the palace was burnt
by Cromwell’s' foldiers ; but k was repaired, and al¬
tered into the prefent form, after the Reftoration. The
fabric was planned by Sir William Bruce, a celebrated
architeft, and executed by Robert Mylne, mafon.—
The only apartments worthy of notice, are thofe now
pofTefled by the duke of Hamilton, heritable keeper of
the palace. In the fecond floor are queen Mary’s a-
partments ; in one of which her own bed remains. It
is of crimfon damalk, bordered with filk taffels and
fringes, but now almoft reduced to rags. Clofe to the
floor of this room is a piece of wainfcot which hangs
upon hinges, and communicates with a trap-ftair that
goes down into the apartment below. Through this
pafiage the confpirators rufhed in who murdered Da¬
vid Rizzio; and towards the outer door are (hewn
fome large dufky fpots in the floor, faid to be occa-
fioned by his blood, which could not be waflied out.—
The environs of the palace afford an afylum for infol-
vent debtors; and adjoining to it is an extenfive park,
all of which is a fanftuary.
3. Heriot's Hofpital owes its foundation to one
George Heriot a goldfmith, who, in the days of James
VI. acquired by his bufinefs (being goldfmith to
the king and queen) a large fortune. At his death,
he left the magiftrates of Edinburgh 23,625h 10s.
“ for the maintenance, relief, and bringing up of fo
many poor and fatherlefs boys, freemens fbns of the
town of Edinburgh,” as the above fum (hould be fuffi-
cient for. This hofpital is finely fituated on the weft
end of the fouth ridge, almoft oppofite to the caftle,
and is perhaps the moft magnificent building of the
(6 ] EDI
kind in Edinburgh. It was founded in July 1628, Edinburgh,
according to a plan (as is reported) of Inigo Jones
but the work being interrupted by the civil wars, it
was not finifhed till the year 1650, The expence of the
building is faid to have been upwards of 30,000!.*: and
the hofpital is dill poflefled of an income of about 1800I.
a-year; though this cannot be abfolutely afcertained, as
the rents are paid in grain, and of courfe muft be fluc¬
tuating,—When Cromwell took pofieflion of Edin¬
burgh after the battle of Dunbar, he quartered hisfick
and wounded-foldiers in this hofpital. It was applied
to the fame purpofe till the year 1658, when general
Monk, at the requeft of.the governors, removed the
foldiers; and on the 11th of April 1659, it was open¬
ed for the reception of boys, 30 of whom were admit¬
ted into it. The Auguft after, they were increafed to
40; and in 1661, to 52. In 1753 they were raifed
to 130, and in 1763 to 140; but the number has finer
that time decreafed.—In this hofpital the boys are in-
ftruiled in reading, writing", arithmetic, and a know¬
ledge of the Latin tongue. Witfi fuch as chufe to
follow any kind of trade, an apprentice-fee of 30I. is
given when they leave the hofpital ; and thofe who
chufe an academical education, have an annuity of 10L
a-year beftowed on them for four years.
4. Watfon's Hofpital is an inftitution of the fame
kind with Heriot’s ; but the building is much lefs
magnificent. The funds are alfo lefs. They were in
all 12,000]. left by George Watfon in 1723 for en¬
dowing an hofpital; which, however, was not carried
into execution till the year 1738, when the above-
mentioned fum, with the intereft accumulated during-
that time, amounted to 20,0001, About 60 boys are
at prefent educated in Watfon’s hofpital. Gn their be¬
ing put out apprentices, 20I. of apprentice-fee is paid
with them ; or if they chufe to go to college, they re¬
ceive 10I. for five years. On their attaining the age
of 25 years, if they have behaved properly, and not
contra&ed marriage without con fen t of the governors,,
they receive a bounty of 501.. T.he funds of this hof¬
pital amount to 1700I. a-year.
5. The Orphan Hofpital was planned in 1732 by
Andrew Gairdner merchant, and other inhabitants.
It was promoted by the fociety for propagating Chri-
ftian knowledge, by other focieties, voluntary fub-
feriptions, and a-collection at the church-doors. — In
1733, the managers hired a houfe, took in 30 orphans,
maintained them, gave them inftruCtions in read¬
ing and writing, and taught them the weaving bufi¬
nefs. In 1735, they were ereCted into a body corpo¬
rate by the town of Edinburgh: and, in 1742, ob¬
tained a charter of ereCtion from his late majefty, ap¬
pointing moft of the great officers of Hate in Scotland,
and the heads of the different focieties in Edinburgh,
members of this corporation; with powers to them to
hold real property to the amount of 10001. a-year.
The revenue is inconfiderable; but the inftitution is
fupported by the contributions of charitable perfons.
It is to be obferved, that money then bore rol. per cent, intereft.—The above fums are taken from Mr Arnot’s
Hiftory of Edinburgh, who fubjoins the following note. “ Where Maitland had collected his moft erroneous ac-
‘‘ count of George Heriot’s effects, we do not know. He makes the fum received, out of Heriot’s efteCts, by the go-
^ vernors of the hofpital, to be 47,608!. n s. 3d. being almoft the double of what they really got. This blunder has
,, been tbe caufe of many unjuft murmurings againft the magiftrates of Edinburgh, and even the means of Ibiritinc -
“ i?P law-fuits againft them,”
EDI [ 2617 ] EDI
nburgh. and colle£ions at the church-doors. Into this hofpital
orphans are received from any part of the kingdom.
None are admitted under feven, nor continued in it
after 14, years of age. About 100 orphans are main¬
tained in it.
6. The Merchants Maiden Hofpital was eftabliflied
by voluntary contribution about the end of the laft cen¬
tury, for the maintenance of young girls, daughters of
the merchants burgefles of Edinburgh. The gover¬
nors were ere&ed into a body corporate, by adt of par¬
liament, in 1707. The annual revenue amounts to
1350I. Seventy girls are maintained in it; who, up¬
on leaving the houfe, receive 3I. 6s. 8d. excepting
a few who are allowed 81. 6 s. 8d. out of the funds of
the hofpital. The profits arifing from work done in
the houfe are alfo divided among the girls, according
to their induftry.
7. The Trades Maiden Hofpital was founded in the
year 1704 by the incorporations of Edinburgh, for the
maintenance of the daughters of decayed members, on
a plan fimilar to that of the merchants hofpital. To
this, as well as to the former, one Mrs Mary .Erikine,
a widow gentlewoman, contributed fo liberally, that
fhe was by the governors ftyled joint fouudrefs of the
hofpital. Fifty girls are maintained in the houfe, who
pay of entry-money il. 133. 4d.; and, when they
leave it, receive a bounty of 5I. us. i.^-d. The re¬
venues are eftimated at 6001. a-year.
8. The Trinity Hofpital. This was originally found¬
ed and amply endowed by king James IPs queen. At
the Reformation, it was dripped of its revenues; but
the regent afterwards bellowed them on the provoftof
Edinburgh, who gave them to the citizens for the ufe
of the poor. In 1585, the town-council purchafed
from Robert Pont, at that time provoit of Trinity col¬
lege, his intereft in thefe fubjedls ; and the tranfadliou
was afterwards ratified by James VI. The hofpital was
then repaired, and appointed for the reception of poor
old burgeffes, their wives, and unmarried children, not
under 50 years of age. In the year 1700, this hof¬
pital maintained 54 perfons; but, fiuce that time, the
number has decreafed.—The revenue confills in a
real eftate of lands and houfes, the grofs rent of which
is 7621. a-year; and 5500]. lent out in bonds at 4 per
cent.
Befides thefe charitable inilitutions, there are alfo
three charity work-houfes ; one belonging to the town,
another to the Canongate, and the third to the Weft-
kirk parilh. They maintain, in all, about 900 men,
women, and children. -
9. The Royal'Infinnary was firft thought of by the
college of phyficians in 1 725. A fifhing company hap¬
pening to be diffolved at that time, the partners con¬
tributed feme of their Hock towards the eftablilhment
of the infirmary. A fubfeription was alfo fet on foot,
and application made to the general affembly to recom¬
mend the fame throughout their jurifdidlion. This was
readily complied with, and the aflembly palled an aft
for that purpofe; but very little regard was paid to it
by the clergy. NotwithHanding this, however, 2000I.
being procured, a final! houfe was opened for the recep¬
tion of the fick poor in Auguft 1729. In 1736, the
sontributors towards the infirmary were erefted into a
body corporate by royal ftatute; and after this the
contributions increafed very confiderably: by which
means, the managers were enabled to enlarge their Edinburgh,
fcheme from time to time; and at laft to undertake :
the prefent magnificent ftrufture, the foundation of
which was laid in 1738. During 25 years, when
this inftitution was in its infancy, Lord Hopetoun be¬
llowed upon it an annuity of 4001. In 1750, Doftor
Archibald Ker bequeathed to this corporation an ellate
of 200I. a-year in the ifland of Jamaica. In 1755,
the lords of the treafury made a donation to it of 80001.
which had been appointed for the fupport of invalids.
In return for this, the managers of the infirmary con-
ftantly keep 60 beds in readinefs for the reception of
fick foldiers. This year alfd fick fervants began to be
admitted into the infirmary, and a ward was fitted up
for their reception.
This inftitntion, however, was more indebted to
George Drummond, Efq; than to any other perfon. He
was feven times chofen lord provoft of Edinburgh, and
always direfted bis attention to the improvement of
the city, particularly to that of the royal infirmary.
So fenlible were the managers of their obligations to
him, that, in their hall, they erefted a bull of him with
this infeription, “ George Drummond, to whom this
country is indebted for all the benefit which it derives
from the Royal Infirmary.”—In 1748, the flock of
the infirmary amounted 105000!.; in 1755, 107076!.
befides the eftate left by Doftor Ker; in 1764, to
23,426!.; and in 1778, to 27,0741.,
The royal infirmary is attended by two phyficians
chofen by the managers, who vifit their patients daily
in prefence of the Undents. All the members of the
college of furgeons are alfo obliged to attend in rota¬
tion, according to feniority. If any furgeon declines
attendance, he is not allowed to appoint a depute; but
the patients are committed to the care of one of four
afliftant furgeons, chofen annually by the managers 
From the year 1762 to 1769, there were admitted 6261
patients; which number added to 109 who were in the
hofpital at the commencement of the year 1762, made,
in all, 6370. Of thefe, 4394 were cured; 358 died;
the reft were either relieved, difmifTed incurable, for
irregularities, or by their own defire, or remained in the
hofpital.—From ij-’o to 1775, the patients annually
admittedinto the infirmary w'ere, at an average, 1567 ;
of whom 63 died. In 1776, there were admitted 1668,
of whom 57 died ; and in 1777, the number admitted
was 1593, and of deaths 52.
d he building confifts of a body and two wings, each
of them three flories high, with an attic flory and gar¬
rets, and a very elegant front. The body is 210 feet
long, and 36‘broadin the middle, but at the ends only
24 ftet broad. The wings are 70 feet long, and 24
broad. In the centre is a large flair-cafe, fo wide that
fedan chairs may be carried up. In the different
wards, 228 patients may be accommodated, each in a
different bed. There are cold and hot baths for the _
patients, and alfo for the citizens; and to thefe laft the ’
patients are never admitted.
_ 10. The Bridge. The firft ftone of this building was
laid by provoil Drummond in 1763 ; but the contraft
for building it W'as not figned till Auguft 21 ft 1765.
The architeft was Mr William Mylne, who agreed with
the town-council ,of Edinburgh to finifh the work for
10,140!. and to uphold it for 10 years. It was alfo
to be finiihed before Martinmas 1769; but, on the 3d
EDI [ 2618 ] EDI
Edinburgh, of Auguft; that year, when the work was nearly com- The front of the building direftly faces the bridge, Edinburgh, j
pleted, the vaults and fide-walls on the'fouth fell down, extends from eaft to weft 200 feet, and is 40 feet back  
and five people were buried in the ruins. This misfor-' from the line of Prince’s-ftreet. In the middle of the
tune was occafioned by the foundation having been laid, front is a fmall proje&ion of three windows in breadth,
not upon the folid earth, but upon the rubbifh of the Here is a pediment, having in its centre the arms of
houfes which had long before been built on the north Great Britain, and the whole is fupported by four Co-
fide of the high ftreet, and which had been thrown out rinthian pilafters. At each end is a tower projecting
into the hollow to the northward. Of this rubbiih, beyond the reft of the building, having a Venetian
there were no lefs than eight feet between the founda- window in front, and a cupola on the top. The front is
tion of the bridge and the folid earth. Befides this ornamented from end to end with a beautiful Corin-
deficiency in the foundation, an immenfe load of earth thian entablature. In the centre of the building is a
which had been laid over the vaults and arches in order dome of wooden work covered with lead. The infide
to raife the bridge to a proper level, had no doubt con- forms a faloon 50 feet diameter, and 80 high, lighted
tributed to produce ihe cataftrophe above-mentioned, at top by a copper window 15 feet in diameter. The
—Thebridge was repaired, by pulling down fome parts whole number of apartments is 97 ; all of which are
of the fide-walls, and afterwards rebuilding them ; vaulted beneath, and warmed with fire-places. The
ftrengthening them in others with chain-bars; remo- building is executed according to a plan of Mr A-
ving the quantity of earth laid upon the vaults, and dams architect; and when finilhed, may vie with any
fupplying its place witli hollow arches, &c. The whole modern building whatfoever. The whole expence is
was fupported at the fouth end by very itrong buttref- eftimated at 25,0001.
fes and counterforts on each fide ; but on the north it 12. Tie Theatre. Entertainments of the dramatic
has only a fingle fupport. —The whole length of the kind came very early into falhion in this country. They
bridge, from the High-ftreetin the Old Town, toPrin- were at firft only reprefentations of religious fubjeCls,
ue’s-tlreet in the New, is 1125 feet; the total length of and peculiarly defigned to advance the interefts of re-
the piers and arches is 310 feet. The width of the three ligion ; the clergy being the compofers, and Sun-
great arches, is 72 feet each; the piers 13 feet and an day the principal time of exhibition. In the fix-
half; the fmall arches, each 20 feet. The height of teenth century, the number of play-houfes was fo
the great arches, from the top of the parapet to the great, that it was complained of as a nuifance, not only
bafe, 68 feet; the breadth of the bridge within wall in Edinburgh, but throughout the kingdom. They
over the arches, 40 feet; and the breadth at each end, foon degenerated from their original inftitution; and
50 feet. the plays, inftead of being calculated to infpire devo¬
ir. The Regijler Office. This work was firft fug- tion, became filled with all manner of buffoonery and
fjefted by the late earl of Morton, lord-regifter of Scot- indecency.;—After the reformation, the prefbyterian
and, with a view to prevent the danger which attended clergy complained of thefe indecencies; and being ac-
the ufual method of keeping the public records. In tuated by a fpirit of violent zeal, anathematifed every
former times, indeed, thefe fuffered from a variety of kind of theatrical reprefentation whatever. King James
accidents. Edward I. carried off or deftroyed moft of VI. compelled them to pafs from their cenfures againft
them, in order to prevent any marks of the former in- the ftage; but, in the time of Charles I. when fana-
dependency of the nation from remaining to pofterity. ticifm was carried to the utmoft length at which perhaps
Afterwards Cromwell fpoiled this nation of its re- it was poffible for it to arrive, it cannot be fuppofed that
cords, moft of which were fent to the tower of Lon- ftage-plays would be tolerated. On the Reftoration,
don. At the time of the Reftoration, many of them when people were ready to fall into the other extreme,
were fent down again by fea ; but one of the veffels ftage-plays were not only revived, but many improve-
was ftupwrecked, and the records brought by the ments made, among which that of introducing women
other have ever fince been left in the greateft confu- on the ftage was none of the leaft.—It feems, however,
fion.—The earl of Morton, taking this into confidera- that amufements of this kind were again introduced at
tion, obtained from his majefty a grant of i2,oooh Edinburgh about the year 1684, when the duke of
out of the forfeited eftates, for the purpofe of building York kept his court there. His refidence at E-
a regifter-office, or houfe for keeping the records, and dinburgh drew off one half of the London company,
difpofing them in proper order. The foundation was and plays were afted in Edinburgh for fome little time,
laid on the 27th of June 1774, by Lord Frederic The misfortunes attending the duke of York, however,
Campbell, lord-regifter; Mr Montgomery of Stanhope, and the eftablilhment of the prefbyterian religion (the
lord advocate ; and Mr Miller of Barlkimming, lord genius of which is unfavourable to amufements of this
juftice-clerk; three of the truftees appointed by his ma- kind), foon put a flop to the progrefs of the ftage, and
jefty for executing the work. The ceremony was per- no theatrical exhibiton was heard of in Edinburgh till
formed under a difcharge of artillery, in prefence*of after the year 1715. The firft adventurer was Signora
the judges of the courts of feffion and exchequer, and Violante, an Italian, remarkable for feats of ftrength,
in the fight of a multitude of fpeftators. A brafs plate tumbling, &c. In this way fhe firft exhibited in a
was put into the foundation-ftone, with the following houfe at the foot of Carrubber’s clofe, which has fince
infcription : Conservakdis Tabulis Publicis po- been employed by different feclaries for religious pur-
situm est, anno m dcc lxxiv, munificentia op- pofes. Meeting with good fuccefs, fhe foon invited a
timi et pientissimi principis Georgii Tertii. company of comedians from London ; and thefe being
In a glafs vafe hermetically fealed, which is alfo placed alfo well received, Edinburgh continued for fome years
in the foundation-ftone, are depofited fpecimens of the to be entertained with the performances of a ftrolling
different coins of his prefent majefty. company, who vifited it annually. Becoming at laft,
however.
E D I
tdthburgfc. however, obnoxious to the clergy, they were, in 1727,
prohibited by the magiftrates from afting within their
jurifdi&ion. But this interdict was fufpended bythecourt
of feffion, and the players continued to perform as ufual.
Still, however, theatrical entertainments were but
rare. The town Was vifited by itinerant companies
only once in two or three years. They performed in
the Taylor’s hall in the Cowgate; which, when the
houfe was full, would have drawn (at the rate of zs.
6d. for pit and boxes, and rs. 6d. for the gallery)
40I. or 451. a night. About this time an a& of par¬
liament was palled, prohibiting the exhibition of plays,
except in a houfe licenfed by the king. Of this the
prelbytery of Edinburgh immediately l*aid hold ; and at
their own expence brought an aftion on the llatute
again!! the players. The caufe was, by the court of
fefiion, decided again!! the players; who thereupon
applied to parliament for a bill to enable his majefty to
licenfe a theatre in Edinburgh. Again!! this bill, pe¬
titions were prefented, in 1739, to the houfe of com¬
mons, by the magiftrates and town-council, the princi¬
pal and profeflbrs of the univerfity, and the dean of
guild and his council; in confequence of which, the af¬
fair was dropped. All this oppofition, however, con¬
tributed in reality to the fuccefs of the players ; for the
fpirit of party being excited, a way of evading the ad!
was eafily found out, and the houfe was frequented
more than ufual, infomuch that Taylor’s-hall was found
mfufficient to contain the number of fpedfators.
The comedians now fell out among themfelves, and
a new play-houfe was erefted in the Canongate in the
year 1746. The confequence of this was, that the old
one in Taylor’s-hall became entirely deferted, and
through bad condud! the managers of the new theatre
fbon found themfelves greatly involved : at lall, a
riot enfuin’g, through difTenfions among the performers,
the play-houfe was totally demolilhed—When the ex-
tenfion of the royalty, over the fpot where the new
town is built, was obtained, a claufe was likewife added
to the bill, enabling his majefty to licenfe a theatre in
Edinburgh. ' This was obtained, and thus the oppoli-
tion of the clergy for ever filenced : but the fuccefs of
the theatre has not been great;-nor is it at prefent on
a refpedfable footing, moftly owing to the embarafled
eircumftances of the managers; who, paying no lefs
than 500 guineas per annum to Mr Rofs the patentee,
are unable to decorate the theatre as it ought to be,
to retain good adtors, or to provide a fuitable ward¬
robe.—The Edinburgh theatre, internally, is fimple,
commodious, and elegant: externally, it hath neither
beauty nor elegance; and is fituated in fuch a manner
as to obftrud! the view of the regirtev-office, which is,
without exception, the handfomelt building about E-
dinburgh.
13. The Concert-Hall \s fituated in Niddry’s-wynd,
a centrical part of the town, and was built in 1762.
The plan was drawn by Sir Robert Mylne (architect
of Blackfriars bridge), after the model of the great
opera theatre at Parma. The muiical room is of an
oval form, the ceiling being a concave elliptical dome,
lighted from the top by a lanthorn. The feats are
ranged in the form of an amphitheatre ; and are capable
of containing 500 perfons, befides leaving a large area
in the middle of the room. The orcheftra is at the
upper end, and is terminated by an elegant organ.
E D I
The mufical fociety was- firft inftituted in the year Edinburg
1728. Before that time, feveral gentlemen had formed
a weekly club at a tavern kept by one Steil, a great
lover of mufic, and a good finger of Scots fongs. Here
the common entertainment confifted in playing on the
harpfichord and violin the concertos and fonatas of
Handel, juft then publiihed—The meeting, however,
foon becoming numerous, they inftituted, in the year
above-mentioned, a fociety of 70 members, for the
purpofe.of holding a weekly concert. The affairs of
the fociety are regulated by a governor, deputy-go¬
vernor, treafurer, and five directors, who are annually
chofen by the members. The meetings have been
continued ever fince that time on much the fame foot¬
ing as at firft, and the number of members is now in-
creafed to 200.
14. The Church of St Giles is a beautiful Gothic
building, meafuring in length 206 feet. At the weft
end, its breadth is no; in the middle, 129; and at the
eaft end, 76 feet. It has a very elevated fituation, and
is adorned with a lofty fquare tower, encircled at top
with ornaments of open figured ftone-work, like thofe
that adorn the circlet of an imperial crown. From the
fides and corners of the tower, rife arches of ftone-
work; which, meeting with each other in the middle,
complete the figure of an imperial crown, the top of
which terminates in a pointed fpire. The whole height
of this tower is 161 feet.
This is the mot! ancient church in Edinburgh. From
a paffage in an old author called Simeon Dunelmenfs,
fome conjediure it to have been built before the year
854; but we do not find exprefs mention made of it
before 1359. The tutelar faint of this church, and of
Edinburgh, was St Giles, a native of Greece. He
lived in the fixth century, and was defeended of an il-
luftrious family. On the death of of his parents, he
gave all his eftate to the poor; and travelled into
France, where he retired into a wildernefs near the
conflux of the Rhone with the fea, and continued there
three years. Having obtained the reputation of ex¬
traordinary fandlity, various miracles were attributed
to him ; and he founded a monaftery in Languedoc,
known long after by the name of St Gileses.- —In the
reign of James II. Mr Prefton of Gorton, a gentleman
whofe defeendents Hill poffefs an eftate in the county
of Edinburgh, got poffeflion of the-arm of this faint;
and the relique he bequeathed to the church of Edin¬
burgh. In gratitude for this donation, the magiftrates
granted a charter in favour of Mr Prefton’s heirs, by
which tlie neareft heir of the name of Prefton was en¬
titled to carry it in all proceffions. At the fame
time, the magiftrates obliged themfelves to found
an altar in the church of St Giles’s, and appoint a
chaplain for celebrating an annual mafs for the foul of
Mr Prefton ; and likewife, that a tablet, containing
his arms, and an account of his pious donation, ftiould
be put up in the chapel.---St Giles’s was firft; fimply a
pari!h-church,of which thebiftiop of Lindisfarn, or Ho¬
ly Ifland, in the county of Northumberland, was pa¬
tron. He was fucceeded in the patronage by the ab¬
bot and canons of Dunfermline, and they by the ma¬
giftrates of Edinburgh. In 1466, it was ere&ed into
a collegiate church by James III.---At the Reforma¬
tion, the church was, for the greater convenience, di¬
vided into feveral parts. The four principal ones are
appro-
[ 2619 ]
E D I
[ 2620 ]
E D I
Edinburgh, appropriated to divine worfhip, the leffer ones to other
purpofes. The chief of thefe divifions is called the
New Church. In it are the king’s feat, thofe of the
provofl and magiftrates, &c. At the fame time alfo, the
religious utenfils belonging to this church were feized
by the magiftrates. They were,—St Giles’s arm, en-
fhrined in filver, weighing five pounds three-ounces and
an half; a filver chalice, or communion-cup, weighing
23 ounces; the great euchariji or communion cup,
with golden weike andJlones ; two cruets of 2$ ounces;
a golden bell, with a heart of four ounces and a half;
a golden unicorn ; a golden pix, to keep the hoft ; a
fmall golden heart, with two pearls; a diamond ring;
a filver chalice, patine, and fpoop, of 32 ounces and a
half; a communion table-cloth of gold brocade; Sf
Giles's coat, with a little piece of red velvet which
hung at his feet; a round filver eucharij},; two filver
cenfers, of three pounds fifteen ounces; a filver fhip for
incenfe; a large filver crofs, with its bafe, weighing
fixteen pounds thirteen ounces and a half; a triangular
lilver lamp; two filver candlefticks, of feven pounds three
ounces; other two, of eight pounds thirteen ounces; a
filver chalice gilt, of zoi ounces; a filver chalice and
crofs, of 75 ounces ; befides the priefts robes, and
other veftments, of gold brocade, crimfon velvet em¬
broidered with gold, and green damaflc.-—Thefe were
all fold, and part of the money applied to the re¬
pairs of the church; the reft was added to the
lunds of the corporation.---The other prefbyterian
churches in Edinburgh are, theTrinity-college church;
the Old and New Gray-friars; the Tron-church ;
Lady Yefter’s ; Canongate; St Cuthbert’s; Chapel
of Eafe; Lady Glenorchy’s; and the Earfe church.
15. The Englijh Chapel. This building ftands near
the Cowgate-port, and was begun on the 3d of A-
pril 1771. The foundation-ftone was laid by ge¬
neral Oughton, with the following infcription : “ E-
“ dificii facr. Ecclefias Epifc. Anglise, primum pofu-
“ it lapidem, J. Adolphus Oughton, in architettoni-
“ cae Scotiae repub. Curio maximus, militum praefec-
“ tus, regnante Georgio III. tertio Apr. die A. E).
“ MDCC LXXI.”---It is a plain, handfome building,
neatly fitted up in the infide, and refembling in form
the church of St Martin’s in the Fields, London.
It is 90 feet long, 75 broad, and ornamented with a
neat fpire of a confiderable height. The fpire is fur-
nifhed with an excellent bell, formerly belonging to
the chapel-royal at Holyrood-houfe. This is permit-
t ted to be rung for aflembling the congregation ; an in¬
dulgence which is not granted to the prefbyterians in
England. This building has already coft 60001. be¬
fides 800I. for the area : It ftill wants two porticoes ;
one of which, on the fouth, is meant to conlift of lofty
Corinthian pillars, fupporting a pediment; and the ex-
pences of thefe are eftimated at 1000I. more.
Befides the above-mentioned places appointed for
religious worfhip, there were formerly a number of
others, which are now either difufed, or entirely ruin¬
ed. The principal of thefe are,
16. Church of St Mary in the field, and Monaftery
of Black-friars.---TViz church of St Mary was a large
handfome building, in which a provoftandten preben¬
daries officiated. It is probable, that both the church
and convent were founded in the reign of Alexander II.
in 1230. The convent was built almoft on the fame
fpot where the high-fchool ftands at prefeht. The Ed'mburgh.'l
church flood where the college does now. The con- 
vent and church, with the houfes of the provoft and
prebendaries, occupied almoft all the fpace between the
■Cowgate and Potterrow. The lane, now called Black-
friar's wynd, was alfo the property of thefe ecclefia-
ftics, and took its name from them. The monaftery
was burned down in 1528, but was rebuilt at the Re¬
formation ; foon after which, the ecclefiaftics were ftrip-
ped of all their poffeffions. The magiftrates obtained
them from James VI.; and were alfo impowered todif-
pofe of them, and apply the feu-duties towards building
and endowing an hofpital at Trinity-college church.
The lands formerly belonging to this church of St Mary,
and monaftery of Black-friars, are now chiefly occupied
by the college, high-fchool, church of Lady Yefter,
royal infirmary, and furgeons-hall.
17. St Mary's Chapel. This chapel was founded
by Elizabeth countefsof Rofs in 1505, and ftands near
the middle of Niddry’s wynd. It was dedicated “ To
God, and the Virgin Mary his mother.” About the
year 1600, one Chalmers, a macer before the court of
feffioh, acquired a right to this chapel; and, in 16x8,
the corporations of wrights and mafons, now known by
the name of the “ United Incorporations of Mary’s
Chapel,” purchafed the fubjedl which they ftill poflefs,
and where they hold the meetings of the corporations.
18. Hofpital of our Lady. This was founded,
near the foot of Leith wynd, in 1479, by Thomas
Spens biftiop of Aberdeen, for the maintenance of
12 poor men. Thefe poor men, however, muft cer¬
tainly have been maintained by the contributions
of the public; for the rents with which the hofpi¬
tal was endowed, did not exceed 12I. fterling. At
the Reformation, the town-council of Edinburgh be¬
came proprietors of this hofpital. In 1619, it was
converted into a work-houfe, and had *the name of
Paul's work beftowed upon it, which name it ftill re¬
tains.---At the fame time, the council brought five
men from Holland to inftruft indigent boys and girls
in the manufa&ure of coarfe woollen fluffs. The ma-
nufatture, however, did not fucceed ; upon which it
was converted- into a corre£lion-houfe. At laft it was
fold to one Mr M‘Dowal, who carries on in it a eonfi- '
derable manufafture of broad cloths.
19. St Thomas's Hofpital was founded by George
Creichton biftiop of Dunkeld, in the reign of James V.
The building joined immediately to the Water-gate
upon the weft. It was dedicated to God, the Virgin
Mary, and all the faints. Among the charitable pur-
ppfes for which it was inftituted, one was. That
prayers might be laid in it for the foul of the founder,
and of the king of the Scots, as well as fome other per-
fons mentioned in the inftitution. The patronage was
veiled in the founder himfelf, and a certain number of
his heirs named by him. In 1617, the hofpital was dif-
pofed of by the chaplains and beadfmen, with confent
of the patron, to the bailies of'the Canongate, to be
ufed as an hofpital for the poor of that diftridt. In
1634, the patronage was fold to the kirk-feffion; but
ftill with a view to the fame charitable purpofes. By
degrees, the revenues of it came to be entirely embez¬
zled. In 1747, the building was converted into coach-
houfes; and, in 1778, having become ruinous, it was
entirely pulled down, and rebuilt as private houfes.
20. Mo-
E D I
nburgh. 20. Monnjlcry of St Catherine of Sienna. This lay
on the fouth fide of the meadows, and was founded by
lady St Clair of Roflin. It was a monaftery of Domi¬
nican nuns; but, at the Reformation, the magiftrates
feiaed the revenues of the monaftery, and cruelly turned
out the poor women to the wide world ; nor would they,
till compelled by queen Mary, allow them the fmalleft
fubfiftence even out of their own funds. The. neigh¬
bourhood of this monaftery is now called the Sheens ;
probably a corruption of the word Sienna.
21. Chapels of St Leonards, and St Mary of Pla¬
centia. The firft of thefe flood on the call fide of the
road to Dalkeith. The lands belonging to it were,
by king James VI. granted to the magiftrates of the
Canongate for the fupport of Thomas’s hofpital. The
land in its neighbourhood ftill bears the name of St
Leonard's hill. A part of it belongs to the quakers,
who ufe it for a burying ground; another part is ufed
for burying children who have died without baptifm,
and perfons who have put an end to their own life—
Nigher to the city, at a fmall diftance from the fouth-
eaft angle of the town-wall, flood a priory of nuns de¬
dicated to St Mary of Placentia. This flreet ftill bears
the name of the P leaf ants, or Pleafance; probably
v corrupted from Placentia.
22. Monajlery of Holy-rood Houfe. This was founded
by king David I. in 1128, and called Holy-rood Houfe,
in memory, as is faid, of his deliverance from an en¬
raged hart, by the miraculous interpofition of a crofs
from heaven. This mbnaftery he gave to the canons
regular'of St Auguftine; on whom he alfo bellowed
the church of Edinburgh caftle, with thofe of St Cuth-
bert’s, Corflorphin, and Libberton,.in the fhire of Mid-
Lothian, and of Airth in Stirlingfhire; the prio¬
ries of St Mary’s ifle in Galloway, of Blantyre in
Clydefdale, of Rowadill in Rofs, and three others in
the Weftern Ifles. To them he alfo granted the pri¬
vilege of erecting a borough between the town of E-
dinburgh and the church of Holy-rood Houfe. From
thefe canons it had the name of the Canongate, which
it ftill retains. In this new borough they had a right
to hold markets. They had alfo portions of land in
different parts, with a moll extenfive jurifdiftion, and
right of trial by duel, and fire and water ordeal. They
had alfo certain revenues payable out of the exchequer,
and out of other funds, with fifhings, and the privilege
of ere&ing mills on the water of Leith, which ftill re¬
tain the name of Canon-mills. Other grants and pri¬
vileges were beftowed by fucceeding fovereigns ; fo
that it was deemed the richeft religious foundation in
Scotland. At the Reformation, its annual revenues
were, 442 bolls of wheat, 640 bolls of bear, 560 bolls
of oats, 500 capons, two dozen of hens, as many fal-
mon, :i 2 loads of fait; befides a great number of fwine,
and about 2501. fterling in money. At the Reformation,
the fuperiority of North Leith, part of the Pleafance,
the barony of Broughton, and the Canongate, w.as
veiled in the earl of Roxburgh ; and were purchafed
from him by the town-council of Edinburgh in 1636.
In 1544, the church fuffered confiderably by the iuva-
fion of the Englilh ; but was fpeedily repaired. At
the Reftoration, king Charles II. ordered the church
to be fet apart as a chapel-royal, and prohibited its ufe
as a common parilh-church for the future. It was
then fitted .up in a very elegant manner. A throne
Vot. IV.
E D I
was ere&ed for the Sovereign, and 12 Halls for the E'hfdws11 •
knights of the order of the thiftle ; but as mafs had ‘
been celebrated in it in the reign of James VII. and
it had an organ, the prelbyterians, at the revolution,
entirely deftroyed its ornaments, and left nothing but
the bare walls.—Through time, the roof of the church
became ruinous; on which the duke of Hamilton re-
prefented its condition to the barons of exchequer,
and craved that it might be repaired. This requeft
was complied with: but the archited and mafon who
were employed, covered the roof with thick flag-ftones,
which foon impaired the fabric; and on the 2d of
December 1768, the roof of the church fell in. Since
that time, no attempt has been made to repair it, and
it is now entirely fallen to ruin.
23. The Obfervatory. The fcheme of building an
obfervatory was,firft adopted in the year 1736; but
the difturbance occafioned by the Porteous mob, pre¬
vented any thing from being done towards the execu¬
tion of it at that time. The earl of Morton afterwards
gave tool, for the purpofe of building an obfervatory,
and appointed Mr M‘Laurin profeffor of mathematics,
together with the principal and fome profeffors of the
univerfity, truftees for managing the fum. Mr M‘Lau-
rin added to the money above-mentioned, the profits
arifing from a courfe of ledures which he read on ex¬
perimental philofophy, which, with fome other fmail
fums, amounted in all to 3001.; but Mr M‘Laurin
dying, the defign was dropped.---Afterwards the mo¬
ney was put into the hands of two perfons who became
bankrupt; but a confiderable dividend being obtained
out of their effedts, the principal and intereft, about
the year 1776, amounted to 400I. A plan of the
building was made out by Mr Craig architedt; and the
foundation-ftone was laid by Mr Stodart, lord provoft
of Edinburgh, on the 25th of Auguft 1776. About
this time, however, Mr Adam architedl happening
to come to Edinburgh, conceived the idea of giving
the whole the appearance of a fortification, for which
its fituation on the top of the Calton-hill was very
much adapted. Accordingly a line was marked out
for indofing the limits of the obfervatory with a wall
conftrudled with buttreffes and embrafures, and having
Gothic towers at the angles. Thus the money de-
figned for the work was totally exhaufted, and the ob¬
fervatory ftill remains unfinilhed; nor is there any ap¬
pearance of its being foon completed, either by volun¬
tary fubfcription, or aoy other way.
24. The College was founded in 1581 ; the town-
council having at that time got a legacy of 8000 merits,
left for this purpofe by Robert Reid biftiop of Orkney.
James VI. endowed it with certain church-lands in the
counties of Lothian and Fife ; and, confidering himfelf
as its patron, ordered it .to be called King James's col¬
lege. From time to time it has received many dona¬
tions from well difpofed people.—In this univer¬
fity all the different brandies of medicine, as well as
of theology, law, &c. are taught in the moft per-
feft manner. The firft medical profeffors inftituted
at Edinburgh, were Sir Robert Sibbald and Doflor
Archibald Pitcairn, in the year 1685 *. Thefe, how- * See Cor.s
ever, were only titular profeffors. The college oFH^* 6/
phyficians, although they poffeffed an exclufive right * M,aans*
of prflttijing, were debarred from teaching in Edin¬
burgh; and for 30 years afterwards, a fummer-lefturc
15 F on
[ 2621 ]
EDI [ 2622 ] EDI
119 :
Edinburgh, on the officinal plants, and the difie&ion of a human
* “body once in two or three years, completed the whole
courfe of medical education at Edinburgh. --In 1720,
an attempt was made to teach the different branches of
phyfic regularly ; which fucceeded fo well, that, ever
fince, the reputation of the univerfity, as a fchool for
medicine, hath been conftantly increafing, both in the
ifland of Britain, and even among diftant nations.---
The medical clafles are opened on the laft Wednefday
of November; and from that time to the beginning of
May, five leftures are given wreekly by each profeuor,
Chriftmas week only excepted.---The following is a
lift of the prefent profefibrs in the univerfity of Edin¬
burgh, with the falary belonging to each.
Theology.
William Robertfon, D. D. principal of L. s', d.
the univerfity, and primary profeflbr
of divinity. lit 2 Oy
Robert Hamilton, D. D. profeflbr of
divinity. 161 2 Oy
Robert Cuming, regius profeflbr of
divinity and church-hiftory IOO O O
James Robertfon, D. D. profeflbr of
Oriental languages, librarian, and
fecretary to the univerfity.
Law,
James Balfour, advocate, regius pro¬
feflbr of the law of nature and na-
. tions
Robert Dick, advocate, profeflbr of
civil law
William Wallace^ advocate, profeflbr
of Scots law
John Pringle, advocate, profeflbr of
civil hiftory, and Greek and Roman
antiquities
Medicine.
Alexander Monro, profeflbr of anato¬
my and furgery
William Cullen, M. D. profeflbr of
the praftice of medicine
John Hope, M. D. regius profeflbr
of botany
Francis Home, M. D. profeflbr of ma¬
teria medica
Jofeph Black, M. D. profeflbr of che-
miftry
James Gregory, M. D. profeflbr of the
theory of medicine, and dean of the ,
faculty of medicine
Thomas Young, M. D. profeflbr of
midwifery
Profeflbr of natural hiftory
Arts.
Adam Fergufon, L. L. D. profeflbr
of moral philofophy
Hugh Blair, D. D. regius profeflbr
of rhetoric and belles lettres
Andrew Dalziell, M. A. profeflbr of
Greek
John Hill, M. A. profeflbr of huma¬
nity
John Robifon, M. A. profeflbr of na¬
tural philofophy
Dugald Stewart, M. A. profeffor of
JO
77 ij 6J
52 4 Jt
52 IO Q
52 4 Jr
mathematics and aftronomy 113 6 5J-Edinburgh.
John Bruce, M. A. profeflbr of Lo-    
gic, and dean of the faculty of arts 52 4 8
JY. B. The falary of the king’s phyfician is divided
among thofe gentlemen who have no falaries as pro¬
fefibrs.
The college is endowed with a very fine library. It
was founded in 1580 by Mr Clement Little, advocate, - i
who bequeathed it to the town-council. They order¬
ed a houfe to be built for it in the neighbourhood of . I
St Giles’s church, where it was for fome time kept
under the care of the eldeft minifter of Edinburgh,
but was afterwards removed to the college. This col-
leftion is enriched, as well as others of a fimilar kind,
by receiving a copy of every book entered in Station¬
er’s hall, according to the ftatute for the encourage¬
ment of authors. Befides this, the only fund it has
is the money paid by all the ftudents at the univerfity,
except thofe of divinity, upon their being matriculated ;
and a fum of 5I. given by each profeflbr at his admif-
fion. The amount of thefe fums is uncertain.
The advocates library is a better collection than the
former. It was founded, in 1682, by Sir George Mac¬
kenzie, lord advocate. Befides 30,000 printed vo¬
lumes in all languages, here are alfo a very valuable
colleftion of manufcripts of different kinds, prints, me¬
dals, coins, &c. The faculty have alfo in their pof-
fefiion an entire mummy, preferved in its original
cheft. This was prefented by the earl of Morton, who
bought it at the price of 3001.
25. The High School. The earlieft inftitution of a
grammar-fchool in Edinburgh feems to have been a-
bout the year 1519. The whole expence beftowed up¬
on the firft building of this kind amounted only to a-
bout 40 1. Sterling. Another building, which had
been eredted for the accommodation of the fcholars in
1578, continued, notwithftanding the great increafe
of their number, to be ufed for that purpofe till 1777.
The foundation of the prefent new building was laid
on the 24th of June that year by Sir William Forbes,
Grand Mafter of the Free Mafons. The total length
of this building is 120 feet from fouth to north; the
breadth in the middle 36, at each end 38 feet. The
great, hall where the boys meet for prayers, is 68 feet
by 30. At each end of the hall is a room of 32 feet by
20, intended for libraries. The building is two ftories
high, the one 18, the other 17, feet in height. The ex¬
pence of the whole when finifhed is reckoned at 3000 L
26. The exchange. The foundation of this building
was laid by Provoft Drummond on the 13th of Sep¬
tember 1753. It is a large and elegant building, of a
fquare figure, with a court in the centre. The princi¬
pal part forms the north fide of the fquare, and ex¬
tends in feet in length, and 51 in breadth. Pillars
and arches fupporting a platform run along the fouth
front which faces the fquare, and forms a piazza. In
the centre, four Corinthian pillars, whole bafes reft
upon the platform, fupport a pediment on which the
arms of the city are engraved. This building on the
fouth fide is 60 feet high; but on the north, upwards
of 100; owing to the extreme inequality of the ground
on which it is built. The whole expence amounted
to 31,4571. 19 ;
With regard to the political conffitution of Edin- conftiia- i
burgh, the town-council have the dire&ion of all pub- tion. ,
lie
EDI [ 2623 ] E D U
,inburgh, ];G affairs. The ordinary council confifts only of 25
perfons; but the council ordinary and extraordina¬
ry, of 33. The whole is compofed of merchants and
tradefmen, whofe refpe&ive powers and interefts are
fo interwoven, that a balance is preferved between the
two bodies. The members of the town-council are
partly ele&ed by the members of the 14 incorporations,
and they partly choofe their own fucceffors. The e-
ledtion is made in the following manner. Firft, a lift; or
leet of fix perfons is made out by each incorporation ;
from which number, the deacon belonging to that in¬
corporation muft be chofen. Thefe lifts are then laid
before the ordinary council of 25, ^yho “ ftiorten the
leets,,, by expunging one half of the names from each;
and from the three remaining ones the deacon is to be
chofen. When this eleftion is over, the new deacons
are prefented to the ordinary council, who choofe fix
of them to be members of their body, and the fix dea¬
cons of laft year then walk off. The council of 25 next
proceed to the ele£tion of three merchant and two
trades counfellors. The members of council, who now
amount to 30 in number, then make out leeis, from
which the lord provoft, dean of guild, treafurer, and
bailies, muft be chofen. 'Jftw candidates for each of
thefe offices are three in number; and the ele&ion is
made by the 30 members of council already mention¬
ed, joined to the eight extraordinary council-deacons.
The lord provoft of Edinburgh is high fheriff, coro¬
ner, and admiral, within the city and liberties, and the
town, harbour, and road of Leith. He has alfo a ju-
rifdiftion in matters of life and death. He is prefes of
the convention of royal boroughs. Colonel of the
trained bands, commander of the city-guard, and of
Edinburgh jail. In the city he has the precedency of
all the great officers of ftate, and of the nobility;
walking on the right hand of the king, or of his ma-
jefty’s commiffioner ; and has the privilege of having
a fword and mace carried before him. Formerly he
was alfo an officer in the Scots parliament. The ma-
giftrates are fheriffs-depute and juftices of the peace;
and the town-council are patrons of all the churches in,
Edinburgh, patrons of the univerfity, and eleftors of
the city’s reprefentative in parliament; and have the
1 ight of prefenting to all offices of truft, honour, or
profit, belonging to the city. They have befides a very
ample jurifdi&ion both civil and criminal. The town-
council are fuperiors of the Canongate, Portfborough,
and Leith ; and appoint over thefe certain of their own
number, who are called haron bailies : but the perfon
who prefides over Leith has the title of admiral, be-
caufehehath there a jurifdi&ion over maritime affairs.
The baron-bailies appoint one or two of the inhabi¬
tants of their refpe&ive diftrifts to be their fubftitutes,
and thefe are called refident bailies. They hold courts
m abfence of the baron-bailies, for petty offences, and
difcuffing civil caules of little moment.
No city in the world affords greater fecurity to the
inhabitants in their perfons and properties, than Edin¬
burgh. Robberies are here very rare, and a ftreet-mur-
der is unknown in the memory of man, fo that a perfon
may walk the ftreets at any hour of the night in per¬
fect fecurity.' This is in a great meafure owing to the
to’wn-guard. This inftitution originated from thecon-
fternation into which the citizens were thrown after the
battle at Flowden. At that time, the town-council
commanded the inhabitants to affemble in defence of Edinburgh,
the city, and every fourth man to be on duty each Et!itor~
night. This introduced a kind of perfonal duty for
the defence of the town, called 'watching and "warding;
by which the trading part of the inhabitants were ob¬
liged in perfon to watch alternately, in order to pre¬
vent or fupprefs occafional difturbances. This, how¬
ever, becoming in time extremely inconvenient, the
town-council, in 1648, appointed a body of 60 men to
be raifed ; the captain of which was to have a month¬
ly pay of 11 1. 2 s. 3 d. two lieutenants of 2 1. each,
two ferjeants of x 1. ys. and the private men of 15 s.
each. No regular fund, however, was eftabliffied for
defraying this expence; the confequence of which was,
that the old method of watching and warding was re¬
fumed : but the people on whom this fervice devolved,
were now become fo relaxed in their difcipline, that
the magiftrates were threatened with having the king’s
troops quartered in the city if they did not appoint a
fufficient guard. On this, 40 men were raifed in 1679,
and in 1682 the number was increafed to 108. After
the revolution, the town-council complained of the
guard as a grievance, and requefted parliament that it
might be removed. Their requeft was immediately
* granted, and the old method of watching and warding
was renewed. This, however, was now fo intoler¬
able, that the very next year they applied to parlia¬
ment for leave to raife 126 men for the defence of the
city, and to tax the citizens for their payment. This
ke‘ng granted, the corps was raifed, which ftill con¬
tinues under the name of the town-guard. The num¬
ber of private men is about 75. They are paid chiefly
by a tax on the trading people ; thefe being the only
perfons formerly fubjedt to watching and warding.
This tax, however, amounts only to 12501. and as
the expence of the guard amounts to 14001. the magi¬
ftrates are obliged to defray the additional charge by
other means. 2o
The number of inhabitants in the city of Edinburgh Number of
is fomewhat uncertain, and has been very varioufly inhabitants,
calculated. By a furvey made in the year 1775, it
appears that the number of families in the city, Ca¬
nongate and other fuburbs, and the town of Leith,
amounted to 13,806. The difficulty therefore is to fix
the number of perfons in a family. Dr Price fixes this
number at 4to5 Mr Maitland, at 5^; and Mr Arnot,
at 6 : fo that, according to this laft gentleman, the
whole number of inhabitants is 82,836 ; to which he
thinks 1400 more may be added for thofe in the garri-
fon, hofpitals, &c. There are, in Edinburgh, 14
incorporations, capable of choofing their own deacons,
viz. The royal college of furgeons; the corporations
of goldfmiths, fkinners, furriers, hammermen, wrights
and mafons, taylors, bakers, butchers, ftioemakers,
weavers, wankers, bonnet-makers, and merchant-
company. The revenue of the city, arifing partly
from duties of different kinds, and partly from landed
property, is eftimated at about 10,0001. per annum.
As Edinburgh is not properly afea-port, it hath never
been remarkable for trade. Its principal fupport arifes
from the fupreme courts of juftice, which are held there,
and from the college. The exports and imports.muft
all go and come by the town of Leith. See the article
Leith.
EDITOR, a perfon of learning, who has the care
15 F 2 of
E 1) W [ 2624 ] E D W
Edmund of an Impreffion of any work, particularly tliat of an
II ancient author : thus, Erafraus was a great editor; the
J war s' Louvain dodors, Scaliger, Petavius, F. Sirmond, bi-
Ihop Walton, Mr Hearne, Mr Ruddiman, &c. are
likewife famous editors.
EDMUND I. and II. See (Hi/tofy of) England.
EDUCATION, the inftrufting children, and youth
in general, in fuch branches of knowledge and polite
exercifes as are fuitable to their genius and Ration.
Education is a very extenfive fubjedl, that has em¬
ployed the thoughts and pens of the greateft men :
Locke, the archbilhop of Cambray, Tanaquil Faber,
M. Croufaz, Rollin, and Roufleau, may be confulted
on this head.
The principal aim of parents fhould be, to know
what fphere of life their children are defigned to adl
in ; what education is really fuitable to them ; what
will be the confequence of neglediing that; and what
chance a fuperior education will give them, for their
advancement in the world. Their chief ftudy Ihould
be to give their children fuch a degree of knowledge as
will qualify them to fill fome certain poll or Ration in
life: in fhort, to fit them for an employment fuited to
their condition and capacity, fuch as will make them
happy in themfelves and ufeful to fociety.
EDULCORATION, properly fignifies the render¬
ing fubftances more mild. Chemical edulcoration con-
fifts almoft always in taking away acids and other fa-
line fubftances; and this is effefted by wafhing the bo¬
dies to which they adhere in a large quantity of water.
The wafhing of diaphoretic antimony, powder of al-
garoth, &c. till the water comes off quite pure and
infipid, are inftances of chemical edulcoration.—In
pharmacy, juleps, potions, and other medicines, are
faid to be edulcorated, by adding fugar, or fyrup.
EDWARD, the name of feveral kings of England.
See (Hijlory of) England.
EDWARDS (George), fellow of the royal and an¬
tiquarian focieties, was born at Stratford, a hamlet be¬
longing to Wefthamin Effex, on the 3d of April 1694.
After having fpent fome time at fchool, he was put
apprentice to a tradefman in Fenchurch-Street. His
mafter, who was eminent both for his piety and fkill in
the languages, treated him with great kindnefs; but
about the middle of his apprenticefhip, an accident
happened which totally put a flop to the hopes of
young Edwards’s advancing himfelf in the way of trade.
Dr Nicolas, a perfon of eminence in the phyfical world,
and a relation of his mailer’s, happened to die. The
Doftor’s books were removed to an apartment occu¬
pied by Edwards, who eagerly employed all his leifure-
hours, both in the day and great part of the night, in
perufing thofe which treated of natural hiftory, fculp-
ture, painting, aftronomy, and antiquities. The reading
of thefe books entirely deprived him of any inclination
for mercantile bufinefs he might have formerly had, and
he refolved to travel into foreign countries. In 1716, he
vifited moft of the principal towns in Holland, and in
about a month returned to England. Two years after,
he took a voyage to Norway, at the invitation of a
gentleman who was difpofed to be his friend, and who
was nephew to the mafter of the fhip in which he em¬
barked. At this time Charles XII. was befieging Fre-
dericklhall; by which means our young naturalift was
hindered from making fuch excurfions into the coun¬
try as otherwife he would have done, for the Swedes E.-lwi.rdi.
were very careful to confine fuch ftrangers as could not ~
give a good account of themfelves. But notwithftand-
ing all his precaution, he was confined by the Danifh
guard, who fuppofed him to be a fpy employed by the
enemy to get intelligence of their defigns. However,
by obtaining teftimonials of his innocence, a releafe
was granted.
In 17x8 he returned to England, and next year vi¬
fited Paris by the way of Dieppe. During his ilay in
this country he made two journeys of too miles each;
the firft to Chalons in Champagne, in May 1720; the
fecond on foot, to Orleans and Blois v but an edlft
happening at that time £0 be iffued for fecuring va¬
grants, in order totranfport themfelves to America, as
the banks of the Miflifippi wanted population ; our au¬
thor narrowly efcaped a weftern voyage.
On his arrival in England, Mr Edwards clofely pur-
fued his favourite ftudy of natural hiftory, applying
himfelf to drawing and colouring fuch animals as fell
under his notice. A ftridl attention to natural, more
than pidlurefque beauty, claimed his earlieft care: birds
firft engaged his particular attention; and, having pur-
chafed fome of the bell pidlures of thefe fubje&s, he
was induced to make a few drawings of his own; which
were admired by the curious, who encouraged our
young naturalill to proceed, by paying a good price
for his early labours.
Among his firft patrons and benefa&ors may be
mentioned James Theobalds, Efq; of Lambeth; a gen¬
tleman zealous for the promotion of fcience. Our ar-
tift, thus unexpedledly encouraged, increafed in Ikill
and affiduity; and procured, by his application to his
favourite purfuit, a decent fubfiftence, and a large ac¬
quaintance. However, he remitted his induftry in
1731; when, in company with two of his relations, he
made an excurfion to Holland and Brabant, where he
colle<fled feveral fcarce books ancf prints, and had an
opportunity of examining the original pictures of feveral
great mafters at Antwerp, Bruffels, Utrecht, and other
cities.
In December 1733, by the recommendation of the
great Sir Hans Sloane, Bart, prefident of the college
of phyficians, he was chofen librarian, and had apart¬
ments in the college. This office was peculiarly agree¬
able to his tafte and inclination, as he had the oppor¬
tunity of a conftant recourfe to a valuable library, fill¬
ed with fcarce and curious books on the lubjedls of na¬
tural hiftory, which he fo affiduoufly ftudied. By de¬
grees he became one of the moft eminent ornithologifts
in this or any other country. His merit is fo well
known in this refpecl, as to render any eulogium on his
performances unneceffary: but it may be obferved, that
he never trufted to others what he could perform him¬
felf ; and often found it fo difficult to give fatisfaclion
to his own mind, that he frequently made three or four
drawings to delineate the objedl in its moft lively cha-
radler, attitude, and reprefentation.
In 1743, the firft volume of the Hiftory of Birds
was publiflied in quarto. His fubfcribers exceeding
even his moft fanguine expe&ations, a fecond volume
appeared in 1747. The third volume was publilhed in
1750. In 1751, the fourth volume came from the prefs.
This volume being the laft he intended to publifh at
that time, he feems to have confidered it as the moft
perfeft
Edwards.
E D W f 2625 1 E F F
perfeft of his produftions in natural hiftory; and there-
'fore devoutly offered it up to the great God of nature,
in humble gratitude for all the good things he had re¬
ceived from him in this world.
Our author, in 1758, continued his labours under a
new title, viz. Gleanings of Natural Hifory. A fe-
cond volume of the Gleanings was publifhed in 1760.
The third part, which made the feventh and lalt volume
of his works, appeared in 1764.
Thus our author, after a long feries of years, the
moft ftudious application, and the moft extenlive cor-
refpondence to every quarter of the world, concluded
a work which contains engravings and defcriptions of
more than 600 fubjefts in natural hiftory, not before
defcribed or delineated. He likewife added a general
index in French and Englilh; which was afterwards
perfefted, with the Linnaean names, by that great
naturalift Linnaeus himfelf, who frequently honoured
him with his friendftn’p and correfpondence.
Some time after Mr Edwards had been appointed
library-keeper to the royal college of phyficians, he
was, on St Andrew's day, in the year 1750, prefented
with an honorary compliment by the prefident and
council of the royal fociety, with the gold medal, the
donation of Sir Godfrey Copley, Bart, annually given
on that day to the author of any new difcovery in art
or nature, in confideration of his natural hiftory juft
then completed. A copy of this medal he had after¬
wards engraved, and placed under the title in the firil
volume of his hiftory. He was a few years afterwards
elected fellow of the royal fociety, and of the fociety
of antiquaries, London ; and alfo a member of many
of the academies of fciences and learning in different
parts of Europe. In compliment to thefe honorary
diftinftions from fuch learned bodies, he prefented ele¬
gant coloured copies of all his works, to the royal col¬
lege of phyficians, the royal fociety, the fociety of an¬
tiquarians, and to the Britifti mufeum; alfo to the
royal academy of fciences at Paris, from whom he re¬
ceived the moft polite and obliging letter of thanks by
their then fecretary Monfieur Defouchy.
His colleftion of drawings, which amounted to up¬
wards of 900, were purchafed by the earl of Bute.
They contain a great number of Britifti as well as fo¬
reign birds, and other animals hitherto not accurately
delineated or defcribed.
After the publication of the laft work, being arrived
at his 70th year, he found his fight begin to fail, and
his hand loft its wonted fteadinefs. He retired from
public employment to a little houfe which he pin-cha¬
fed at Plaiftow; previous to which, he difpofed of all
the copies, as well as plates, of his works. The conver-
fation of a few feleft friends, and the perufal of a few
feleft books, were the amufement of the evening of his
life; and now and then he made an excurfion to fame
of the principal cities in England, particularly to Bri-
ftol, Bath, Exeter, and Norwich.
Some years before his death, the alarming depreda¬
tions of a cancer, which baffled all the efforts of phyfi-
cal fkill, deprived him of the fight of one of his eyes:
he alfo fuffered much from the ftone, a complaint to
which at different periods of his life he had been fubjeft.
Yet it has been remarked, that, in the fevereft pa-
roxyfms of mifery, he was fcarcely known to titter a
fingle complaint.
Having completed his 80th year, emaciated with Eel
age and licknefs, he died on the 2^ of July 1773, de- - J;
fervedly lamented by a numerous acquaintance. feentb
EEL, in ichthyology, a fpecies of Mur/ena. - 
Yj*.\*-Fifhing. See Bobbing and Sniggling.
The filver-eel may be catched with feveral forts
of baits,- as powdered-beef, garden-worms, min¬
nows, hens-guts, fifh-garbage, <bc. The moft proper
time for taking them is in the night, faftening your
line to the bank-fides, with your laying-hook in the
water: or a line may be thrown with good ftore of
hooks, baited and plumbed, with a float to difeover
where the line lies, that they may be taken up in the
morning.
Microfcopic Eels in four Pafe. See Animalcule,
n® 8.
Eels in Vinegar, are fimilar to thofe in four pafte.
The tafte of vinegar was formerly thought to be occa-
fioned by the biting of thefe .little animals, but that
opinion has been long ago exploded. Mentzelius fays,
he has obferved the adlual transformation of thefe little
creatures into flies: but as this hath never been obfer¬
ved by any other perfon, nor is there an inftance of
fuch a transformation in any other animalcule, it feems
probable that Mentzelius hath been miftaken in his ob-
fervations.
EEL-S/wr, a forked inftrument with three or four
jagged teeth, ufed for catching of eels: that with the
four teeth is beft, which they ftrike into the mud at
the bottom of the river, and if it ftrike againft anyeela
it never fails to bring them up.
EFFARE', or Effraye', in heraldry, a term ap¬
plied to a bead rearing on its hind-legs, as if it were
frighted or provoked.
EFFECT, in a general fenfe, is that which refults
from, or is produced by, any caufe. See Cause.
EFFERVESCENCE, an inteftine motion excited
betwixt the parts of two bodies of different natures,
when they reciprocally diffolve each other. Efferve-
fcences are commonly attended with bubbles, vapours,
fmall jets of the liquid, and a biffing noife; and thefe
phenomena are occafioned by the air which at that time
difengages itfelf. Sometimes alfo they are accompa¬
nied with a great degree of heat, the caufe of which is
not fo well known. See Dissolution.
Formerly the word fermentation was alfo applied to
effervefcences; but now that word is confined to the
motion naturally excited in animal and vegetable mat¬
ters, and from which new combinations among their
principles take place.
EFFIGY, the portrait, figure, or exadl reprefenta-
tion of a perfon.
EFFLORESCENCE, among phyficians, the fame
with exanthema. See Exanthema.
Efflorescence, in chemiftry, denotes the forma¬
tion of a kind of mealy powder on the furface of cer¬
tain bodies. Efflorefcence is occafioned either by de-
Compofition or drying. The efflorefcence which hap¬
pens to cobalt and martial pyrites is of the firft, and
that obferved on the cryftals of marine alkali, Glauber’s
fait, &c. of the, latter kind. An efflorefcence is fome-
times alfo a fpecies of cryftallization, the nature of
which is not well underftood; as, the beautiful vegeta¬
tions which ftioot up from vitriolated tartar acidulated
either with the vitriolic or nitrous acids, the faline fpi-
culse
EGG I 2626 ] EGG
KtHore- culae which are obferved to fhoot from fait butter, &c.
fcemia EFFLORESCENTIA, in botany, (from
!l. to bloom); the precife time of the year and month in
-which every plant fliews its iirft flowers.
Some plants flower twice a-year, as is common be¬
tween the tropics; others oftener, as the monthly rofe.
The former are called by botanifts bifera; the latter,
multifcne.
The time of flowering is determined by the degree
of heat which each fpecies requires. Mezereon and fnow-
drop produce their flowers in February; primrofe, in
the beginning of March; the greater number of plants,
during the month of May; corn, and other grain, in
the beginning of June; the vine, in the middle of the
fame month; feveral compound flowers, in the months
of July and Auguft; laftly, meadow-faffron flowers in
the month of Oftober, and announces the fpeedy ap¬
proach of winter.
Grafs of Parnafius always flowers about the time of
cutting down the hay ; and in Sweden, the different
fpecies of thiftle, mountain-lettuce, fuccory, and bal-
fam, feldom flower till after the fummer folftice: the
country-men even know, as by a calendar, that the fol¬
ftice is paft, when thefe plants begin to produce their
flowers.
The temperature of the feafons has a mighty influ¬
ence both in accelerating and retarding the flowering
of plants. All plants are earlier in warm countries:
hence fuch as are cultivated out of their native foil,
never flower, till the heat of the climate or fituation in¬
to which they are removed, is equal to that under the
influence of which they produced flowers in their own
country. For this reafon, all exotics from warm cli¬
mates are later in this country than many plants which
it naturally produces.
In general, we may obferve, that the plants of the
coldell countries, and thofe produced on the mountains
in all climates, being of equal temperature, flower a-
bout the fame time, viz. during our fpring in Eu¬
rope.
Plants that grow betwixt the tropics, and thofe of
temperate climates, flower during our fummer.
Plants of temperate climates, fituated under the fame
parallel of latitude with certain parts of Europe, but
removed much farther to the weft, fuch as Canada, Vir¬
ginia, and Miflifippi, do not produce flowers till au¬
tumn.
Plants of temperate climates in the oppofite hemi-
fphere to Europe, flower during our winter, which is
the fummer of thefe regions.
Linnaeus and Adanfon have given a Iketch of the
different times in which plants flower at Upfal and
Paris.
EFFLUVIUM, in phyftology, a term much ufed
by philofophers and phyficians, to exprefs the minute
particles which exhale from moft, if not all, terreftrial
bodies, in form of infenfible vapours. See Perspira¬
tion, Vapour, Smell, and the Index fubjoined to
Medicine.
EFFUSION, in a general fenfe, the pouring out of
any thing liquid, and that with fome violence.
EFT, in zoology, the Englifh name of the common
lizard. See Lacerta.
EGERIA, or JEgeria, a nymph held in great
veneration by the Romans. Numa Pompilius made
the people believe that he had compofed the laws and Egg.
religious ceremonies of Rome by her advice and af- “
fiftance.
EGG, in phyfiology, a body formed in certain fe¬
males, in which is contained an embryo or fetus of
the fame fpecies, under a cortical furface or fhell. The
exterior part of an egg is the fhell; which in a hen, for
inftance, is a white, thin, and friable cortex, including
all the other parts. The fhell becomes more brittle by
being expofed to a dry heat. It is lined every where
with a very thin but a pretty tough membrane, which
dividing at, or very near, the obtufe end of the egg,
forms a fmall bag, where only air is contained. In new-
laid eggs this follicle appears very little, but becomes,
larger when the egg is kept.
Within this are contained the albumen or white, and
the vitellus or yolk; each of which have their different
virtues.
The albumen is a cold, vifcous, white liquor in the
egg, different in confiftence in its different parts. It is
oblerved, that there are two diftindt albumens, each
of which is inclofed in its proper membrane. Of thefe
one is very thin and liquid: the other is more deiife
and vifcous, and of a fomewhat whiter colour; but,
in old and ftale eggs, after fome days incubation, in¬
clining to a yellow. As this fecond albumen covers
the yolk on all fides, fo it is itfelf furrounded by the
other external liquid. The albumen of a fecundated
egg, is as fweet and free from corruption, during all
the time of incubation, as it is in new-laid eggs ; as is
alfo the vitellus. As the eggs of hens confift of
two liquors feparated one from another; and diftin-
guifhed by two branches of umbilical veins, one of
which goes to the vitellus, and the other to the albu¬
men ; fo it is very probable that they are of different
natures, and confequently appointed for different pur-
pofes.
When the vitellus grows warm with incubation, it
becomes more humid, and like melting wax, or fat;
whence it takes up more fpace. For as the fetus increa-
fes, the albumen infenfibly wattes away, and conden-
fes: the vitellus, on the contrary, feems to lofe little
or nothing of its bulk when the fetus is perfe&ed, and
only appears more liquid and humid when the abdomen
of the fetus begins to be formed.
The chick in the egg is firft nourifhed by the albu¬
men ; and when this is confumed, by the vitellus, as
with milk. If we compare the chalazae to the extre¬
mities of an axis paffing through the vitellus, which is
of a fpherical form, this fphere will be compofed of
two unequal portions, its axis not paffing through its
centre ; confequently, fince it is heavier than the
white, its fmaller portion muft always be uppermoft in
all pofitions of the egg.
The yellowifh white round fpot, called cicatricula,
is placed on the middle of the fmaller portion of the
yolk; and therefore, from what has been faid in the
laft paragraph, muft always appear on the fuperior part
of the vitellus.
Not long before the exclufion of the chick, the
whole yolk is taken into its abdomen ; and the fhell,
at the obtufe end of the egg, frequently appears crack¬
ed fome time before the exclufion of the chick. The
chick is fometimes obferved to perforate the fhell with
its beak. After exclufion, the yolk is gradually waft-
£££5
w It
Egypt.
E G Y [ 2627 ] E G Y
ed, being conveyed into the fmall-guts by a fraall
duft.
Eggs differ very much according to the birds that
lay them, according to their colour, form, bignefs,
age, and the different ' way of dreffing them: thofe
moft ufed in food are hens eggs ; of which, fuch as are
new-laid are beft.
As to the prefervation of eggs, it is obferved that
the egg is always quite full when it is fir ft laid by the
hen ; but from that time it gradually becomes lefs and
lefs fo, to its decay : and however compaft and clofe
its (hell may appear, it is neverthelefs perforated with
a multitude of fmall holes, though too minute for the
difcernment of our eyes, the effe£l of which is a daily
decreafe of matter within the egg, from the time of its
being laid ; and the perfpiration is much quicker in
hot weather than in cold.
To preferve the egg frefh, there needs no more
than to preferve it full, and flop its tranfpiration; the
method of doing which is, by flopping up thofe pores
with matter which is not foluble in watery fluids: and
on this principle it is, that all kinds of varnifh, pre¬
pared with fpirit of wine, will preferve eggs frefh for
a long time, if they are carefully rubbed all over the
fhell: tallow, or mutton-fat, is alfo good for this pur-
pofe; for fuch as are rubbed over with this, will keep
as long as thofe coated over with varnifh.
For the chemical principles-of eggs, and the va¬
rious ufes to which the eggs themfelves may be applied,
fee the arcles Albumen, Vitellus, Cement, Cla¬
rification, Varnish, the Index fubjoined to Medi¬
cine, &c.
Artificial Method of Hatching Eggs. See Hatch¬
ing.
EGINA. See jEgina.
EGINHART, fecretary to the emperor Charles
the Great, was a German. He is the moft ancient
hiftorian of that nation, and wrote very eloquently for
a man of the 9th century. It is faid, that he infinuated
himfelf fo well into the favour of Imma, daughter to
Charles the Great, that he obtained from her whatever
he defired. Charles the Great, having found out the
intrigue, did not do as Auguftus, who is thought to
have banifhed Ovid becaufe he believed him to be tob
much favoured by Julia; for he married the two lovers
together, and gave them a fine eftate in land.
EGLANTINE, in botany. See Rosa.
EGRA, a town of Bohemia, formerly imperial, but
now fubjeft to the houfe of Auftria, It contains a
great number of able artificers, and is famous for its
mineral waters. Wallenftein, the emperor’s general,
was affaflinated here, in 1634. The French became
mafters of this town in 1741; but afterwards being
blocked up, they were forced to capitulate on Septem¬
ber 7th, 1743. It is looked upon as a town of the
greateft confequence in Bohemia, except Prague. It
is feated on a riSer of the fame name, in E. Long. 12.
30. N. Lat. 50. 21.
EGYPT, an extenfive country of Africa, lying, be¬
tween 30° and 36° of eaft longitude, and between 210
and 310 of north latitude; and bounded by the Medi¬
terranean on the north; by the Red-fea and Ifthmus of
Suez, which divide it from Arabia, on the eaft; by
Abyffinia or Ethiopia, on the fouth; and by the de¬
farts of Barca and Nubia, on the weft; being 600 miles
in length from north to fouth, and from 100 to 200 in F'sjpt.
breadth from eaft to weft.
As a nation, the Egyptians may with juftice lay
claim to as high antiquity as any in the world. The
country was moft probably peopled by Mizraim the 1
fon of Ham, and grandfon of Noah.-—By its ancient Different
inhabitants it was^ called Chemia, and is ftill called naH'es'
Chemi in the language of the Copts or native Egyp¬
tians ; and this name it is fuppofed to have received
from Ham the fon of Noah. In fcripture, we find it
moft generally named Mizraim; though in the Pfalms
it is ftylcd the land of Ham.—To ns it is beft known
by the name Egypt, the etymology of which is more
uncertain.—Some derive it from lEgyptus, a fuppofed
king of the country : others fay it fignifies no more
than “ the land of the Copts f Aia in Greek figni-
fying a country, and Mcoptos being eafily foftened into
JEgyptus. — The moft probable opinion, however, feems
to be, that it received this name from the blacknefs of
its foil, and the dark colour both of its river and inha¬
bitants : for fuch a blackifh colour is by the Greeks
called agyptios, from gyps, and eegyps, a vulture; and
by the laZllm, fubvulturius. For the fame reafon, o-
ther names of a fimilar import have been given to this
country by the Greeks; fuch as Aeria, and Melambo-
lus: the river itfelf was called Melo or Melas ; by the
Hebrews, Shihor; and by the Ethiopians, Siris; all
of which fignify “ black.”
Ancient Egypt is by fome divided into two parts,
the upper and lower Egypt: by others into three, the
upper Egypt, properly fo called, or Thebais; the middle
Egypt, or Heptano?nis; and the lower Egypt, the beft
part of which was the Delta, or that fpace encompaf-
fed by the branches of the Nile. See Thebais, &c.
The Egyptians, like the Chinefe, pretend to an ex-
ceffive antiquity, pretending to have records for ten,
twenty, or even fifty thoufand years. Thus their hi-
ftory is fo much involved in obfcurity and fable, that
for many ages it muft be pafled over in filence.---The
firft mortal king whom the Egyptians own to have
reigned in that country, was Meres or Menas. At
what time he reigned, it would be to very little pur-
pofe to inquire. He had been preceded, however, by
a fet of immortals, who it feems left him the kingdom
in a very bad fituation-: for the whole country, except
Thebais, was a morafs ; the people alfo were entirely
deftitute of religion, and every kind of knowledge
which could render their life comfortable and happy.
Menes diverted the courfe of the Nile, which before
that time had walked the foot of a Tandy mountain
near the borders of Libya, built the city of Memphis,
inftrufted his fubje&s, and did other things of a fimilar
kind which are ufually attributed to the founders of
kingdoms.
From the time of Menes, the Egyptian chronology is
filled with a lift of 330 kings, who reigned 1400 years, %
but did nothing worthy of notice.—The firft diftindf piece Invaded By
of hiftory we find concerning Egypt, is the irruption of the Ihep-
the Shepherds, by whom the country was fubdued ; but herds-
whether this revolution happened duringthe vaft interval
of indolence above-mentioned, or before or after, cannot
be known. The affair is thus related by Manetho.
It happened, in the reign of Timaus king of Egypt,
that God being difpleafed with the Egyptians, they
fuffered a great revolution: for a multitude of men, ig¬
noble
E G Y f 2628 1 E G Y
Egypt- noble in their race, took courage, and, pouring, from
the eaft into Egypt, made war with the inhabitants;
who fubmitted to them without refinance. The fhep-
herds, however, behaved with the greateft cruelty ;
burnt the cities, threw down the temples of the gods,
and put to death the inhabitants, carrying the women
and children into captivity. This people came from
Arabia, and were calledi/ye/cu-, or kuig-JJ?cpherds. They
held Egypt in fubjeAion for 259 years; at the end of
which period, they were obliged by a king of Upper
Egypt, named or Thethmofisy to leave the coun¬
try. This prince’s father had, it feerns, gained great
advantages over them, and ihut them up in a place called
slbaris, or Avar is, containing 10,000 acres of land.
Here they were clofely bdieged by Ainoftsy with an
army of 400,000 men ; but at laft the king, finding
himftlf unable to reduce them by force, propofed^ an
agreement, which was readily accepted. In confe-
quence of this agreement, the fhepherds withdrew from
Egypt with their families, to the number of 240,000;
and, taking the way of t^ie defart, entered Syria: but,
fearing .the Affyrians, who were then very powerful,
and mailers of Alia, they entered the land of Judaea,
and built there a city capable of holding fo great a
multitude, and called it 'Jerufalem.
As this account feems to bear fome faint refem-
blance to the departure of the Ifraelites under Mo-
fes, fome chronologers have fuppofed them to be the
fame event. This, however, is ftrenuoufly oppofed
by others ; but to decide the queftion feems impof-
fible. In thefe early ages, however, it would feem
that the kingdom of Egypt had been very powerful,
and its dominion very widely extended, fince we find
it faid, that the Battrians revolted from Ofymandyas
another Egyptian king of very high antiquity, and
of whole wealth the moil marvellous accounts are given.
'After an unknown interval of time from this mo¬
narch, reigned Sefoftris. He was the firft great war¬
rior whofe conquefts are recorded with any degree of
diftinftnefs. In what age of the world he lived, is
uncertain. Some chronologers, among whom is Sir
Ifaac Newton, are of opinion, that he is the Sefac,
or Shifhak, who took Jerufalem in the reign of Re-
hoboam the fon of Solomon. Others, however, place
him much earlier; and Mr Whifton will have him
to be the Pharaoh who refufed to part with the If¬
raelites, and was at laft drowned in the Red Sea.
His reign is reckoned the moft extraordinary part qf
the Egyptian hiftory ; and the following feems to be
the leaft fabulous account that Can be got of it. The •
father of Sefoftris was told in a dream, by the god
• Vulcan, that his fon, who was then newly born, or per¬
haps ftill unborn, fhould be lord of the whole earth.
His father, upon the credit of this vifion, got together
all the males in the land of Egypt that were born on
the fame day with Sefoftris; appointed nurfes and pro¬
per perfons to take care of them, and had them treat¬
ed like his own child ; being perfuaded that they who
had been the conftant compariiqns of his youth would
prove the moft faithful minifters and foldiers. As they
grew up, they were inured to laborious exercifes; ancj,
in particular, were never permitted to tafte any food
till they had performed a courfe of 180 furlongs, up¬
wards of 22 of our miles. When the old king ima¬
gined they were fufficiently educated in the martial
way he defigned them to follow, they were fent by way Egypt
of trial of their abilities againft the Arabians. In this
expedition Sefoftris proved fuccefsful, and in the end
fubdued that people who had never before been con¬
quered. He was fent to the weftward, and conquered
the greateft part of Africa ; nor could he be flopped
in his career, till he arrived at the Atlantic ocean.
Whilft he was on this expedition, his father died ;
and then Sefoftris refolved to fulfil the predi&ion of
Vulcan, by aflually conquering, the whole world. As
he knew that this muft take up a long time, he pre¬
pared for his journey in the beft manner poffible. The
kingdom he divided into 36 provinces, and endeavour¬
ed to fecure the affedlions of the people by gifts both
of money and land. He forgave all who had been
guilty of high treafon, and difeharged the debts of all
his foldiers. He then conftituted his brother Arais,
the fupreme regent; but forbad him to ufethe diadem,
and commanded him to offer no injury to the queen
or her children, and to abftain from the royal concu¬
bines. * His army confifted of 606,000 foot, 24,000
horfe, and 27,000 chariots. Befides thefe land-forces,
he had at fea two mighty fleets; one, according to Dio¬
dorus, of 400 fail. Of thefe fleets, one was defigned
to make conquefts in the weft, and the other in the
eaft; and therefore the one was built on the Mediter¬
ranean, and the other on the Red Sea. The firft of
thefe conquered Cyprus, the coaft of Phoenicia, and
feveral of the iflands called Cyclades : the other con¬
quered all the coafts of the Red Sea ; but its progrefs
was flopped by fhoals and difficult places which the na¬
vigators could not pafs, fo that he feems not to have
made many conquefts by fea.
With the land-forces Sefoftris marched againft the
Ethiopians and Troglodites; whom he overcame, and
obliged them to pay him a tribute of gold, ebony, and
ivory. From thence he proceeded as far as the pro¬
montory of Dira, which lay near the ftraits of Babel-
mandel, where he fet up a pillar with an infeription in
facred charadlers. He then marched on to the coun¬
try where cinnamon grows, or at leaft to fome country
where cinnamon at that time was brought, probably
fome place in India; and here he in like manner fet
up pillars, which were to be feen for many ages after.
As to his farther conquefts, it is agreed by almoft all
authors of antiquity, that he over-ran and pillaged the
whole continent of Afia, and fome part of Europe. He
crofted the Ganges, and eredled pillars on its banks ;
and from thence he is faid to have marched eaft ward
to the very extremity of the Afiatic continent. Re¬
turning from thence, he invaded the Scythians and
Thracians ; but all authors do not agree that he con¬
quered them. Some even affirm, that he was over¬
thrown by them with great flaughter, and obliged to
abandon a great part of his booty and military ilores.
But, whether he had good or bad fuccefs in thefe
parts, it is a common opinion that he fettled a colo¬
ny in Colchis. Herodotus, however, who gives the
moft particular account of the conquefts of this mo¬
narch, does not fay whether the colony was defigned-
ly planted by Sefoftris; or whether part of his army
loitered behind the reft, and took up their refidence
in that region. From his own knowledge, he afferts,
that the inhabitants of that country were undoubtedly
of Egyptian defeent. This was evident from the per-
fonal
;gypt-
IHis great
! works.
E G Y f 2629 1 E G Y
fonal refemblance they bore to tlie Egyptians, who
were fwarthy-complexioned and frizzle-haired; but
more efpecially from the conformity of their cuftoms,
particularly circumcifion.
The utmoft boundary of this mighty monarch’scon-
quefts, however, was in the country of Thrace ; for
beyond this country his pillars were no where to be
feen. Thefe pillars he was accuftomed to fet up in
every country which he conquered, with the following
infcription, or one to the fame purpofe: “ Sefoftris,
king of kings, and lord of lords, fubdued this coun¬
try by the power of his arms.” Befides thefe, he left
alfo ftatues of himfelf; two of which, according to
Herodotus, were to be feen in his time, the one on the
road between Ephefus and Phocsea, and the other be¬
tween Smyrna and Sardis : they were armed after the
•Ethiopian and Egyptian manner, holding a javelin
in one hand, and a bow in the other. Acrofs the
bread they had a line drawn from one fhoulder to the
other, w’ith the following infcription; “ This region
I obtained by thefe my Ihoulders.” They were mi-
ftaken for images of Memnon.
The reafon given by Sefoftrrs for his returning into
Egypt from Thrace, and thus leaving the conqueft of
the world unfiniihed, was, the want of provifions for
his army, and the difficulty of the paffes. Moft pro¬
bably, however, his return was haftened by the intel¬
ligence he received from the high pried of Egypt, con¬
cerning the rebellious proceedings of hfs brother; who,
encouraged by his long abfence, had affumed the dia¬
dem, violated the queen, and alfo the royal concubines.
On receiving this news, Sefoftris haftened from Thrace;
and, at the end of nine years, came to Pelufium in
Egypt, attended by an innumerable multitude of cap¬
tives taken from many different nations, and loaded
with the fpoils of Afia. The treacherous brother met
him at this city; and ft is faid, with very little proba¬
bility, that Sefoftris accepted of an invitation to an en¬
tertainment from him. At this he drank freely, toge¬
ther with the queen and the reft of the royal family.
During the continuance of the entertainment, Armais
caufed a great quantity of dried reeds to be laid round
the apartment where they were to fleep ; and as foon
as they were retired to reft, fet fire to the reeds. Se¬
foftris perceiving the danger he was in ; and that his
guards, overcharged with liquor, were incapable of
affifting him ; ruffied through the flames, and was fol¬
lowed by his wife and children. In thankfgivmg for
this wonderful deliverance, he made feveral donations
to the gods, particularly to Vulcan the god of fire.
He then took vengeance on his brother Armais, faid
to be the Danaus of the Greeks, who, being on this
occafion driven out of Egypt, withdrew into Greece.
Sefoftris now laid afide all thoughts of war ; and ap¬
plied himfelf wholly to fuch works as might tend to the
public good, and his own future reputation. In or¬
der to prevent the incurfions of the Syrians and Ara¬
bians, he fortified the eaft fide of Egypt with a wall
which ran from Pelufium through the defert to Helio¬
polis, for 1874- miles. He raifed alfo an incredible
number of vaft and lofty mounts of earth, to which he
removed fuch towns as had before been fituated too
low, in order to fecure them from the inundations of
the Nile. All the way from Memphis to the fea he
dug canals which branched out from the Nile, and not
Voc. IV.
only made an eafier communication between different ^£T> '
places, but rendered the country in a great meafure im-
paffable to an enemy. He erefted a temple in every
city.in Egypt, and dedicated it to the fupreme deity
of the place ; but in the courfe of fuch a great under¬
taking as this neceffarily muft have been, he took care
not to employ any of his Egyptian fubje&s. Thus he
fecured their affeftion, and employed the vaft multi¬
tude of captives he had brought along with him; and
to perpetuate the memory of a tranfa&ion fo remark¬
able, he caufed to be inferibed on all thefe temples,
“ No one native laboured hereon.” In the city of
Memphis, before the temple of Vulcan, he raifed fix
gigantic ftatues, each of one ftone. Two of them were
30 cubits high, reprefenting himfelf and his wife. The
other four were 20 cubits each, and reprefented his
four fons. Thefe he dedicated to Vulcan in memory
of his abovementioned deliverance. He raifed alfo two
obeli/ks of marble 120 cubits high, and charged them
with inferiptions, denoting thegreatnefs of his power,
his revenues, &c.
The captives taken by Sefoftris are faid to have been
treated with the greateft barbarity, fo that at laft they
refolved at all events to deliver themfelves from a fer-
vitude fo intolerable. The Babylonians particularly
were concerned in this revolt, and laid wafte the coun¬
try to fome extent; but being offered a pardon, and
a place to dwell in, they were pacified, and built for
themfelves a city which they called Babylon. Towards
the conquered princes who waited on him with their
tribute, the Egyptian monarch behaved with unparal¬
lelled infolence. On certain occafions he is faid to have
unharneffed his horfes, and, yoking kings together,
made them draw his chariot. One day, however, ob-
ferving one of the kings who drew his chariot to look
back upon the wheels with great earneftnefs, he allied
what made him look fo attentively at them. The un¬
happy prince replied, “ O king, the going round
of the wheel puts me in mind of the viciffitudes of for¬
tune : for as every part of the wheel is uppermoft and
lowermoft by turns, fo it is with men ; who one day fit
on a throne, and on the next are reduced to the vileft
degree of flavery.” This anfwer brought the infulting
conqueror to his fenfes ; fo that he gave over the prac¬
tice, and thenceforth treated his captives with great hu- s
manity. At length this mighty monarch loft his fight, His dSgtl:,
and laid violent hands on himfelf.
After the death of Sefoftris, we meet with another
chafm of an indeterminate length in the Egyptian
hillory. It concludes with the reign of Amafis or
Ammofis ; who being a tyrant, his fubjefts joined Ac-
tifanes the king of Ethiopia, to drive him out.(--Thus
Aftifanes became mafter of the kingdom ; and after
his death follows another ehafm in the hiftory, during
which the empire is faid to have been in a ftate of
anarchy for five generations.---This period brings us
down to the times of the Trojan war. The reigning
prince in Egypt was at that time called Cetes; by the
Greeks, Proteus. The priefts reported that he was a
magician; and that he could affumeany fhape he plea- 6
fed, even that of fire. This fable, as told by the Odghi of ^
Greeks, drew its origin from a cuftom among the E-
gyptians, perhaps introduced by Proteus. They were rr° eUS’
ufed to adorn and diftinguifh the heads of their kings
with the reprefentations of animals or vegetables, or
15 G even
E G Y [26
Egypt- even with burning incenfe, in order to ftrike the be-
’ 7’ 7 holders with the greater awe. Whillt Proteus reigned,
Arrival of Paris or Alexander, the fon of Priam king of Troy,
Paris and was driven by a ttorm on the coafts of Egypt, with
Helen in He]enj whom he was carrying off from her hufband.
' But when the Egyptian monarch heard of the breach
of hofpitality committed by Paris, he feized him, his
miftrefs, and companions, with all the riches he had
brought away with him from Greece. He detained
Helen, with all the effefts belonging to Menelaus her
hufband, promifing to reftore them to the injured party
whenever they were demanded ; but commanded Paris
and his companions to depart out df his dominions in
three days, on pain of being treated as enemies. In
what manner Paris afterwards prevailed upon Proteus
to reftore his miftrefs, we are not told; neither do we
know any thing further of the tranfaftions of this
prince’s reign nor of his fucceflbrs, except what has
8 entirely the air of fable, till the days of Sabbaco the
Egypt con- Ethiopian, who again conquered this kingdom. He
Sabbaco ^ began his reign with an a6t of great cruelty, caufing
the conquered prince to be burnt alive: neverthelefs, he
no fooner faw himfelf firmly eftablifhed on the throne
of Egypt, than he became a new man; fo that he is
highly extolled for his mercy, clemency, and wifdom.
He is thought to have been the So mentioned in ferip-
ture, and who entered into a league with Hofhea
king of Ifrael againft ShalmaneferYwi'g of Afiyria. He
is faid to have been excited to the invafion of Egypt by
a dream or vifion, in which he was affured, that he
fhould hold that kingdom for 50 years. Accordingly,
he conquered Egypt, as had been foretold; and at the
expiration of the time above-mentioned, he had another
dream, in which the tutelar god of Thebes acquainted
him, that he could no longer hold the kingdom of
Egypt with fafety and happinefs, unlefs he maffacred
the priefts as he palled through them with his guards.
Being haunted with this vifion, and at the fame time
abhorring to hold the kingdom on fuch terms, he fent
for the priefts, and acquainted them with what feemed
to be the will of the gods. Upon this it was concluded,
that it w7as the pleafure of the Deity that Sabbaco
fhould remain no longer in Egypt; and therefore he
immediately quitted that kingdom, and returned to
Ethiopia.
9 Of Anyfias, who was Sabbaco’s immediate fuccefibr.
Remark- we have no particulars worth notice. After himreign-
abie ftory ed one Sethon, who was both king and prieft of Vul-
of Sethon. can< He gave himfelf up to religious contemplation;
and not only negleftedthe military clafs, but deprived
them of their lands. At this they were fo much in-
cenfed, that they entered into an agreement not to bear
arms under him; and, in this ftate of affairs, Sennache¬
rib king of Affyria arrived before Pelufium with a
mighty army. Sethon now applied to his foldiers, but
in vain : they unanimoufly perfifted in refufing to march
under his banner. Being therefore deftitute of all hu¬
man aid, he applied to the god Vulcan, and requefted
him to deliver him from his enemies. \Vhilft he was
yet in the templf of that god, it is faid, he fell into a
deep fleep ; during which, he faw Vulcan Handing at
his fide, and exhorting him to take courage. He pro-
mifed, that if Sethon would but go out againft the
Affyrians, he fhould obtain a complete viftory over
them. Eagouraged by this affurance, the king affem-
3° ] E G Y
bled a body of artificers, {hop-keepers, and labourers; Egypt, j
and, with this undifeiplined rabble, marched towards ————
Pelufium. He had no occafion, however, to fight; for
the very night after his arrival at Pelufium, an innu¬
merable multitude of field-rats entering the enemies,
camp, gnawed to pieces their quivers, bowftrings, and
fhield-ftraps. Next morning, when Sethon found the
enemy difarmed, and on that account beginning to fly,
he purfued them to a great diftance, making a terrible
flaughter. In memory of this extraordinary event, a
ftatue of Sethon was ere&ed in the temple of Vulcan,
holding in one hand a rat, anddelivering thefe words:
“ Whofoever beholdeth me, let him be pious.”
Soon after the death of Sethon, the form of govern¬
ment in Egypt was totally changed. The kingdom
was divided into twelve parts, over which as many of
the chief nobility prefided. This divifiou, however, i() ||
fubfifted but for a fhort time. Pfammitichus, one of RCjgr, 0«|
the twelve, dethroned all the reft, 15 years after the Pfammiti-
divifion had been made. The hiftory now begins to ch“s. 9
be divefted of fable, and from this time may be ac¬
counted equally certain with that of any other nation.
The vaft conquefts of Sefoftris were now no longer
known ; for Pfammitichus poffefled no more than the
country of Egypt itfelf. It appears, indeed, that none
of the fuccefibrs of Sefoftris, or even that monarch him¬
felf, had made ufe of any means to keep in fubjeftion
the countries he had once conquered. Perhaps, in¬
deed, his defign originally was rather to pillage than to
conquer; and therefore, on his return, his vaft empfre
vanifhed at once. Pfammitichus, however, endeavoured
to extend his dominions by making war on his neigh¬
bours ; but by putting more confidence in foreign au¬
xiliaries than in his own fubje&s, the latter were fo
much offended, that upwards of 200,000 fighting men
emigrated in a body, and took up their refidence in
Ethiopia.—To repair this lofs, Pfammitichus earneftly
applied himfelf to the advancement of commerce; and
opened his ports to all ftrangers, whom he greatly ca- j
reffed, contrary to the cruel maxims of his predecef-
fors, who refufed to admit them into the country. He
alfo laid fiege to the city of Azotus in Syria, which
held out for 29 years againft the whole ftrength of the
kingdom; from which we may gather, that, as a war-
riour, Pfammitichus was by no means remarkable. He
is reported to have been the firft king of Egypt that
drank wine. He alfo fent to difeover the fprings of
the Nile; and is faid to have attempted to difeover the
moft ancient nation in the world by the following me¬
thod. Having procured two newly born children, he |
caufed them to be brought up in fuch a manner, that
they never heard a human voice. He imagined that
thefe children would naturally fpeak the original lan¬
guage of mankind : therefore, when, at two years of
age, they pronounced the Phrygian word beccos, (or
fome found refembling it), which fignifies bread, he
concluded that the Phrygians were the moft ancient
people in the world. „
Nechus, the fon and fucceffor of Pfammitichus, is Succeeded,
the Pharaoh-Necho of feripture, and was a prince of an by Nechurt
enterprifing and warlike genius. In the beginning of
his reign, he attempted to cut through the ifthmus of
Suez, between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean ;
but, through the invincible obftacles which nature has
thrown in the way of fuch undertakings, he was obli¬
ged
E G Y [ 2631 ] E G Y
“I-
ged to abandon the enterprife, after having loft 120,000
men in the attempt. After this, he fent a fliip, man¬
ned with fome expert Phoenician mariners, on a voyage
to explore the coafts of Africa. Accordingly, they
performed the voyage; failed round the continent of
Africa; and after three years returned to Egypt, where
xi their relation was deemed incredible. See Africa.
t\|iis wars The moil remarkable wars in which this king was
■Rich Jofiah engaged, are recorded in the facred writings. He went
ggid Nehu- out 3gajn{t the king of Aflyria, by the divine command,
| a “£zzar' as he himfelf told Jofiah ; but being oppofed by this
king of Judaea, he defeated and killed him at Megiddo;
after which he fet up, in that country, king Jehoiakim,
and impofed on him an annual tribute of 100 talents
of filver and one talent of gold. He then proceeded
againft the king of Aflyria; and weakened him fo
much, that the empire was foon after diflblved. Thus he
became mSfter of Syria and Phoenicia ; but, in a ftiort
time, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came againft
him with a mighty army. The Egyptian monarch,
not daunted by the formidable appearance of his anta-
gonift, boldly ventured a battle; but was overthrown
with prodigious flaughter, and Nebuchadnezzar became
matter of all the country to the very gates of Pelufmm.
The reign of Apries, the Pharaoh-Hophra of fcrip-
I k.pries a
tian affairs. He is reprefented as a martial prince,
and in the beginning of his reign very fuccefsful. He
took by ftorm the rich city of Sidon; and having over¬
come the Cypriots and Phoenicians in a fea-fight, re¬
turned to Egypt laden with fpoil. This fuccefs pro¬
bably incited Zedekiah king of Judasa to enter into an
alliance with him againft Nebuchadnezzar king of
Babylon. The bad fuccefs of this alliance was fore¬
told by the prophet Jeremiah ; and accordingly it hap¬
pened. For Nebuchadnezzar having fat down with
hvs army before Jerufalem, Apries marched from E-
gypt with a defign to relieve the city ; but no fooner
did he perceive the Babylonians approaching him, than
he retreated as faft as he could, leaving the Jews ex-
pofed to the rage of their mercilefs enemies; who were
thereupon treated as Jeremiah had foretold; and by
this ftep Apries brought upon himfelf the vengeance
denounced by the fame prophet.—The manner in which
qusnces of t^e^e Pre£h&ions were fulfilled, is as follows. The Cy-
his alliance reneans, a colony of the Greeks, being greatly ftrength-
with Zede- ened by a numerous fupply of their countrymen under
kiah. their third king Battus ftyled the happy, and encou¬
raged by the Pythian oracle, began to drive out their
Libyan neighbours, and (hare their poflefiions among
themfelves. Hereupon Andican king of Libya fent
a fubmiflive embaffy to Apries, and implored his pro-
tedfion againft the Cyreneans. Apries complied with
his requeft, and fent a powerful army to his relief.
The Egyptians were defeated with great flaughter; and
thofe who returned complained that the army had been
fent off by Apries in order to be deftroyed, and that
he might tyrannize without controul over the remain-
1S der of his fubjeds. This thought catching the atten-
Bis fubjcdts tion of the giddy multitude, an almoft univerfal defec-
revolt. tion enfued. Apries fent one Amafis, a particular
friend, in whom he thought he could confide, to bring
back his people to a fenfe of their duty. But by this
friend he was betrayed ; for Amafis, taking the op¬
portunity of the prefent ferment, caufed himfelf to be
proclaimed king. Apries then difpatched one Patar- Egypt.
bemis, with orders to take Amafis, and bring him alive 
before him. This he found impofiible, and therefore
returned without his prifoner; at which the king was
fo enraged, that he commanded Patarbemis’s nofe and
ears to be cut off. This piece of cruelty completed his
ruin ; for when the reft of the Egyptians who conti¬
nued faithful to Apries beheld the inhuman mutilation
of fo worthy and noble a perfon as Patarbemis was,
they to a man deferted Apries, and went over to A-
mafis.
Both parties now prepared for war ; the ufurper ha¬
ving under his command the whole body of native E-
gyptians; and Apries only thofe lonians, Carians, and
other mercenaries whom he could engage in his fer-
vice. The army of Apries amounted only to 30,000;
but, though greatly inferior in number to the troops
of his rival, as he well knew that the Greeks were much
fuperior in valour, he did not doubt of vi&ory. Nay,
fo far was Apries puffed up with this notion, that he
did not believe it was in the power, even of any God,
to deprive him of his kingdom. The two armies foon J(j
met, and drew up in order of battle near Memphis. A Apries de-
bloody engagement enfued ; in which, tho’ the army featetJ and
of Apries behaved with the greateft refolution, they *
were at laft overpowered with numbers, and utterly de- Amafis.
feated, the king himfelf being taken prifoner. Amafis
now took poffeflion of the throne without oppofition.
Pie confined Apries in one of his palaces, but treated
him with great care and refpedt. The people, how¬
ever, were implacable, and could not be fatislied while
he enjoyed his life. Amafis, therefore, at laft found
himfelf obliged to deliver him into their hands. Thus
the prediction received its final completion: Apries
was delivered up to thofe •who fought his life; and who
no fooner had him in their power, than they ftrangled
him, and laid his body in the fepulchre of his ance-
ftors.
During thefe inteftine broils, which muft have great- Egypt in¬
ly weakened the kingdom, it is probable that Nebu- vaded by
chadnezzar invaded Egypt. He had been for 13 years Nebucllad-
before this employed in befieging Tyre, and at laft had nczzar*
nothing but an empty city for his pains. To make
himfelf fome amends, therefore, he entered Egypt, mi-
ferably harrafled the country, killed and carried away
great numbers of the inhabitants, fo that the country
did not recover from the effe&s of this incurfion for a
long time after. In this expedition, however, he feems
not to have aimed at any permanent conqueft, but to
have been induced to it merely by the love of plunder,
and of this he carried with him an immenfe quantity
to Babylon.
During the reign of Amafis, Egypt is faid to have Happy ad-
been perfedly happy, and to have contained 20,000 miniftra-
populous cities. That good order might be kept a- lion °f
mong fuch vaft numbers of people, Amafis enafted a Amafis»
law, by which every Egyptian was bound once a-year
to inform the governor of his province by what means
he gained his livelihood; and if he failed of this, to
put him to death. The fame punilhment he decreed to
thofe who could not give a fatisfaCtory account of
themfelves.
This monarch was a great favourer of the Greeks,
and married a woman of Grecian extraft. To many
Greek cities, as well as particular perfons, he made
15 G 2 con-
E G Y
[ 2632 ]
E G Y
Offends
Cambyfes
king of
Perfia.
And Poly¬
crates ty¬
rant of
Samos.
Egypt in¬
vaded by
Cambyfes.
confi'derable prefents. Bdlde thefe, lie gave leave to he could, in order to prevent them from entering the
the Greeks in general to come into Egypt, and fettle kingdom. Cambyfes, however, immediately laid fiege
either in the city of Naucratis, or carry on their trade to Eelulium, and made himfelf mafter «f it by the fol-
upon the fea-coaffs; granting them alfo temples, and lowing ftratagem: he placed in the front of his army
places where they might ereft temples to their own a great number of cats, dogs, and other animals that
deities. He received alfo a viik from Solon the cele- were deemed facred by the Egyptians. He then at-
brated Athenian lawgiver, and reduced the ifland of tacked the city, and took it without oppofition ; the
Cyprus under his fubje&ion. garrifon,whichconfiftedentirelyofEgyptians,no.tda-
This great profperity, however, ended with the death ring to throw a dart or flioot an arrow againft their
of Amalis, or indeed before it. The Egyptian mo- enemies, left they ihould kill fome of the holy ani-
narch had fome how or other incenfed Cambyfes mals.
king of Perfia. The caufe of the quarrel is uncertain; Cambyfes had fcarce taken poffefilon of the city,
but whatever it was, the Perfian monarch vowed the when Pfammenitus advanced againft him with a nume-
deftruftion of Amafis. In the mean time Phanes of rous army. But, before the engagement, the Greeks
Halicarnaffus, commander of the Grecian auxiliaries in who ferved under Pfammenitus, to Ihow their indigna-
the pay of Amafis, took fome private difguft; and lea- tion againft their treacherous countryman Phanes,
\ing Egypt, embarked for Periia. He was a wife and brought his children into the camp, killed them in the
able general, perfectly well acquainted with every thing prefence of their father aiid of the two armies, and
that related to Egypt; and had great credit with the then drank their blood. The Perlians, enraged at fo
Greeks in that country. Amafis was immediately fen- cruel a fight, fell upon the Egyptians with the utmbft
Able how great the lofs of this man would be to him, fury, put them to flight, and cut the greateft part of
and therefore fent after him a trufty eunuch with a them in pieces. Thofe who efcaped, fled to Memphis
fwift galley. Phanes was accordingly overtaken in where they were foon after guilty of a horrid outrage.
Lycia, but not brought back; for, making his guard Cambyfes fent a herald to them in a (hip from Mity-
drunk, he continued his journey to Perfia, and prefent- lene : but no fooner did they fee her come into the
ed himfelf before Cambyfes, as he was meditating the port, than they flocked down to the fhore, deftroyed
deftru&ion of the Egyptian monarchy. the fhip, and tore to pieces the herald and all the crew;
At this dangerous crifis, alfo, the Egyptian monarch afterwards carrying their mangled limbs into the city,
imprudently made Polycrates the tyrant of Samos his ima kind of barbarous triumph. Net long after, they
enemy. This man had been the moft remarkable, per- were obliged to fur render ; and thus Pfammenitus fell
haps, of any recorded in hiftory, for an uninterrupted into the hands of his inveterate enemy, who was now:
courfe of fuccefs, without the intervention of one Angle enraged beyond meafure at the cruelties exercifed upon-
unfortunate event. Amafis, who was at this time in the children of Phanes, the herald, and the Micylenean
ftridt alliance with Polycrates, wrote him a letter, in failors,
which, after congratulating him on his profperity, he The rapid fuceefs of the Perfians ftruck with fuch
told him that'he was afraid left his fucceffes were too terror the Libyans, Cyreneans, Bai’cseans, and other
many, and be might be fuddenly thrown down into the dependents or allies of the Egyptian monarch, that
greateft mifery. For this reafon he advifed him vo- they immediately fubmitted. Nothing now remained
hmtarily to take away fomething from his own hapipi- but to difpofe of the captive king, and revenge on him
nefs ; and to caft away that which would grieve him and his fubjefts the cruelties which they had commit*
moft if he was accidentally to lofe it. Polycrates fol- ted. This the mercilefs vi&or executed in the fevereft
lowed his advice, and threw into the fea a fignet of manner. On the 10th day after Memphis had been
ineftimable value. This, however, did not anfwer the taken, Pfammenitus and the chief of the Egyptian no¬
intended purpofe. The fignet happened to be fwal- bility were ignominioufly fent into one of the fuburbs
lowed by a fifli, which was taken a few days after- of that city. The king being there feated in a pro¬
wards, and thus was reftored to Polycrates. Of this per place, faw his daughter coming along in the habit
Amafis was no fooner informed, than, confidering Po- of a poor flave with a pitcher to fetch water from the
lycrates as really unhappy^ and already on the brink of river, and followed by the daughters of the greateft fa-
deftru&ion, he refolved to put an end to the friendfhip milies in Egypt, all in the fame miferable garb, with
which fubfifted between them. For this purpofe he dif- pitchers in their hands, drowned in tears, and loudly
patched an herald to Samos, commanding him to ac- bemoaning their miferable fituation. When the fathers
quaint Polycrates, that he renounced his alliance, and faw their daughters in this diftrefs, they burft into tears,
all the obligations between them ; that he might not all but Pfammenitus, who only caft his eyes oh the
mourn his misfortunes with the forro>v of a friend, ground and kept them fixed there. After the young
Thus Amafis left Polycrates at liberty to a£ againft women, came thefon of Pfammenitus, with 2060 of
him, if he chofe todo-fo; and accordingly he offered theyoung nobility, all of them with bits in their mouths,
to affift Cambyfes with a fleet of fliips in his Egyptian and halters round their necks, led to execution.. This
expedition. was done to expiate the murder of the Perfian herald
Amafis had not, however, the misfortune to fee the and the Mitylenean failors; for Cambyfes caufed ten
calamities of his country. He died about 525 years Egyptians of the firft rank to be publicly executed for
before Chrift, after a reign of 44 years ; and left the every one of thofe that had been ilain. Pfammenitus,
kingdom to his fon Pfammenitus, juft as Cambyfes was however, obferved the fame conduiff as before, keep-
approaching the frontiers of the kingdom. The new ing his eyes ftedfaftly fixed on the ground, though all
prince was fcarce feated on the throne, when the Per- the Egyptians around him made the loudeft lamenta-
lians appeared. Pfammenitus drew together what forces tions. A little after this he faw an intimate friend and
Egypi
by .Cam-jl
byfes
E G Y [ 2633 ] E G Y
I Egypt- companion, now advanced in years, who, having been
plundered of all he had, was begging his. bread from
door to door in the fuburbs. As foon- as he faw this
man, Pfammenitus wept bitterly; and calling cut to
him by his name, ftruck himfelf on the head as if he
had been frantic. Of this the fpies who had been fet
over him to obferve his behaviour, gave immediate no¬
tice to Cambyfes, who thereupon fent a meffenger to
inquire the caufe of fuch immoderate grief. Pfamme¬
nitus anfwered, That the calamities df his own family
confounded him, and were too great to be lamented by
any outward figns of grief; but the extreme dillrefs
of a bofom friend gave more room for refle&ion, and
therefore extorted tears from him. With this anfwer
Cambyfes was fo affe&ed, that he fent orders to pre¬
vent the execution of the king’s fon ; but thefe came
too late, for the young prince had been put to death
before any of the reft. Pfammenitus himfelf was then
fent for into the city, and reftored to his liberty: and,
had he not ftiewed a defire of revenge, miglrt perhaps
have been trufted with the goverment of Egypt; but
being difcovered hatching fchemes of that kind, he was
leized, and condemned to drink bull’s blood.
Egypt be- The Egyptians were now reduced to the lowed de-
I comes a grec 0f {]aVery. Their country became a province of
theTperfian t^“e Per^an empire: the body of Amafis their late king,
and after- was taken out of his grave; and after being mangled
wards of in a ftiocking manner, was finally burnt. But what
the Grecian fremed more grievous than all the reft, their god Apis
en,P!re- vvas flsin, and his priefts ignominioufly fcourged; and
this infpired the whole nation with fuch an hatred to
the Perfians, that they could never afterwards be re¬
conciled to them. As long as the Perfian empire fub-
fifted, the Egyptians could never Ihake off their yoke.
They frequently revolted indeed, but were always o-
verthrown with prodigious lofs. At laft they fub-
mitted, without oppofition, to Alexander the Great:
after his death, Egypt again became a powerful king¬
dom; though fince the conqueft of it by Cambyfes to
the prefent time, it hath never been governed but by
foreign princes, agreeable to the prophecy of Ezekiel,
“ There fhall be no more a prince of the land of E-
as gyp1-”
■AlTigned to On the death of Alexander the Great, Egypt, to-
Ptolemy gether with Libya, and that part of Arabia which bor-
afTumes'the ^ers on •^SyPt> were aligned to Ptolemy Lagus as go-
title of vernor under Alexander’s fon by Roxana, who was but
Icing. newly born. Nothing was farther from the intention
of this governor, than to keep the provinces in trull for
another. He did not, however, affume the title of
king, till he perceived his authority fo firmly eftablilh-
ed that k could not be ftiaken ; and this did not hap¬
pen till 19 years after the death of Alexander, when
Antigonus and Demetrius had unfuccefsfully attempt¬
ed the conqueft ofrEgypt.
From the time of his firft eftablifhment on the throne,
Ptolemy, who had affumed the title of Sotet'y reigned
20 years; which added to the former 19, make up the
39 years which hiftorians commonly allow him to have
reigned alone.—In the 39th year of his reign, he made
one of his fons, Philadelphus, partner in the em¬
pire; declaring him his fucceffor, to the prejudice of his
eldeft fon named Ceraums; being excited thereto by
his violent love for Berenice Philadelphus’s mother.
When the fucceffion was thus fettled, Ceraunus imme¬
diately quitted the court; and fled at laft into Syria, Egypt,
where he was received with open arms by Seleucus Ni- ’ *
cator, whom he afterwards murdered.
The moft remarkable tranfadlion of this reign was
the embellilhing of the city of Alexandria, which Pto¬
lemy made thecapital of his new kingdom, and of which
an account is given under the article Alexandria.
About 284 years before Chrift, died Ptolemy So-
ter, in the 41ft year of his reign, and 84th of his
age. He was the heft prince of his race; and left
behind him an example of prudence,'juftice, .and cle¬
mency, which few of his fucceflbrs chofe to follow.
Befidfs the provinces originally affigned to him, he
had added to his empire thofe of Ctelo-Syria, Ethio¬
pia, Pamphylia, Lycia, Caria, and fome of the Cy- J(.
clades. His fucceflbr, Ptolemy Philadelphus, added Succeeded
nothing to the extent of the empire; nor did helper- by Phila-
form any thing worthy of noticeexcept embellilhing fur- delphus.
ther the city of Alexandria, and entering into an alliance
with the Romans. In his time, one Magas, the go¬
vernor of Libya and Cyrene, revolted ; and held thefe
provinces as an independent prince, notwithftandmg
the utmoft efforts of Ptolemy to reduce him. At laft
an accommodation took place; and a marriage was pro-
pofed between Berenice, the only daughter of Magas,
and Ptolemy’s eldeft fon. The young princefs was to
receive all her father’s dominions by way of dowry,
and thus they would again be brought under the do¬
minion of Ptolemy’s family. But before this treaty
could be put in execution, Magas died ; and then A-
pamea, the princefs’s mother, did all fhe could to prevent
the match. This, however, fhe was not able to do;
though her efforts for that purpofe produced a deftruc-
tive war of four years continuance with Antiochus
Theus king-of Syria, and the afting of a cruel tragedy
in the family of the latter. See Syria. ^ 1?
About 246-years before Ghrift, Ptolemy Philadel-.Ptolemy
phus died ; and was fucceeded by his eldeft fon Ptole- Euergetes a
my, who had been married to Berenice the daughter ®reat con'
of Magas, as above related. In the beginning of his 1
reign, he found himfelf engaged in a war with Antio¬
chus Theus king of Syria. From this he returned vic¬
torious, and bronght with him 2500 ftatues and pic¬
tures, among which were many of the ancient Egyp¬
tian idols, which had been carried away by Cambyfes
into Perfia. Thefe were r&ftored by Ptolemy .to their
ancient temples ; in memory of which favour, the E-
gyptians gave him the furname of Euergetes t or the Be¬
neficent. In this expedition, he greatly enlarged his
dominions, making himfelf mafter of all the countries
that lie between mount Taurus and the confines of In¬
dia. An account of thefe conquefts was given by him¬
felf, infcribed on a monument, to the following effeft.
“ Ptolemy Euergetes, having received from his father
the fovereignty of Egypt, Libya, Syria, Phamice, Cy¬
prus, Lycia, Caria, and the other Cyclades, affembled a
mighty armyofhorfe and foot, with a great fleet, and
elephants, out of Trogloditia and Ethiopia ; fome of
which had been taken by his father, and the reft by
himfelf, and brought from thence, and trained up for
war: with this great force he failed into Alia ; and
having conquered all the provinces which lie on this
fide the Euphrates, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Ionia,. the
Hellefpont, and Thrace, he croffed that river with all
the forces of the conquered countries, and the kings
E G Y [ 2634 ] E G Y
j'gfpt. of thofe nations, and reduced Mci’opotamia, Babylo-
nia, Sofia, Perfia, Media, and all the country as far
as Badtria.”
On the king’s return, from this expedition, he palled
through Jerufalem, where he offered many facrifices to
the God of Ifrael, and ever afterwards expreffed a great
favour for the Jewifli nation. At this time, the Jews
were tributaries to the Egyptian monarchs, and paid
them annuallyaotalents of filver. This tribute,however,
Onias, who was then high priefl, being of a very covet¬
ous difpofition, had for a long time neglected to pay,
fo that the arrears amounted to a very large fum.
Soon after his return, therefore, Ptolemy lent one of
his courtiers named dthenion to demand the money,
and defined him to acquaint the Jews that he would
make war upon them in cafe of a refufal. A young
man, however, named Jofeph, nephew to Onias, not
only found means to avert the king’s anger, but even
got himfelf chofen his receiver-general, and by his
faithful difcharge of that important truft, continued
in high favour with Ptolemy as long as he lived.
Ptolemy Eugrgetes, having at laft concluded a peace
with Seleucus the fucceffor of Antiochus Theus king
of Syria, attempted the enlargement of his dominions
on the fouth fide. In this he was attended with fuch
fuccefs, that he made himfelf mafter of all the coafts of
the Red Sea, both on the Arabian and Ethiopian
fides, quite down to the ftraits of Babel-mandel. On
his return he was met by ambalfadors from the Achae-
ans, imploring his aflihance againft the Etolians and
Lacedemonians. This the king readily promifed them:
but they having in the mean time engaged Antigonus
king of Macedon to fupport them, Ptolemy was fo
much offended, that he fent powerful fuccours to Cleo-
menes king of Sparta; hoping, by that means, to
2g humble both the Achaeans and their new ally Antigo-
Cleomenes nus* t^‘s» however, he was difappointed ; for dec¬
king of menes, after having gained very confiderable advanta-
Sparta takes ges OVer the enemy, was at laft entirely defeated in
refugein the battle of Sellafia, and obliged to take refuge in
Syp * Ptolemy’s dominions. He was received by the Egyp¬
tian monarch with the greateft demonftrations of kind-
nefs; a yearly penfion of 24 talents was affigned him,
with a promile of reftoring him to the Spartan
throne; but before this could be accomplifhed, the
king of Egypt died, in the 27th year of his reign,
and was fucceeded by his fon Ptolemy Philopator.
Thus we have feen the Egyptian empire brought to
a very great height of power ; and had the fucceeding
monarchs been careful to preferve that ftrength of em¬
pire tranfmitted to them by Euergetes, it is very
probable that Egypt might have been capable of hold¬
ing the balance againft Rome, and, after the deftruc-
tion of Carthage, prevented that haughty city from
becoming miftrefs of the world. But after the death
of Ptolemy Euergetes, the Egyptian empire, being
governed only by weak or vicious monarchs, quickly
,9 declined, and from that time makes no confpicuous fi-
Ptolcmy gure in hiftory. Ptolemy Philopator began his reign
Philopator with the murder of his brother; after which, giving
a cruel ty- himfelf up to all manner of licentioufnefs, the kingdom
rant. £ejj jnt0 a k;nc| 0f anarchy. Cleomenes, the Spartan
king, ftill refided at court; and being now unable to
bear the diffolute manners which prevailed there, he
preffed Philopator to give him the affiftance he had
promifed for reftoring him to the throne of Sparta. EgST*.
This he the rather inlifted upon, becaufehe had reqei-
ved advice that Antigonus king of Macedon was dead,
that the Achseans were engaged in a war with the Eto¬
lians, and that the Lacedemonians had joined the lat¬
ter againft the Achseans and Macedonians. Ptolemy,
when afraid of his brother Magas, had indeed promi¬
fed to afiift the king of Sparta with a powerful fleet,
hoping by this means to attach him to his own intereft:
but now when Magas was out of the way, it was de¬
termined by the king, or rather his minifters, that
Cleomenes fliould not be affifted, nor even allowed to
leave the kingdom ; and this extravagant refolution
produced the defperate attempt of Cleomenes, of
which an account is given in the hiftory of Sparta.
Of the diforders which now enfued in the govern¬
ment, Antiochus, king of Syria, furnamed Greats
took the advantage, and attempted to wreft from Pto¬
lemy the provinces of Caelo-Syria and Paleftine: but
in this he was finally difappointed; and might ealily
have been totally driven out of Syria, had not Ptolemy
been too much taken up with his debaucheries to think
of carrying on the war. The difeontent occafioned
by this piece of negligence foon produced a civil war
in his dominions, and the whole kingdom continued
in the utmoft confufion till his death, which happened
in the 17th year of his reign, and 37th of his age. J0
During the reign of Philopator happened a very ex- Extraordt-
traordinary event with regard to the Jews, which is nary ^°.ry
mentioned in the Maccabees*. The king of Egypt,
while on his Syrian expedition, had attempted to en- » ^ ^ a
ter the temple of Jerufalem ; but being hindered by 4> j.’ *
the Jews, he was filled with the utmoft rage againft
the whole nation. On his return to Alexandria, he
refolved to make thofe who dwelt in that city feel the
firft effefts of his vengeance. He began with publiftiing
a decree, which he caufed to be engraved on a pillar
ere&ed for that purpofe at the gate of his palace, ex¬
cluding all thofe who did not facrifice to the gods wor-
fhipped by the king. By this means the Jews were
debarred from fuing to him for juftice, or obtaining
his proteftion when they happened to ftand in need of
it. By the favour of Alexander the Great, Ptolemy
Soter, and Euergetes, the Jews enjoyed, at Alexan¬
dria, the fame privileges with the Macedonians. In
that metropolis the inhabitants were divided into three
ranks or claffes. In the firft were the Macedonians,
or original founders of the city, and along with
them were enrolled the Jews. In the fecond were the
Mercenaries who had ferved under Alexander; and in
the third, the native Egyptians. Ptolemy now, to
be revenged of the Jews, ordered, by another decree,
that they (hould be degraded from the firft rank, and
enrolled among the native Egyptians. By the fame
decree it was enafted, that all of that nation ftiould ap¬
pear at an appointed time before the proper officers, in
order to be enrolled among the common people; that
at the time of their enrollment they fliould have the
mark of an ivy leaf, the badge of Bacchus, impreffed
with a hot iron on their faces; that all who were thus
marked, fhould be made Haves ; and laftly, that if any
one fhould ftand out againft this decree, he fhould be
immediately put to death. That he might not, however,
feem an enemy to the whole nation, he declared, that
thofe who facrificed to his gods fhould enjoy their for¬
mer
K G Y * [ 2635 j E G Y
Egypt- mer privileges, and remain in the fame clafs. Yet, not-
withftanding this tempting offer, 300 only, out of ma¬
ny thoufand Jews who lived in Alexandria, could be
prevailed upon to abandon their religion in order to fave
themfelves from flavery.
The apoftates were immediately excommunicated by
their brethren : and this their enemies donftrued as
done in oppofition to the king’s order; which threw
the tyrant into fuch a rage, that he refolved to extir¬
pate the whole nation, beginning with the Jews who
lived in Alexandria and other cities of Egypt, and
proceeding from thence to Judaea and Jerufalem itfelf.
In confequence of this cruel refolution, he commanded
all the Jews that lived in any part of Egypt to be
brought in chains to Alexandria, and there to be fhut
up in the Hippodrome, which was a very fpacious
place without the city, where the people ufed to af-
femble to fee horfe-races and other public diverfions.
He then fent for Hermon, mafter of the elephants;
and commanded him to have^oo of thefe animals ready
againft the next day, to let loofe upon the Jews in the
Hippodrome. But when the elephants were prepared
for the execution, and the people were affembled in
great crowds to fee it, they were, for that day, difap-
pointed by the king’s abfence. For, having been late
up the night before with fome of his debauched com¬
panions, he did not awake till the time for the fhew
was over, and the fpe&ators returned home. He
therefore ordered one of his fervants to call him early
on the following day, that the people might not meet
with a fecond difappointment. But when the perfon
awaked him according to his order, the king was not
yet returned to his fenfes; having withdrawn, exceed¬
ingly drunk, only a fhort time before. As he did not
remember the order, he therefore fell into a violent
paflion, and threatened with death thefervant who had
awaked him ; and this caufed the fhew to be put off
till the third day. At laft the king came to the Hip¬
podrome, attended with a vaft multitude of fpedlators;
but when the elephants were let loofe, inflead of fall¬
ing upon the Jews, they turned their rage againft the
fpe&ators and foldiers, and deftroyed great numbers of
them. At the fame time, fome frightful appearances
which were feen in the air, fo terrified the king that he
commanded the Jews to be immediately fet at liberty,
and reftored them to their former privileges. No fooner
were they delivered from this danger, than they demand¬
ed leave to put to death fuch of their nation as had a-
bandoned their religion; and this being granted, they
difpatched the apoftates without excepting a Angle
3I man.
Ptolemy Philopator was fucceeded by Ptolemy Epiphanes;
and he, after a reign of 24 years, by Ptolemy Philo-
foner by"* nietor* In the beginning of his reign, a war com-
Antioclnis, nienced with the king of Syria, who had feiv.ed on the
and Phyf- provinces of Ccele-Syria antfPaleftine in the preceding
reign. In the courfe of this war, Philometor was en¬
throne. thfr voluntarily delivered up to A^fiochus, or taken
prifoner. But, however this was, the Alexandrians
defpairing of his ever being able to recover his liberty,
raifed to the throne his brother Ptolemy, who took the
name "of Euergetes II. but was afterwards called Phyf-
con, or the great-bellied, on account of the prominent
belly which by his gluttony and luxury he had acqui¬
red. He was fcarce feated on the throne, however,
when Antiochus Epiphanes, returning into Egypt, Egypt-
drove out Phyfcon, and reftored the whole kingdom, 3l
except Pelufium, to Philometor. His defign was to Philometor
kindle a war betwixt the two brothers, fo that he reftored,
might have an opportunity of feizing the kingdom for
himfelf. For this reafon he kept to himfelf the city brother,
of Pelufium; which being the key of Egypt, he might
at his pleafure re-enter the country. But Philometor,
apprifed of his defign, invited his brother Phyfcon to
an accomodation; which was happily effefted by their »
fitter Cleopatra. In virtue of this agreement, the bro¬
thers were to reign jointly, and to oppofe to the ut-
moft of their power Antiochus, whom they confidered
as a common enemy. On this the king of Syria in¬
vaded Egypt with a mighty army, but was prevented
by the Romans from conquering it. 33
The two brothers were no fooner freed from the ap- D'^rence
prehenfions of a foreign enemy, than they began to *
quarrel with each other. Their differences foon came thers de¬
tofu ch a height, that the Roman fenate interpofed. cided by the
But before the ambaffadors employed to inquire into Roman &m
the merits of the caufe could arrive in Egypt, Phyfcon nate"
had driven Philometor from the throne, and obliged
him to quit the kingdom. On this the dethroned
prince fled to Rome, where he appeared meanly dref-
fed, and without attendants. He was very kindly re¬
ceived by the fenate; who were fo well fatisfied of the
injuftice done him, that they immediately decreed his
reftoration. He was recondu&ed accordingly; and,
on the arrival of the ambaffadors in Egypt, an accom¬
modation between the two brothers was negociated.
By this agreement, Phyfcon was put in poffeflion of
Libya and Cyrene, and Philometor of all Egypt and
the ifland of Cyprus ; each of them being declared in¬
dependent of the other in the dominion allotted to
them. The treaty, as ufual, was confirmed with oaths
and facrifices, and was broken almoft as foon as made.
Phyfcon was diffatisfied with his (hare of the domi¬
nions ; and therefore fent ambaffadors to Rome, defiring
that the ifland of Cyprus might be added to his other
poffeffions. This could not be obtained by the ambaf¬
fadors ; and therefore Phyfcon went to Rome in per- 34
fon. His demand was evidently unjuft ; but the Ro- Ifland of
mans, confidering that it was their intereft to weaken pyPrus
the power of Egypt as much as poffible, without fur- phyfcon!
ther ceremony adjudged the ifland to him.
Phyfcon fet out from Rome with two ambaffadors;
and arriving in Greece on his way to Cyprus, he raifed
there a great number of mercenaries, with a defign to
fail immediately to that ifland and conquer it. But
the Roman ambaffadors telling him, that they were
commanded to put him in poffeffion of it by fair means,
and not by force, he difmiffed his army, and returned
to Libya, while one of the ambaffadors proceeded to
Alexandria. Their defign was to bring the two bro¬
thers to an interview on the frontiers of their domi¬
nions, and there to fettle matters in an amicable man¬
ner. But the ambaffador who went to Alexandria,
found Philometor very averfe from compliance with the
decree of the fenate. He put off the ambaffador fo
long, that Phyfcon fent the other alfo to Alexandria, 3J
hoping that the joint perfuafions of the two would in-Philomeior
duce Philometor to comply. But the king, after en-refufes t0
tertaining them at an immenfe charge for 40 days, atcornE y*
laft plainly refufed to fubmit, and told the ambaffadors
that
E G Y [ 2636 ] E G Y
, Egypt- that he was refolved to adhere to the firft treaty. With
this anfwer the Roman ambafladors departed, and were
followed by others from the two brothers. The fe-
nate, however, not only confirmed their decree in fa¬
vour of Phyfcon, but renounced their alliance with
Philometor, and commanded his ambaffador to leave
the city in five days.
Rebellion In the mean time, the inhabitants of Cyrene, having
againft heard unfavourable accounts of Phyfcon’s behaviour
Phyfcon. dur|ng (-{je (hort time he reigned in Alexandria, con¬
ceived foilrong an averfion againft him, that they .re¬
folved to keep him out of their country by force of
arms. On receiving intelligence of this refolution,
Phyfcon dropped all thoughts of Cyprus for the pre-
fent; and haftened with all his forces to Gyrene, where
he foon got the better of his rebellious fubje&s, and
eftabliftied himfelf in the kingdom. His vicious and
tyrannical conduct, however, foon eftranged from him
the minds of his fuhje&s, in fuch a manner, that fome
of them entering into a confpiracy againft him, fell
upon him one night as he was returning to his palace,
wounded him in feveral places, and left him for dead
on the fpot. This he laid to the charge of his bro¬
ther Philometor; and as foon as he was recovered, took
another voyage to Rome. Here he made his com¬
plaints to the fenate, and (hewed them the fears of his
wounds, accufing his brother of having employed the
affaffins from whom he received them. Though Phi¬
lometor was known to be a man of a moft humane and
mild difpofition, and therefore very unlikely to have
been concerned in fo. black an attempt; yet the fenate,
being offended at his refufing to fubmit to their decree
concerning the ifland of Cyprus, hearkened to this falfe
accufation ; and carried their prejudice fo far, that they
not only refufed to.hear what his ambaffadors had to fay,
but ordered them immediately to depart from the city.
At the fame time, they appointed five commiffioners to
conduct Phyfcon into Cyprus, and put him in poffef-
fion of that bland, enjoining all their allies in thofe
parts to fupply him with forces for that purpofe.
Phyfcon .having by this means got together an ar¬
my which feemed to him to be' fufficient for the ac-
compliftiment of his defign, landed in Cyprus ; but be-
37 ing there encountered by Philometor in perfon, he
He is <le- was entirely defeated, and obliged to (belter himfelf in
hated and a city called Lapitho. Here he was clofely befieged,
huier by'' anc* at ^ obliged to furrender. Every one now tx-
Philome- petted that Phyfcon would have been treated as he
tor. deferved ; but his brother, inftead of puntfhing, refto-
red him to the government of Libya and Cyrene, ad¬
ding fome othef territories inftead of the ifland of Cy¬
prus, and promifing him his -daughter in marriage.
Thus an end was put to the war between the two bro¬
thers ; for the Romans were afhamed any longer to
oppofe a prince who had given fuch a fignal inftance of
his juftice and clemency.
On hi? return to Alexandria, Philometor appointed
one Archias governor of Cyprus. But he, foon after
the king’s departure, agreed with Demetrius king of
Syria, to betray the ifland to him for 500 talents.
The treachery was difeovered before it took effeft; and
the traitor, to avoid the punifhment due to his crime,
laid violent hands on himfelf. Ptolemy being offended
with Demetrius for this attempt on Cyprus, joined
Attalus king of Pergamus, and Ariarathes king of
Cappadocia, in fetting up a pretender to the crown of Egyft,
Syria. This was Alexander Balas; to whom he even
gave his daughter Cleopatra in marriage, after he had
placed him on the throne of Syria. But he, notwith-
ftanding thefe and many other favours, being fufpeded
of having entered into a plot againft his benefadtor,
Ptolemy became his greateft enemy ; and marching
againft him, routed his army in the neighbourhood of 3^
Antioch. He did not, however, long enjoy his "vie- j
tory; for he died in a few days after the engagement, tor-
of the wounds he had received.
On the death of Philometor, Cleopatra the queen
defigned to fecure the throne for her fon. But fome
of the principal nobility declaring for Phyfcon, a civil
war was about to enfue, when matters were compro-
mifed on condition that Phyfcon (hould marry Cleo¬
patra, that he (hould reign jointly with her during his
life, and declare her fon by Philometor heir to the ^
crown. Thefe terms were no fooner agreed upon than Monftrous 1
Phyfcon married Cleopatra, and, on the very day of wickednefs |
the nuptials, murdered her fon in her arms.—This was Phyfcon.
only a prelude to the cruelties which he afterwards
pradtifed on his fubje&{>. He was no fooner feated on
the throne, than he put to death all thofe who had
(hewn any concern for the murder of the young prince.
He then wrecked his fury on the Jews, whom he
treated more like (laves than fubjefts, on account of
their having favoured the caufe of Cleopatra. His own
people were treated with little more ceremony. Num¬
bers of them were every day put to death for the fmal-
left faults, and often for no fault at all, but merely to
gratify his inhuman temper. His cruelty towards the
Alexandrians is particularly mentioned under the ar¬
ticle Alexandria—In a (hort time, being wearied of
his queen, who was alfo his fifter, he divorced her; and
married her daughter, who was alfo called Cleopatra,
and whom he had previoufly raviflied. In (hort, his 40
behaviour was fo exceedingly wicked, that it foon be- He is driven
came quite intolerable to his fubje&s; and he was obli- 0llt• §
ged to fly to the ifland of Cyprus with his new queen,
and Memphitis, a fon he had by her mother.
On the flight of the king, the divorced queen was J
placed on the throne by the Alexandrians; but Phyfcon,
fearing left; a fon whom be bad left behind (hould be ap¬
pointed king, fentfor him into Cyprus, andcaufedhim
to be affaffinated as foon as he landed. This provoked
the people againft him to fuch a degree, that they pulled
down and daftied to pieces all the ftatues which had been
erefted to him in Alexandria. This the tyrant fuppofed
to have been done at the inftigation of the queen, and
therefore refolved to revenge it on her by killing his own 4,
fon whom he had by her. He therefore, without the Murders <
lead; remorfe, caufed the young prince’s throat to be bis fon.
cut; and having put his mangled limbs into a box,
fent them as a prefent to his mother Cleopatra. The * ;
meffenger with whom this box was fent, was one of
his guardsi He was ordered to wait till the queen’s
b:rth-day, which approached, and was to be celebrated
with extraordinary pomp; and in the midft of the ge¬
nera! rejoicing, he was to deliver the prefent.
The horror and deteftation occafioned by this un¬
exampled piece of cruelty cannot be expreffed. An
army was foon raifed, and the command of it given to
one Marfyas, whom the queen had appointed general,
and enjoined to take all the neceflary fteps for the de¬
fence
E G y [ 2637 3 E G Y
tgypt.
i 43
Ptolemy
Lathyrtis
and Alex¬
ander fet
up.
Cyrenaica
bequeathed
to the Ro-
fence of the country. On the other hand, Phyfcon,
having hired a numerous body of mercenaries, fent
them, under the command of one Hegelochus, againft
the Egyptians. The two armies met on the frontiers
of Egypt, on which a bloody battle enfued ; but at
laft the Egyptians w'ere entirely defeated, and Marfyas
was taken prifoner. Every one expe&ed that the cap¬
tive general would have been put to death with the fe-
vereft torments : but Phyfcon, perceiving that his cru¬
elties only exafperated the people, refolved to try whe¬
ther he could regain their affeftions by lenity ; and
therefore pardoned Marfyas, and fet him at liberty.^—
Cleopatra, in the mean time, being greatly diftreffed
by this overthrow, demanded afiiitance from Deme¬
trius king of Syria, who had married her eldeft daugh¬
ter by Philometor, promifing him the crown of Egypt
for his reward. Demetrius accepted the propofal
without hefitation, marched with all his forces into E-
gypt, and there laid fiege to Peluiium. But he being
no lefs hated in Syria than Phyfcon was in Egypt, the
people of Antioch, taking advantage of his abfence,
revolted againft him, and were joined by moft of the
other cities in Syria. Thus Demetrius was -obliged
to return ; and Cleopatra, being now in no condition to
oppofe Phyfcon, fled to Ptolemais, where her daughter
the queen of Syria at that time refided. Phyfcon was
then reftored to the throne of Egypt, which he enjoyed
without further moleftation till his death ; which hap¬
pened at Alexandria, in the 29th year of his reign,
and 67th of his age.
To Phyfcon fucceeded Ptolemy Lathyrus, about
122 years before Chrift; but he had not reigned long,
before his mother, finding that he would not be entirely
^governed by her, by falfe furmifes ftirred up the A-
lexandrians, who drove him from the throne, and placed
on it his youngeft brother Alexander. Eathyrus after
’ this was obliged to content himfelf with the govern¬
ment of Cyprus, which he was permitted to enjoy in
quiet. Ptolemy Alexander, in the mean time, finding
he was to have only the fhadow of fovereignty, and
that his mother Cleopatra was to have all the power,
ftole away privately from Alexandria. The queen
ufed every artifice to bring him back, as well knowing
that the Alexandrians would never fuffer her to reign
alone. At laft her fon yielded to her intreaties ; but
foon after, underftanding that (he had hired afiaffins to
difpatch him, he caufed her to be murdered.
The death of the queen was no fooner known to the
Alexandrians, than, difdaining to be commanded by a
parricide, they drove out Alexander, and recalled La¬
thyrus.—The depofed prince for fome time led a ram¬
bling life in the ifland of Cos ; but having got toge¬
ther fome’ (hips, he, the next year, attempted to return
into Egypt. But, being met by Tyrrhus, Lathyrus’s
admiral, he was defeated, and obliged to fly to Myra
in Lycia. From Myra he fteered his courfe towards
Cyprus, hoping that the inhabitants would place him
on the throne, inftead of his brother. But Chareas,
another of Lathyrus’s admirals, coming up with him
while he was ready to land, an enga^jiment enfued, in
which Alexander’s fleet was difperfed, and he himfelf
killed.
During thefe diftnrbances, Aplon king of Cyrenai¬
ca, the fon of Ptolemy Phyfcon by a concubine, ha¬
ving maintained peace and tranquillity in his dominions
Vol. IV.
during a reign of 21 years, died, and by his will left Egypt,
his kingdom to the Romans; and thus the Egyptian
empire was confiderably reduced and circumfcribed.
Lathyrus being now delivered from all competitors,
turned his arms againft the city of Thebes, which had 46
revolted from him. The king marched in perfon City of
againft the rebels; and, having defeated them in a Thebes
pitched battle, laid clofe fiege to their city. The in- ruinc
habitants defended themfelves with great refolution for
three years. At laft, however, they were obliged to
fubmit, and the city was given up to be plundered by
the foldiery. They left every where the moft melan¬
choly monuments of their avarice and cruelty; fo that
Thebes, which till that time had been one of the moil
wealthy cities of Egypt, was now reduced fo low that
it never afterwards made any figure. 47
About 76 years before Chrift, Ptolemy Lathyrus Alexander
was fucceeded by Alexander II. He was the fon of ^'t^ucrc“<ls
the Ptolemy Alexander for whom Lathyrus had been y
driven out; and had met with many adventures. He
was firft fent by Cleopatra into the ifland of Cos, with
a great fum of money, and all her jewels ; as thinking
that was the fafeft place where they could be kept.
When Mithridates king of Pontus made himfelf mailer
of that ifland, the inhabitants delivered up to him the
young Egyptian prince, together with all the trea-
fures. Mithridates gave him an education fuitable to
his birth ; but he, not thinking himfelf fafe with a
prince who had filed the blood of his own children,
. fled to the camp of Sylla the Roman didlator, who
was then making war in Afia. From that time he li¬
ved in the family of the Roman general, till news was
brought to Rome of the death of Lathyrus. Sylla
then fent him to Egypt to take poffeflion of the throne.
But, before his arrival, the Alexandrians had chofen
Cleopatra for their fovereign. To compromife matters,
however, it was agreed, that Ptolemy fliould marry 4g
her, and take her for his partner in the throne. This Marries
was accordingly done ; and 19 days after the marriage, Cleopatra,
the unhappy queen was murdered by her hufband, who *nd 1?™r'
for 15 years afterwards (hewed himfelf fuch a monfter ders er’
of wickednefs, that a general infurre&ion at laft en¬
fued among his fubjedfs, and he was obliged to fly to
Pompey the Great, who was then carrying on the war
againft Mithridates king of Pontus. But Pompey re-
fufing to concern himfelf in the matter, he retired to
the city of Tyre, where he died fome months after.
When he was forced to (hut himfelf up in the city
of Tyre, Alexander had fent ambafladors to Rome, in
order to influence the fenate in his favour. But, dy- Leaves his
ing before the negotiation was finiflied, he made over kingdom to
by his laft will all his rights to the Roman people, de-tlie Ro-
claringthem heirs to his kingdom ; not out of any af- tnans"
fe&ion to the republic ; but with a view to raife dif-
pntes between the Romans and his rival Auletes, whom
the Egyptians had placed on the throne. The will
was brought to Rome, where it occafioned warm de¬
bates. Some were for taking immediate pofiefiion of
the kingdom. Others thought that no notice (hould
be taken of fuch a will, beeaufe Alexander had no
right to difpofe of his dominions in prejudice of his fuc-
ceffor, and to exclude from the crown thofe who were
of the royal blood of Egypt. Cicero reprefented, that
fuch a notorious impofition would debafe the majefty of
the Roman people, and involve them in endlefs wars
ij PI and
E G Y [ 2638 ] E G Y
Egypt- and dlfputes ; that the fruitful fields of Egypt would
be a ftrong temptation to the avarice of the people,
who would infift on their being divided among them ;
and laftly, that by this means the bloody quarrels a-
bout the Agrarian laws would be revived. Theferea-
fons had fome weight with the fenate; but what chief¬
ly prevented them from feizing on Egypt at this time
was, that they had lately taken pofleffion of the king¬
dom of Bithynia in virtue of the will of Nicomedes,
and. of Cyrene and Libya by the will of Apion.
They thought therefore, that if they fiiould, on the
like pretence, take poffeflion of the kingdom of Egypt,
this might too much expofe their defign of fetting up
a kind of univerfal monarchy, and occafion a formi-
50 dable combination againft them.
Charafter Auletes, who was now raifed to the throne by the
thenew1*3 Egyptians, is faid to have furpafied all the kings that
king. went before him in the effeminacy of his manners. The
name Auletes, which fignifies the flute-player, was gi¬
ven him becaufe he piqued himfelf on his ffcill in per¬
forming upon that inftrument, and was not affiamed
even to contend for the prize in the public games. He
took great pleafure in imitating the manners of the
Bacchanals; dancing in a female drefs, and in the
fame meafures that they ufed during the folemnity of
their god Bacchus ; and hence he had the furname of
the New Dionyfius or Bacchus. As his title to the
crown was disputable, (he being only the fon of a
concubine), the firft care of Auletes was to get him-
j, felf acknowledged by the Romans, and declared their
Is acknow- ally. This was obtained by applying to Julius Caefar,
ledged by who was at that time conful, and immenfely in debt.
snanf"0" Caefar being glad of fuch an opportunity of raifing
money, made the king of Egypt pay pretty dear for
his alliance. Six thoufand talents, a fum equal to
t,162,500 pounds Sterling, were paid partly to Coe-
far himfelf, and partly to Pompey, whole intereft was
neceflary for obtaining the confent of the people.
Though the revenues of Egypt amounted to twice this
fum, yet Auletes found it impoflible for him to raife it
without feverely taxing his fubjefts. This occafioned
a general difcontent; and while the people were almoft
ready to take up arms, a moft unjuft decree palled at
Rome for feizing the iffand of Cyprus. When the A
cxandrians heard of the intentions of the republic, they
prefled Auletes to demand that illand as an ancient ap¬
pendage of Egypt; and, in cafe of a refufal, to de¬
clare war againft that haughty and imperious people,
who, they now faw, though too late, aimed at no¬
thing lefs than the fovereignty of the world. With
this requeft the king refufed to comply ; upon which
his fubjefts, already provoked beyond meafure at the
taxes with which they were loaded, flew to arms, and
Is driven furrounded the palace. The king had the good luck
from the to efcape their fury, and immediately leaving Alex-
flies’to* andria, fet fail for Rome.
.Rome. In h,s wa7 t0 t^iat city* landed on the illand of
Rhodes, where the famous Cato at that time was, be¬
ing on his way to Cyprus, to put the unjuft decree of
the fenate in execution. Auletes, defirous to confer
with a man of his prudence, immediately fent to ac¬
quaint him with his arrival. He imagined, that, up¬
on this notice, Cato would immediately come and wait
upon him ; but the proud Roman told the meffenger,
that if the king of Egypt had any thing to fay to Ca¬
to, he might, if he thought proper, come to his houfe. Egypt- |
Accordingly the king went to pay him a vifit; but was*” 1
received with very little ceremony by Cato, who did
not even vouchfafe to rife out of his feat when he came 5 5 f .‘*.4
into his prefenc^. When Auletes had laid his affairs 9^°^
before this haughty republican, he was blamed byhimV1CL °
for leaving Egypt, the richeft kingdom in the world;
in order to expofe himfelf, as he faid, to the indigni-
nities he would meet with at Rome. There, Cato told
him, that nothing was io requeft but wealth and gra-
deur. All the riches of Egypt, he faid, would not be
fufficient to fatisfy the avarice of the leading men in
Rome. He therefore advifed him to return to Egypt; , a
and ftrive, by a more equitable conduft, to regain
the affe&ions of his people. He even offered to re-
condudt him thither, and employ his good offices in
his behalf. But though Ptolemy was fenfible of the
propriety of this advice, the friends he had with him
diffuaded him from following it, and accordingly he
fet out for Rome. 54. |
On his arrival in this metropolis, the king found, to Infamous I
his great concern, that Caefar, in whom he placed h*8 Auletes fl
greateft confidence, was then in Gaul. He wasrecei- ' 1
ved, however, by Pompey with great kindnefs. He
afiigned him an apartment in his own houfe, and omitted
nothing that lay in his power to ferve him. But, not-
withftanding the prote&ion of fo powerful a man, Au¬
letes was forced to go from houfe to houfe like a pri¬
vate perfon, folicitiug the votes of the fenators. Af¬
ter he had fpent immenfe treafures in procuring a
ftrong party in the city, he was at laft permitted to
lay his complaints before the fenate ; and at the fame ' j
time there arrived an embaffy from the Alexandrians,
confifting of 100 citizens, to acquaint the fenate witlr
the reafons of their revolt. ||
When Auletes firft fet out for Rome, the Alexan- Berenice ‘*j
drians, not knowing what was become of him, placed railed to the, j
on the throne his daughter Berenice; and fent an em- ^lro,'e of ! j
baffy into Syria to Antiochus Afiaticus, inviting him
into Egypt to marry the queen, and reign in partner-
ftiip with her. Antiochus was dead before the arrival
of the ambafladors ; upon which the fame propofal was 5s \
made to his brother Seleucus, who readily accepted it. She marriei®
This Seleucus is deferibed by Strabo as monftroufly de- mor’ 'i
formed in body, and ftill more fo in mind. The E- j"rs I
gyptians nicknamed him Cybkfattes, or the Scullion ; a
name which feemed more fit for him than any other.
He was fcarce fettled on the throne, when he gave a
fignal inftance of his fordid and avaricious temper.
Ptolemy the firft had caufed the body of Alexander the
Great to be depofited in a coffin of mafi'y gold. This
the king feized upon; and by that means provoked his
wife Berenice to fuch a degree, that fhe caufed him to s7
be murdered. She then married one Archelaus, high Marries 1
prieft of Comana in Pontus, who pretended to be the Archelaus. j
fon of Mithridates the Great; but was, in fadt, only
the fon of that monarch’s general.
Auletes was not a little alarmed on hearing of thefe
tranfadlions, efpecially when the ambaffadors arrived,
who he feared w(»uld overturn all the fchemes he had
laboured fo much to bring about. The embaffy was 58 ^
headed by one Dion, a celebrated academic philofopher, Au**te5 , j
who had many powerful friends at Rome. But Ptolemy Egyptian
found means to get both him and moft of his followers ambaffa-
affafiinated; and this intimidated the reft to fuch ade- dors. >
gree.
E G Y [ 2639 ] E G Y
Egypt, gree, that they durft not execute their commiffion, or,
“ for fome time, even demand juftice for the murder of
their colleagues.
The report of fo many murders, however, at laft
fpread a general alarm. Auletes, fore of the protec¬
tion of Pompey, did not fcruple to own himfelf the
perpetrator of them. Nay, though an aftion was
commenced againft one Afcitius an affaffin who had
ftabbed Dio the chief of the embafly abovementioned,
and the crime was folly proved; yet he was acquitted
by the venal judges, who had all been bribed by Pto¬
lemy. In a (hort time, the fenate paffed a decree, by
„ which it was enafted, that the king of Egypt (hould
a His reftora- be reftored by force of arms. All the great men in
liTthefe-^ Rome were ambitious of this commiffion ; which, they
well knew, would be attended with itnmenfe profit.
Their contefts on this occafion took up a eonfiderable
time; and at laft a prophecy of the Sybil was found
out, which forbad the affifi:ng,an Egyptian monarch
with an army. Ptolemy therefore, wearied out with fo
long a delay, retired from Rome, where he had made
himfelf generally odious, to the temple of Diana at
Ephefus, there to wait the decifion of his fate. Here
he remained a confiderable time: but as he faw that the
fenate came to no refolution, tho’ he had folicited them
by letters fo to do; at laft, by Pompey’s advice, he ap¬
plied to Gabinius the proconful of Syria. This Gabi-
nius was a man of a moft infamous character, and ready
to undertake any thing for money. Therefore, tho’
it was contrary to an exprefs law for any governor to
go out of his province without pofitive orders from the
fenate and people of Rome, yet Gabinius ventured to
tranfgrefs this law, upon condition of being well paid
for his pains. As a recompenfe for his trouble, how¬
ever, he demanded 10,000 talents; that is, 1,937,500
pounds Sterling. Ptolemy, glad to be reftored on
any terms, agreed to pay the abovementioned fom ;
but Gabinius would not ftir till he had received one
half of it. This obliged the king to borrow it from
a Roman knight named Caius Rabirius Pojihumius;
Pompey interpofing his credit and authority for the
payment of the capital and intereft.
Gabinius now fet out for Egypt, attended by the
famous Mark Anthony, who at this time ferved in the
army under him. He was met by Archelaus, who
iince the departure of Auletes had reigned in Egypt
jointly with Berenice, at the head of a numerous ar¬
my. The Egyptians were utterly defeated, and Ar¬
chelaus taken prifoner in the firft engagement. Thus
Gabinius might have put an end to the war at once :
but his avarice prompted him to difmifs Archelaus on
his paying a confiderable ranfom ; after which, pre¬
tending that he hacfmade his efcape, frefti fums were de¬
manded from Ptolemy for defraying the expences of the
war. For thefe fums Ptolemy was again obliged to
6t apply to Rabirius, who lent him what money he
Archelaus wanted at a very high intereft. At laft, however, Ar-
iud killed. chelaus was defeated and killed, and thus Ptolemy a-
gain became mafter of all Egypt. *
6% No fooner was Auletes firmly fettled on the throne,
Berenice than he put to death his daughter Berenice, and op-
deith* and Pre^e(^ ^1S PeoP^e w‘th the moft cruel exaclions, in or-
the people der to procure the money he had been obliged to bor-
oppreffed. row while in i ftate of exile. Thefe oppreffions and
exaftionsthe cowardly Egyptians bore with great pa-
Cabinius
undertakes
to reftore
great fum.
tience, being intimidated by the garrifon which Gabi- Egypt,
nius had left in Alexandria. But neither the fear of ’ ~
the Romans, nor the authority of Ptolemy, could make
them put up an affront offered to their religion. A Ro¬
man foldier happened to kill a cat, which was an ani¬
mal held facred and even worfhipped by the Egyptians;
and no fooner was this fuppofed facrilege known, than
the Alexandrians made a general inforre&ion, and, ga¬
thering together in crowds, made their way through
the Roman guards, dragged the foldier out of his
houfe, and, in fpite of all oppofition, tore him in
pieces.
Notwithftanding the heavy taxes, however, which
Ptolemy laid on his people, it doth not appear that he
had any d&ign of paying his debts. Rabirius, who, 6j
as we have already obferved, had lent him immenfe Ingratitude
foms, finding that the king affe&ed delay’s, took a of Auletes.
voyage to Egypt, in order to expoftulate with him in
perfon. Ptolemy paid very little regard to his expo-
ftulations ; but excufed himfelf on account of the bad
ftate of his finances. For this reafon he offered to
make Rabirius colle&or-general of his revenues, that he
might in that employment pay himfelf. The unfor¬
tunate creditor accepted the employment for fear of
lofing his debt. But Ptolemy, foon after, upon fome
frivolous pretence or other, caufed him and all his fer-
vants to be clofely confined. This bafe condudl exaf-
perated Pompey as much as Rabirius; for the former
had been in a manner fecurity for the debt, as the mo¬
ney had been lent at his requeft, and the bufinefs tranf-
afted at a country-houfe of his near Alba. How¬
ever, as Rabirius had reafon to fear the worft, he took
the firft opportunity of making his efcape, glad to get
off with life from his cruel and faithlefs debtor. To
complete his misfortunes, he was profecuted at Rome
as foon as he returned, 1. For having enabled Ptole¬
my to corrupt the fenate with fums lent him for that
purpofe. 2. For having debafed and difhonoured the
charafter of a Roman knight, by farming the reve¬
nues, and becoming the fervant of a foreign prince.
3. For having been an accomplice with Gabinius, and
ftiaring with him the 10,000 talents which that pro-
confol had received for his Egyptian expedition. By
the eloquence of Cicero he was acquitted, and one of
the beft orations to be found in the writings of that
author was compofed on this occafion. Gabinius was
alfo profecuted ; and, as Cicero fpoke againft him, he
very narrowly efcaped death. He was, however, con¬
demned to perpetual baniihment, after having been
ftripped of all he was worth. He lived in exile till the
time of the civil wars, when he was recalled by Cxfar,
in whofe fervice he loft his life.
Auletes enjoyed the throne of Egypt about f°ur Leave* Irs
years after his re-eftabliftiment; and at his death left children to
his children, a fon and two daughters, under the tui- the care of
tion of the Roman people. The name of the fon was ^ R0"
Ptolemy, thofe of the daughters were Cleopatra andmaus*
Arftnoe. This was the Cleopatra who afterwards be¬
came fo famous, and had fo great a lhare in the civil
wars of Rome. As the tranfaftions of the prefent
reign, however, are fo clofely connected with the af¬
fairs of Rome, that they cannot be well underftood
without knowing the fituation of the Romans at that
time, we refer for an account of them to the Hijlory
c/'Rome.
15 H 2
With
Egypt.
E G Y [ 2640 ] E G Y
With Cleopatra ended the family of Ptolemy Lagus, forces of A1 Aftekin. He therefore retreated, or ra»
the founder of the Grecian empire in Egypt, after it ther fled, towards Egypt with the utmoft expedition ;
State of E- had held that country in fubjeftion for the fpace of but being overtaken by the two confederate armies, he
gypt till its 294 years. From this time Egypt became a province
s 294 years.    r ov r t 
the khaflf ^ t*'e ^-oman empireJ ancl continued fubjeft to the
of'cairwan emPerors Ronae or Conftantinople. In the year
642, it was conquered by the Arabs under Amru Ebn
A1 As, one of the generals of the Khalif Omar. In
the year 889, an independent government was fet up
in this kingdom by Ahmed Ebn Tolun, who rebelled
againft A1 Mokhadi khalif of Bagdad. It continued
to be governed by him and his fucceflbrs for 27 years,
when it was again reduced by A1 Mo&afi khalif of Bag¬
dad. In about 30 years after, we find it again an in
dependent ftate, being joined with Syria under Maho
met Ebn Taj, who had been appointed goverm
thefe provinces. This government, however, was al-
fo but fliort-lived ; for in the year 968 it wasconquer-
^ ed by Jawhar, one of the generals of Moez Ledinillah,
t^le ^'atem*te khalif of Cairwan in Barbary
No fooner was Moez informed of the fuccefs of his
Moez
takes pof-
feflion of
was foon reduced to the laft extremity. He was, how¬
ever, permitted to refume his march, on condition that
he pafied under A1 Aftekin’s fword and A1 Hakem’s
lance; and to this difgraceful condition Jawhar found
himfelf obliged to fubmit. On his arrival in Egypt,
he immediately advifed A1 Aziz to undertake an expe¬
dition in perfon into tlie eaft, againft the combined ar¬
my of Turks, Karmatians, and Damafcenes, under the
command of A1 Aftekin and A1 Hakem. The khalif
followed his advice; and advancing againft his enemies,
overthrew them with great daughter. A1 Aftekin
himfelf efcaped out of the battle; but was afterwards
of taken and brought to A1 Aziz, who made him his
chamberlain, and treated him with great kindnefs.
Jawhar, in the mean time, was difgraced on account of
his bad fuccefs; and in this difgrace he continued till
his death, which happened in the year of our Lord 990,
and of the Hegira 381.
general, than he prepared with all expedition to go and This year A1 Aziz having received advice of the Aleppo be¬
take poffeffion of his new conqueft. Accordingly he death of Saado’dawla prince of Aleppo, fent a formi-
ordered all the vaft quantities of gold which he and his dable army under the command of a general named
kingdom, predeceflbrs had amaffed, to be call into ingots of the Manjubekin, to reduce that place. Lulu, who had
fize and figure of the millftones ufed in hand mills, and been appointed guardian to Saado’dawla’s fon, finding
conveyed on camels backs into Egypt. To Ihew that
he was fully determined to abandon his dominions in
himfelf prefled by the Egyptians, who carried on the
fiege with great vigour, demanded afiift.ance from the
Barbary, and to make Egypt the refidence of himfelf Greek emperor. Accordingly, he ordered a body of
and his fuccefibrs, he caufed the remains of the three
former princes of his race to be removed from Cair¬
wan in Barbary, and to be depofited in a ftately mofque
erefted for that purpofe in the city of Cairo in Egypt.
This was a moft effeftual method to induce his fuccef-
fors to refide in Egypt alfo, as it was become an efta-
blilhed cuftom and'duty among thofe princes frequent¬
ly to pay their refpeftful vifits to the tombs of their
anceftors.
Will not To eftablilh himfelf the more effe&ually in his new
fuffer pray- dominions, Moez fupprefled the ufual prayers made in
faiVfor'th ^ mo^lues ^or t^’e khalifs of Bagdad, and fubftituted
khalif of * k's own name 1° their ftead. This was complied with,
Bagdad. 1,01 only in Egypt and Syria, but even throughout all
Arabia, the city of Mecca alone excepted. The con-
fequence was, a fchifm in the Mahommedan faith,
which continued upwards of 200 years, and was at¬
tended with continual anathemas, and fometimes de¬
troops to advance to Lulu’s relief. Manjubekin, being
informed of their approach, immediately raifed the
liege, and advanced to give them battle. An obfti-
nate engagement enfued, in which_the Greeks were at
laft overthrown with great {laughter. After this vic¬
tory, Manjubekin pufhed on the fiege of Aleppo
very brifkly; but finding the place capable of defend¬
ing itfelf much longer than he at firft imagined, and
his provifions beginning to fail, he raifed the fiege.
The khalif upon this fent him a very threatening let¬
ter, and commanded him to return before Aleppo. He
did fo; and continued the fiege for 13 months, during
all which time it was defended by Lulu with incredible
bravery. At laft, the Egyptians hearing that a nume¬
rous army of Greeks was on their way to relieve the
city, they raifed the fiege, and fled with the utmoft
precipitation. The Greeks then took and plundered
fome of the cities which A1 Aziz pofiefied in Syria ;
ftru&ive wars between the khalifs of Bagdad and of and Manjubekin made the beft of his way to Damaf-
XT a. HT *  £*--11 -/l-Ll'f! 1 L*_ 1 _ * ^ ...L V. .. „ T,. V. C T.-. 1T A 1 A..,*., K.A.wv. m n
Egypt.—Having fully eflabliflied himfelf in his king- cus, where he fet up for'himfelf. A1 Aziz being in-
dom, he died in the 45th year of his age, three years formed of this revolt, marched in perfon againft him
U n fuccefs-
after he had left his dominions in Barbary; and was
fucceeded by his fon Abu A1 Manfur Barar, furnamed
Aziz Billah.
The new khalif fucceeded to the throne at the age
of 21 ; and committed the management of affairs en¬
tirely to the care of Jawhar, his father’s long expe¬
rienced general and prime minifter. In 978, he fent
tioninto " fckis famous warrior to drive out A1 Aftekin, the emir
Syria. Damafcus. The Egyptian general accordingly
formed the fiege of that place; but at the end of two
months, was obliged to raife it, on the approach of an
army of Karmatians under the command of A1 Hakem.
As Jawhar was not ftrong enough to venture an en¬
gagement with thefe Karmatians, it was impoflible for
him to hinder them from effeAing a jun&ion with the
with a confiderable army; but being taken ill by the
way, he expired, in the 21ft year of his reign, and ^.zd
of his age.
A1 Aziz was fucceeded by his fon Abu A1 Manfur,
furnamed AI Hakem; who, being only 11 years of age,
was put under the tuition of an eunuch of approved
integrity. yo
This reign is remarkable for nothing fo much as the Strange
madnefs with which the khalif was feized in the latter madnefs of:.
part of it. This manifefted itfelf firft by his iffuing
many prepofterous edifts ; but at length grew to fuch
a height, that he fancied himfelf a god, and found no
fewer than 16,000 perfons who owned him as fuch.
Thefe were moftly the Dararians, a new feft fprung
up about this time, who were fo called from their chief.
Mo-
E G Y [ 2641 ] E G Y
Egypt- Mohammed Ebn Iflimael, furnamed Darari. He is
fuppofed to have infpired the mad khalif with this im¬
pious notion ; and, as Darari fet up for a fecond Mo-
fes, he did not fcruple to affert that A1 Hakem was the
great Creator of the univerfe. For this reafon, a zea¬
lous Turk ftabbed him in the khalif’s chariot. His
death was followed by a three days uproar in the
city of Cairo ; during which, Darari’s houfe was pull¬
ed down, and many of his followers maffacred. The
fe&, however, did not expire with its author. He
left behind him a difciple named Hamza, who, being
encouraged by the mad khalif, fpread it far and wide
through his dominions. This was quickly followed by
an abrogation of all the Mahommedan falls, feftivals,
and pilgrimages, the grand one to Mecca in particular;
fo that the zealous Mahometans were now greatly a-
larmed, as jultly fuppofing that A1 Hakem defigned
entirely to fupprefs the worlhip of the true God, and
introduce his own in its place. From this apprehen-
fion, however, they were delivered by the death of the
khalif; who was-alfafiinated, by a contrivance of his own
fitter, in the year 1020.
A1 Hakem was fucceeded by his fon A1 Thaher,
who reigned xy years; and left the throne to a fon un¬
der feven years of age, named A1 Moftanfer Billah.—
In the year 1041, a revolt happened in Syria; but A1
Moftanfer having fent a powerful army into that coun¬
try, under the command o£ one Anufotekin, he not
only reduced the rebels, but confiderably enlarged the
71 Egyptian dominions in Syria.
AlMoftan- In 1054, a Turk named A1 Bafiafiri, having qua-
fer attempts rej]e(j w|tb the vizir of A1 Kayem khalif of Bagdad,
mieftof to an^ Put himfelf under the protection of
Itagdad. A1 Moftanfer. The. latter, imagining this would be a
favourable opportunity for enlarging his dominions, and
perhaps feizing on the city of Bagdad, fupplied Baffa-
firi with money and troops. By this afliftance, he was
enabled to poffefs himfelf of Arabian Irak, and rava-
Khalif of ged that province to the very gates of Bagdad. On
Bagdad af- this, A1 Kayem wrote to Togrol Beg, or Tangroli-
TogrolBe P'x’ ^ie Turkilh fultan, who pofleffed very extenfive
* dominions in the eaft, to come to his affiftance. The
fultan immediately complied with hisrequeft, and foon
arrived at Bagdad with a formidable army and 18 ele¬
phants. Of this Baffafiri gave notice to A1 Moftan¬
fer, and iqtreated him to exert himfelf further for his
fupport againft fo powerful an enemy. This was ac¬
cordingly done, but nothing worthy of notice happened
till the year 1058. At this time Balfafiri having
found means to excite Ibrahim the Sultan’s brother to
■73 a revolt, Togrol Beg was obliged to employ all his
Bagdad u- force againft him. This gave Baffafiri an opportunity
ken. cf feizing on the city of Bagdad itfelf; and the unfor¬
tunate khalif, according to fome, was taken prifoner,
or, according to others, fled out of the city, Baffafiri,
on his entry, caufed A1 Moftanfer to be immediately
proclaimed khalif in all quarters of the city. A1 Kay-
em’s vizir he caufed to be led on a camel through the
llreets of Bagdad, dreffed in a woollen gown, with a
high red bonnet, and a leathern collar about his neck; a
man lafiiing him all the way behind. Then being fewed
up in a bull’s hide, with the horns placed over his
head, and hung upon hooks, he was beaten without
ceafing till he died. The imperial palace was plun¬
dered, and the khalif himfelf detained a clofe prifoner.
This fuccefs was but fiiort-lived; for, in 1059, To- Egypt,
grol Beg defeated his brother Ibrahim, took him pri-
loner, and ftrangled him with a bovv-ftring. He then The^halif
marched to Bagdad, which Baffafiri thought proper to reftored.
abandon at his approach. Here the khalif A1 Kayem
\vas delivered up by Mahras, the governor of a city
called Haditha, who had the charge of him. The
khalif was immediately reftored to his dignity; which
Baffafiri no fooner underftood, than he again advanced
towards the city. Againft him Togrol Beg fent a
part of his army under fome of his generals, while he
himfelf followed with the reft. A battle enfued, in
which the army of Baffafiri was defeated, and he him¬
felf killed. His head was brought to Togrol Beg,
who caufed it to be carried on a pike through the
ftreets of Bagdad.
Thus the hopes of A1 Moftanfer were entirely fru- Decline of
ftrated ; and from this period we may date the declen- 'J1' Egy?"
fion of the Egyptian empire under the khalifs. They tianemPire*
had made themfelves matters of almoft all Syria; but
no fooner was Baffafiri’s bad fuccefs known, than the
younger part of the citizens of Aleppo revolted, and
fet up Mahmud Azzo’dawla, who immediately laid
fiege to the citadel. A1 Moftanfer fent a powerful
army againft him, which Azzo’dawla entirely defeat¬
ed, and took the general himfelf prifoner; and foon
after this, he made himfelf matter both of the city and
citadel, with all their dependencies. In his new do¬
minions he behaved with the greateft cruelty, deftroy-
ing every thing with fire and fword, and making fre¬
quent incurfions into the neighbouring provinces,
which he treated in the fame manner. 7<;
Thisr difafter was foon followed by others ftill more TerriWe fa-
terrible. In 1066, a famine raged over all Egypt and m'!’e aM;l
Syria, with fuch fury, that dogs and cats were fold for p asuc'
four or five Egyptian dinars each, and other provifions
in proportion. Multitudes of people died in Cairo for
want of food. Nay, fo great was the fcarcity, that the
vizir had but one fervant left who was able to attend
him to the khalif’s palace, and to whom he gave the
care of his horfe when he alighted at the gate. But,
at his return, he was furprifed to find that the horfe
had been carried off, killed, and eaten, by the familhed
people. Of this he complained to the khalif; who
caufed three of them, who had carried off the horfe, to
be hanged. Next day, however, he was ftill more fur¬
prifed to hear, that all the flefti had been picked off the
bones of the three unhappy criminals, fo that nothing
but the flceletons were left. And to fuch a degree of
raifery were the inhabitants, not only in Cairo, but
through all Egypt, reduced, that the carcafes of thofe
who died were fold for food at a great price, inftead effac¬
ing buried. All this time the khalif (hewed the greateft
kindnefs and. beneficence towards his unhappy fubje&s,
infomuch,. that of io,odq horfes, mules, and camels,
which he had in his ttables when the famine began, he
had only three left when it was removed.
The famine was followed by a plague; and this by invaded by
an invafion of the Eurks under Abu AH A1 Hafan the Turks.
Naferod’dawla, the very general who bad been fent a-
gainft the rebel Azzo’dawla and defeated by him.
He began with befieging the khalif in his own palace;
and the unhappy prince, being in no condition to make
refiftance, was obliged to buy himfelf off at the ex¬
pence of every thing valuable that was left in his ex-
faaufted;
E G Y [ 2642 ] E G Y
•Egypt, haulted capital and treafury. This, however, did not
 hinder thefe mercilefs plunderers from ravaging all the
lower Egypt from Cairo to Alexandria,, and commit¬
ting the moft horrid cruelties through that whole traft.
—This happened in the years 1067 and 1068; and in
1069 and 1070, there happened two other revolts in
Syria: fo that this country-was now almoft entirely loft.
In 1095 died the khalif A1 Moftanfer, having reign¬
ed 60 years; and was fucceeded by his fon Abul Ka-
fem, furnamed A1 Moftali.—The moft remarkable
>8 tranfa&ion of this prince’s reign, was his taking the
Jerufalem city of Jerufalem from the Turks in 1098: but this
taken, fuccefs was only of fhort duration ; for it was, the fame
year, taken by the crufaders.
From this time to the year 1164, the Egyptian hi-
ftory affords little elfe than an account of the inteftine
broils and contefts between the vizirs or prime mini-
fters, who were now become fo powerful, that they had
in a great meafure ftripped the khalifs of their civil
•79 power, and left them nothing but a fhadow offpiritual
A reyolu- digmty. Thefe contefts at laft gave occafion to a re-
kingdom.6 vo'ut‘on> hy which the race of Fatemite khalifs was
k * totally extinguilhed. This revolution was accompliihed
in the following manner.—One Shower, having over¬
come all his competitors, became vizir to A1 Aded,
the eleventh khalif of Egypt. He had not been long
in poffeffion of this office, when A1 Dargam, an officer
of rank, endeavoured to deprive him of it. Both par¬
ties quickly had recourfe to arms; and a battle enfued,
in which Shawer was defeated, and obliged to fly to
Nuroddin prince of Syria, by whom he was gracioufly
received, and who promifed to reinftate him in his office
of vizir.- As an inducement to Nuroddin to affift him
more powerfully, Shawer told him that the crufaders
had landed in Egypt, and made a confiderable progrefs
in the conqueft of it. He promifed alfo, that, in cafe
he was reinftated in his office, he would pay Nuroddin
annually the third part of the revenues of Egypt; and
would, befides, defray the whole expence of the expe¬
dition.
As Nuroddin bore an implacable hatred to the Chri-
ftians, he readily undertook an expedition againft them,
for which he was to be fo well paid. He therefore
fent an army into Egypt under the command of Shawer
and a general named dfadoddin* Dargam, in the
mean time, had cut off fo many generals whom he ima¬
gined favourable to Shawer’s intereft, that he thereby
weakened the military force of the kingdom, and in a
great meafure deprived himfelf of the power of refin¬
ance. He was therefore eafily overthrown by Afa-
doddin, and Shawer reinftated in the office of vizir.
The faithlefs minifter, however, no fooner favv himfelf
firmly eftablifhed in his office, than he refufed to fulfil
his engagements to Nuroddin by paying the ftipulated
fums. Upon this, Afadoddin feized Pelufium and feme
other cities. Shawer then entered into an alliance with
the Crufaders, and Afadoddin was befieged by their com¬
bined forces in Pelufium. Nuroddin, however, having
invaded the Chriftian dominions in Syria, and taken a
ftrong fortrefs called Harem, Shawer and his confede¬
rates thought proper to hearken to fome terms of ac¬
commodation, and Afadoddin was permitted to depart
for Syria.
In the mean time, Nuroddin, having fubdued the
greateft part of Syria and Mefopotamia, refolved to
make Shawer feel the weight of his refentment, ®n ac- Egypt,
count of his perfidious conduct. He therefore fent *
back Afadoddin into Egypt with a fufficient force, to
compel Shawer to fulfil his engagements: but this the
vizir took care to do before the arrival of Afadoddin ;
and thus, for the prefent, avoided the danger. It was
not long, however, before he gave Nuroddift fref!: oc¬
cafion to fend this general againft him. That prince
had now driven the crufaders almoft entirely out of Sy¬
ria, but was greatly alarmed at their progrefs in Egypt;
and confequently offended at the alliance which <vver
had concluded with them, and which he ftill perfifi; .1 in
obferving. This treaty was alfo thought to be contrived
on purpofe to prevent Shawer from being able to ful¬
fil his promife to Nuroddin, of fending him annually a
third of the revenues of Egypt. Nuroddin therefore
again difpatched Afadoddin into Egypt, in the year
1166, with a fufficient force, and attended by the fa¬
mous Safahaddin, or Saladin, his own nephew. They
entered the kingdom without oppofition, and totally
defeated Shawer and the crufaders. They next made
themfelves mafters of Alexandria; and, after that, over¬
ran all the Upper Egypt. Saladin was left with a con¬
fiderable garrifon in Alexandria ; but Afadoddin was
no fooner gone, than the crufaders laid fiege to that
city. This at laft obliged Afadoddin to return to its
relief. The great Ioffes he had fuftained in this expe¬
dition probably occafioned his agreeing to a treaty
with Shawer, by which he engaged to retire out of E-
gypt, upon being paid a fum of money.
Afadoddin was no fooner gone, than Shawer enter¬
ed into a frefh treaty with the Franks. By this new
alliance he was to attack Nuroddin in his own domi¬
nions, as he was at that time engaged in quelling fome
revolters, which would effeftually prevent his fending
any more forces intoJEgypt. This treaty fo provoked
the Syrian prince, that he refolved to fufpend his other
conquefts for fome time, and exert his whole ftrength
in the conqueft of Egypt. go
By this time the crufaders had reduced Pelufium, Conqnefts
and made a confiderable progrefs in the kingdom, as of the cm-
well as in fome other countries, through the divifions
which reigned among the Mahometan princes. In fuch
places as they conquered, they put almoft every body
to the fword, Chriftians as well as Mahometans; felling
their prifoners for flaves, and giving up the towns to
be plundered by the foldiers. From Pelufium they
marched fo Cairo; which was then in no pofture of de¬
fence, and in the utmoft confufion, by reafon of the di¬
vifions which reigned in it. Shawer, therefore, as foon
as he heard of their approach, caufed the ancient quar¬
ter called Mefr to be fet on fire, and the inhabitants
to retire into the other parts. He alfo prevailed upon
the khalif to folicit the affiftance of Nuroddin ; which
the latter was indeed pretty much inclined of himfelf to
grant, as it gave him the faireft opportunity he could
have wifhed for, both of driving the crufaders out of E-
gypt, and of feizing the kingdom to himfelf. For this
purpofe he had already railed an army of 60,000 horfe
under his general Afadoddin; and, on the receipt of Al
Aded’s meffage, gave them orders to fet out immedi¬
ately. The crufaders were now arrived at Cairo ; and
had fo clofely befieged that place, that neither Shawer
nor the khalif knew any thing of the approach of the
Moflem army which was haftening to their relief. The
vizir
Egypt.
E G Y
[ '“643 ]
E G Y
vizir therefore, finding it impoflible to hold out long
againft the enemy, had recourfe to his old fubterfuge
of treaties and high promifes. He fent the enemy
100,000 dinars, and promifed them 900,000 more, if
they would raife the liege; which they, dreading the
gx approach of Afadoddin, very readily accepted.
* They are The army of Nuroddin now approached the capital
p repnlfed by fjy hafty marches, and were every where received with
I t^ie greateft demonftrations of joy. Afadoddin, on his
prince of arrival at Cairo, was invited by A1 Aded to the royal
uj Damafcus. palace, where he was entertained in the moft magnifi¬
cent manner, and received feveral prefents ; nor were
Saladin and the other principal officers lefs magnifi¬
cently treated. Shawer alfo, confcious of his perfidious
conduft, was no lefs affiduous in attending punctually
upon him: But having invited the general and fome
others to an entertainment, he had formed a fcheme of
having them feized and murdered. The plot, however,
being difeovered, Shawer himfelf had his head cut off,
and Afadoddin was made vizir in his Head. He did
not, however, long enjoy his new dignity ; for he died
1 ga two months and five days after his inftalmcnt, being
t Saladin be- fucceeded in his office of vizir by his nephew Saladin.
I IfT r^ie new viz'r was t^ie youngeft of all the grandees
0 who afpired to that office, but had already given fome
fignal proofs of his valour and conduft. What deter¬
mined the khalif to prefer him to all the reft is not
known; but it is certain that fome of them were highly
difpleafed with his promotion, and even publicly de-
I dared that they would not obey him. In order to gain
thefe to his intereft, therefore, Saladin found it necef-
fary to diftribute among them part of the vaft treafures
left by his uncle ; by which means he foon governed
Egyt without controul, as had been cuftomary with
the vizirs for fome time before. Soon after his being
inftalled into the office of vizir, he gave a total defeat
to the negroes who guarded the royal palace, and had
oppofed his eledion ; by which means, and a ftrong
garrifon he had placed in the caftle of Cairo, his power
became firmly eftablifiied. Though he had not the
leaft intention of continuing in his allegiance to Nu¬
roddin, he did not think it prudent at firft to declare
himfglf. He f?nt for his father, however, and the reft
of his family, who were in Nuroddin’s dominions, in
order, as he faid, to make them partakers of his gran¬
deur and happinefs. Nuroddin did not think proper
to deny this requeft ; though, being already jealous of
the great power of Saladin, he infifted that his family
ftiould confider him only as one of his generals in JE-
gypt.
A good underftanding fubfifted between Nuroddin
and Saladin for fome time, which did not a little con¬
tribute to raife the credit of the latter with the Egyp¬
tians. In 1169, Nuroddin fent him orders to omit
the name of A1 Aded, the khalif of Egypt, in the pub¬
lic prayers, and fubftitute that of the khalif of Bagdad
in its place. This was at any rate a dangerous at¬
tempt; as it might very readily produce a revolt in fa-
' vour of A1 Aded ; or if it did not, it gave Saladin an
opportunity of engroffing even that fmall remnant of
power which was left to the khalif. A1 Aded, how¬
ever, was not fenfible of his difgrace; for he was on
Seize8*3 ^lls an<^ P3^ recovery, when Nuroddin’s or-
effcfH of6 ders were executed. After his death, Saladin feized on
the khalif, aN bts wealth and valuable effeCts ; which confifted of
jewels of prodigious fize, fumptuous furniture, a library Egypt,
containing ioo,oco volumes, &c. His family he caufed "
’ to be clofely confined in the moft private and retired
part of the palace; and either manumitted his flaves,
or kept them for himfelf, or difpofed of them to o-
thers.
Saladin was now arrived at the higheft pitch of
wealth, power, jind grandeur. He was, however, ob¬
liged to behave with great circumfpedtion with regard
to Nuroddin; who ftill continued to treat him as his
vaflal, and would not fuffer-him to difpute the leaft of
his commands. He relied for advice chiefly on his fa¬
ther Ayub; who was a confummate politician, and very 84
ambitious of feeing his fon raifed to the throne of E- •Afipires ta
gypt.* He therefore advifed Saladin to continue fled- thecrown*
faft in his refolutions; and, whilft he amufed Nurod¬
din with feigned fubmiffions, to take every method in
his power to fecure himfelf in the pofleffion of fo valuable
a kingdom. Nuroddin himfelf, however, was too great
a mafter in the art of diffimulation to be eafily impo-
fed on by others; and therefore, though he pretended
to be well pleafed with Saladin’s conduft, he was all
this time raifing a powerful army, with which he was
fully determined to invade Egypt the following year.
But while he meditated this expedition, he was feized
with a quinfy at the caftle of Damafcus, which put an
end to his life, in the year 1173.
Saladin, though now freed from the apprehenfions
of fuch a formidable enemy, dared not venture to-af-
fume the title of Sovereign, while he faw the fucceflbr
of Nuroddin at the head of a very powerful army, and
no lefs defirous than able to difpoflefs him. For this
reafon his firft care was to fecure to himfelf an afylum,
in cafe he ftiould be obliged to leave Egypt altogether.
For this purpofe he chofe the kingdom of Nubia; but
having difpatched his brother Malek Turanftiah thi¬
ther, at the head of a confiderable army, the latter
was fo much ftruck with the fterility and defolate ap¬
pearance of the country, that he returned without at- 8j
tempting anything. Saladin then fent his brother into Subdues A-
Arabia Felix, in order to fubdue that country, which rabia Felix,
had been for fome time held by Abdalnabi an Arabian
prince. Malek entered the country without oppofi-
tion; and having brought Abdalnabi to a general ac¬
tion, entirely defeated him, took him prifoner, and
threw him into irons. He then over-ran and reduced
under fubje&ion to Saladin great part of the country,,
taking no fewer than So caftles or fortrtffes of confi¬
derable ftrength.
After this good fortune, Saladin, now fure of a con¬
venient place of refuge in cafe of any misfortune, af- sc
fumed the title of Sultan or fovereign of Egypt; and -AA11,™65
was acknowledged as fuch by the greater part of the
ftates. The zeal of the Egyptians for the Fatemite u tan‘
khalifs, however, foop produced a rebellion. One Al
Kanz, or Kanzanaddorxila, governor of a city in Upper
Egypt, affembled a great army of blacks, or rather
fwartby natives; and marching dire&ly into the lower
country, was there joined by great numbers of other
Egyptians. Againft them Saladin difpatched his
brother Malek, who foon defeated and entirely difper-
fed them. This, however, did not prevent another in-
furredtion under an impoftor, who pretended to be
David the fon of Al Aded the laft Fatemite khalif,
and kad colle&ed a body of 100,000 men. But be¬
fore
E G Y [ 2644 I E G Y
Egypt- fore thefe had time to do any great damage, they were
" r_~ furprifed by the fultan’s forces, and entirely defeated.
Above 3000 were publicly hanged, and a vail number
perifhed in the field, infomuch that it was thought
fcarce a fourth part of the whole body efcaped.
About this time Saladin gained a confiderable ad¬
vantage over the crufaders, commanded by William II.
king of Sicily.. That prince had invaded Egypt with
a numerous fleet and army, with which he laid clofe
fiege to Alexandria both by fea and land. Saladin,
however, marched to the relief of the city with fuch
furprifing expedition, that the crufaders were feized
with a fudden panic, and fled with the utmoft precipi¬
tation, leaving all their military engines, ftores, and
87 baggage behind.
Saladin jn the year 1175, the inhabitants of Damafcusbeg-
made fpve- ^ Qf ga]ac];n t0 accept the fovereignty of that city
mafcus. anc* lts dependencies; being jealous or the minuter,
who had the tuition of the reigning prince, and who
governed all with an abfolute fway. The application
was no fooner made, than the fultan fet out with the
utmoft celerity to Damafcus, at the head of a chofen
detachment of 700 horfe. Having fettled his affairs in
that city, he appointed his brother Saif A1 Iflam go¬
vernor of it; and fet out for Hems, to which he imme¬
diately laid fiege. Having made himfelf mafter of this
place, he then proceeded to Hamah. The city very
foon furrendered, but the citadel held out for fome time.
Saladin pretended that he accepted the fovefeignty of
Damafcus and the other places he had conquered, only
as deputy to A1 Malec A1 Saleh, the fucceffor of Nu-
roddin, and who was then under age; and that he was
defirous of fending Azzoddin, who commanded in the
citadel, with a letter to Aleppo, where the young prince
refided. This fo pleafed Azzoddin, that he took the
oath of fidelity to Saladin, and immediately fet out
with the fultan’s letter. He had not, however, been
long at Aleppo before he was by the minifter’s orders
thrown into prifon; upon which, his brother, who had
been appointed governor of the citadel Hamah in his
abfence, delivered it up to paladin without further
ceremony. The fultan then marched to Aleppo, with
a defign to reduce it; but, being vigoroufly repulfed
in feveral attacks, he was at laft obliged to abandon
the enterprife. At the fame time, Kamfchlegin, A1
Malec’s minifter or vizir, hired the chief of the Bata-
* See nifts, or Affaflins *, to murder him. Several attempts
f,n‘ were made in confequence of this application; but
all of them, happily for Saladin, mifcarried.
After raifing the fiege of Aleppo, Saladin returned
to Hems, which place the crufaders had inverted. On
his approach, however, they thought proper to retire;
after which, the fultan made himfelf mafter of the
ftrong caftle belonging to that place, which, before,
he had not been able to reduce. This was foon fol¬
lowed by the redu&ion of Baalbec; and thefe rapid
conquefts fo alarmed the minifters of A1 Malek, that,
entering into a combination with fome of the neigh-
88 bouring princes, they raifed a formidable army with
Defeats his which they defigned to crulh the fultan at once. Sa-
enemies. ]adin, fearing the event of a war, offered to cede Hems
and Hamah to A1 Malec, and to govern Damafcus
only as his lieutenant : but thefe terms being reje&ed,
a battle enfued; in which the allied army was utterly
defeated, and the ftiattered remains of it fliut up in the
city of Aleppo. This produced a treaty, by which Egypt.
Saladin was left mafter of all Syria, excepting only the
city of Aleppo and the territory belonging to it. 8<>
In 1176 Saladin returned from the conqueft of Syria, Receives a j
and made his triumphal entry into Caitf. Here, ha-
ving refted himfelf and his troops for fome time, he from
began to encompafs the city with a wall 29,000 cubits crufaders.
in length, but which he did not live to finifli. Next
year he led a very numerous army into Paleftine a-
gainft the crufaders. But here his ufual good fortune i
failed him. His army was entirely defeated. Forty
thoufand of his men were left dead on the field ; and
the reft fled with fo much precipitation, that, having
no towns in the neighbourhood where they could fhel-
ter themfelves, they traverfed the vaft defart between
Paleftine and Egypt, and fcarce flopped till they
reached the capital itfelf. The greateft part of the
army by this means perifhed; and as no water was to
be had in the defart abovementioned, almoft all the
beafts died of thirft, before the fugitives arrived on the
confines of Egypt. Saladin himfelf feemed to have been
greatly intimidated; for in a letter to his brother Al
Malek, he told him, that “ he was more than once
in the mofi: imminent danger; and that God, as he
apprehended, had delivered him from thence, in order
to referve him for the execution of fome grand and im¬
portant defign.”'
In the year 1182, the fultan fet out on an expedi¬
tion to Syria with a formidable army, amidft the ac¬
clamations and good wifties of the people. He was,
however, repulfed with lofs both before Aleppo and AI
Mawfel, after having fpent much time and labour in
befieging thefe two important places. q0
In the mean time, a molt powerful fleet of European The Chri- )
fliips appeared on the Red Sea, which threatened the fti.ans re* \
cities of Mecca and Medina with the utmoft danger. jefeat j
The news of this armament no fooner reached Cairo, fea.
than Abu Beer, Saladin’s brother, who had been left
viceroy in the fultan’s abfence, caufed another to be fit¬
ted out with all fpeed under the command of Lulu, a
brave and experienced officer; who quickly came up
with them, and a dreadful engagement enfued. The
Chriftians were defeated after an obftinate refiftance, a
vaft number of their men were killed in the engagement,
and all the prifoners butchered in cold blood. This
proved fuch a terrible blow to the Europeans, that they
never more ventured on a like attempt.
In 1183, Saladin continued to extend his conquefts. Saladin’s ]
The city of Amida in Mefopotamia furrendered to him raPid co™* |
in eight-days ; after which, being provoked by fome (lue“s*
violences committed by the prince of Aleppo, he re-
folved at all events to make himfelf mafter of that
place. He was now attended with better fuccefs than
formerly ; for as his army was very numerous, and he
puflied on the fiege with the utmoft vigour, Ama-
doddin the prince capitulated, upon condition of being
allowed to poffefs certain cities in Mefopotamia which
had formerly belonged to him, and being ready to at¬
tend the fultan on whatever expedition he pleafed. Af¬
ter the conqueft of Aleppo, Saladin took three other
cities, and then marched againft his old enemies the
Crufaders. Having fent out a party to reconnoitre the
^nemy, they fell in with a coniiderable detachment of
Chriftians; whom they eafily defeated, taking about
100 prifoners, with the lofs of only a Angle man on
their
E G Y [ 2645 ] E G Y
Egypt, their fide. The fultan, animated by this firft inftance
of fuccefs, drew up his forces in order of battle,
and advanced againft the Crufaders, who had aflem-
bled their whole army at Sepphoris in Galilee. On
viewing the fultan’s troops, however, and perceiving
them to be greatly fuperior in ftrength to what they
had at firft apprehended, they thought proper to de¬
cline an engagement, nor could Saladin with all his
Ikill force them to it. But though it was found impof-
fible to bring the Crufaders to a decilive engagement,
Saladin found means to harrafs them greatly, and de-
ftroyed great numbers of their men. He carried
off alfo many prifoners, difmantled three of their
ftrongeft cities, laid wafte their territories, and con-
gz eluded the campaign with taking another ftrong town.
Chriftians For three years Saladin continued to gain ground
feated ^ °n ^'e ^-'ru^er6» yet wlthout any decifive advan¬
tage ; but in 1187, the fortune of war was remarkably
unfavourable to them. The Chriftians now found
themfelves obliged to venture a battle, by reafon of the
cruel ravages committed in their territories by Saladin,
and by reafon of the encroachments he daily made on
them. Both armies therefore being refolved to exert
their utmoft efforts, a moft fierce and bloody battle
enfued. Night prevented vidtory from declaring on
either fide, and the fight was renewed with equal ob-
ftinacy next day. The vidfory was ftill left undecided ;
but, the third day, the fultan’s men finding themfelves
furrounded by the enemy-on all Tides but one, and
there alfo hemmed in by the river Jordan, fo that there
was no room to fly, fought like men in defpair, and
at laft gained a moft complete vidtory. Vaft numbers
of the Chriftians perifhed on the field. A large body
found means to retire in fafety to the top of a neigh¬
bouring hill covered with wood ; but being furrounded
by Saladin’s troops, who fet fire to the wood, they
were all obliged to furrender at diferetion. Some of
them were butchered by their enemies as foon as they
delivered themfelves into their hands, and others thrown
into irons. Among the latter were the king of Jeru-
falem himfelf, Arnold prince of A1 Shawbec and A1
Carac, the mafters of the Templers and Hofpitalers,
with almoft the whole body of the latter. So great
was the confternation of the Chriftians on thisoccafion,
that one of Saladin’s men is faid to have taken 30 of
them prifoners, and tied them together with the cord
of his tent, to prevent them from making their efcape.
The mafters of the Templars and Hofpitalers, with the
knights afting, under them, were no fooner brought
into Saladin’s prefence, than he ordered them all to be
cut in pieces. He called them Affaffim, or Batanijis;
and had been wont to pay 50 dinars for the head of
every Templar or Hofpitaler that was brought him.
After the engagement, Saladin feated himfelf in a
magnificent tent, placing the king of Jerufalem on his
right hand, and Arnold prince of A1 Shawbec and A1
Carac on his left. Then he drank to the former, who
was at that time ready to expire with thirft, and at
the fame time offered him a cup of fnow-water. This
was thankfully received; and the king immediately
drank to the prince of A1 Carac, who fat near him.
But here Saladin interrupted him with fome warmth:
“ 1 will not, fays he, fufferthis curfed rogue to drink;
as that, according to the laudable and generous cuftpm
of the Arabs, would fecure to him his life.” Then,
Vol. IV.
turning towards the prince, he reproached him with Egypt,
having undertaken the expedition while in alliance with *“
himfelf, with having intercepted an Egyptian caravan
in the time of profound peace, and niaffacring the
people of which it was compofed, &c. Notwithfland-
ing all this, he told him, he would grant him his life,
if he would embrace Mahometanifm. This condition,
however, was refufed; and the fultan, with one ftrokc
of his feymitar, cut off the prince’s head. This great¬
ly terrified the king of Jerufalem; but Saladin affured
him he had nothing to fear, and that Arnold had
brought on himfelf a violent death by his want of com¬
mon honefty. ^
The Crufaders being thus totally defeated and dif- His furthe:
perfed, Saladin next laid fiege to Tiberias, which ca- conquefb.
pitulated in a fhort time. From thence he march¬
ed towards Acca or Ptolemais, which likewife fur-
rendered after a fhort fiege. Here he found 4000
Mahometan prifoners in chains, whom he imme¬
diately releafed. As the inhabitants enjoyed at pre-
fent a very extenfive trade, the place being full of
merchants, he found there not only vaft fums of mo¬
ney, but likewife a great variety of wares exceedingly
valuable, all which he feized and applied to his own
ufe. About the fame time his brother A1 Malec at¬
tacked and took a very ftrong fortrefs in the neigh¬
bourhood ; after which the fnltan divided his army in¬
to three bodies, that he might with the greater facili¬
ty over-run the territories of the Chriftians. Thus, in
a very fliort time, he made himfelf mafter of Neapolis,
Csefarea, Sepphoris, and other cities in the neighbour¬
hood of Ptolemais, where his foldiers found only wo¬
men and children, the men having been all killed or
taken prifoners. His next conqueft was Joppa, which
was taken by ftorm after a vigorous refiftance. Every
thing being then fettled, and a diftribution made of
the fpoils and captives, Saladin marched in perfon a-
gainft Tebrien, a ftrong fortrefs in the neighbourhood
of Sidon ; which was taken by aflault, after it had fu-
ftained a fiege of fix days. No fooner was he mafter
of this place, than he ordered the fortrefs to be razed,
and the garrifon put to the fword. From Tebrien the
vi&orious fultan proceeded to Sidon itfelf; which, be¬
ing deferted by its prince, furrendered almoft on the
firft fummons. Berytus was next invefted, and furren¬
dered in feven days. Among.the prifoners Saladin
found in this place the prince of a territory called Ho-
beil, who by way of ranfom delivered up his dominions
to him, and was of confequence releafed. About the
fame time, a Chriftian (hip, in which'was a nobleman
of great courage and experience in war, arrived at the
harbour of Ptolemais, not knowing that it was in the
hands of Saladin. The governor might eafily have
fecured the veflel; but negle&ing the opportunity, (he
efcaped to Tyre, where the abovementioned nobleman,
together with the prince of Hobeil, contributed not
a Tittle to retrieve the affairs of the Chriftians, and
enable them to make a ftand for four years after. g*
Saladin in the mean time went on with his con- Jerufaleta
quefts. Having made himfelf mafter of Afcalon after
a fiege of 14 days, he next invefted Jerufalem. The
garrifon was numerous, and made an obftinate defence;
but Saladin having at laft made a breach in the walls
by Tapping, the befieged defired to capitulate. This
was at firft refufed, upon which the Chriftian ambaf-
15 I fador
E G Y [ 2646 ] E G Y
kgVP1- fador made the following fpeech. “ If that be the cafe,
know, O fultan, that we who are extremely numerous,
and have been reftrained from fighting like men in de-
fpair only by the hopes of an honourable capitulation,
will kill all our wives and children, commit all our
wealth and valuable effefts to the flames, maflacre 5000
prifoners now in our hands, leave not a Angle heart of
burden or animal of any kind belonging to us alive,
and level with the ground the rock you efteem facred,
together with the temple A1 Akfa. After this we
will fally out upon you in a body; and doubt not but
we (hall either cut to pieces a much greater number of
you than we are, or force you to abandon the fiege.”
This defperate fpeech had fuch an effeft upon Saladin,
that he immediately called a council of war, at which
all the general officers declared, that it would be moll
proper to allow the Chriftians to depart unmolefted.
The fultan therefore allowed them to march out freely
and fecurely with their wives-, children, and effects ;
after which he received ten dinars from every man ca¬
pable of paying that fum, five from every woman, and
two from every young perfon under age. For the
poor who were not able to pay any thing, the reft
©f the inhabitants railed the fum of 30,000 dinars.
Moll of the inhabitants of Jerufalem were efcorted
by a detachment of Saladin’s troops to Tyre ; and
foon after, he advanced with his army againft that
place. As the port was blocked up by a fquadron of
five men of war, Saladin imagined that he (hould ea-
fdy become matter of it. But in this he found himfelf
miftaken. For, one morning by break of day, a Chri-
ftian fleet fell upon his fquadron, and entirely defeated
it; nor did a fingle veffel efcape their purfuit. A
confiderable number of the Mahometans threw them-
felves into the fea during the engagement; moft of
whom were drowned, though fome few efcaped. A-
bout the fame time Saladin himfelf was vigoroufly re-
pulfed by land; fo that, after calling a council of war,
it was thought proper to raife the fiege.
In 1188, Saladin, though his conquefts were not fo
rapid and confiderable as hitherto, continued Hill fu-
perior to his enemies. He reduced the city of Laodi-
cea and fome others, together with many ftrong cattles;
but met alfo with feveral repulfes. At laft he took the
road to Antioch; and having reduced all the fortreffes
that lay in his way, many of which had been deemed
impregnable, Bohemond prince of Antioch was fo
much intimidated, that he defired a truce for feven or
eight months. This Saladin found himfelf obliged to
comply with, on account of the prodigious fatigues his
men had fuftained, and becaufe his auxiliaries now de-
manded leave to return home.
Oofaders All thefe heavy Ioffes of the Chriftians, however,
retrieve proved in fome refpefta an advantage, as they were
Uieir affairs, jjjug obliged to lay afide their animofities, which had
originally proved the ruin of their affairs. Thofe who
had defended Jerufalem, and moft of the other for¬
treffes taken by Saladin, having retreated to Tyre,
formed there a very numerous body. This proved the
means of preferving that city, and alfo of re-efta-
bliffing their affairs for the prefent. For, having re¬
ceived powerful fuccours from Europe, they were en¬
abled in 1189 t0 ta^e th6 with 30,000 foot and
2000 horfe. Their firft attempt was upon Alexan-
dretta; from whence they diflodged a ftrong party of
Mahometans, and made themfelves matters of the place Egypt,
with very little lofs. They next laid fiege to Piole-
mais; of which Saladin had no fooner received intelli¬
gence, than he marched to the relief of the place. Af¬
ter feveral (kirmiihes with various fuccefs, a general en¬
gagement enfued, in which Saladin was defeated with
the lofs of 10,000 men. This enabled the Chriftians
to carry on the fiege of Ptolemais with greater vi¬
gour ; which place, however, they were not able to re¬
duce for the fpace of two years.
This year the fultan was greatly alarmed by an ac¬
count that the emperor of Germany was advancing to
Conftantinople with an army of 260,000 men, in or¬
der to affiftthe other Crufaders. This prodigious ar¬
mament, however, came to nothing. The multitude
was fo reduced with ficknefs, famine, and fatigue, that
fcarce 1000 of them reached the camp before Ptole¬
mais. The fiege of that city was continued, though
with bad fuccefs on the part of the Chriftians. They
were repulfed in all their attacks, their engines were
burnt with naphtha, and the befieged always received
fupplies of provifions in fpite of the utmoft efforts of
the befiegers ; at the fame time that a dreadful famine
and peftilence raged in the Chriftian camp, which
fometimes carried off 200 people a-day. sg
In 1191, the Chriftians received powerful fuccours Richard I.
from Europe. Philip II. of France, and Richard I. of England
of England (from his great courage furnamed Cxur de m
Lion-), arrived before the camp at Ptolemais. The lat¬
ter was efteemed the braved and moft enterprifing of
all the generals the Crufaders had, and the fpirits of
his foldiers were greatly elated by the thoughts of ac¬
ting under fuch an experienced commander. Soon af¬
ter his arrival, the Englifli funk a Mahometan (hip of
vaft fizc, having on board 650 foldiers, a great quantity
of arms and provifions, going from Berytus to Ptole¬
mais. Of the foldiers and failors who navigated this vef¬
fel, only a fingle perfon efcaped; who being taken pri-
foner by the Englifh, wasdifpatched to the fultan with
the news of the difafter. The befieged dill defended
themfelves with the greateft refolution ; and the king
of England happening to fall fick, the operations of
the befiegers were confiderably delayed. On his reco¬
very, however, the attacks were renewed with fuch
fury, that the place was every moment in danger of
being taken by affault. This induced them to fend a
letter to Saladin, informing him, that if they did not
receive fuccours the very next day, they would be o-
bliged to fubmit. As this town was the fultan’s prin¬
cipal magazine of arms, he was greatly affe£led with the
account of their diftrefs, efpecially as he found it im-
poffible to relieve them. The inhabitants, therefore,
found themfelves under a neceffity of furrendering the
place. One of the terms of the capitulation was, that
the Crufaders (hould receive a very confiderable fum of
money from Saladin, in confequence of their delivering
up the Mahometan prifoners they had in their hands.
This article, Saladin refufed to comply with ; and
in confequence of his refufal, Richard caufed 3000 of
thofe unfortunate men to be flaughtered at once.
After the reduftion of Ptolemais, the king of Eng¬
land, now made generaliffimo of the Crufaders, took
the road to Afcalon, in order to befiege that place; af¬
ter which, he intended to make an attempt upon Jeru¬
falem itfel£ Saladin propofed to intercept his paf-
fage*
E G Y [ 2647 ] E G Y
Egypt, fage, and placed himfelf in tlie way with an army of
 300,000 men. On this occafion was fought one of the
? 97 greatcft battles of that age. Saladin was totally de-
Defeats Sa-feated, with the lofs of 40,000 men; and Afcalon
ladin. foon fe]l ;nt0 hands of the Crufaders. Other fieges
were afterwards carried on with fuccefs, and Richard
even approached within fight of Jerufalem, when he
found, that, by reafon of the weakened ftate of his ar¬
my, and the divifions which prevailed among the of¬
ficers who commanded it, he fhould be under the necef-
fity of concluding a truce with the fultan. This was
accordingly done in the year 1192; the term was,
three years, three months, three weeks, three days,
and three hours ; foon after which the king of England
fet out on his return to his own dominions.
In 1193, Saladin died, to the inexpreffible grief of
all true Mahometans, who held him in the utmoit ve¬
neration. His dominions in Syria and Paleftine were
fhared out, among his children and relations, into
many petty principalities: his fon Othman fucceeded
to the crown of Egypt; but as none of his fucceffors
poifeifed the enterprifmg genius of Saladin, the hiftory
93 from that time to the year 1250 affords nothing re-
Mamlucs markable. At this time the reigning fultan Malek A1
become ma- galek was dethroned and flain by the Mamlucs or Ma-
ers of E- tne[UCSt as they are called, a kind of mercenary fol-
’ diers who ferved under him. In confequence of this
revolution, the Mamelucs became mailers of Egypt,
and chofe a fultan from among themfelves.—Thefe
Mamelucs were originally young Turks or Tartars, fold
to private perfons by the merchants, from whom they
were bought by the fultan, educated at his expence,
and employed to defend the maritime places of the
kingdom. The reafon of this inftitution originally
was, that the native Egyptians were become fo coward¬
ly, treacherous, and effeminate, from a long courfe of
flavery, that they were unfit for arms. The Mame¬
lucs, on the contrary, made moft excellent foldiers;
for, having no friends but among their own corps,
they turned all their thoughts to their own profeffion.
When they had got poffeflion of the government, there¬
fore, as they neither underftood nor valued any thing
befides the art of war, every fpecies of learning de¬
cayed in Egypt, and a great degree of barbarifm was
introduced. Neither was their empire of long dura¬
tion, notwithflanding all their martial abilities. The
reafon of this was, that they were originally only a
fmall part of the fultan of Egypt’s flanding forces. As
a numerous {landing army was neceffary in a country
where the fundamental maxim of government was, that
every native mufl be a flave, they were at firfl at a lofs
how to aft; being juflly fufpicious of all the reft of
the arwy. At laft they refolved to buy Chriftian flaves,
and educate them in the fame way that they themfelves
had formerly been. Thefe were commonly brought
from Circaffia, where the people, though they profefs-
cd Chriftianity, made no fcruple of felling their chil¬
dren. When they were completed in their military
education, thefe foldiers were difpofed of through all
the fortreffes erefted in the country to bridle the inha¬
bitants ; and becaufe in their language fuch a fort was
called Borge, the new militia obtained the name of
Borgites. By this expedient the Mamelucs imagined
they would be able to fecure themfelves in the fovereign-
ty. But in this they were miftaken. In procefs of
time, the old Mamelucs grew proud, infolent, and Egypt,
lazy ; and the Borgites, taking advantage of this, ”
rofe upon their mailers, deprived them of the go- p • t
vernment, and transferred it to themfelves about the by'the'Bor
year 1382. _ gites.
The Borgites, as well as the former, affumed the
name of Mamelucs; and were famous for their valour,
and ferocity of conduft. They were almoft perpetual¬
ly engaged in wars either foreign or domeftic, and their
dominion lafted till the year 1517, when their kingdom roa
was invaded by Selim the Turkifh fultan. The Ma- Egypt coh-
melucs defended themfelves with incredible valour;
notwithllanding which, being overpowered by num¬
bers, they were defeated in every engagement. The
fame year, their capital, the city of Cairo, was taken,
with a terrible {laughter of thofe who defended it. The
fultan was forced to fly; and, having collefted all his
force, ventured another battle. The moft romantic
efforts of valour, however, were infufficient to cope
with the innumerable multitude which compoftd thef
Turkifh army. Moll of his men were cut in pieces,
and the unhappy prince himfelf was at laft obliged to
take fhelter in a marfh. He was dragged from his hi¬
ding place, where he had flood up to the fhoulders in
water, and foon after put to death. With him end¬
ed the glory, and almoll the exiftence, of the Mame¬
lucs, who were now every where fearched for and cut
in pieces.
This was the laft great revolution in the Egyptian
affairs ; a revolution very little to the advantage of the
natives, who may well doubt whether their ancient or
modern conquerors have behaved with the greater de¬
gree of barbarity. Selim gave a fpecimen of his go¬
vernment, the very day after his being put in full pof-
fefiion of it by the death of Tuman Bey the unfortu¬
nate fultan above mentioned. Having ordered a theatre
to be erefted with a throne upon it on the banks of the
Nile, he caufed all the prifoners, upwards of 30,000 His horrid
in number, to be beheaded in his prefence, and their cruelty,
bodies thrown into the river. The reft of theTurki.fh
government hath been conformable to fuch a beginning,;
and the inhabitants are {till oppreffed by exaftions, and
reduced to the loweft degree of flavery. i0t,
With regard to the country of Egypt, it is difficult Different
to fay any thing with certainty ; for not only is there accounts
a prodigious difference between the accounts of the an- thecoun-^
cient and modern hiftorians, but the latter differ very try of
widely from one another. According to the former, gypt.
the country abounded with grain of all forts, efpecially
rice. The moft fertile parts were the Delta, now call¬
ed dl Feyyuni. The capital of this dillrift is by the
natives faid to have been built by the patriarch Jofeph,
to whom they own themfelves obliged for the improve¬
ment of this territory. Before his time it was nothing
but a Handing pool ; but that patriarch, by cutting
canals, particularly the great one which reaches from
the Nile to the lake Moeris, drained it of the wrater,
and, clearing it of the weeds and rufhes, made it fit for
tillage. It ftill continues to be the moft fertile and xoj
4?eft cultivated part of the kingdom. The great ferti- Its fertility,
lity of Egypt was attributed, and very juftly, to the t0 !vhat
annual overflowing of the Nile; for the overflowing <jf 0WII>^*
grounds with water is found to be a very good method
of fertilizing them *. The fources of this river were *c^rfgn'
unknown to the ancients. They, even thought it im- n° 18,’1^.
15 I 2 pof-
E G Y [ 2648 ] E G Y
Egypt, poffibl'e to ctifcover them. It is now, however, known,
that the Nile arifes in Ethiopia or AbyfGnia. It en-
■Xccount ofters 'k'SyP1 a'mo^ unde5" the tropic of Cancer, violent-
theTiyer ° ty pouring down no lefs than feven cataradls from a
Nile. very confiderable height, and making a noife that may
be heard feveral miles off. Having pafled through the
Upper and Middle Egypt, a little below the ancient
Memphis, it divided itfelf into two large arms, which af¬
terwards formed feven channels, by which it was dif-
charged into the fea, Thefe feven mouths are much
fpoken of by ancient hiftorians. They were called the
Canopic, the Heraclcotk, Bolbitic, Sebennytic, Pbatnic
or Pathmetic, the Mendcfian T’anitic or Saitic, and the
Pelujian; all of which had their names from cities
Handing on their feveral branches. Befides thefe, there
•were two Pfeudoftomata, or falfe mouths, named Pi-
noptimi and Diolcqs, which were too fmall for large
veflels. But the greater part of thefe mouths have
been fince Hopped up, and others formed; fo that above
thirty channels are now reckoned, through which the
waters of the Nile empty themfelves into the tea, efpe-
cially at the time of its overflowing, the greater part
of them becoming dry when the waters retire. The
two chief, and indeed the only confidnable branches
of the Nile at prefent are thofe of Rofetta or Rajhid to
10J the weH, and Damistta or Dimyet to the eaft.
Its annual Concerning the annual inundation of the Nile, an-
inundation. cient and modern writers agree pretty well. It begins
to rife about the fummer folftice, and continues to do
fo for about 100 days after; then it gradually decrea-
fes for as many more, till it retires within its banks,
and does not overflow till the next year. If the river
does not rife to the height of 15 or 16 cubits at leafl,
the country is not covered with water, and a fcarcity
enfues. No notice is taken of the riling of the river
till the end of June; by which time it is ufually rifen
to the height of fix or eight piker, (a Turkilh meafure
of about 26 inches). Then the public criers proclaim
it through all the cities ; and in the fame manner con¬
tinue every day to give an account of its gradual pro-
grefs. After it has rifen to the height of i6 pikes,
they cut down the dam of a great canal which pafies
through the middle of the city of Cairo, and let in the
water on their lands. If the river want but •an inch of
this height, they will not cut the dam ; becaufe, in fuch
a cafe, no tribute is due to the prince for the lands
that Ihould have been watered by them, the produce
being then fcarce fufficient to maintain the tillers. For
this reafon, if the balhaw or governor of Egypt cut
this dam before the river has rifen to the height above
mentioned, he is anfwerable for the confequence, and
mufl pay the Turkifh emperor his tribute, whether the
year prove plentiful or not. If the water rifes to the
height of 23 or 24 pikes, it is thought to be the molt
favourable; but if it exceeds that, it does a great
deal of mifchief, by overthrowing houfes, drowning
1o(j cattle, &c.
Account of In order to judge more exaftly of the rife and fall of
she nilome- tbe water, pillars are eredled on its banks, and mark-
urs. eci witln proper divifions. A very ancient one, faid to
be erefted for this purpofe by the emperor Heraclius,
is Hill to be feen in the caflle of old Cairo. The pre¬
fent nilometer, or mikyas, as the Arabs call it, is in
the fame caHle. It is a large fquare refervoir, round
which runs a handfome gallery fuflained by 12 marble
pillars, with a balluflrade to lean on, when one looks Egypt,
into the water. Through this bafon runs a canal
drawn from the river. In the middle is an oftagonal
pillar of white marble divided into 22 equal parts: the
firft is divided into 24 inches ; but the fecond is not;
tho’ all the refl have thefe fubdivifions. 107
As it is impoffible, however, that the Nile can of it- Method of
felf overflow every fpot of land which requires its af-
filtance, the inhabitants have been obliged to cut a vaft
number of canals and trenches from one end of Egypt
to the other, to convey the water to thofe places where
it is wanted. Every town and village has its canal;
which is opened at the mofl proper time, and the wa¬
ter conduced to the mofl diftant places. Thefe canals
are not permitted to be opened all at once; becaufe, if
this was done, fome lands would have too much, and
others too little, water. They begin to open them
firft in upper Egypt, ancj then gradually lower, ac¬
cording to the public regulations made for that pur¬
pofe. By this means, the water is fo carefully huf- , |
banded, that it anfwers the purpofes of the whole
country; which is fo large, and the canals fo nume¬
rous, that, it is thought, fcarce a tenth part of the
waters of the river enter the fea during the firft three
months of its overflowing. As fome places, however*
lie too high to be overflowed in this manner, they are
for this reafon obliged to raife the water to cover
them by engines. Formerly, they made ufe of Ar¬
chimedes’s ferew, from thence commonly called the
Egytian pump: but now they generally ufe wheels,
which draw up the water in earthen pots, and are mo¬
ved by oxen. There is alfo a vaft number of wells,
from whence water is drawn in the fame manner for
the gardens and fruit-trees ; fo that there are reckoned
to be 200,000 oxen daily employed in this labour
throughout the kingdom ; without reckoning the men
who draw water in wieker-bafkets fo clofe that not a
drop runs through. 10S j
The accounts given by the ancients of the fertility Prodigious
of Egypt, almoft exceed the bounds of credibility.
The mud or flime brought down by the river, accord- gypt<
ing to them, was in quantity fuffxcient to ferve for ma¬
nure to the whole kingdom. They had not the toil of
digging, ploughing, or breaking of clods. When the
waters were retired, they needed only to mix a little
fand with the earth to abate its ftrength; the mud
brought down by the Nile making the foil, it feems,
too rich; after which, they fowed their feed, and reaped
the moft plentiful crops. — We can fcarce doubt that
this formerly hath been true in fome degree, feeing we
find it attefted by all the hiftorians of antiquity, that,
in the time of the Romans, their city was chiefly fup-
plied with corn from Egypt. From the way in which
it is fpoke of in the facred writings alfo, we muft cer¬
tainly look upon Egypt to have anciently been a very J99
plentiful country. Now, however, the cafe is prodi- Modern E-
gioufly altered. The inhabitants are fcarce one twen- gypt not fo
tieth part of what they formerly were, and every fpot fcrt‘le*
is cultivated as much as before; yet the country very
feldom produces enough to fupport them. The wa¬
ters of the Nile now bring down none of that mud
fpoke of by the ancients. They continue clear from
the beginning of their rife till they have arrived at the
height of 17 feet and upwards. Then they bring down
a quantity of reddifti coloured loam, which indeed
proves
E G Y [ 2649 ] E G Y
Egypt, proves an excellent manure. It is very probable, there-
’ fore, that the fources from whence the waters of the Nile
received the black mud, have long fince been exhaufted;
and the inhabitants not adverting to this change, and
negledting to manure their lands properly, the ground,
hath been exhaufted by continual cultivation, and fallen
* See fhort of its ancient fertility What fertility this
culture, country ftill poffefles, muft be derived from the waters
“0 of the river, feeing lefs crops are always produced
when the waters of the Nile rife to the leaft height.
One thing which contributes greatly to the variation
of quantity in the waters of the Nile, and confequently
of the fertility of the country, is the blowing of the
north-wind. This makes a kind of bar acrofs the
mouths of the river, and hinders the waters from flow¬
ing with fuch fwiftnefs into the fea as they otherwife
would do: and therefore it is obferved, that when the
wind blows from any other quarter, the waters decreafe
as much in one day, as they do in four when it blows
from the north; and hence, in fnch cafes, the fertility
of Egypt is greatly diminifhed.—The ancients were
ignorant of the caufes of this inundation, which feemed
to them the more unaccountable, as it overflowed in
the fummer-time, when other rivers are generally at the
loweft. But it has long fince been known to be oc-
cafioned by the great rains which fall in Ethiopia in
April and May, and fwell the river to fuch a degree,
that it almoft lays that country entirely under water.
At the fame time, it rains with equal regularity in the
Eaft Indies, and the rivers Indus and Ganges overflow
their banks at the fame time with the Nile.
Whatever may have been the cafe with the fertility
of ancient Egypt, it is certain, that fuch monuments
of the power and wealth of its ancient monarchs re¬
main, that we cannot doubt of its having been anciently
very populous.—The moft remarkable of thefe are the
pyramids; which, on many accounts, may be reckoned
, the moft wonderful ftrudures in the world. There are
many of them in the different parts of Egypt; but
thofe which have been chiefly taken notice of and de-
fcribed by travellers, ftand on the weft fide of the Nile,
not far from the ancient Memphis. The number of
thefe pyramids is about 20; of which three, handing
almoft together, are moft remarkable, and have been
moft frequently defcribed.. The others lie fcattered in
the Libyan defart, and are leffer models of thefe
three, though fome of them alfo are very confiderable.
—The builders of thefe pyramids are unknown. Jo-
fephus fuppofes them to have been erefted by the
Ifraelites during their heavy oppreflion by Pharaoh.
Others pretend, that they were built by the patriarch
Jofeph, for granaries to lay up the corn of the feven
plentiful years: both of which opinions, however, feem
to be improbable. It is much more likely, that they
IIa were erefted as monuments for the dead.
Account of The firft of thefe pyramids is fituated on a rocky
rni* hill, in the fandy defart of Libya, about a quarter of a
1151 mile from the plains of Egypt; above which, the rock
rifes 100 feet or more, with a gentle and eafy afcent.
Upon this advantageous rife and folid foundation is the
pyramid erected ; the height of the fituation adding to
the beauty of the work, and the folidity of the rock
affording it a ftable fupport. The north fide, near the
bafis, being meafured by a radius of 10 feet in length,
taking two feveral ftations, was found by Mr Greaves
to be 693 Engliih feet. The other fides were exa- Egyjit,
mined by a line, for want of an even level, and a con- “
venient diftance to place the inftruments. The alti¬
tude, if meafured by its perpendicular, 13481 feet; but
if it be taken as the pyramid afcends inclining, then it
is equal, in refpeA of the lines fubtending the feveral
angles, to the latitude of the bafis. Whereby it ap¬
pears, that though feveral of the ancients have excef-
iively magnified the height of thefe pyramids, yet the
biggeft of them falls (hort of the height of St Paul’s
church in London: which, from the ground to the top
of the lanthorn only, is no lefs than 470 feet. If wc
imagine on the fides of the bafis, which is perfeftly
-fquare, four equilateral triangles mutually inclining till ,
they meet in a point (for fo the top feems to thofe who
ftand below), then we ftiall have a juft idea of the true
dimenfions and figure of this pyramid ; the area of
whofe bafis contains 480,249 fquare feet, or fomething
more, than 11 Englifh acres of ground : a proportion
fo monftrous, that did not the ancients atteft as much,
and fome of them more, it might appear incredible.
The afcent to the top of the pyramid is contrived by
fteps, the lowermoft of which is near four feet in height,
and three in breadth ; and running about the pyramid
in a level, made a narrow walk, when the ftones were
entire, on every fide. The fecond ftep is like the
fir ft, benching in near three feet. In the fame manner
is the third row placed on the fecond; and the reft in
order, like fo many flairs, rifing one above another to
the top ; which ends not in a point, as mathematical
pyramids do, but in a little flat or fquare of 13,280
Englifh feet broad, and confifting of nine ftones, be-
fides two which are wanting at the corners. This py¬
ramid, by reafon of the ftones being worn by the wea¬
ther, cannot be conveniently afcended, except on the
fouth fide, or at the north-eaft angle. The fteps are
made of maffy and polifhed ftones (faid to have been
hewn out of the Arabian mountains, which bound the
upper Egypt on the eaft); and are fo vaft, that the
breadth and depth of every ftep is one Angle ftone. It
is alfo to be obferved, that the fteps are not all of equal
depth ; for fome are near four feet, and others not
quite three, diminifhing the higher one afcends: and
the breadth of them is proportionable to their depth;
fo that a right line, extended from the bafis to the top,,
will equally touch the outward angle of every ftep.
The number of thefe fteps is not mentioned by any of
the ancients; but modern travellers differ very much in
their computation. Mr Greaves and two others counted
them very carefully, and found them to be 207 ; though
one of them, in defeending, reckoned 208.
The entrance into the pyramid is by a fquare nar¬
row paffage, which opens in the midft of the north
fide on the r6th ftep, or afeending 38 feet, on an ar¬
tificial bank of earth. The ftone that is over it is near
12 feet long, and above 8 feet wide. This entry goes
declining with an angle of 26 degrees, and is in breadth
exactly 3,463 Englilh feet, and in length 92 feet and
an half. The ftru&ure of it has been the labour of an
exquifite hand, as appears by the fmoothnefs and even-
nefs of the work, and clofe knitting of the joints; a
property long fince obferved by Diodorus to have run
through the whole fabric of this pyramid. At the end
of this paffage there is another like the former, but
which goes on a little rifing: at the meeting of thefe
two
Egypt-
E G Y t 2650 ] E G Y
two paflages, the one defcending and the other afcend-
' ing, the lowermoft ftone of the roof, perpendicular to
it, forms a fharp ridge, between which and the fand
there is fometimes not a foot fpace to pafs through;
fo that a man muft flide on his belly clofe to the ground,
and yet grate his back a_gainft the above-mentioned
ftone, unlefs he be very flender. However, this diffi¬
culty is occafioned chiefly by the fand which the wind
drives into this place; for if the paffage be cleared, it
is of the fame dimenfions there as at the entrance.
There being no window or other opening in this py¬
ramid to admit the light, it may eafily be conceived,
•that thofe who would view the infide muft carry lights
with them.
Having paffed this ftrait, on the right hand there
is an ugly broken hole of about 89 feet in length, the
height and breadth various, and not worthy confidera-
tion: whether this part be decayed by time, or has been
dug away for curiofity, or in hopes of difcovering fome
hidden treafure, is uncertain. On the left hand, ad¬
joining to the narrow entrance, climbing up a fteep and
maffy ftone 8 or 9 feet in height, one enters on the
lower end of the firft gallery ; the pavement oLiyhich
rifes with a gentle acclivity, confiding of a fmooth po-
lifhed marble, and, where not fmeared with duft and
filth, appearing of a white and alabafter colour ; the
fides and roof of unpolilhed ftone, not fo hard and com-
pa<ft as that of the pavement: the breadth of this gal¬
lery is almoft 5 feet, the height about as much, and the
length no feet. At the end of it, there are two paf-
fages; one low and horizontal, orlevel with the ground;
and the other high and rifing like the former. At the
entry of the lower paffage, on the right hand, is the
well mentioned by Pliny, which is circular, and a little
above 3 feet diameter: the fides are lined with white
marble, and the defcent is by fixing the hands and feet
in little open fpaces cut in the fides within, oppofite
andanfwering to one another in a perpendicular; which
is the contrivance for defcending into moft of the wells
and cifterns at Alexandria. This well might lead to
the vault above-mentioned; but it is now almoft flop¬
ped up with rubbilh, and not above zo feet deep.
Leaving the well, and going ftrait on to the diftance
of 15 feet, one enters another paffage opening againft
the former, and of the fame dimenfions, the (tones of
which are very maffy, and exquifitely joined. This
paffage runs in a level no feet, and leads to an arched
vault, or chamber, Handing due eaft and weft, having
a fepulchral fmell, and half full of rubbifh; its length
is not quite 20 feet, its breadth about 17, and its
height lefs than 15; the walls are entire, and plafter-
ed over with lime ; the roof is covered with large
fmooth (tones, not lying flat, but (helving, and meet¬
ing above in an angle. On the fide of this room, in
the middle of it, Greaves fays, there feems to have been
a paffage leading to fome other place; but neither
Thevenot nor Le Brun could difcover any fuch.
Returning back through the narrow horizontal paf-
fage, you climb over it, and enter into the other or
fecond gallery on the left, divided from the firft gal¬
lery by the wall, in which is the entrance to the laft-
mentioned paffage. This fecond gallery rifes with an
angle of 26 degrees, and is in length 154 feet from
the well below; but if meafuredon the pavement, fome-
tvhat lefs, by reafon of a little vacuity of about 15 feet.
before defcribed, between the well and the fquare-hole:
the height of it is about 26 feet, and the breadth 6.87
feet; of which one half is to be allowed for the way in
the midft, there being a ftone bench on each fide of
the wall, of one foot and xHi breadth, and as
much in depth. On the top of thefe benches, near the
angle where they clofe with the wall, are little fpaces,
cut in right-angled parallel figures, fet in each fide op¬
pofite to one another; intended, no queftion, for fome
other end than ornament. The ftone of which this
gallery is built, is a white and poliftied marble, very
evenly cut in large tables ; and the joints are fo clofe,
that they are fcarce difcernable by a curious eye: but
what adds grace to the whole ftru&ure, though it
makes the paffage the more flippery and difficult, is
the acclivity and rifing of the afcent. Plowever, the
going up is not a little facilitated by certain holes made
in the floor, about fix hands-breadth from one another,
into which a man may fet his feet, while he holds by
the bench with one hand. In the ranging of the
marble tables in both the fide-walls, there is one piece
of archite&ure very graceful; and that is, that all the
courfes, which are but feven, do fet and flag over one
another about three inches, the bottom of the upper
courfe overfetting the higher part of the next below it
in order as they defcend.
Having paffed this gallery, one enters another fquare
hole of the fame dimenfions with the former, which
leads into two fmall antichambers or clofets, lined with
a rich and fpeckled kind of Thebaic marble. The
firft of thefe is almoft equal to the fecond, which is of
an oblong figure; one fide containing feven feet, and
the other three and a half; the height is ten feet, and
the floor level. On the eaft and weft fides, within two
feet and a half of the top, which is fomewhat larger
than the bottom, are three femicircular cavities, or little
feats.
The inner antichamber is feparated from the former
by a ftone of red fpeckled marble, which hangs in two
-mortifes (like the leaf of a fluice), between two walls,
more than three feet above the pavement, and wanting
two of the roof. From this fecond clofet you enter
another fquare hole, over which are five lines cut pa¬
rallel and perpendicular; befides which no other fculp-
tures or engravings are obferved in the whole pyramid.
The fquare paffage is of the fame widenefs with the
reft, being all of Thebaic marble, exquifitely cut, and
landing you at the north end of a very fumptuous and
well proportioned room. The diftance from the end
of the fecond gallery to this entry, running upon the
fame level, is 24 feet. This chamber (lands as it were
in the heart and centre of the pyramid, equidiftant
from all the fides, and almoft in the midft between the
bafis and the top. The floor, the fides, and the roof
6f it, are all made of vaft tables of Thebaic marble,
moft exquifitely poliftied; which, if they were not ob-
fcured by the fmoke of torches, would appear glifter-
ing and (hining. From the top of it defcending to the
bottom, there are about fix ranges of ftone, all of which
being refpeftively fized to an equal height very grace¬
fully run round the room in one altitude. The (tones
which cover this chamber are of a ftupendous length,
like-as many huge beams lying flat and traverfing the
room, and fupporting the prodigious mafs of building
above. Of thefe there are nine which cover the roof;
two
Egypt.
E G Y [ 2651 ] E G Y
two of them are lefs by half in breadth than the reft;
the one at the eaft end, and the other at the weft. The
length of the chamber on the fouth fide, moft accurate¬
ly taken at the joint or line where the firft and fecond
row of ftones meet^is 34.38 Englifh feet; the breadth
on the weft fide, at the joint where the firft and fecond
row of ftones meet, is 1.719 feet; and the height 19-I-
feet.
Within this room Hands the monument of Cheops^
or Cbenmis, of one piece of marble, hollow within,
and founding like a bell. It is of the fame kind of
ftone with which the whole room is lined; being a
fpeckled marble with white, black, and red fpots. The
figure of the tomb is like an altari or two cubes finely
fet together; it is cut fmooth and plain, without any
fculpture_or engraving. The outward fuperficies is in
length feven feet three ifiches and a half, and in depth
three feet three inches and three quarters. The hol¬
low infide is in length, on the weft fide, 6.488 feet; in
breadth, at the north end, 2.218 feet; and in depth,
2.860 feet. As this monument could not have been
brought hither through the above-mentioned narrow
paffages, it is fuppofed to have been railed and placed
there before the roof of the chamber was clofed. It
Hands exa&ly in the meridian, or due north and fouth,
and equidiftant from all the fides of the chamber, ex- _
cept the eaft, from whence it is twice as far removed
as from the reft. Under.it there is a little hollow fpace
dug away, and a large ftone in the pavement removed
at the angle next adjoining to it: which hath probably
been done in hopes of finding fome treafure hidden
there; it being a fuperftitious prodigality pra&ifed by
the ancients, and continued to this day in the Eaft In¬
dies, to conceal money in their fepidchres. In the
fouth and north fides of the chamber there are two inlets
oppofite to one another, feven tenths of a foot broad,
four tenths of a foot deep, evenly cut, and running in
a ftraight line fix feet and further into the thicknefs of
the wall: that on the fouth fide is larger and fome-
what round, not fo long as the former, and by the
thicknefs within feems to have been made ufe of for
fetting of lamps upon it. This is all that is to be feen
within this firft pyramid. The only thing more to be
obferved is a furprifing echo, which Plutarch takes
notice of, and fays, that it anfwers four or five times;
but a late traveller (Lucas) allures us that it anfwers
ten or twelve times very diftinftly.
The fecond pyramid Hands at a fmall diftance
fouthward from the former. Mr Greaves allures us,
that it is of the fame dimenfions. It has no paf-
fage into it; and is built of white ftones, not near fo
large as the firft. The fides rife not with fteps like
the firft, but are fmooth and equal; the whole fabric,
except where it is oppofed to the fouth, being very en¬
tire, and free from any deformed breaches. The
third pyramid is much lefs than the two foregoing ones,
meafuring only 300 feet on each fide. It is built of a
clear and white ftone, fomewhat brighter than that of
which the fecond is built. Befides thefe, there is alfo a
fourth; which, had it it beeafinilhed, would not have
fallen Ihort of the grandeur of the firft. It has 148
fteps like the firft. The platform is not even, the
ftones being fet together without order, which fttews
that it has not been finilhed; and yet it is much more
ancient than any of the reft, as is evident by the ftones.
which are all worn out and crumbled into fand. It has Egypt,
a paffage into it which leads into fome halls and galle- "
ries like thofe of the firft.
Befides thefe, there are many other monuments of
the grandeur of the ancient Egyptian monarchs;
fome of which are mentioned under the article Archi¬
tecture, n° 4. and others under thofe of Thebes,
M^ris, Syene, &c. in
With regard to the inhabitants of Egypt, it hath Account of
already been obferved, that they are much lefs nume- the
rous than formerly; owing, no doubt, to the rigour tan *’
of the Turkilh government. The defeendents of the
original Egyptians are an ill-looked flovenly people,
immerfed in indolence, and are diftinguiftied by the
name of Coptis ; in their complexions they are rather
fun-burnt than fwarthy or black. Their anceftors
were once Chriftians, and in general they Hill pretend
to be of that religion; but Mahometanifm is the pre¬
vailing worfhip of Egypt. Thofe who inhabit the vil¬
lages and fields, at any confiderable diftance from the
Nile, confift of Arabs or their defeendants, who are of
a deep fwarthy complexion; and they are reprefented
by the beft travellers, as ftill retaining the patriarchal
method of tending their flocks, and many of them
without any fixed place of abode. The Turks, who
refide in Egypt, retain all their Ottoman pride and in-
folence, and the Turkifh habit, to diftinguilh themfelves
from the Arabs and Coptis, who drefs very plain,
their chief finery being an upper garment of white li¬
nen, and linen drawers; but their ordinary drefs is of
blue linen, with a long cloth coat, either over or un¬
der it. The Chriftians and Arabs of the meaner kind
content themfelves with a linen or woollen wrapper,
which they fold, blanket-like, round their body. The
Jews wear blue leather flippers, the other natives of the
country wear red, and the foreign Chriftians yellow.
The drefs of the women is tawdry and unbecoming;
but their cloaths are filk when they can afford it; and
fuch of them as are not expofed to the fun, have deli-,
cate complexions and features. The Copts in gene¬
ral are excellent accomptants, and many of them live
by teaching the other natives to read and write. All
Egypt is over-run with jugglers,fortune-tellers, moun¬
tebanks, and travelling fleight-of-hand men. Jl2
To what we have already faid concerning the reli- Their reli¬
gion of Egypt, it is proper to add, that the bulk of giom
the Mahometans are enthufiafts, and have among them
their fantos or fellows who pretend to a fuperior de¬
gree of holinefs, and without any ceremony intrude in.- -
to the beft houfes, where it would be dangerous to
turn them out. The Egyptian Turks mind religious
affairs very little; and it would be hard to fay what
fpecies of Chriftianity is profeffed by the Chriftian
Copts, which are here numerous; but they profefs
themfelves to be of the Greek church, and enemies to
that of Rome. In religious, and indeed in many civil
matters, they are under the jurifdi&ion of the patriarch
of Alexandria, who by dint of money generally pur-
chafes a protedlion at the Ottoman court. |l3
The Coptic is the moft ancient language of Egypt, Language,
This was fucceeded by the Greek, about the time of
Alexander the Great; and that by the Arabic, upon
the commencement of the khalifate, when the Arabs
difpoffeffed the Greeks of Egypt. The Arabic, or
Arabcfque, as it is called, is ftill the current lan¬
guage
E G Y [ 26Si 1 E G Y
EgyP1- guage, but the Coptic and modern Greek continue to
be fpoken.
Learning Though it is-pall difpute, that the Greeks derived
all their knowledge from the ancient Egyptians, yet
fcarce a veftige of it remains among their defcendents.
This is owing to the bigotry and ignorance of their
Mahometan mafters ; but here it is proper to make one
obfervation which is of general ufe. The khalifs.or Sa¬
racens who fubdued Egypt, were of three kinds. The
firft, who were the immediate fucceffors of Mahomet,
made war, from confcience and principle, upon all kinds
of literature, excepting the Alcoran ; and hence it v. as,
that, when they took poffeffion of Alexandria, which
contained the moft magnificent library the world ever
beheld, its valuable manufcripts were applied forfome
months in cooking their victuals, and warming their
magnificent baths. The fame fate attended upon the o-
ther Egyptian libraries. The khalifs of the fecond race
were men of tafte and learning, but of a peculiar ftrain.
They bought up all the manufcripts that furvived the
general conflagration, relating to aftronomy, medi¬
cine, and feme ufelefs parts of philofophy: but they
had no tafte for the Greek arts of architecture, fculp-
ture, painting, or poetry ; and learning was confined
to their own courts and colleges, without ever finding
its way back to Egypt. The lower race of khalifs, efpe-
cially thofe who called themfelves Mam dues, difgraced
human nature ; and the Turks have rivettedthe chains
of barbarous ignorance which they impofed. All the
learning, therefore, poflefled by the modern Egyp¬
tians, confifts in arithmetical calculations for the dif-
patch of bufinefs, the jargon of aftrology, a few uo-
ftrums in medicine, and fome knowledge ofArabefque
,,4 and the Mahometan religion.
Manufac- Modern geographers mention little of Egyptian ma¬
tures. nufadtures at this time: but captain Norden, who tra¬
velled to that country, at the expence of his prefent
Daniflt majefty’s grandfather, about the year 1737,
has been pretty explicit on the fubjedt of commerce ;
and from him we learn that the Egyptians export pro¬
digious quantities of unmanufaftured as well as pre¬
pared flax, thread, cotton, and leather of all forts,
callicoes, yellow wax, fal armoniac, faffron, fugar,
fenna, caffia. They trade with the Arabs for coffee,
drugs, fpices, callicoes, and other merchandizes, which
are landed at Suez, from whence they fend them to
Europe. Several European ftates have confuls refident
in Egypt. But the cuftoms of the Turkifh govern¬
ment are managed by Jews. A number of Englifh
veffels arrive yearly at Alexandria, fome of which are
laden on account of the owners, but moft of them are
hired and employed as carriers to the Jews, Armeni¬
ans, and Mahometan traders. Captain Norden feems
to think, that the Englifh conful and merchants make
no great figure in Alexandria, but that they are in much
,,j lefs danger and lefs troubled than the French.
Conftitu- The conftitution and government of this country
tion, &c. feem to be but little known to modern times. It is cer¬
tain that Egypt is fubjeft to the Turks, and that even
the meaneft Janizary is refpefted by the natives. A
viceroy is fent to Egypt, under the title of pajha or la-
Jha^w of Cairo, and is one of the greateft officers of
the Ottoman empire ; but as the interior parts of E-
gypt are almoft inacceffible to ftrangers, we know little
of their government and laws. It is generally agreed,
that the pacha is very careful how he provokes the Egypt
little princes, or rather heads of clans, who have par- E-eJ;on
celled out Egypt among themfelves, and whom he go-   —1
verns chiefly by playing one againft another. He has
however a large regular army, and a militia, which
ferve as nurferies from whence the Ottoman troops are
recruited. The keeping up this army employs his chief
attention. It has fometimes happened that thofe pafhas
have employed their arms againft their mafters; they
are fometimes difplaced by the Porte, upon complaints
from thofe petty princes. Captain Norden and Dr Po-
cock have given us the beft, and indeed a very unfavour¬
able, account of thofe princes, who are called the Sckechs
of the Bedouins, or wandering Arabs, who are fometimes
too powerful to receive laws from the Turkifh govern¬
ment. A certain number of beys, or begs, are ap¬
pointed over the provinces of Egypt, under the pallia.
Though thefe beys are defigned to be checks upon him,
yet they often affume independent powers.
The revenues are very inconfiderable, when compa¬
red to the natural riches of the country and the def-
potiim of its government. Some fay that they amount
to 1,000,009 Sterling, but that two-thirds of the whole
is fpent in the country.
EGYPTIANS, or Gyps^s. See Gypsibs.
EJACULATOR, in anatomy, a name applied to
two mufcles of the penis from their office in the ejec¬
tion of the feed. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles,
EICK. See Bruges.
EIDER-duck. See Anas.
EJECTA, a term ufed by lawyers for a woman de¬
flowered, or call from the virtuous.
EJECTION, in the animal ceconomy, evacuation,
or the difeharging any thing through fome of the e-
mun&ories, as by ftool, vomit, &c.
Ejection, in Scots law, is the turning out the pof-
feflbr of any heritable fubjeA by force; and is either
legal or illegal. Legal eje&ion is where a perfon ha¬
ving no title to poffefs, is turned out by the authority
of law'. Illegal ejeftion, is one perfon’s violently turn¬
ing another out of pofleffion without lawful authority.
EJECTMENT, in Englifh law, a writ, or aftion,
which lies for the ieflee for years, on his being eje&ed,
or put out of his land, before the expiration of his term,
either by the lefibr, or a ftranger. It may alfo be
brought by the leffor againft the leffee, for rent in ar¬
rears, or holding over his term, &c. Eje&ment of
late years is become an adtion in the place of many
real a&ions, as writs of right, formedons, &c. which
are very difficult, as well as tedious and expenfive; and
this is now the common adtion for trial of titles, and
recovering of lands, &c. illegally held from the right
owner: yet where entry is taken away by difeents,
fines, recoveries, difleifins, &c. an ejedfment fhall not
be brought; whereby we find, that all titles cannot
be tried by this adtion.
The method of proceeding in the adtion of ejedlment
is to draw up a declaration, and feign therein a leafe
for three, five, or feven years, to him that would try
the title; and alfo feign a cafual ejedlor, or defendant;
and then deliver the declaration to the ejedlor, who
ferves a copy of it on the tenant in pofTcffion, and gives
notice, at the bottom, for him to appearand defend his
title; or that he the feigned defendant will fufferjudg-
ment by default, whereby the true tenant will be
turned
E L E t 36?;? ] E L E
Elicagmis. turned out of pofleffion : to this declaration the tenant
is to appear at the beginning of next term by his attor¬
ney, and confent to a rule to be made defendant, in-
ftead of the cafual ejedlor, and take upon him the de¬
fence, in which he muft confefs leafe, judgment, entry,
andoufter, and at the trial ftand upon the title only: but
in cafe the tenant in poiTeffion does not appear, and en¬
ter into the faid rule in time, after the declaration fer-
ved, then, on affidavit being made of the fervice of the
declaration, with the notice to appear as aforefaid, the
court will order judgment to be entered againll the ca¬
fual ej'e&or by default; and thereupon the tenant in
poffiffion, by writ habere facias poffejfwnem,- is turned
out of his pofleffion. On the trial in ejeftment, the
plaintiff’s title is to be fet forth from the perfon laft
feifed in fee of the lands in queftion, under whom the
leffor claims down to the plaintiff, proving the deeds,
&c. and the plaintiff fliall recover only according to
the right which he has at the time of "bringing his ac¬
tion. And here, another who hath title to the land,
upon a motion made for that purpofe, may be defen¬
dant in the a&ion with the tenant in poffcffion, to de¬
fend his title ; for the pofleffion of the lands is prima¬
rily in queftion,. and to be recovered, which concerns
the tenant, and the title thereto is tried collaterally,
which may concern fome other.
ELJEAGNUS, Oleaster, or Wild Olive; a ge¬
nus of the monogynia order, belonging to the tetran-
dria clafs of plants. There are three fpecies : i. The
fpinofa, or eaftern broad-leaved olive with a large
fruit, is a native of the Levant and fome parts of Ger¬
many. The leaves are about two inches long, and one
and a half broad in the middle. They are placed al¬
ternate, and of a filver colour: at the footftalk of every
leaf there comes out a pretty long ibarp thorn, which
are alternately longer: the flowers are fmall, the in-
fide of the empalement is ,yellow, and they have a
ftrong feent when fully open. 2. The inermis, without
thorns, is that kind commonly preferved in the gar¬
dens of this country. The leaves are more than three
inches long, and half an inch broad, and have a fliining
appearance like fattin. The flowers come out at the
footftalks of the leaves, fometimes fingly, at other times
two, and fometimes three, at the fame place. The
outfide of the empalement is filvery and ftudded; the
iniide of a pale yellow, and having a very ftrong feent.
-The flowers appear in July, and are fometimes fucceed-
ed by fruit. 3. The latifolia with oval leaves, is a na¬
tive of Ceylon and fome other parts of India. In this
country it rifes with a woody ftem to the height of
eight or nine feet, dividing into many crooked branch¬
es, garniftied with oval and filvery leaves, which have
feveral irregular fpots of a dark colour on the furface.
They are placed alternately on the branches, and con-
tinoe all the year.
Culture, &c. The two firft may be propagated by
laying down the young (hoots in autumn. Tney will
take root in one year ; when they may be cut off from
the old trees, and either tranfplanted into a nurfery for
two or three years to be trained up, or into places
where they are to remain. The proper time for this
is in the beginning of March or early in the autumn.
They ffiould be placed where they may be fereened
from high winds; for they grow very freely, and are
apt to be fplit by the wrind if they are too much ex-
Vol. IV.
pofed. The third fort is too tender to endure the open Elseothe-
air of this country ; and therefore muft be kept in a
warm ftove, except during a (hort time in the warmeft E|ajjic;ty.
part of fu turner.  
From the flowers of thefe plants an aromatic and
cordial water has been drawn, which is faid to have
been fuccefsfully ufed in putrid and peftilentia! fevers.
The genus eleagnus is not to be confounded with the
oleafter or wild olive of Gerard, Parkinfon, and Ray.
The laft is only a particular fpecies of olive, called by
Tournefort and Cafpar Bauhine, olea fylvejlris *. * Sec Oka.
ELALOTHESIUM, in antiquity, the anointing
room, or place where thofe who were to wreftle, or had
bathed, anointed themfelves. See Gymn asium.
ELAPHEBOLIUM, in Grecian antiquity, the
ninth month of the Athenian year, anfwering to the
latter part of February and beginning of March. It
confided of 30 days; and took its name from the fefti-
val elaphebolia, kept in this month, in honour of Di¬
ana the huntrefs ; on which occafion, a cake made in
the form of a deer, was offered to her.
ELASMIS, in natural hiftory, a genus of talcs,
compofed of fmall plates in form of fpangles; and ei¬
ther tingle, and not farther fifiile ; or, if complex, on¬
ly fiffile to a certain degree, and that in fomewhat thick
laminae.— Of thefe talcs there are feveral varieties, fome
with large and others with fmall fpangles, which dif¬
fer alfo in colour and other peculiarities.
ELASTIC, in natural philofophy, an appellation
given to all bodies endowed w'ith the property of ela-
fticity. See Elasticity.
Elastic Fluids. See Air, Electricity, Gas,
and Vapour.
ELASTICITY, or Elastic that property
of bodies wherewith they reftore themfelves to their
former figure, after any external preffure.
The caufe or principle of this important property
elafticity, or fpringinefs, is varioufly affigned. The
Cartefians account for it from the materia fubtilis ma¬
king an effort to pafs through pores that are too nar¬
row for it. Thus, fay they, in bending, or compref-
fing, a hard elaftic body, e. gr. a bow, its parts re¬
cede from each other on the convex fide, and approach
on the concave : confequently the pores are contrac¬
ted or ftraitened on the concave fide; and if they
were before round, are now, for inftance, oval: fo that
the materia fubtilis, or matter of the fecond element,
endeavouring to pafs out of thofe pores thus ftrait¬
ened, muft make an effort, at the fame time, to reftore
the body to the date it was in when the pores were
more patent and round, i. e. before the bow was bent :
and in this confifts its elafticity.
Other later and more wary philofophers account
for elafticity much after the fame manner as the Car¬
tefians ; with this only difference, that in lieu of the
fubtile matter of the Cartefians, thefe fubftitute E-
ther, or a fine ttherial medium that pervades all
bodies.
Others, fetting afide the precarious notion of a ma¬
teria fubtilis, account for elafticity from the great law
of nature attraction, or the caufe of the cohesion of
the parts of folid and firm bodies. Thus, fay they,
when a hard body is (truck or bent, fo that the compo¬
nent parts are moved a little from each other, but not
quite disjoined or broke off, or feparated fo far as to
ij K * be
E L A [ 2654 ] E L E
Elaflicity. be out of the power of that attra&ing force whereby
^ they cohere ; they muft certainly, on the cefTation of
the external violence, fpring back to their former na¬
tural ftate.
Others refolve elafticity into the preflure of the at-
mofphere : - for a violent tenfion, or compreflion, tho’
not fo great as to leparate the conllituent particles
of bodies far enough to let in any foreign matter,
muft yet occafion many little vacuola between the fe-
parated furfaces ; fo that upon the removal of the force
they will clofe again, by the preffure of the aerial fluid
upon the externa) parts. See Atmosphere.
Lailly, others attribute the elafticity of all hard bo¬
dies to the power of refilition in the air included with¬
in them; and fo make the elaftic force of the air, the
principle of elafticity in all other bodies.
The Elasticity of Fluids is accounted for from
their particles being all endowed with a centrifugal
force; when Sir Ifaac Newton, prop. 23. lib. 2. de-
monftrates, that particles, which mutually avoid or
fly off from one another by fuch forces as are recipro¬
cally proportioned to the diftances of their centre, will
compofe an elaftic fluid, whofe denlity fhall be propor¬
tional to its compreffion ; and vice verfa, if any fluid
be compofed of particles that fly off and avoid one
another, and hath its denfity proportional to its com-
preftion, then the centrifugal forces of thofe par¬
ticles will be reciprocally as the diftances of their
centres.
Elasticity e/"the Air, is the force wherewith that
element dilates itfelf, upon removing the force where-
* by it was before compreffed *.
Zfcrttm°' T’ne elafticity or fpring of the air, was fir ft difco-
' vered by Galileo. Its exiftence is proved by this expe¬
riment of that philofopher: An extraordinary quantity
of air, being intruded by means of a fyringe into a glafs
or metal ball, till fuch time as the ball, with this ac-
ceffion of air, weigh confiderably more in the balance
than it did before ; upon opening the mouth thereof,
the air nifties out, till the ball fink to its former weight.
From hence we argue, that there is juft as much air
gone out, as compreffed air had been crowded in. Air,
therefore, returns to its former degree of expanfion,
upon removing the force that compreffed or relifted
its expanfion ; confequently it is endowed with an ela¬
ftic force. It muft be added, that as the air is found
to rufti out in every fituation or direftion of the ori¬
fice, the elaftic force adfs every way, or in every di-
redlion.
The elafticity of the air makes a confiderable article
in Pneumatics.
Th£ caufe of the elafticity of the atmofphere hath
been commonly aferibed to a repuliion between its par¬
ticles ; but this can give us only a very flight idea of
the nature of its elafticity. The term repulfion, like
that of attraftion, requires to be defined, and in all pro¬
bability will be found in moft cafes to be the effedl: of
the a£Uon of fome other fluid. Thus, we find, that
the elafticity of the atmofphere is very confiderably af-
fe&ed by heat. Thus, fuppofing a quantity of air
heated to fuch a degree as is fufficient to raife Fahren¬
heit’s thermometer to 212, it will then occupy a con¬
fiderable fpace. If it is cooled to ftfch a degree as to
fink the thermometer to o, it will fhrink up into lefs
than half the former bulk. The quantity of repulfive
power therefore acquired by the air, while pafling from Eiatcr
one of thefe ftates to the other, is evidently owing ii.
to the heat added to or taken away from it. Nor
have we any reafon to fuppofe, that the quantity of e-
lafticity or repulfive power it ftill poffeffes is owing to
any other thing than the fire contained in it. The fup¬
pofing repulfion to be a primary caufe independent of
all others, hath given rife to many erroneous theories,
and been one very great mean of embarraffing philofo-
phers in their accounting for the phenomena of Elec¬
tricity.
ELATER, in zoology, a genus of infedfs, be¬
longing to the order of coleoptera. The feelers are fe-
taceous. There are 38 fpecies, diftinguftied by their
colour, &c.
ELATERIUM. See Pharmacy, n° 602.
ELBE, a large river in Germany, which, riling'
on the confines of Silefia, runs through Bohemia,
Saxony, and Brandenburg; and afterwards dividing
the duchy of Lunenburg from that of Mecklenburg,
as alfo the dutchy of Bremen from Holftein, it falls
into the German ocean, about 70 miles below Ham¬
burgh. It is navigable for great Ihips higher than any
river in Europe.
ELCESAITES, in church-hiftory, ancient here¬
tics, who made their appearance in the reign of the
emperor Trajan, and took their name from their leader
Elcefai. The elcefaites kept a mean between the
Jews, Chriftians, and Pagans; they worlhipped but
one God, obferved the Jewilh fabbath, circumcifion,
and the other ceremonies of the law. They reje&ed
the Pentateuch, and the prophets ; nor had they any
more refpedi for the writings of the apoftles, particu¬
larly thofe of St Paul.
ELDERS, or Seniors, in Jewilh hiftory, were
perfons the moft confiderable for age, experience, and
wifdom. Of this fort u-ere the 70 men whom Mofes
affociated to himfelf in the government of his people ;
fuch, likewife, afterwards were thofe wrho held the firft
rank in the fynagogue, as prefidents.
In the firft affemblies of the primitive Chriftians,
thofe who held the firft place were called eA/erj'. The
wordprejbyter, often ufed in the New Teftament, is of
the fame fignification : hence the firft councils of Chri¬
ftians were called prejhyteria, ox councils of elders.
Elder is alfo a denomination preferved in the pre-
fbyterian difeipline. See Presbyterian.
Elder, ox Alder, in botany. See Alnus.
ELECAMPANE, in botany. See Inula.
ELECT, among ecclefiaftical writers, thofe whom
God has chofen, or predeftinated to be faved. See
Predestination.
ELECTION, the choice that is made of a perfon,
or thing, in preference of any other.
Election, in theology, fignifies the choice which
God makes of angels and men for the obje&s of his
grace and mercy. See Grace, and Predestination.
Election, in Britilh polity, is the people’s choice
of their reprefentatives in parliament. (See Parlia¬
ment.) In this confifts the exercife of the democra-
tical part of our conftitution: for in a democracy-there
can be no exercife of fovereignty but by fuffrage,
which is the declaration of the people’s will. In all
democracies, therefore, it is of the utmoft importance
to regulate by whom, and in what manner, the fuffra-
ges
E L E
Eleflion.
'mckji.
Ccmment.
E L E [ 2655 ]
ges are to be given. And the Athenians were fo juftly
jealous of this prerogative, that a ftranger, who inter¬
fered in the affemblies of the people, was punilhed by
their laws with ddath; becaufe fuchaman was efteem-
ed guilty of high treafon, by ufurping thofe fights of
fovereignty to which he had no title. In Britain,
where the people do not debate in a colle&ive body,
but by reprefentation, the exercife of this fovereignty
confifts in the choice of reprefentatives. The laws
have therefore very ftri&ly guarded againft ufurpation
or abufe of this power, by many falutary provifions;
which may be reduced to thefe three points, I. The
qualifications of the electors. 2. The qualifications of
the elected. 3. The proceedings at ele&ions.
(1.) As to the qualifications of the eledfors. The
true reafon of requiring any qualification, with regard
to property, in voters, is to exclude fuch perfons as are
in to mean a fituation, that they are efteemed to have
no will of their own. If thefe perfons had votes, they
would be tempted to difpofe of them under fome un¬
due influence or other. This would give a great, an
artful, or a wealthy man, a larger fhare in eledfions
than is .confiftent with general liberty. If it were pro¬
bable that every man would give his vote freely, and
without influence of any kind ; then, upon the true
theory and genuine principles of liberty, every member
of the community, however poor, fhould have a vote in
eledting thofe delegates, to whofe charge is committed
the difpofal of his property, his liberty, and his life.
But, fince that can hardly be expedted in perfons of
indigent fortunes, or fuch as are under the immediate
dominion of others, all popular ftates have been obli¬
ged to eftablilh certain qualifications ; whereby fome,
who are fufpedted to have no will of their own, are
excluded from voting, in order to fet other individuals,
whofe wills may be fuppofed independent, more tho¬
roughly upon a level with each other.
And this conftitution of fuffrages is framed upon a
wifer principle, with us, than either of the methods of
voting, by centuries or by tribes, among the Romans.
In the method by centuries, inftituted by Servius Tul¬
lius, it was principally property, and not numbers, that
turned the fcale: in the method by tribes, gradually
introduced by the tribunes of the people, numbers on¬
ly were regarded, and property entirely overlooked.
Hence the laws pafied by the former method had
ufually too great a tendency to aggrandize the patrici¬
ans or rich nobles ; and thofe by the latter had too
much of a levelling principle. Our conftitution fleers
between the two extremes. Only fuch are entirely
excluded, as can have no will of their own : there is
hardly a free agent to be found, but what is entitled •
to a vote in fome place or other in the kingdom. Nor
!S comparative wealth, or property, entirely difregarded
in eleftions; for though the richeft man has only one
vote at one place, yet, if his property be at all diffufed,
he has probably a right to vote at more places than
one, and therefore has many reprefentatives. This is
the fpirit of our conftitution : not that we aflert it is in
faft quite fo perfect as we have here endeavoured to
deferibe it; for, if any alteration might be wilhed or
fuggefted in the prefent frame of parliaments, it ftiould
be in favour of a more complete reprefentation of the
(a) 7 and 8 Will. III. c. 25. 10 Ann. c. 23. 2 Geo> II,
c. 24.
people.
But to return to the qualifications ; and firft thofe
of ele&ors for knights of the ihire. 1. By ftatute
8 Hen. VI. c. 7. and 10 Hen. VI. c. 2, (amended by
14 Geo. III. c. 58.) the knights of the fhire ftiall be
chofen of people, whereof every man fliall have free¬
hold to the value of forty (hillings by the year within
the county; which (by fubfequent flatutes) is to be
clear of all charges and dedu&ions, except parliamen¬
tary and parochial taxes. The knights of (hires arc
the reprefentatives of the landholders, or landed inte -
reft of the kingdom : their eleftors muft therefore have
eftates in lands or tenements, within the county repre-
fented. Thefe eftates muft be freehold, that is, for terra
of life at leaft ; becaufe beneficial leafes for long terms
of years were not in ufe at the making of thefe fta-
tutes, and copyholders were then little better than vil¬
leins, abfolutely dependent upon their lords. This free¬
hold muft be of 40 (hillings annual value; becaufe
that fum would then, with proper induftry, furnilh all
the neceflaries of life, and render the freeholder, if he
pleafed, an independent man : For bilhop Fleetwood,
in his chronicon preciofum, written at the beginning of
the prefent century, has fully proved 40 (hillings in the
reign of Henry VI. to have been equal to 12 pounds
per annum in the reign of queen Anne ; and, as the
value of money is very confiderably lowered fince the
biftiop wrote, we may fairly conclude, from this
and other circumftances, that what was equivalent
to 12 pounds in his days, is equivalent to 20 at pre¬
fent. The other lefs important qualifications of the
ele&ors for counties in England and Wales may be
collefted from the ftatutes cited below (a) ; which
direft, 2. That no perfon under 21 years of age fliall
be capable of voting for any member. This extends
to all forts of members as well for boroughs as coun¬
ties ; as does alfo the next, viz. 3. That no perfon
convicted of perjury, or fubornation of perjury, (hall
be capable of voting in any ele&ion. 4. That no per¬
fon (hall vote in right of any freehold, granted to him
fraudulently to qualify him to vote. Fraudulent grants
are fuch as contain an agreement to' reconvey, or to
defeat, the eftate granted ; which agreements are made
void, and the eftate is abfolutely veiled in the perfon
to whom it is fo granted. And, to guard the better
againft fuch frauds, it is farther provided, 5. That
every voter (hall have been in the aiftual pofleffion, or
receipt of the profits, of his freehold to his own ufe for
12 calendar months before ; except it came to him by
defeent, marriage, marriage-fettlement, will, or pro¬
motion to a benefice or office. 6. That no perfon (hall
vote in refpedt of an annuity or rent-charge, unlefs re-
giftered with the clerk of the peace 12 kalendar months
before. 7. That in mortgaged or truft eftates, the
perfon in pofleffion, under the above-mentioned re-
ftriftions, (hall have the vote. 7. That only one per¬
fon (hall be admitted to vote for any one houfe or te¬
nement, to prevent the fplitting of freeholds. 9. That
no eftate (hall qualify a voter, unlefs the eftate has
been aflefied to fome land-tax aid, at leaft 12 months
before the eledtion. 10. That no tenant by copy of
court-roll (hall be permitted to vote as a freeholder.
Thus much for the eleftors in counties.
IS K 2 As
c. 21. 18 Geo. IL c. 18. 31 Geo. II. c. 14. 3 Geo. III.
• E L E [ 26;
Elefl'ion. As for the ele&ors of citizens and burgefles, thefe
are fuppofed to be the mercantile part or trading inte-
reft of this kingdom. But as trade is of a fluctuating
nature, and feldom long fixed in a place, it was form¬
erly left to the crown to fummon, pro re tiata, the molt
flourilhing towns to fend reprefentatives to parliament.
So that as towns increafed in trade, and grew popu¬
lous, they were admitted to a (hare in the legiflature.
But the misfortune is, that the defcrted boroughs con¬
tinued to be fummoned, as well as thofe to whom their
trade and inhabitants were transferred; except a few
■which petitioned to be eafed of the expence, then ufual,
of maintaining their members: four fhillings a-day
being allowed for a knight of the fhire, and two fhil¬
lings for a citizen or burgefs; which was the rate of
wages eftablifhed in the reign of Edward III. Hence
the members for boroughs now bear above a quadruple
proportion to thofe for counties ; and the number of
parliament men is increafed fince Fortefcue’s" time, in
the reign of Henry VI. from 300 to upwards of 500,
exclufive of thofe for Scotland. The univerfities were,
in general, not empowered to fend burgeffes to parlia¬
ment; though once, in 28 Edw. I. when a parliament
was fummoned to confider of the king’s right to Scotland,
there were iflfued writs, which required the univerfity of
Oxford to fend up four or five, and that of Cambridge
two or three, of their mod difcreet and learned lawyers
for that purpofe. But it was king James the firft, who
indulged them with the permanent privilege to fend
conftantly two of their own body; to ferve for thofe
ftudents who, though ufeful members of the commu¬
nity, were neither concerned in the landed nor the tra¬
ding intereft ; and to proteft in the legiflature the
rights of the republic of letters. The right of ele&ion
in boroughs is various, depending entirely on the feve-
ral charters, cuftoms, and conftitutions of the refpec-
tive places; which has occafioned infinite difputes: tho’
now, by ftatute 2 Geo. II. c. 24. the right of voting
for the future, fhall be allowed according to the latl
determination of the houfe of commons concerning it;
and, by ftatute 3 Geo. III. c. 15. no freeman of any
city or borough (other than fuch as claim by birth,
marriage, or fervitude) fhall be entitled to vote there¬
in, unlefs he hath been admitted to his freedom 12 ca¬
lendar months before.
(2.) Next, as to the qualifications of perfons to be
defied members of the houfe of commons. Some of
thefe depend upon the law and cuftom of parliaments,
declared by the houfe of commons 1 others upon cer¬
tain ftatutes. And from thefe it appears, 1. That
they muft not be aliens born, or minors. 2. That they
muft not be any of the 12 judges, becaufe they fit in
the lords’ houfe; nor of the clergy, for they fit in the
convocation; nor perfons attainted of treafon or felo¬
ny, for they are unfit to fit any where. 3. That ftie-
riffs of counties, and mayors and bailiffs of boroughs,
are not eligible in their refpe&ive jurifdidtions, as be¬
ing returning officers; but that fheriffs of one coun¬
ty are eligible to be knights of another. 4. That,
in ftri&nefs, all members ought to have been inhabi¬
tants of the places for which they are chofen: but this.
6 ] E L E
having been long difregarded, was at length entirely ElcdHoa.
repealed by ftatute 14 Geo. III. c. 58. 5. That no
perfons concerned in the management of any duties or
taxes created fince 1692, except the commiflioners of
the treafury, nor any of the officers following, [viz.
commiflioners of prizes, tranfports, fick and wounded,
wine-licences, navy, and vi&ualling; fecretaries or re¬
ceivers of prizes; comptrollers of the4 army-accounts;
agents for regiments; governors of plantations, and
their deputies; officers of Minorca or Gibraltar; offi¬
cers of the excife and cuftoms; clerks or deputies in
the feveral offices of the treafury, exchequer, navy,
vi&ualling, admiralty, pay of the army or navy, fecre¬
taries of ftate, fait, ftamps, appeals, wine-licences,
hackney-coaches, hawkers, and pedlars) nor any per¬
fons that hold any new office under the crown created
fince 1705, are capable of being elefted, or fitting as
members. 6. That no perfon having a penfion under
the crown during pleafure, or for any terms of years,
is capable of being eledled or fitting. 7- That if any
member accepts an office under the crown, except an
officer in the army or navy accepting a new commiflion,
his feat is void ; but fuch member is capable of being
re-elefted. 8. That all knights of the Ihire fhall be
aftual knights, or fuch notable efquires and gentlemen
as have eftates fufficient to be knights, and by no means
of the degree of yeomen. This is reduced to a ftill
greater certainty, by ordaining, 9. That every knight
of a fhire fhall have a clear eltate of freehold or copy-
hold to the value of 6001. per annum, and every citi¬
zen and burgefs to the value of 300I.: except the el-
deft fons of peers and of perfons qualified to be knights
of (hires, and except the members for the two univer-
fities.: which fomewhat balances the afcendant which
the boroughs have gained over the counties, by obli¬
ging the trading intereft to make choice of landed
men : and of this qualification the member muft make
oath, and give in the particulars in writing, at the time
of his taking his feat. But, fubjeft to thefe (landing
reftri&ions and difqualifications, every fubjeft of the
realm is eligible of common right: though there are
inftanees, wherein perfons in particular circumftances
have forfeited that common right, and have been de¬
clared ineligible for that parliament, by a vote of the
houfe of commons; or for ever, by an a£l of the legif¬
lature. But it was an unconftitutional prohibition, which
was grounded on an ordinance of the houfe of lords, arid
inferted in the king's writs, for the parliament holden at
Coventry, 6 Hen. IV. that no apprentice or other man of
the law fhould be elefted a knight of the fhire therein :
in return for which, our law-books and hiftorians have
branded this parliament with the name of parliamen-
tum indofiurn, or the lack-learning parliament ; and
Sir Edward Coke obferves with fome fpleen, that there
was never a good law made thereat.
(3.) The third point, regarding ele&ions, is the
method of proceeding therein. This is alfo regulated
by the law of parliament, and the feveral ftatutes re¬
ferred to in the margin below, (b) ; all which we fhall
blend together, and extraft out of them a fummary
account of the method of proceeding to eleilions.
(b) 7 Hen. IV.c. ij. 8 Hen. VI. c. 7. 23 Hen. VI. c. 14. 1 W. & M. ft- r. c. 2. 2 W. & M. ft. 1. c 7. j & 6 W. &
M. c. ao. 7 W. III. c. 4. 7 & 8 W. III. c. 7. and c. 25. 10 & 11 W. III. c. 7. 12 & 13 W. III. c. 10. 6 Ann. c. 23.
9 Ann. c. 5. 10 Ann. c. 19. and c. 33. 2 Geo. II. c. 24. 8 Geo. Hi c. 30. 18 Geo. II. c. 18. 19 Geo. II, c. a8. 10 Gee.
5U, c. 16, n Geo. III. c. 42. 14 Geo. III. c. ij.
E L E [ 2657 1 E L E
Elcflion. As foon as the parliament is fummoned, the lord
chancellor (or if a vacancy happens during the fitting
of parliament, the fpeaker, by order of the houfe, and
without fuch order if a vacancy happens by death in
the time of a recefs for upwards of 20 days) fend^his
warrant to the clerk of the crown in chancery; who
thereupon ift’ues out writs to the IherifF of every coun¬
ty, for the election of all the members to ferve for that
county, and every city and borough therein. Within
three days after the receipt of this writ, the IherifF is to
fend bis precept, under his feal, to the proper return¬
ing officers of the cities and boroughs, commanding
them to eleft their members: and the faid returning
officers are to proceed to eieftion within eight days
from the receipt of the precept, giving four days no¬
tice of the fame; and to return the perfons chofen, to¬
gether with the precept, to the IherifF.
But eleftions of knights of the fhire muft be pro¬
ceeded to by the iheriffs themfelves in perfon, at the
next county-court that fhall happen after the delivery
of the writ. The county-court is a court held every
month or oftener by the ffieriff, intended to try little
caufes not exceeding the value of 40 s. in what part of
the county he pleafes to appoint for that purpofe: but
for the ele&ion of knights of the ffiire, it muft be held
at the moft ufual place. If the county-court falls up-
tin the day of delivering the writ, or within fix days
after, the Iheriff may adjourn the court and ele&ion to
fome other convenient time, not longer than 16 days,
nor ffiorter than 10; but he cannot alter the place,
without the confent of all the candidates: and, in all
fuch cafes, 10 days public notice muft be given of the
time and place of the eledh’on.
And, as it is efiential to the very being of parlia¬
ment that ele&ions Ihould be abfolutely free, therefore
all undue influences upon the eleflors are illegal, and
ftrongly prohibited. For Mr Locke ranks it among
thofe breaches of truft in the executive magiftrate,
which, according to his notions, amount to a difiblu-
tion of the government, “ if he employs the force,
“ treafure, and offices of the fociety to corrupt the re-
“ prefentatives, or openly to pre-engage the eledtors,
“ and preferibe what manner of perfons fhall be cho-
“ fen : For thus to regulate candidates and eledtors,
“ and new-model the ways of ele&ion, what is it, (fays
“ he,) but to cut up the government by the roots, and
“ poifon the very fountain of public fecurity?” As
foon, therefore, as the time and place of election, ei¬
ther in counties or boroughs, zre fixed, all foldiera
quartered in the place are to remove, at leaft one day
before the eledfion, to the diftance of two miles or
more; and not to return till one day after the poll is
ended. Riots likewife have been frequently determined
to make an eledtion void. By vote alfo of the houfe
of commonsi to whom alone belongs the power of de¬
termining contefted eledlions, no lord of parliament,
or lord lieutenant of a county, hath any right to inter¬
fere in the eledtion of commoners; and, by ftatute, the.
lord warden of the cinque ports fhall not recommend
any members there. If any officer of the excife, cu-
ftoms, ftamps, or certain other branches of the reve¬
nue, prefumes to intermeddle in eledfions, by perfua-
ding any voter or diffuading him, he forfeits tool, and
is difabled to hold any office.
Thus are the dedtors of one branch of the legiflature
fecured from any undue influence from either of the Election,
other two, and from all external violence and compul- 1
fion. But the greateft danger is that in which them¬
felves co-operate, by the infamous pradfice of bribery
and corruption. To prevent which, it is enadfed, that
no candidate fliall, after the date (ufually called the
tejie) of the writs, or after the vacancy, give any mo¬
ney or entertainment to his eledtors, or promife to give
any, either to particular perfons, or to the place in
general, in order to his being eledied: on pain of be¬
ing incapable to ferve for that place in parliament.
And if any money, gift, office, employment, or reward
be given, or promifed to be given, to any voter, at any
time, in order to influence him to give or with-hold his
vote, as well he that takes as he that offers fuch bribe
forfeits 500I. and is for ever difabled from voting and
holding any office in any corporation ; unlefs, before
convidtion, he will difeover fome other offender of the
fame kind, and then he is indemnified for his own of¬
fence. The firft inftance that occurs, of eledtion bri¬
bery, was fo early as 13 Eliz. when one Thomas
Longe (being a Ample man, and of fmall capacity to
ferve in parliament) acknowledged that he had given
the returning officer and others of the borough for
which he was chofen, four pounds to be returned mem¬
ber, and was for that premium ele&ed. But for this
offence the borough was amerced, the member was re
moved, and the officer fined and imprifoned. But, as
this pradtice hath fince taken much deeper and more
univerfal root, it hath occafioned the making of thefe
wholefome ftatutes; to complete the efficacy of which,
there is nothing wanting but refolution and integrity
to put them in ftiidt execution.
Undue influence being thus guarded againft, the
eledtion is to be proceeded to on the day appointed ;
the ffieriff or other returning officer firft taking an oath
againft bribery, and for the due execution of his office.
The candidates likewife, if required, muft fwear to
their qualification, and the eledtors in counties to
theirs ; and the eledlors both in counties and boroughs
are alfo compellable to take the oath of abjuration,
and that againft bribery and corruption. And it
might not be amifs, if the members eledted w'ere
bound to take the latter oath, as well as the former;
which, in all probability, would be much more effec¬
tual, than adminiftring it only to the eledtors.
The eledtion' being clofed, the returning officer in
boroughs returns his precept to the fiieriff, with the
perfons eledted by the majority : and the Iheriff re¬
turns the whole, together with the writ for the county
and the knights eledted thereupon, to the clerk of the
crown in chancery ; before the day of meeting, if it be
a new parliament, or within 14 days after the eledtion,
if it be an occafional vacancy; and this under penalty
of 5001. If the fheriff does not return fuch knights
only as are duly eledted, he forfeits, by the old ftatqtes
of Henry VI. tool.; and the returning officer in bo¬
roughs for a like falfe return, 40I..; and they are be-
fides liable to an adtion, in which double damages (hall
be recovered, by the later ftatutes of king William :
and any perfon bribing the returning officer fliall alfo
forfeit 3001. But the members returned by him are
the fitting members, until the houfe of commons, upon
petition, fliall adjudge the return to be falfe and ille¬
gal. The form and manner of proceeding upon fuch
petition
Eleflion,
Elciftor.
Eleftricity
when firft
mentioned.
E L E [ 2658 ] E L E
petition are now regulated by ftatute 10 Geo. III. c.
16. (amended by 11 Geo. III. c. 42. and made per¬
petual by 14 Geo. III. c. 15.) which direfts the me¬
thod of chufing by lot a feleft committee of 15 mem¬
bers, who are fworn well and truly to try the fame,
and a true judgment to give, according to the evidence.
'Elzctiok of Scots Peers. See Lords.
ELECTOR, a perfon who has a right to ele6t or
chufe another to an office, honour, &c. See Election.
Ele&or is particularly, and by way of eminence,
applied to thofe princes of Germany in whom lies the
right of eledting the emperor : being all fovereign prin¬
ces, and the principal members of the empire.
The eledtoral college, coniifting of,all the eleftors of
the empire, is the mofl illuftrious and auguft bpdy in
Europe. Bellarmine and Baronius attribute the inlti-
tution of it to pope Gregory V. and the emperor O-
tho III. in the tenth century ; of which opinion are
the generality of hiftorians, and particularly the ca-
nonifts: however, the number of electors was unfet¬
tled, at leaft, till the 13th century. In 1356 Charles IV.
by the golden bull, fixed the number of ele&ors to fe-
ven ; three eccldiallics, viz. the archbilhops of Mentz,
Treves, and Cologne ; and four feculars, viz. the king
of Bohemia, count Palatine of the Rhine, duke of
Saxony, and marquis of Brandenburg. In 1648 this
order was changed, the duke of Bavaria being put in
the place of the count Palatine, who having accepted
the crown of Bohemia was outlawed by the emperor;
but being at length reftored, an eighth electorate was
eredted for the duke of Bavaria. In 1692, a ninth e-
leftorate was created, by the emperor Leopold, in fa¬
vour of the duke of Hanover, of the houfe of Brunfwic
Lunenburg.
There is this difference between the fecular and ec-
clefiaftical eledtors, that the firft have an active and
palfive voice, that is, may chufe and be chofen; the
laft, an adtive only. The three archbifhops are to be
30 years old, before they can be advanced to the dig¬
nity ; the feculars, 18, before they can perform the
office themfelves. Thefe laft have each their vicars,
who officiate in their abfence.
Befides the power of choofing an emperor, the elec¬
tors have alfo that of capitulating with and depofing
him ; fo that, if there be one fuffrage wanting, a pro-
teft may be entered againft the proceedings. By the
right of capitulation, they attribute to themfelves
great privileges, as making of war, coining, and taking
care of the public intereft and fecurity of the ftates ;
and the emperor promifes, upon oath, to receive the
empire upon thefe conditions.
The eledtors have precedence of all other princes of
the empire, even of cardinals and kings ; and are ad-
dreffed under the title of elettoral highnefs.
Their feveral fundftions are as follow. The eledlor of
Mentz is chancellor of Germany, convokes the ftates,
and gives his vote before any of the reft. The eleftor
of Cologne is grand chancellor of Italy, and confe-
crates the emperor. The eledlor of Treves is chancel¬
lor of the Gauls, and confers impofitiort of hands upon
the emperor. The count Palatine of the Rhine is great
treafurer of the empire, and prefents the emperor with
a globe at his coronation. The elector of Bavaria is
great mafter of the imperial palace, and carries the gol¬
den apple. The marquis of Brandenburg is grand
chamberlain, and puts the ring on the emperor’s fin¬
ger. The eledtor of Saxony is grand marfhal, and
gives the fword to the emperor. The king of Bohe¬
mia" is grand butler, and puts Charlemagne’s crqwn on
the emperor’s head. Laftly, the elector of Hanover,
now king of Great Britain, is arch-treafurer, though
firft eredted under the title of ftandard-bearer of the
empire.
ELECTORATE, a term ufed as well to fignify
the dignity of, as the territories belonging to, any of
the eledtors of Germany ; fuch are Bavaria, Saxony,
Sec. See Elector.
ELECTRIC fluid. See Electricity.
Elector,
;!
EltfMc.
ELECTRICITY,
IN general, fignifies the operations of a very fubtile
fluid, in moft cafes invifible, but which fometimes
becomes the objedl of our fight and other fenfes, difeo-
vering itfelf to be one of the chief agents employed in
producing the phenomena of’nature.
Sect. I. Hifiory of Eleftricity.
Tho’ it is certain that, ever fince the creation of the
world, the fluid we fpeak of hath had the fame (hare
in all the natural operations that it hath juft now; yet
the difeovery of its action, and even of its exiftence,
is, comparatively fpeaking, of a very late date. Thales
the Milefian, who lived about 600 years before Chrift,
was the firft that obferved the eledirical properties of
amber. Of thefe indeed, he knew no more than that
thi? fubftance would attradf light bodies when it was
rubbed. For 300 years after his time, we hear no¬
thing farther concerning this fubjedt. . Theophraftus
then tells us, that the lyncurium (the fame fubftance
now called the tourmalin), has the property of attrac¬
ting light bodies, as well as amber. From this time.
there is a chafm in the hiftory of eledtricity for no lefs
than 1906 years. Indeed, it is fcarce to be fuppofed
that during this long interval any perfon applied him-
felf to the inveftigation of the fubjedt; as, for the
greateft part of it, fcience of every kind was almoft to¬
tally extinguilhed. The eledtrical properties of jet,
however, and, according to Mr Bofe, of the agate, were
feme way or other difeovered during the abovemen-
tioned period. But it was not till the beginning of
the 17th century, that the fubjedt of eledtricity became
properly a diftindt fcience, and the foundation was laid
of thofe difeoveries which have fince taken place.
The firft who can properly be called an elettrician, Difeoveries
was Dr William Gilbert, who, in the year 1600, ofDoftor
wrote a book de Magnete, which contains a variety Gilbert,
of eledtrical experiments. All thefe, however, con-
fidered only the attradtive property of certain -fub-
ftances, which, from their agreement in this refpedt
with amber (in Latin eleftrum , were called eleftric.
Dr Gilbert’s merit confifts in his having been at great
pains to find out a number of fuch fubftances, and thus
confiderably enlarging the number of eledtrics.
Hi fiery. ELECTRICITY.
Till the year 1670, it doth not appear that any far¬
ther difeoveries were made; except fome trifling addi¬
tions to the catalogue of eleftrics. About this time.
Mr Boyle applied himfelf to the ftudy of eleftricity,
He enlarged the catalogue of ele&rics; and found that
their eledric properties were increafed by wiping and
warming them before they were rubbed. He obferved
alfo, that all kinds of bodies were attra&ed promifeu-
oufly; and imagined that they were attracted in vacuo
as well as in air. This laft pofition, however, is de¬
nied by Mr Beccaria; and we fhall afterwards Ihow
that Mr Boyle muft neceflariiy have been miftaken. He
alfo obferved the ele&ric light, though only in the in-
ftance of fome diamonds.
Difaweries ®tt0 Guericke, however, who was cotemporary with
of Otto Mr Boyle, improved the fcience much farther. He
Guericke made ufe of a fulphur globe, whirled on an axis much
andSirlfaae jn the fame way with our prefent glafs globes. Thus
Newton. exc;te a vaftly greater power of ele&ricity
than any of his predeceflbrs, and try all their experi¬
ments to much more advantage. He difeovered elec¬
tric repulfion; and not only faw the ele&ric light more
clearly than Mr Boyle, but heard the hiffing found
I with which it is emitted. He alfo made another re¬
markable difeovery, but which has finCe been very ge¬
nerally overlooked; namely, that a feather, when re¬
pelled by an excited ele&ric, always keeps the fame
face towards the body which repells it, as the moon
does to the earth. See Astronomy, n° lot.
The next difeovery of any moment was made by Sir
Ifaac Newton; who obferved, that the ele&ric attrac¬
tion and repulfion penetrated through glafs; and it is
much to be regretted that this accurate philofopher did
not apply himfelf to the ftudy of ele&rieity with great-
4 er afiiduity.
Remark- In 1709, a treatife was written on eleflricity by Mr
able difeo- Haukfbee ; who not only far excelled ail his predecef-
liauklbee^ ^ors an^ co,emPorar'es> a^° made fome difeoveries
which well deferve the attention of the moft expert e-
le&ricians at this day. Befides a variety of new expe-
| riments made upon eleftric attraction and repulfion, as
well as the light emitted by electric bodies; he found
a method of rendering opaque bodies tranfparent by
means of eleftricity. He lined more -than half the
infide of a glafs globe with fealing wax; and having
exhaufted the globe, he put it in motion ; when ap¬
plying his hand to excite it, he faw the fnape and fi¬
gure of all the parts of his hand diftinftly and per¬
fectly, on the concave fuperfecies of the wax within,
juft as if only pure glafs without any wax at all had
been interpofed between his eye and his hand. The
lining of wax, where it was fpread the thinneft, would
but juft allow the fight of a candle through it in the
dark; hut in fome places the wax was at leaft an eighth
part of an inch thick. Yet, even in thefe places, the
light and figure of his hand were as diftinguifhable
through it as any where elfe. The fealing-wax did not
adhere to the glafs in all places; but this made no dif¬
ference with regard to the tranfparency. Pitch an-
fwered the purpofe equally well with fealing-wax.
Mr Hauklbee alfo made a farther improvement, by
ufing a glafs globe, which ads much more powerfully
than a fulphur one. After his death, however, not
only the ufe of glafs globes, but even the ftudy of elec¬
tricity itfelf, feems to have been pretty generally laid
afide for fome time. The reafon of this was, that the
recent difeoveries of Sir Ifaac Newton engrofled the
attention of philofophers to fuch a degree, that they
had no leifure for any thing elfe. After the death of
that great man, however, the fcience of ele&ricity be¬
gan to revive ; and, in 1729, a capital difeovery was
made by Mr Stephen Grey. This was the diftin&ion
between condudors and non-condudors of eledricity.
As the difeovery was entirely accidental, and attended
with feveral curious circupsftances, we Ihall here give
fome account of it. In the month of February 1729,
Mr Grey, after fome fruitlefs attempts to excite an elec¬
tric power in metals, recolleded a fufpicion he had for
fome time entertained, that as a glafs tube, when excited
in the dark, communicated its light to various bodies,
it might at the fame time poffibly communicate to them
an eledricity; that is, a power of attrading light bo¬
dies ; which, as yet, was all that was underftood by the
word electricity. For this purpofe he provided himfelf
with a glafs tube, three feet five inches long, and near
one inch and two-tenths in diameterf To each end was
fitted a cork; to keep the duft out when the tube was
not in ufe. His firft experiments were made with a
view to determine whether the tube would attrad e-
qually well with the ends (hut, as with them open. In
this refped there was no difference; but he found that
the corks attraded and repelled light fubftances as
well, and rather better than the tube itfelf. He then
fixed an ivory ball upon a ftalk of fir about four inches
long ; and thrufting the end of the ftalk into one of
the corks, he found the ball endowed with a ftrong at-
tradive and repulfive virtue. This experiment he re¬
peated in many different ways; fixing the ball upon
long fticks, and upon pieces of brafs and iron wire,
always with the fame fuccefs ; but he conftantly ob¬
ferved, that the ball at the end attraded more vigo-
rpufly, than that part of the wire neareft the tube.
The inconvenience of ufing long wires in this man¬
ner, put Mr Grey upon trying whether the ball might
be fufpended by a pack-thread with a loop on the
tube, with equal fuccefs; and the event fully anfwered
his expedation. Having thus fufpended bodies of the
greateft length he conveniently could, to his tube, he
afeended a balcony 26 feet high, and faftening a firing
to his tube, found that the ball would attrad light bo¬
dies on the ground below. This experiment fucceeded
in the greateft heights to which he could afeend; af¬
ter which, he attempted to carry the eledricity hori¬
zontally. His firft attempt mifearried, becaufe he fu¬
fpended his line, which was intended to carry the elec¬
tricity horizontally, by a pack-thread; and thus the
fluid got off from it: but though Mr Grey knew this
was the cafe, he could not at that time think' of any
method to prevent it.
On the 30th of June 1729, Mr Grey paid a vifit to
Mr Wheeler, in order to give him a fpecimen of his
experiments; but told him of the unfuccefsful attempt
he bad made to carry the eledric fluid horizontally.
Mr Wheeler propofed to fufpend the conduding line by
Jilk, inftead of pack-thread. For this advice he could
give no reafon, but that the filk thread was fnaller
than the other: however, with it they fueceeded per-
fedly well. Their firft experiment was in a matted
gallery at Mr Wheeler’s houfe, on the 2d of July 1729.
About four feet from the end of the gallery they fa¬
ttened
2659
Difference
between e-
leftrics and
conductors'
difeovered
by Mr
Grey.
2&60 ELECT
Hiftory. ftened a line acrofs the place. The middle of this line
was filk, the reft pack-thread. Over the filken part
they laid one end of the conducing line, to which was
faftened the ivory ball, and which hung down about nine
feet below the line ftretched acrofs the gallery. The con-
dufting line was 8o4- feet in length, and the other end
of it was faftened by a loop to the eleftric tube. Upon
rubbing the tube, the ivory ball attra&ed and repelled
light fubftances as the tube itfelf would have done.
They next contrived to return the line, fo that the
whole length of it amounted to 147 feet; which alfo
anfwered pretty well. But, fufpefting that the attrac¬
tion would be ftronger without doubling or returning
the line, they made ufe of one carried ftraight forward
for 124 feet; and, as they expe&ed, found the at¬
traction in this manner ftronger than when the line
had been doubled. Thus they proceeded with till
their experiments ; ftill adding more conducing line,
at laft their, filk-ftring broke with the weight. This
they endeavoured to fupply, firft with a fmall iron-
wire, and then with a brafs one. .The refuk of thefe
experiments, however, foon convinced them that the
iilk refufed toconduCt the eleftric fluid, noton account
- of its fmallnefs, as they had fuppofed, but on account
of fome difference in the matter. The wires were fmal-
ler than the filk-tbread, yet the ele£tricity was effectu¬
ally carried off by them. They had recourfe, there¬
fore, to thicker lines of (ilk; and, thus conveyed thee-
leCtric matter to the diftance of 765 feet; nor did they
perceive the virtue to be at all diminifhed by the di¬
ftance to which it was carried.
This difeovery of the non-condufting power of filk,
was quickly followed by a difeovery of the fame power
in many other fubftances: and thus in faCt, the founda¬
tion of almoft all the fubfequent improvements in eleCfri-
city was laid ; tho’ in this fcience, as well as in moft o-
thers, few difeoveries have been made by reafoning, but
many by accident. Mr Grey continued to ftudy eleftri-
• city as long as he lived; and has given a fet of experi¬
ments, of which Dr Prieftley fays, “ It is not eafy to
know what to make of them.” He imagined that he
g had difeovered in all eleCtric fubftances a perpetual at~
He difeo- trattive penver, which required no kind of excitation
vers a per- either by heating, rubbing, or any kind of attrition,
rraftive** t00^ ^ ^'fferent fubftances, which were either ro-
•loweHn gum-lac, fhell-lac, bees-wax, fulphur, pitch, or
eleftrics. two or three of thefe differently compounded. Tbefe
he melted in a fpherical iron ladle; except the fulphur,
which was beft done in a glafs veffel. When thefe were
taken out of the ladle, and their fpherical furfaces har¬
dened, he fays they would not attraCl till the heat was
abated, or till they came to a certain degree of warmth;
that there was then a fmall attra&ion, which increa-
fed till the fubftance was cold, when it was very con-
fiderable. The manner in which he kept thefe fub¬
ftances in a ftate of attra&ion was, by wrapping them
in any thing which would preferve them from the ex¬
ternal air. At firft, for the fmaller bodies he ufed
white paper, and for the larger ones white flannel;
but afterwards, he found that black worfted ilockings
would do as well. When thus wrapped up, they were
put into a large firm box, where they remained till he
had occafion to ufe them. Thus prepared, they re¬
tained their attraftive virtue for four months. Thefe
experiments are fimilar to fome others lately made and
1 I C I T Y, Sea. I.
publifned as new difeoveries, Hiftory.
Some other experiments were made by Mr Grey,
with regard to the attra&ion of ele&ric bodies in va¬
cuo ; and in this he determined with Mr Boyle againft
the opinion of Mr Beccaria abovementioned. But the
moft remarkable experiments mentioned by Mr Grey, jmag’ncs \
are his imitations of the planetary motions. “ I have he can im:«
lately made, (fays he), feveral new experiments upon tate the I
the proje&ile and pendulous motions of fmall bodies Plan.etaty
by ele&ricity; by which fmall bodies may be made to mot,ons* 1
move about large ones, either in circles or ellipfes; and
thofe either concentric or eccentric to the centre of the
large body about which they move, fo as to make
many revolutions about them. And this motion wi]l
conftanjtly be the fame way that the planets move a-
bout the fun, viz. from the right hand to the left, or
from weft to eaft. But thefe little planets, if I may
fo call them, move much faiter in their apogeon than
in the perigeon parts of their orbits; which is, direiftly
contrary to the motion of the planets about the fun.”
The manner in which thefe experiments were made, as
delivered by him on his death-bed to Dr Mortimer,
was as follows: “ Place a fmall iron globe, (faid he),
of an inch or an inch and an half in diameter, on the
middle of a circular cake of rofin, feven or eight inches
in diameter, gently excited; and then a light body fu-
fpended by a very fine thread, five or fix inches long,
held in the hand over the centre of the cake, will, of
itfelf, begin to move in a circle round the iron globe,
and conftantly from weft to eaft. If the globe is pla¬
ced at any diftance from the centre of the circular cake,
it will deferibe an ellipfe, which will have the fame ex-
centricity as the diftance of the globe from the centre
of the cake. If the cake of rofin be of an elliptical
form, and the iron globe be placed in the centre of it,
the light body will deferibe an elliptical orbit of the
fame excentricity with the form of the cake. If the
globe be placed in or near one of the foci of the ellip¬
tical cake, the light body will move much fwifter in
the apogee than in the perigee of its orbit. If the iron
globe is fixed on a pedettal an inch from the table, and
a glafs hoop, or a portion of a hollow glafs cylinder
excited, be placed round it, the light body will move
as in the circumftances mentioned above, and with the
fame varieties.” He faid, moreover, that the light
body would make the fame revolutions, only fmaller,
round the iron globe placed on the bare table, with¬
out any eleftrical body to fupport it: but he acknow¬
ledged that he had not found the experiment fucceed
if the thread was fupported by any thing but a human
hand, though he imagined any other animal fubftance
would have anfwered the purpofe.
Thefe experiments occafioned a great deal of (pecu¬
lation. Dr Mortimer was the only perfon who was able
to repeat them with fuccefs, and he only when nobody
but himfelf was prefent. It was therefore generally fup¬
pofed that both he and Mr Grey had been deceived: but
from fome experiments to be related hereafter, it feems
probable that the fuccefs of Mr Grey and Dr Morti¬
mer was owing to their having performed their expe¬
riments with candle-light; and the failure of the others,
to their having attempted them by day-light. Notwith-
ftanding which, it is more than probable that Mr Grey
has been deceived in a number of particulars; for no
motion can be performed by an artificial excitation of
Sea. I. ELECTRICITY. 2661
.Hillory. the eleftric fluid, but what is attended with much irre-
-- g— gularity.
Vitreous Soon after Mr Grey’s difeovery of the difference be-
andrefmous tween condutlors and non-condu£tors of eleftricity^
elcftiicity i)u Fay difeovered the difference between pofitive
b'^Mr Du an^ negat‘ve> or* 38 they were for fome time called,
fey' the vitreous and refinous eleftricities. This difeovery
was quite accidental. It was made in confequence of
his cafually obferving, that a piece of leaf-gold repelled
by an excited glafs tube, and which he meant to chafe
about the room with a piece of excited gum copal, in-
ftead of being repelled by it as it was by the glafs
tube, ft was eagerly attra&ed. The fame was the cafe
with fealing-wax, fulphur, rofin, and a number of o-
ther fubftances. He difeovered alfo, that it was im-
poffible to excite a tube in which the air was conden-
fed.
In the year 1742, the ufe of glafs globes was again
introduced by Mr Bofe, profeffor of pnilofophy at Wit-
temburgh ; though fome attribute this to Chrittian
Auguftus Hanfen, profefibr of mathematics at Leipfic.
He added alfo a prime conductor, which confifted of a
tube of iron or tin. It was at firft fupported by a man
Handing upon cakes of rofin; but afterwards fufpend-
cd by filk lines horizontally before the globe. A
bundle of thread was put into the end next to the
globe, which not only prevented any injury to the
0 glafs, but rendered the eledrieity ftronger.
Electrical The moft remarkable difeovery that hath yet been
fliock difee- ma(Je ;n the fcience of eledlricity, was in the end of
twed. tjie year an(] beginning of 1746. This was
the method of giving the ele&ric (hock, or the aecn-
mulation of the power of ele&ricity in a vial. This
had its name of the Leyden vial, from Mr Cunaeus, a
native of Leyden, who exhibited it as he was repeating
fome experiments made by Meflrs Mufchenbroek and
Allamand, profeffors in the univerfityof that city. He
was not, however, the inventor. The merit of this
difeovery (if any merit can arife from a difeovery made
by accident) belongs to Mr Van Kleift, dean of the
cathedral at Camin. On the 4th of November 1745,
he fent the following account of it to Dr Lieberkuhn
at Berlin: “ When a nail, or a piece of thick brafs
wire, &c. is put into a fmall apothecary’s vial, and e-
ledtrified, remarkable effedls follow : but the vial muft
be very dry, or warm. I commonly rub it over be¬
fore-hand with a finger, on which I put fome pounded
chalk. If a little mercury or a few drops of fpirit of
wine are put into it, the experiment fucceeds the bet¬
ter. As foon as this phial and nail are removed from
the ele&rifying ghfs, or the prime condu&or to which
it hath been expofed is taken away, it throws out a
pencil of flame fo long, that with this burning machine
in my hand, I have taken above 60 fteps in walking
about my room. When it is ele&rified ftrongly, I can
take it into another room, and there fire fpirits of
wine with it. If, while it is ele&rifying, I put my
finger, or a piece of gold which I hold in my hand, to
the nail, I receive a fliock which ftuns my arms and
fhoulders.
“ A tin tube, or a man placed upon eleftrics, is
ele&rified much ftronger by this means than in the
common way. When I prefent this vial and nail to a
tin tube, which I have, 15 feet long, nothing but ex¬
perience can make a perfon believe how ftrongly it is
Vox.. IV.
eleftrified. Two thin glafies have been broken by the Hiftory.
fliock of it.”
Soon after this, a method of giving the fliock was
difeovered in Holland by Mr Cunceus, irr the following
manner. M. Mufchenbroek and his friends, obferving
that ele&rified bodies expofed to the common atmo-
fphere, which is always replete with conducing par¬
ticles of various kinds, foon loft their eleftricity, and
were capable of retaining but a fmall quantity of it;
imagined, that, were the eledlrified bodies terminated
on all fides by original ele&rics, they might be capable
of receiving a ftronger power, and retaining it for a
longer time. Glafs being the moft convenient eleftric
for this purpofe, and water the moft convenient non-
eleftric, they firft made thefe experiments with Water
in glafs bottles: but no confiderable difeovery was
made, till Mr Cunaeus, happening to hold his glafs
veflel in one hand, and endeavouring to difengage it
from the conduddor with the other, (when he imagined
the water had received as much eledhicity as the ma¬
chine could give it), was furprifed with a fudden fliock
in his arms and bread, which he had not in the leaft
expedled. IO
The difeovery of fuch a terrible effedt of the ele&ric Behaviour
power, immediately railed the attention of all the phi- °f different
lofophers in Europe. Many of them greatly exagge-
rated their accounts; either from a natural timidity, this occa-
or their love of the marvellous. Mr Mufchenbroek, fion.
who tried the experiment with a very thin glafs bowl,
told Mr Reamur in a letter wrote foon after the expe-
ment, That he felt himfelf ftruckin his arms, flioulder,
and bread, fo that he loft his breath ; and was two days
before he recovered from the effedts of the blow and
the terror. He added, that he would not take a fecond
ftiock for the whole kingdom of France. Mr Alla¬
mand, who made the experiment with a common beer-
glafs, faid, that he loft his breath for fome moments;
and then felt fuch an intenfe pain all along his right
arm, that he was apprehenfive of bad confequences, but
it foon after went off without any inconvenience, &c.
Other philofophers, on the contrary, (hewed their he-
roifm and magnanimity, by receiving a number of elec¬
tric (hocks as ftrong as they could pofiibly make them.
Mr Bofe abovementioned, wiflied that he might die by
the eledtric (hock, in order to furnifli, by his death, an
article for the memoirs of the academy of fciences at Paris.
“ But, (adds Dr Prieftley, from whom this account
is taken), it is not given to every eledfrician to die in
fo glorious a manner as the juftly envied Richman.”
From the time of this difeovery, eledtricity became
the general fubjedf of converfation. A great number
of people all over Europe, got their livelihood by go¬
ing about and (hewing the phenomena of it; and, at
the fame time, the paffion for the marvellous ftrongly
difeovered itfelf in fome effedfs of eledlricity, pretended
to be found out in Italy and Germany. It was afferted Incredible
by Signior Pivati at Venice, and after him by Verati .po)wersiat-
at Bologna, Mr Bianchi at Turin, and Mr Winckler c][eflrf£jty0
at Leipfic, that if odoriferous fubftances were confined
in glafs veffels, and the veffels excited, the odours and
other medicinal virtues would tranfpire through the
the glafs, infedt the atmofphere of thd conductor, and
communicate the virtue to all perfons in contadt with
it; alfo, that thofe fubftances, held in the hands of
perfons eledtrified, would communicate their virtues to
15 L them;
2662 E L E C T I
Hiftory. them ; fo that the medicines might be made to operate
without being taken into the Itomach. They even pre¬
tended to have wrought many cures by the help of e-
le&riclty applied in this way. To fee the wonderful
effe&s of thefe medicated tabes, as they were called,
Mr Nollet travelled into Italy, where he vilited all the
gentlemen who had publilhed any account of thefe ex¬
periments. But tho’ he engaged them to repeat their
experiments in his prefence, and upon himfelf; and
though he made it his bufinefs to get all the informa¬
tion he could concerning them ; he returned fully con¬
vinced, that in no inftance had odours been found to
tranfpire through the pores of excited glafs, and that
no drugs had ever communicated their virtues to peo¬
ple who had only held them in their hands while they
were eleftrified. He was convinced, however, that, by
continued eleftrification without drugs, feveral perfons
had found confiderable relief in various diforders; par¬
ticularly, that a paralytic perfon had been cured at Ge¬
neva, and that one who was deaf of an ear, another
who had a violent pain in his head, and a woman with
a difarder in her eyes, had been cured at Bologna; fo
that from this time we may date the introduction of
ele£tricity into the medicinal art. See (the Index fub-
joined to) Medicine.
Another wonderful experiment was the beatification
of Mr Boze; which other electricians, for a long time,
endeavoured to repeat after him, but to no purpofe.
His defeription of this remarkable experiment was,
that if, in eleCtrifying, large globes were employed,
and the eleCtrified perfon liood upon large cakes of
pitch, a lambent flame would by degrees arife from
the pitch, and fpread itfelf around his feet; that from
thence it would be propagated to his knees and bo¬
dy, till at lalt it afeended to his head ; that then, by
continuing the electrification, the perfon’s head would
be furrounded by a glory fuch as is in fome meafure re-
prefented by painters in their ornamenting the heads of
faints. Dr Watfon took the utmoft pains to repeat
this experiment. He underwent the operation feveral
times, and was fupported during the time of it by fo-
lid eleCtrics three feet high. Being eleCirifled very
ftr^tgly, he felt a kind of tingling on the fkin of his
h^t and in many other parts of his.body. The fenfa-
tion refembled what would arife from a vaft number pf
infeCts crawling over him at the fame time. He con-
ftantly obferved the fenfation to be the greateft in thofe
parts of his body which were neareft to any non-elec¬
tric ; but no light appeared upon his head, tho’ the
experiment was feveral times made in the dark, and
with fome continuance. At lail the doCtor wrote to
Mr Boze himfelf, and his anfwer ihewed that the whole
had been a trick. Mr Boze acknowledged that he
had made ufe of a fuit of armour, which was decked
with many bullions of fteel, fome pointed like nails,
others like wedges, and fame pyramidal; and that
when the eleClrifation was very vigorous, the edges
of the helmet would dart forth rays fomething like
thofe which are painted on the heads of faints.
ellftricVifd *<ient*ty t^ie eleCtrical matter with lightning
with light- *s a difeovery that hath been of more practical ufe to
uingfufpec-mankind than any other. From almofl thefirft difeo-
ted by Dr very 0f the eleCtric light, and the crackling with which
Franklin. ;s ernitted, a flmilarity between it and the phenome¬
na of thunder and lightning had been obferved. This
l I C I T Y. Sea.I.
is taken notice of by Dr Wall, one of the firft who Hiltory,
viewed the eleCtric light in any perfeCt manner. The 
Abbe Nollet, Mr Winckler, and others, alfo enume¬
rated many refemblances between the phenomena of
eleCtricity and thofe of thunder; but they did not
think of any method by which their fufpicions could
be brought to the tell.of experience. This was firit
propofed by Dr Franklin in 1750. He had before
difeovered the effeCts of pointed bodies in drawing off
the eleCtric matter more powerfully than others.' This
was fuggelted to him by one Mr Thomas Hopkinfon,
who eleCtrified an iron ball of three or four inches dia¬
meter with a needle fattened to it, expeCting to draw a
ftronger fpark from the point of it; but was furpiifed .
to find little or none. Dr Franklin, improving on this
hint, fuppofed that pointed rods of iron, fixed in the air
when the atmofphere was loaded with lightning, might
draw from it the matter of the thunder-bolt, without
noife or danger, into the body of the earth. His ac¬
count of this fuppoiition is given by himfelf in the fol¬
lowing words. “ The eleCtric fluid is attracted by
points. We do not know whether this property be
in lightning; but fince they agree in all the parti¬
culars in which we can already compare them, it is
not improbable, that they agree likewife in this; let
the experiment be made.” 13
This fufpicion of Dr Franklin’s was verified in lufpi-
T752, and the difeovery is perhaps the only one in the vei1"
whole fciencethat hath not been the refult of accident.
The moll aCtive perfons were two French gentlemen,
Meffrs Dalibard and Delor. The former prepared his
apparatus at Marly la Viile, fituated five or fix leagues
from Paris; the other at his own houfe, on fome of
the higheft ground in that capital. Mr Dalibard’s
machine confilted of an iron rod 40 feet long, the lower
extremity of which was brought into a centry-box,
where the rain could not come; while on the outfide
it was faftened to three wooden pofis by long Aiken
firings defended from the rain. This machine happen¬
ed to be the firft that was favoured with a vifit of the
etherial fire. Mr Dalibard himfeif was not at home;
but, in his abfence, he had'entrufied the care of his
apparatus to one Coiffier a joiner, who had ferved 14
years among the dragoons, and on whofe courage and
underfianding he could depend. This artifan had all
the neceflary inftruCtions given him ; and was defined
to call fome of his neighbours, particularly the curate
of the parifli, whenever there ftiould be any appearance
of a thunder-fiorm. At length the long expe&ed e-
vent arrived. On Wednefday the 10th of May 1752,
between two and three in the afternoon, Coiffier heard
a pretty loud clap of thunder. Immediately he ran to
the machine, taking with him a vial,fnrnifiled with a
brafs wire; and prefenting the wire to the end of the
rod, a fmall fpark iflued from it with a fnap like that
which attends a fpark from an eleClrified conduCkor.
Stronger fparks were afterwards drawn in the prefence
of the curate and a number of other people. The cu¬
rate’s account of them was, that they were of a blue
colour, an inch and an half in length, and fmelled
ftrongly of fulphur. In making them, he received 4
ftroke on his arm a little below the elbow; but he
could not tell whether it came from the brafs wire in-
ferted into the vial, or from the bar. He did not at¬
tend to it at the time; but the pain continuing, he un¬
covered
Sea. I. ELECTRICITY. 2663
.Hiftory, covered his arm when he went home in the prefence of
CoifRer. A mark was perceived round it, fuch as might
have been made by a blow with the wire on his naked
Ikin.
About a month after this, Dr Franklin himfelfhad
an opportunity of verifying his own hypothefis. He
was waiting for the ere&ion of a fpire in the city of
Philadelphia, not imagining that a pointed rod of a
moderate height could anfwer the purpofe. At laft it
occurred to him, that by means of a common kite he
could have a readier accefs to the high regions of the
atmofphere than any other way whatever. Preparing,
therefore, a large filk handkerchief, and two crofs
flicks of a proper length on which to extend it, he
took the opportunity of the firft approaching thunder-
ftorm to take a walk into a field where there was a (hed
convenient for his purpofe. But dreading the ridicule
which too commonly attends unfuccefsful attempts in
fcience, he communicated his intention to nobody but
his fon, who alfifted him in railing the kite. A con-
fiderable time elapfed before there was any appearance
of fuccefs. One very promifmg cloud had palled over
the kite without any effeft ; when, juft as he was be¬
ginning to defpair, he obferved fome loofe threads of
the hempen firing to ftand ere<ft and avoid one ano¬
ther juft as if they had been fufpended by the conduc¬
tor of a common eleiftrical machine. On this he pre-
fented his knuckle to a key which was faflened to the
firing, and thus obtained a very evident ele&ric fpark.
Others fucceeded even before the firing was wet; but
when the rain had begun to defcend, he colle&ed elec¬
tric fire pretty copioufly. He had afterwards an infu-
lated iron rod to draw the lightning into his houfe ;
and performed almoft every experiment with real light¬
ning that had before been done with the artificial re-
14 prefentations of it by ele&rical machines.
Danger of Thus a new field was opened for philofophers; but
making ex- was foon that experiments of this kind were
• witlTlight- not alwaysto t>e made without danger. This very year,
ring. 1752, the Abbe Nollet publilhed fome cautions to
thofe who tried experiments on lightning. He had
'been informed by letters from Florence and Bologna,
that fome people there had received violent (hocks
while they drew fparks from an iron bar eledfrified by
thunder. One of his correfpondents informed him,
that once, as he was endeavouring to fallen a fmall
chain with a copper ball at one of its extremities to a
great chain which communicated with the bar at the
top of the building, there came a flafh of lightning
which he did not fee, but which affedled the chain
with a nolle like that of wild-fire. The obferver in-
ftantly received fuch a (hock, that the ball fell out of
his hands, and he was ftruck backwards four or five
paces.
The greateft inftance of the danger of thefe experi¬
ments, however, was the death of MrRiehman profeflbr
frofellbr at Peterfburgh above-mentioned. This happened on
Richman the 6th of Auguft 1753, as he was making experi-
killed by ments on lightning drawn into his own room. He had
lightning. pj-Qvided himfelf with an inftrument for meafuring the
quantity of ele6iricity communicated to his apparatus;
and as he flood with his head inclined to it, Mr Solo-
kow an engraver, who was near him, obferved a globe
of blue fire, as big as his fill, jump from the inftru¬
ment, which was about a foot diftant, to Mr Richman’s
head. The profefibr was inflantly dead, and Mr So- Hiftory.
lokow was alfo much hurt. The latter, however, could
give no particular account of the way In which he was
affe&ed; for, at the time the profeifor was ftruck,
there arofe a fort of fleam or vapour, which entirely
benumbed him, and made him fink down to the ground,
fo that he could not even remember to have heard the
clap of thunder, which was a very loud one. The
globe of fire was attended with an explofion like that
of a piftol ; the inftrument for meafuring the ele&ri-
city (called by the profelforan eledricalgnomon'), was
broken to pieces, and the fragments thrown about the
room. Upon examining the effecls of the lightning in
the profeftbr’s chamber, they found the door-cafe half
fplit through, and the door torn off and thrown into
the room. They opened a vein in the body twice, but
no blood followed ; after which, they endeavoured to
recover life by violent fridlion, but in vain : upon turn¬
ing the corpfe with the face downwards during the
rubbing, an inconfiderable quantity of blood ran out
of the mouth. There appeared a red fpot on the
forehead, from which fpirted fome drops of blood
through the pores, without wounding the (kin. The
(hoe belonging to the left foot was burft open, and
uncovering the foot at that part, they found a blue
mark; from whence it was concluded, that the elec¬
tric matter having entered at fhe head, made its way
out again at that foot. Upon the body, particularly
on the left fide, were feveral red and blue fpots refem-
bling leather (hrunk by being burnt. Many more al-
fo became vifible oyer the whole body, and particular¬
ly over the back. That upon the forehead changed to
a brownifh red, but the hair of the head was not finged.
In the place where the (hoe was unripped, the (locking
was entire; as was the coat every where, the waift-
coat only being finged-on the foreflap where it join¬
ed the hinder : but there appeared on the back of Mr
Solokow’s coat long narrow ftreaks, as if red-hot wires
had burned off the nap, and which could not well be ac¬
counted for.
When the profeffor’s body was opened next day, the
cranium was very entire, having neither fiffure nor con-
tra-fiffure: the brain was found; but the tranfparent
pellicles of the wind-pipe were exceffively tender, and
eafilyrent. There was fome extravafated blood in it,
as alfo in the cavities below the lungs. Thofe of the
bread were quite found ; but thofe towards the back
of a brownifli black colour, and filled with more of the
blood above mentioned. The throat, the glands, and
the fmall inteftines; were all inflamed. The finged lea¬
ther-coloured fpots penetrated the (kin only. In 48
hours the body was fo much corrupted that they could
fcarce get it into a coffin. .
Since the difeovery of the identity of lightning and Condu&ors
the ele&ric matter, long rods of iron or other metal ufed for
have been made ufe of with a view to proteft buildings preferving
from the danger of ftrokes of lightning. A confider- h°ufts»
able difpute has been carried on whether thefe rods
ought to be pointed or not; but a committee of the
royal fociety have very lately deteraiined it in favour of
the former.
For fome time, the fcience of ele&ricity feems to
have been at a ftand. Numberlefs improvements in¬
deed have been made upon what was before difeovered,
but fcarce any thing new hath been added. The only
15 L 2 thing
2664
ELECT RICITY. Setf. II.
Eleflrtcs
and non-
eieftrics.
Phenomerra thing which can properly be reckoned a new difco>
~ very is that of the eleflrophorus by Signior Volta an I-
talian ; which on many accounts may be reckoned the
moft furpriling machine hitherto invented.
Sect. II. Of the Phenomena of EkBricity.
These are fo many, and fo various, that, in order
to avoid confufion, it is neceffary to divide them into
diftinft claffes. It is, however, neceffary, before en¬
tering upon any particular difcuffion of the phenome¬
na, to fay fomething concerning the general method
by which the electrical phenomena are made to appear,
J7 and the diftin&ian between ele&rics and non-eleftrics.
producfn °f r^^ie rno^ cornmon method by which any fubftance
electricity. 's made to exhibit figns of eledfricity, is by rubbing it.
Warming without rubbing, or blowing air violently
upon it, will alfo in many cafes produce figns of elec¬
tricity ; and thus the difcharge of cannon, blowing up
of powder-magazines, &c. has been found to eledtrify
glafs-windows. But thefe appearances are compara¬
tively flight; and the only effediual method by which any
confiderable effedls can be produced, is by fridlion.
Every fubftance which, by any of the above-men¬
tioned methods, is made to exhibit the figns of eledtri-
city, fuch as attradb'ng and repelling light bodies, emit-
ting light, &c. will communicate the fame properties to
any other that touches it; and the latter is faid, during
the time that thefe appearances continue, to be eleftrified.
Every fubftance which, by rubbing,warming, or blow¬
ing upon it, can be made to exhibit figns of eledfricity,
is called an elettric per fe; and thofe fubftances which
cannot be made to exhibit any appearances of this kind,
without touching another fubftance which already ihews
them, are called non-electrics, or conuudtors.
At firft the catalogue of eledlric fubftances was very
fmall; but the induftry of philofophers hath now en¬
larged it to fuch a degree, that, according to fome,
there is not a perfectly non-eledtric fubftance in nature.
This, however, feems carrying the matter too far; for
it is certa.n, that by rubbing a piece of metal as much
as we pleafe, it will never be made to exhibit the leaft:
fign of eleftricity while we hold it in our hands. If
we fix it upon one of the fubftances generally called
eledtrics, fuch as a ftick of fealing-wax, a glafs tube,
&c. and then rub it, we (hall in that cafe indeed pro¬
duce figns of eledlricity; but here we certainly have a
right to conclude, that it derives its eledtrical proper¬
ties from its particular fituation, and confequently is
not an electric per fe.
The catalogue of electric fubftances is, as we have
to'beclafTed a^reacly faid, prodigioufly extenfive. We are not, how-
according ever» t0 imagine, that all of them are equally fit for
eledtrical experiments. There is, in this cafe, a very
great diverfity; and fome are found to be more
proper for one purpofe, and fome for another. It is
therefore very difficult to diftinguifti abfolutely between
the ftrength of one eledtric and another in all cafes:
for a fubftance that cannot be made to emit fparks but
with great difficulty, will perhaps attradt very ftrongly;
and another which attradts but weakly, will emit fparks
very vigoroufly.
This diftindtion, though hitherto not taken notice of,
feems to be the moft natural foundation for the claffing
of eledtric fubftances; and thus we may divide them in
the following manner.
to their
different
powers.
1. For exhibiting a permanent and very ftrong at- Phenomena
tradtive and repulfive power, filk is preferable to all “
other fubftances yet difcovered.
2. For exhibiting the eledtric light, attradtion and
repulfion in quick fucceffion, and in general all the
phenomena of eledtricity, in a very vigorous, though
not a durable, manner, glafs is preferable to every o-
ther body, and is the moft generally made ufe of.
3. Thofe fubftances commonly called negative elec¬
trics, fuch as amber, gum-lac, fulphur, rofin, and all
the refinous gums, exhibit eledtric appearances for the
greateft length of time; a Angle fridtion being fufficient
to make them do fo for months together, in favourable
circumltances. They are alfo very remarkable for
the ftrong eledtric power they communicate to con-
dudting bodies which come into contadt with them,
and which they will continue to do for a great length
of time, as if they contained an inexhauftible fupply of
the fluid.
In this order, therefore, we ftiall treat of the elec¬
tric powers of different fubftances. It is, however, (till
neceffary to premife an explanation of fome terms made
life of by eledfricians, without the frequent repetition
of which, it is impoffible to fpeak intelligibly on the
fubjedf.
1. If any fubftance (hall, by fridlion, or any other EXpiana.
means, be made to exhibit figns of eledtricity, the tion of
eledtric virtue of that fubftance is faid to be excited, or, ter"15-
to avoid a circumlocution, the fubftance itfelf is faid to
be excited. This phrafe differs from the other already
mentioned, of being becaufe the latter im¬
plies that the eledtricity is communicated by fome ex¬
ternal body ; whereas the being rwc/ta/implies, that the
eledtric power is originally inherent in the body itfelf.
2. Any non-eledtric, or condudting body, being
placed upon an eledtric per fe, and thus having its
communication with other non-eledtrics cut off, is
faid to be infulated.—Here it muft be obferved, that
the common air we breathe is an eledtric fubftance, fo
that a body is perfectly infulated though it (hould re¬
main in contadt with the air all round. The great ufe
of infulation, is to prevent any fubftance from lofing
its eledtric virtue in fuch a (hort time as otherwife it
would do; and becaufe this is found to be the cafe, it
has been fuppofed that the current of eledtric matter is
flopped by the eledtric or infulating fubltance; whence
electrics have alfo obtained the name of non-conduftors.
3. There is obferved a very ftrange difference be¬
tween the eledtricity produced by forne bodies, and
that exhibited by others. If two bodies eledtrified by
glafs are prefented to each other, they will mutually
repel, or feparate to a greater diftance than before.
The fame thing will happen to two bodies eledtrified
by fulphur, fealing-wax, rofin, &c. But if a body
eledtrified by glafs is prefented to one eledtrified by
fulphur, or rofin, they will be mutually attradted ; and
when they meet, there will be no more figns of electri¬
city in either of them, fuppofing both to have been
equally eledtrified at firft. That kind produced
by the glafs is called the poftive, and that produced
by the fulphur or rofin the negative, electricity.—
Formerly it was thought, that thefe two kinds of elec¬
tricity were effentially diftindt, and belonged to the
glafs and fulphur without a poffibility of alteration ;
but now it is found, that glafs may be made to elec-
1 Sea. II.
iiPhenomena trify negatively, and fulphur pofitively, by very flight
  -alterations in the furface, or the fubllances with which
they are rubbed.—We fliall now prefent the reader
ipavtllo's with an ample catalogue of eleftric fubflances, and the
wEleftricity, different kinds of ekaricity produced by them.
ELECTRICITY.
Lead from a tea-cheft, in which there
is a mixture of tin, w.
A gilt button, bafket-pattern; the
juhaure at the end of a brafs ferule.
Eleftric fub-
ftances.
Catalogue
>f eleftrie
The back of a
cat -
iiibftaiices, Smooth glafs
with their °
different
powers.
Rough glafs
Tourmalin
Hare’s fkin
Black fflk
White filk
Sealing-wax
Baked wood
("Pofitive
^Negative
Negative
ofitive
C Pofitive
^Negative
Subftances with which the
ekaric is rubbed.
5 Every fubftance hither-
1 to tried.
c Every fubftance, except
{ the back of a cat.
cDry oiled filk, fulphur,
l or metals.
r-Woollen-cloth, quills,
S wood, paper, fealing-
i wax, white-wax, the
^ human hand.
S Amber, or air blown
C upon it.
S Diamond, the human
c hand.
r Metals, filk, loadftone,
^ leather, hand, paper,
(_ baked wood.
— Other finer furs.
— Sealing wax.
Hare’s, weafel’s, and
ferret’s fkin, load¬
ftone, brafs, filver,
iron, hand.
Black filk, metals, black
cloth.
S Paper,hand,hare’s,wea-
< fel’s fkin.
— Metals.
r Hare’s, weafel’s, and
^ ferret’s fkin, hand, lea-
ther, woollen - cloth,
( paper.
-Silk.
:— Flannel.
This table contains moft of thofe fubftances that ex¬
hibit the ftrongeft marks of elediricity. The follow-
Phil. Tranf. ing is compofed by Mr Henley, and contains a great
Vol. Ixvii. number of fubftances whofe ele&ricity is much more
part t. equivocal. They were fixed or tied on the end of a
ftick of fealing-wax; and excited by friftion againft a
woollen garment, or a piece of foft black lilk, by
which means they became ele&rified as below. The
ftrongeft in power are diftinguifhed by the letter s, and
the weakeft by the letter w.
Metals.
Animal Substances.
Tortoife-fhell, w; ivory, s; bone, s;
horn ; lamb’s-tooth ; horfe’s-hoof ;
deer’s-hoof; mufcle of the leg of a
deer, s; cartilage, s; fpur of a young
cock; bill, claw, and fcale from the leg
of a turkey, s; fcale of a carp; the chry-
falis of a moth, recent from the earth,
cleanfed; erajfamantum of the human
blood exficcated, w; quills; claw of an
unboiled lobfter; cowrie and feveral o-
ther fmooth fhells, s ; fhell of a hen’s
?gg; tail of a fmall filh ; thigh of the
elephant beetle; a fmall beetle, fmooth
furface; human hair; red and white
horfe’s and bullock’s hair, s; hog’s
bridles,-s; wool; filk from the worm, w;
oyfttr-ftiell, fmooth furface;
Mother of pearl, and feveral other
(hells.
Mufcle and cockle-ftiells, recent; a
recent fnail-fliell, rough furface; elytra
of the ftag-beetle; oyfter-ftiell, rough
furface.
Vegetables.
Rind of cheftnut, s; Barcelona nut-
fhell, s; cafhew nut, s; cocoa nut-ftiell
polifhed; Brazil; lignum vitte; black
ebony, s; box, w; cane, s; quinquina,
or Peruvian bark, s; tamarind-ftone;
coffee-berry roafted, s; nutmeg, s; gin¬
ger, s; white pepper, freed from the
hufle, s; cinnamon, s; cloves, s; mace, s;
all-fpice, s; capficum, both lides of the
pod, s; hemlock, s; a clove of garlic;
ditto of efchalot, freed from the hufle, s;
a green onion, s; rue, s; cork, s; leaves
of laurel, bay, yew, holly, rofemary,
with their berries, s; parfley, s; leaf of
turnip; ditto of Savoy cabbage, s; ce¬
lery, s; fago, s; thime, s; carrot; tur¬
nip; potatoe; an acorn, s; rind of Se¬
ville orange, s; a large Winfor bean, s;
a white pea; root of the white lily;
fnow-drop root; feeds of gourd, melon,
cucumber, w; a fpecies of long mofs, w y
anapple, s; down of thecotton-rufh, w;
fea-flag; leaf of the American aloe, s;.
Wool. Silk.
A new guinea; a fmooth fixpence;
a brafs ferule; tin, and tin-foil; ena¬
melled copper, s; gilding on leather, s; Neg. Neg.
lead ore; copper ore; iron ore; ftream
tin.
Milled lead ; copper, s ; a polilhed
fteel button, s ; a new filver ditto; a pQj- p0f
metal button gilt, s; tutenague ditto, s;
iron.
cotton, vv.
Hemp ; flax ; ftalk of the tobacco-
leaf; fpike, from the leaf of the Ame¬
rican aloe ; palma-chrifti nut; horfe-
radilh.
A white kidney-bean, fmooth fur-
face ; black negroe of the fame; fcarlet
of the fame.
2665
Wool. Silk. Phenomena
Neg. Pof.
Pof. Neg.
Pof. Pof.
Neg. Pof.
Neg. Neg.
Neg. Neg.
Neg. Pof.
Pof. Pof.
Coral-
2666
ELECTRICITY. Sea. II.
Phenomena   
   Corallines.
Sea fan, the horny part, w, rough
coral, w.
Spunge, w; coral poliflted, vv.
Wool. Silk.
Neg. Pof-
Neg. Pof.
Salts.
Allum, w. - - Neg. Neg.
NitTpurified,} fmooth furfaces; Pof. Pof.
Fossil and Mineral Substances.
Common pebble-ftones of all co¬
lours, s; marble, s; pit-coal, s; black-
lead, w; jet, s; afbejios; mineralized
fulphur; thunder-bolt, ftone ; cornu* e^‘
amnonis ; fltark’s-tooth; coat of petri-
faftion.
Several fmootl^native cryftals; brown
Iceland ditto; talc, s; Ceylon pebble,
fmooth and tranfparent; agate, s.; cor¬
nelian ; amethyft, s.
A fpecimen of gypfum. Neg.
Neg.
Pof.
Pof.
Artificial Substances.
Staffordfhire ware glazed; China
ware, s; Wedgwood’s ware glazed, s; p f p .
whale’s fin prepared, w; writing-paper; 1 *0 ■
parchment, s; fheep’s gut.
Tobacco-pipe, s; Wedgwood’s ware
unglazed; elaftic gum, s; hard under¬
cruft of a leaf; a tallow-candle, w;
oiled filk; painted paper, s; filver, Neg. Neg.
burnt into glafs, unburnilhed; pearl-
barley, w; Indian ink, w; blue vi¬
triol, s.
Dr Lewis’s Glafs porcelain. Neg. Pof.
Here it muft: be obferved, that a great number of the
fubftance^ in Mr Henly’s table, particularly metals,
would have been totally incapable of excitation had they
not been infulated; and as they were rubbed againft e-
ledlricsperfe, it is by no means fair to conclude that the
metal was excited. It feems much more likely that the
rubber only was excited, and communicatd its dedtricity
to the metal. It muft alfo be obferved, that tho’ there
is a very remarkable difference between fubftances with
regard to their non-eledtric or condufting power, yet
there feems not to be a perfeft eledtric in nature: for
heat will deftroy the eledlric power of glafs, and every
other fuftance; and, on the contrary, cold, if not at¬
tended with moifture, renders every eledlric fubftance
more eledlric than before. The ufe of warming an e-
leflric therefore, before excitation, is only to free it
from the moifture which may adhere to it.
$ I. Of the Eleftrical Phenomena from Silk.
This fubftance was firft difcovefed to be an eledtric
T See by Mr Grey, in the manner we have already related*;
no 5. but as it was by no means remarkable for emitting
fparks, which moft commonly engages the attention,
its eledlric virtues were almoft entirely overlooked till
the year 1759.. At that time Mr Symmer prefented
to the royal fociety, fome papers, containing a number
of very curious experiments made with filk ftockings,
in fubftance as follows. Phenomena]
Pie had been accuftomed to wear two pairs of filk 
ftockings ; a black and a white. When thefe were put
off both together, no figns of eleftricity appeared; but
on pulling off the black ones from the white, he heard
a fnappmg or crackling noife, and in the dark percei- ! j
ved fparks of fire between them. To produce this and
the following appearances in great perfedlion, it was
only neceffary to draw his hand feveral times backward
and forward over his leg with the ftockings upon it. 22
When the ftockings were feparated and held at a di- Strong at- !
fiance from each other, both of them appeared to be traftion and ^
highly excited; the white flocking pofitively, and the iePuifl°n i
black negatively. While they were kept at a diftance SfedS
from each other, both of them appeared inflated to (lockings.!!;
fuch a degree, that they exhibited the entire ftiape of j
the leg. When two black, or two white ttockings,
were held in one hand, they would repel one another
with confiderable force, making an angle feemingly of
30 or 35 degrees. When a white and black flocking
were prefented to each other, they were mutually at¬
tracted ; and if permitted, would rufh together with
furprifing violence. As they approached, the inflation
gradually fubfided, and their attraction of foreign ob¬
jects dimiuiflied, but their attraction of one another in-
creafed; when they actually met they became flat, and
joined clofe together, like as many folds of filk. When
feparated again, their eleCtric virtue did not feem to
be in the leaft impaired for having once met; and the
fame appearances would be exhibited by them for a
confiderable time. When the experiment was made
with two black ftockings in one hand, and two white
ones in the other, they were thrown into a ftrange agi¬
tation, owing to the attradion between thofe of diffe¬
rent colours, and the repulfion between thofe of the
fame colour. This mixture of attractions and repulfions
made the ftockings catch at each other at greater di-
ftances than otherwife they would have done, and af¬
forded a .very curious fpeClacle.
When the ftockings were fuffered to meet, they
ftuck together with confiderable force. At firft Mr
Symmer found they required from one to iz ounces to
feparate them. Another time they raifed 17 ounces,
which was 20 times the weight of the flocking that
fupported them; and this in a direction parallel to its
furface. When one of the ftockings was turned infide
out, and put within the other, it required 20 ounces to
feparate them ; though at that time 10 ounces were
fufficient when applied externally. Getting the black
ftockings new dyed, aud the white ones waffled, and
whitened in the fumes of fulphur, and then putting
them one within the other, with the rough fides toge- Jl
ther, it required three pounds three ounces to feparate
them. With ftockings of a more fubftantial make, the
cohefion was ftill greater. When the white flocking
was put within the black one, fo that the outfide of
the white was contiguous to the infide of the black,
they raifed nine pounds wanting a few ounces ; and
when the two rough furfaces were contiguous, they
raifed 15 pounds, one pennyweight and a half. Cut¬
ting off the ends of the thread, and the tufts of filk
which had been left in the infide of the ftockings, was
found to be very unfavourable to thefe experiments.
Mr Symmer alfo obferved, that pieces of white and
black filk, when highly electrified, not only cohered
with
Sea. II. ELECTRICITY. 2667
Miiyhenomena with each other, but would alfo adhere to bodies with with the white. If, inftead of the ivory ruler, he Phenomena
‘I broad and even polifhed furfaces, though thefe bodies made life of any (kin, or a piece of fmooth glafs, the '
were not ele&rihed. This he difcovered accidentally ; event was the fame ; but if he made ufe of a flick of
having, without defign, thrown a flocking out of his fulphur, the eleftricities were in all cafes the reverfe of
hand, which ftuck to the paper-hangings of the ro,om. what they had been before the ribbon was rubbed, ha-
He repeated the experiment, and found it would con- ving always acquired the pofitive eledlricity. — When
tinue hanging near an hour. Having ftuck up the he rubbed them with paper either gilt or not gilt, the
black and white flockings in this manner, he came with refults were uncertain. When the ribbons were wrap-
another pair highly eledlrifled; and applying the white ped in paper gilt, or not gilt, and the fridtion was
to the black, and the black to the white, he carried made upon the paper laid on the plain abovementioned,
them off from the wall, each of them hanging to that the ribbons acquired both of them the negative elec-
which had been brought to it. The fame experiments tricity. If the ribbons were one black, and the other
held with the painted boards of the room, and likewife white, whichever of them was laid uppermoft, and in
with the looking-glafs, to the fmooth furfaceof which whatever manner the fridlion was made, the black ge-
both the white and the black filk appeared to adhere nerally acquired the negative, and the white the pofi-
1 53 more tenacioufly than to either of the former. tive, eledtricity.
>( :xperi- Similar experiments, but with a greater variety of He alfo obicrved, that, when the texture of the up-
“ |bbmis°nb c*rcum^ances» were afterwards made by Mr Cigna of per piece of (ilk was loofe, yielding, andretiform, like
>flr Cigna.7 Turin> uPon white and black r'bbons. He took two that of a flocking, fo that it could move, and be rub-
white filk ribbons jufl dried at the fire, and extended bed againft the lower one, and the rubber was of fuch
them upon a fmooth plain, whether a condudting or a nature as could communicate but little eledtricity to
eledtric fubftance, was a matter of indifference. He glafs, the ele&ricity which the upper piece of filk ac-
then drew over them the (harp edge of an ivory ruler, quired, did not depend upon the rubber, but upon
and found that both ribbons had acquired eledlricity the body on which it was laid. In this cafe, the black
enough to adhere to the plain ; though while they was always negative, and the white pofitive. But,
continued there, they {hewed no other fign of it. when the filk was hard, rigid, and of a clofe tex-
When taken up feparately, they were both negatively ture, and the rubber of fuch a nature as would
eledlrified, and would repel each other. In their fe- have imparted a great degree of electricity to glafs,
paration, eledtric fparks were perceived between them; the eledtricity of the upper piece depended on the
but when again put on the plain, or forced together, rubber. ;Thus, a white lilk flocking rubbed with
no light was perceived without another fridlion. When, gilt papet upon glafs became negatively, and the glafs
by the operation jult now mentioned, they had acqui- pofitively, eledtrified. But if a piece of filk of a firmer
red the negative eledlricity, if they were placed, not texture was laid upon a plate of glafs, it was always
upon the fmooth body on which they had been rub- electrified pofitively, and the glafs negatively, if it was
bed, but on a rough condudling fubftance, they would, rubbed with fulphur, and for the moft part if it was
on their reparation, (hew contrary eledlricities, which rubbed with gilt paper.
would again difappear on their being joined together. If an eledlrified ribbon was brought near an infulated
If they had been made to repel each other, and were plate of lead, it was attradled, but very feebly. On
afterwards forced together, and placed on the rough bringing the finger near the lead, a fpark was obferved
furface above-mentioned, they would in a few minutes between them, the ribbon was vigoroufly attradled,
be mutually attradled ; thelowermofl being pofitively, and both together (hewed no figns of eledlricity. On
and the uppermoft negatively eledlrified. the reparation of the ribbon, they were again eledtri-
If the two white ribbons received their fridfion up- fied, and a fpark w'as perceived between the plate and
on the rough furface, they always acquired contrary the finger.
eledlricities. I he Upper one was negatively, and the When a number of ribbons of the fame colour were
lower one pofitively, eledtrified, in whatever manner laid upon a fmooth condudling fubftance, and the ruler
they were taken off. The fame change was inilanta- was drawn over them, he found, that, when they were
neoufly done by any pointed condudlor. If two rib- taken up fingly, each of them gave fparks at the place '
bons, for inflance, were made to repel, and the point where it was feparated from the other, as did alfo the
of a needle drawn oppofite to one of them along its laft one with the condudlor ; and all of them were ne-
vvhole length, they would immediately rufh together. gatively eledlrified. If they were all taken from the
The fame means which produced a change of elec- plate together, they cohered in one mafs, which was
tricity in a ribbon already eledlrified, would commu- negatively eledlrified on both fides. If they were laid
nicate eledlricity to one which had not as yet received upon the rough condudtor, and then feparated fingly,
it ; viz. laying the uneledlrified ribbon upon a rough beginning with the lowermofl, fparks appeared as be-
furface, and putting the other upon it; or by holding fore, but all the ribbons were eledlrified pofitively, ex¬
it parallel to an dedlrifkd ribbon, and prefenting a cept the uppermofl.—If they received the fridlion upon
pointed condudlor to it. He placed a ribbon that was the rough condudlor, and were all taken up at once,
not quite dry under another that was well dried at the all the intermediate ribbons acquired the eledlricity, ei-
fire, upon a fmooth plain ; and when he had given ther of the highefl or lowed, according as the fepa-
them the ufual fridlion with his ruler, he found, that, ration was begun with the higheft or the lowed:. If
in what manner foever they were removed from the two ribbons were feparated from the bundle at the fame
plain, the upper one was negatively, and the lower time, they clung together, and in that ftate fhewed nu
one pofitively, eledlrified.—If both ribbons were black, fign of eledlricity, as one of them alone would have
all thefe experiments fucceeded in the fame manner as done. When they were feparated, the outermoft one
2668 ELECTRICITY. Se£t. II.
Phenomena had acquired an ele&ricity oppofite to that of the
bundle, but much weaker.
A number of ribbons were placed upon a plate of
metal to which ele&ricity was communicated by means
of a glafs globe, and a pointed conductor held to the
other fide of the ribbons. The confequence was, that
all of them became pofleffed of the ele&ricity op¬
pofite to that of the plate, or of the fame, accord¬
ing as they were taken off; except the moft remote,
which always kept an, ele&ricity oppofite to that of
the plate.
§2, Of the phenomena produced ly excited or electrified
Glafs.
That glafs is an eleffric fubftanee, was firft difeo-
vered by Dr Gilbert. It was for a long time, how¬
ever, thought to poffefs but a very weak ele&ric virtue;
S3 tho’ now it is found to be one of the bed, if not the very
AU kinds beft eleftric as yet known. Notwithftanding the many
of glafs not experiments made upon this fubftance, it is not yet af-
per forelec- certained what kind of glafs is moft proper for eleftri-
tric expeii- cal purpofes. It has been obferved, that the hardeft
ments. 3nd moft completely vitrified glafs is often a very bad
ele&ric, being fometimes quite a conduftor. Glafs
veffels made for eleflrical purpofes are often rendered
fit for them by ufe and time, though very bad eleftrics
when new. Mr Bergman of Upfal fays, that very of¬
ten, when his glafs globes could not be excited to a dif¬
fident degree of ftrength, he lined them with a thin
coating of fulphur, and that then they gave a much
ftronger pofitive ele&ricity than before. In Italy, and
other places, according to Mr Nollet, it is the cuftom
of eledfricians to put a coating of pitch or other re-
finous matter on the infide of their globes, which
they fay always makes them work well. He gives
the preference to the cryftal glafs of England, Bo¬
hemia, &c. It feems doubtful, however, whether the
common bottle glafs does not anfwer equally well, or
. s even better.
Leyden vial The moft remarkable phenomenon producible by ex-
explained. c|ted glafs is that of the Leyden vial. It depends en¬
tirely upon the following property of glafs, viz. that it
is impoffible to ele&rify the outfide of a glafs pofitively,
at leaftto any confiderable degree, without at the fame
time eleftrifying the infide of it negatively : in like man¬
ner, it is impoffible to eledrify the outfide negatively;
withoutat the fame time eleftrifying theinfide pofitively.
It isalfo the nature of glafs and all other eledric fubftan-
Ces, when once eleftrified either by excitation or com¬
munication, to part with their ele&ricity very flowly
and gradually. Thus, fuppofing a tube, cylinder, or
plate of glafs, to be highly ele&rified; if a finger is
brought near any part of it, a fpark will be felt to
ftrike the finger with a fnapping noife. Part of the
cledlricity will then be difeharged from the glafs, but
not all. If the finger is brought near another part of
the glafs, a fimilar fpark will be again produced; and
fo on, by moving the finger to different parts of the
glafs, til! all its ele&ricity is exhautted.—It is the na¬
ture of conducting fubftances to difeharge all their elec¬
tricity at once, by a fingle fpark, if another conduc¬
ting fubftance is brought near them. This being the
cafe, therefore, it follows, that if every part of one
fide of a glafs plate is covered over with a conduCti g
fubftance, every point of the glafs will give out its
eleftricity to the conductor; and confequently, if ano- Phenomenal
ther conducting fubftance is brought near to that by - 1
which the glafs is covered, the whole eleCtric power
in the glafs ought to be difeharged in one fingle flaftt
or large fpark.
This would no doubt be the cafe, if it was poffible
to eleCtrify the glafs only on one fide. But this is
found to be impoffible. No method hath yet been
found of eleCtrifying one fide of a piece of glafs po¬
fitively, without eleCtrifying the other negatively at
the fame time. There is therefore a neceffity for taking
off the eleCtricity from both fides of the glafs at the
fame time. This can only be done by covering both
fides of the glafs with a conducting fubftance, and pre-
fenting other conductors to both fides at the fame time.
Then the eleCtricity of both is difeharged in an in-
ftant. A ftrong fpark is perceived between both fides
of the coated glafs and the conducting fubftances; and
if a perfon holds one in each hand, he will, at the in-
ftant of the difeharge, feel a very difagreeable fenfa-
tion, which cannot well be deferibed, in his arms and
brealt: and this is faid to be receiving the eleftric
Jbock.
If, inftead of prefenting a conducting fubftance to
both fides of the plate at once, a finger is prefented
to one fide, fuppofe that which is pofitively eleCtrified,
and another fubftance very highly eleCtrified pofitively
is prefented to the negative fide ofthe glafs, a like dis¬
charge will enfue, but the Ihock will be much gentler
than in the former cafe, and probably the eleCtricity of
the glafs will not be all difeharged. If two conducting
fubftances, infulated, fuppofe two cylinders of metal
fixed upon {ticks of fealing wax, or fufpended by filk
threads, are brought to the fides of the coated glafs at
the fame time; each of them will receive a fpark of po¬
fitive or negative eleCtricity, according as the fide to
which it was applied is pofitively or negatively eleCtri¬
fied. When the metallic cylinders are taken away,
they will communicate the eleftricity they have recei¬
ved to other bodies; and if again applied to the coated
glafs, they will receive fparks as before; and thus the
eleCtricity of both fides will be gradually difeharged.
After the difeharge has been once made, the glafs
is found in a ftiort time to recover its eleCtricity, tho-*
in a fmall degree. The fide which was originally elec¬
trified pofitively, becomes eleCtrified in the fame man¬
ner the fecond time, and fo of the negative fide. This
fecond electrification is called the refiduutn of a charge;
and, where there is a large furface «f coated glafs, hath
a very confiderable degree of power. The fame thing,
which we have juft now obferved with regard to a flat
furface of glafs, takes place with tubes and vials, or
glafs veffels of any kind ; and it is always obferved,
that the thiuneft glafs anfwers beft. for this pur-
pofe. The Leyden vial confifts of a glafs vial, jar,
or bottle, covered on the outfide and iufide with tin-
foil, yet leaving an interval of two or three inches at
top without any metallic covering, that the eleCtricity
of the one fide may not be communicated to the other v.. ^
as fail; as it is collected. A more particular defeription
of it will be given when we fpeak of the eleCtric appa- 2S
ratus. The above will be fufficient to rendCr the fol- ■ExPcri* ;j
lowing experiments intelligible. j^ftphtes
Mr Symmer, when making the experiments we have $» Mr
already related, concerning the ftrong cohefive power Symmer.
of
Sea. II.
Phenomena 0f ele&rified filfc, was induced to try the cohefive
power of ele&rified glafs. For this purpofe, he got
two panes of common window-glafs, the thinneft and
fmootheft he could meet with. He coated one of the
hdes with tinfoil, leaving a fpace uncovered near the
edges. The uncovered fides were then put together,
and eleflricity communicated to one of the coatings by
means of a machine. In confequence of this, the other
fide, which was .alfo coated, became ele$rified with
an electricity oppofite to the firft, and both panes were
charged with the eleClric power, as if they had been
but one. After they had received a confiderable de¬
gree of eledxic power, they cohered pretty ftrongly
together, but he had no apparatus by which the
ftrength of their cohefion could be meafured. He then
turned the plates upfide down; and difcharging" from
his machine, pofitive eleCfricity upon the negative fide
of the glafs, both panes were immediately difcharged,
and their cohefion ceafed. Placing two panes of glafs,
each of them coated on both fides, one upon the other,
each of them had a pofitive and negative fide, by com¬
municating eledricity to one of them, and they did not
cohere.
Bxperi- In confequence of thefe experiments made by Mr Sym-
ments on merj anc[ another (which we (hall prefently give an ac-
hy Mr^Be” count °0 niade at Pekin, Mr Beccaria made the follow-
earia. ing ones.—Having charged a coated plate of glafs, he
-took off the coating from the negative fide, and applied
another uncoated and uncharged (or uneleftrified) plate
of glafs clofe to it. After this, putting a coating upon the
uncharged glafs, (fo that the whole refembled one coated
plate, confifting of two laminae), he made a communica¬
tion between the two coatings. The confequence of this
was an explofion, a difcharge of the pofitive and negative
ele&ricity, and a cohefion of the plates. If the plates
were feparated before the explofion after they had been
in conjun&ion for fome time, the charged plate was po¬
fitive on both fides, and the uncharged one negative
On both fides.—If after the explofion he feparated and
joined them alternately, a fmall circle of paper, placed
under the uncharged plate, adhered to it upon every
feparation, and was thrown off again upon every con-
juhffion. This could be repeated even 500 times with
once charging the plate. This is the experiment made
at Pekin as above mentioned.
If, in thefe experiments, the charged plate was in¬
verted, and the pofitive fide applied to the uncharged
plate, all the effects were exadtly the reverfe of the
former. If it was inverted ever fo often, after remain¬
ing fome time in contadt with the uncharged plate, it
would produce a change in the ele&rieity. In the
dark, a light was always feen upon the feparation of
thefe plates.—Laying the two plates together like one,
and coating the-outfides of them, he difcharged them
both together-.; and at the diltance of about four feet,
he diftinguifhed fix of the coloured rings mentioned by
Sir Ifaac Newton, all parallel to one another, and near¬
ly parallel to the edge of the coating. At the angles
of the coatings the rings fpread to a greater diltance.
Where the coatings did not quite touch the glafs, the
rings Lent inwards ; and where the coatings adhered
very clefe, they retired farther from them. Upon dif-
charging thefe two plates, the coloured rings vanhhed,
and the eledtric cohefion ceafed with them. On fepa-
rating the plates before the explofion, that which had
You IV.
2669
received the pofitive eledlricity was pofitive on both Phenomena
fides, and the other negative on both fides. If they
were feparated after the explofion, each of them was
affedted in a manner quite the reverfe. Upon invert¬
ing the plates, that which was the thinner appeared to
be pofTeffed of the (Longer eledlricity, and brought the
other plate to correfpond with it. Charging the two
plates feparately, and taking olf two of the coatings,
fo that two pofitive or two negative fides might be
placed together, there was no cohefion or explofion.
But joining a pofitive and a negative fide, they imme¬
diately cohered; and a communication being formed on
the outfide, there was an explofion which increafed the
cohefion.
Mr Henley repeated thefe experiments with fuccefs, By Mr
when he made ufe of plates of looking-glafs, or window Henley,
and crown glafs; but when two plates of Nuremberg
glafs, commonly called Dutch plates, were ufed, the re-
fult was very different. Each of the plates, when fe ¬
parated after charging, had a pofitive and a negative
furface. When they were replaced, and a difcharge
made, by forming a communication between the two
coatings, the eledlricity of all the furfaces was changed.
It appeared, however, flill to be very llrong, and the
plates continued to give repeated flafhes of light when,
they were alternately clofed, touched, and feparated,
like the other plates above-mentioned. If a clean,
dry, uncoated plate of looking-glafs was placed be¬
tween the coated plates, either of looking-glafs or
crown-glafs, before they were charged, that uncoated
plate was always found, upon feparating them after char¬
ging, to be eledlrified negatively on both fides; but if
it was put between the Dutch plates, it acquired, like
them, a pofitive and negative eledlricity.
The following obfervation of Mr ^pinus is very re¬
markable. He preffed clofe together two pieces of
looking-glafs, each containing fome fquare inches;
and found, that when they were feparated, and not
fuffered to communicate with any condudlor, they ac¬
quired a ftrong eledlricity, the one pofitive, and the
other negative. When put together again, the elec¬
tricity of both difappeared; but not if either of them
had been deprived of their eledlricity when they were
afunder: for in that cafe, the two, when united, had the
eledlricity of the other.
Thefe are the mod remarkable experiments that have Condutflng
been made with eledlrified flat plates of glafs. Tubes Power of
of the fame matter, however, afford a variety of curi- °la^s tuI,es*
ous phenomena of a different nature. One very re¬
markable one is the condudling power of new flint-
glafs, which is moft eafily perceived in tubes, and on
which Dr Prieftley makes the following obfervations 
He feveral times got tubes made two or three yards
long, terminating in folid rods. Thefe he took almoft
warm from the furnace, in the fined weather pofiible;
and having immediately infulated them, perceived that
the eledlricity of a charged vial would prefently dif-
fufe itfelf from one end to the other; and this he
thought would have been the cafe at any didance at
which the experiment could have been made. When
the fame tubes were a few months older, the eledlricity
could not be diffufed along their furface farther than
half a yard.
This diffufive power of glafs he thought proper to
try in a different manner. A tube was procured of
*5 M about
ELECTRICITY.
zGio
ELECT
Phenomena about three feet long, but of very unequal width.
About three inches of the middle part of it were coated
on both iides. This coated part was afterwards char¬
ged, by communicating eledtricity to the infide of it
by means of a wire. The confequence of this was,
that not only the part through which the wire was in¬
troduced became ilrongly eleftrical on the outfide, but
at the oppofite end, where there was neither coating
nor wire, the fire crackled under the fingers as the tube
was drawn through the hand, and a flame feemed con¬
tinually to ifiue out at both ends, while it was at reft
and charged.—One end of this tube was broken and
rough, the other was fmooth.
Another tube was procured about three feet and an
half in length, and very thin. It was about an inch in
diameter, and clofed- at one end. Three inches of it
were coated on both fides, about nine inches below the
mouth. This part being charged, the whole tube, to
the very extremity of it, was Itrongly eletftrical, crack¬
ling very loud when the hand was drawn along it, and
emitting fparks at about an inch diilance all the way.
After drawing the whole tube through the hand, all
the eleftricify on the outfide was difcharged ; but, on
putting a finger into the mouth, a light ftreamed from
the coating, both towards the finger, and towards the
oppofite end of the tube. After this, all the outfide
of the tube was become ftrongly ele&rical as before;
and this ele&ricity might be taken off and recovered
many times without charging the tube anew, only it
was weaker each time. - Holding this tube by the
coated part, and communicating ele&ricity to the un¬
coated outfide, both fides became charged; and, upon
introducing a wire, a confiderable explofion was made.
The difcharge made the outfide ftrongly ele&rical, and
by taking off this e.leftricity, the tube became fenfibly
charged.—The refiduum of thefe charges was very
confiderable ; and, in one tube, there was a refiduum
after 20 or 30 difcharges.
By being kept for fix or feven months, moft of the
tubes employed in thefe experiments loft the above-
mentioned properties, iand the ele&ricity could no
longer diffufe itfelf upon their furfaces. At length
they were all broken except one, which had been the
moft remarkable of the whole. With this old tube,
the Doftor tried to repeat the above-mentioned experi¬
ments ; but to no purpofe. He then took it to a glafs-
houfe; and having made it red all over, its diffufive
property was reftored as before.
He then tried two other tubes which had been made
about fix weeks, but without being ufed during all that
time, and they anfwered exadtly as if they had been
quite new. The charge from a fmall coated part dif-
fufed itfelf all over the tube; fo that, at the diftance
of a yard from the coating, it gave fparks to the finger
of an inch long. On this occafion he obferved, that
when his finger was brought to the tube about two
inches above the coating, a great quantity of the dif-
fufed ele&ricity was difcharged; and his whole arm
was violently (hocked. The old tube, after being heat¬
ed as abovementioned, (hewed a prodigious diffufive
power. Upon charging a fmall coated part, the elec¬
tricity wasMiffufed to the end of the tube; and it gave
fparks at the diftance of an inch over every part of it.
When it was drawn through the hand, in order to take
®ff the diffufed electricity, it inftantly returned again,
R I G I T Y. Sed. II.
and the extremity of the tube would be highly elec- Phenomena
trifled, even while its communication with the coating   *
was cut off by the hand. The middle part of the tube
alfo, which had been ofteneft heated, had a much
greater diffufive power than any other. It was no
fooner taken off, than it appeared again ; fo that it gave
a continual dream of fire. The quantity of refiduum
after a difcharge of this tube was prodigious ; fo that
the outfide coating would immediately after give almoft
a conftant dream of fire for fome time to any.conduc¬
ting fubftance placed near it.
The Doctor alfo obferved, that in all the tubes which
had the diffufion, there was a confiderable noife at the
orifice when his hand was drawn from the extremity
towards the coating, as if the tube had been gradually
difeharging itfelf. In the dark, the eleftric matter
feemed perpetually to pour from the open end, or both
ends if they were open ; and whenever his hand was
drawn ovfer it, the fire ftreamed from the coating to
his hand in a very beautiful manner. The firft time he
charged any of thefe tubes after they had flood a while,
the diffufion was the moft remarkable. It was leffened
by every fucceffive charge, and at laft became exceed¬
ingly fmall; but after the tube had flood a few hours
uncharged, it was as vigorous as ever. 3<>
Mr Cavallo hath alfo made fome curious difeoveries Cavallo’s
concerning glafs-tubes. He took the hint from obfer-
ving accidentally, that by agitating quickfilver in a q^tubes, '
glafs tube hermetically fealed, and in whofe cavity the ^ °
air was very much rarefied, the outfide of the tube was
fenfibly eleCtrified; The eledtricity, however, was not
conftant, nor in proportion to the agitation of the
quick-filver. In order to afeertain the properties of
thefe tubes, he conftruCled feveral of them, one of which
is reprefented Plate XC1X. fig. 13. Its leng'th was 31
inches, and its diameter fomething lefs than half an
inch. The qnickfilver contained in it was about three
fourths of an ounce; and in order to exhauft it of air,
one end of it was clofed, while the qnickfilver boiled
in the other. Before this tube is ufed, it muft be made
a little warm and cleaned; then, holding it nearly ho¬
rizontal, the quickfilver in it is fuffered to run from
one end to the other, by gently and alternately eleva¬
ting and deprefiing its extremities. This operation im¬
mediately renders the outfide eledlrical; but with the
following remarkable property, viz. that the end of
the tube where the quickfilver adlually Hands is always
pofitive, and all the remaining part of it negative. If
elevating this pofitive end of the tube a little, the
quickfilver runs to the oppofite end which was nega¬
tive, then the former inilantly becomes negative, and
the latter pofitive. The pofitive end has always a
ftronger eleflricity than the negative. If when one end
of the tube, for inftance, A, is pofitive, i.e. when the
quickfilver is in it, that elefiricity is not taken off by
touching it; *hen, on elevating this end A, fo that the
quickfilver may run to the oppofite end B, it appears
negatively eleitrified in a very fmall degree. If byde-
prefling it again it is a fecond time rendered pofitive,
and that pofitive eledricity is not taken off, then, on
elevating the end A again, it appears pofitive in a fmall
degree. But if, whilft it is pofitive, its eledricity is
taken off, then on being elevated, it appears ftrongly
■ negative? When about two inches of each extremity
of this tube is coated with tin-foil, as reprefented in
the
Sea. II.
phenomena the figure, that coating renders the ele<3ricities at the
extremities more perceptible, fo that fometimes they
will give fparks to a condudtor brought near them.
Tubes whofe glafs is about one twentieth of an inch
thick anfwer better for thefe experiments than any o-
3i thers.
Durability We fiiall clofe this account of the phenomena of ex-
°f the elec-c;ted glafs, with fome experiments which fhow the du-
inglafs.Ue rakibty of the eledtric virtue in that fubftance in cer¬
tain circumftances. Mr Canton procured fome thin
glafs balls of about an inch and a half in diameter,
with Items or tubes of eight or nine inches in length.
He eledlrified them, fome pofitively, and others nega¬
tively, on the infide, and then fealed them hermetically.
Soon after, he found that they bad loft afl figns of e-
ledtricity; but holding them to the fire at the diftance
of five or fix inches, they became ftropgly eledtrical in
a fhort time, and more fo as they cooled. Heating
them frequently he found would diminilh their power;
but keeping one of them under water a week did not
appear in the lead to impair it. That which he kept
under water was charged on the 22d of September
1760, was heated feveral times before it was kept in
water,- and had been frequently heated afterwards; yet
it ftill retained its virtue to a confiderable degree till
the 31ft of Oftober following. The breaking of two
of his balls gave him an opportunity of obferving their
thicknefs, which he found to be between feven and
and eight parts of a thoufand of an inch. The balls
retained their virtue for fix years, but in a lefs degree.
Mr Lullin alfo found, that a glafs tube charged and
hermetically fealed, would Ihew figns of elediricity
when heated.
The moft remarkable inftances of the continuance of
this power in glafs, however, are thofe given by Mr
Henly in the 67th .volume of the Phil. Tranf. One
is, of a fmall bottle, which (hewed figns of elec-
.ricity for 70 days after it had been charged, and
flood in a cupboard all that time. The other is of
a glafs cylinder, which after excitation continued to
(hew very ftrong figns of eleflricity from the 5th day
of February to the 10th of March, though various
methods had been ufed-during that time todeftroy the
eledtric virtufe. Thefe means always proved effedtual
when they were applied, and the cylinder for fome
time (hewed no figns of electricity. They never failed
however to return without any frefh excitation ; and
became (tronger and weaker, nay, fometimes quite va-
nilhed and returned, without any vifible caufe. In ge¬
neral, the eledtricity was weak when a fire was kept in
the room, or when the door was kept open. When
the wind blew from the north, the eleilricity was vi¬
gorous, and likewife after it had been for iome time
deftroyed by flame. The cylinder, however, did not
at all times retain its eledtric virtue for fuch a length
of time without excitation. Very often it would lofe
all figns of eledlricity in 12 hours, and at other times
in a fortnight, without returning till it was again ex¬
cited.
$ 3. T6? Phenomena of excited Sulphur, Gum-lac,
Amber, Rojin, baked Wood, &c.
The moft remarkable property of thefe, as already
mentioned, is the durability of their eledtric virtue when
2671
once excited. They are alfo capable of being excited Phenomena
by heat without any fridtion. This laft property was dif-
covered by Mr Wilcke, who diftinguifties it by the name £xper1-
of fpontaneous eleftricity. He melted fulphur in an ments by
earthen veflel, which he placed upon condudtors : then, Mr Wilcke,
letting them cool, he took out the fulphur, and found ■j®Plnusi
it ftrongly eledtrical ; but it was not fowhen it ftood to °cc*
cool upon eledtric fubftances. He then melted fulphur
in glafs veffels, whereby they both acquired a ftrong
eledtricity whether placed upon eledirics or not; but
a ftronger in the former cafe than in the latter:
they acquired a ftronger virtue ftill, if the glafs vef-
fel was coated with metal. In thefe cafes, the glafs
was always pofitive and the fulphur negative. It was
particularly remarkable, that the fulphur acquired no
eledtricity till it began to cool and contradt, and was
the ffirongeft in the greateft date of contradtion;
whereas the eledtricity of the glafs was, at the fame
time, the weakeft ; and was the ftrongeft of all when
the fulphur was (haken out before it began to con-
tradt, and acquired any negative eledlricity.
Purfuing experiments of this kind, he found, that
melted fealing-wax poured into glafs acquired a nega¬
tive eledtricity, but poured into fulphur a pofitive one,
leaving the fulphur negative. Sealing-wax alfo, pour¬
ed into wood, was negative, and the wood pofitive; but
fulphur poured into fulphur, or into rough glafs, ac¬
quired no eledtricity at all.
Similar experiments were alfo made by Mr ^Epinus.
He poured melted fulphur into metal cups; and ob-
ferved, that, when the fulphur waS cold, the enp and
fulphur together (hewed no figns of eledlricity, but very
ftrong figns of it the moment they were feparated.
The eledtricity always difappeared when the fulphur
was replaced in the cup, and revived upon its being
taken out. The cup had acquired a negative, and the
fulphur a pofitive, eledtricity ; but, if the eledtricity
of either of them had been taken off while they were
feparate, they would both, when united, (hew figns of
that eledtricity which had not been taken off.
Mr Wilcke alfo made feveral curious experiments
concerning the effedts of different rubbers upon eledtric -
fubftances, the moft remarkable of which is the follow¬
ing: viz. that fulphur rubbed againft metals was al¬
ways pofitive ; and this was the only cafe in which it
was fo. But, being rubbed againft lead, it became
negative, and the metal pofitive.
With regard to the perpetual attradtive power of
fulphur, &c. which Mr Grey fancied he had difeover-
ed *, the moft remarkable example he gives is of a * See n° 6,
large cone of ftbne fulphur, covered with a drinking
glafs in which it was made. This he faid would never
fail to (hew an attradtive power when the glafs was ta¬
ken off. In fair weather, the glafs would attradi alfo ;
but not fo ftrongly as the fulphur, which never failed
to attradt, let the wind or weather be ever fo variable.
This experiment has been repeated by Mr Henly, who
fays he has never known the fulphur to fail of (hewing
figns of eledtricity on the removal of the glafs. .Gum
lac, rofin, &c. agree in the fame general properties
with fulphur, but do not become fo ftrongly eledtrified
fpontaneoufly, nor are they fo eafiiy excited.
15 M 2
ELECTRICITY.
Sect,
2672
Apparatus.
" Sect. III. Of the Apparatus neceffary for exciting
electricity> and communicating it to other bodies,
See.
The inftrnments moft in ufe for this purpofe are
thofe called eleflrical machines, of which there have
been fo many different forms, that it would be tedious
and difficult to give only a very fhort defeription of
them all. We (hall therefore firft lay down the moft
neceflary rules for conftrmfting ele&rical machines in
general; and then give a particular defeription of thofe
machines which are moft generally ufeful, and contain
all the improvements hitherto made.
§ i. Of the Confruflion of Electrical Machines.
Cavallo's The principal parts of the machine are the eledric,
Electricity, moving engine, and the prime condudor, i. e. an
infulated condu&or, which immediately receives the e-
33 leftricity from the excited ele&ric.
What fub- Formerly, different kinds of ele&rics were ufed, as
ftances are g]afS} rofjn> fea};ng.vvax> Their forms were
™er Pr° a^° var'ous> as globes, cylinders, fpheroids, &c. The
reafon of this variety was, in the firft place, that it was
not then afeertained what fubftance aded moft power¬
fully; and fecondly, in order to produce a pofitive or ne¬
gative ele&ricity at pleafure. At prefent fmooth glafs
only is ufed; for when th~e machine has an infulated rub¬
ber, the operator may produce pofitive or negative elec¬
tricity at his pleafure, without changing the ele&ric. In
regard to the form of the glafs, thofe commonly ufed at
prefent are globes and cylinders. The moft conve¬
nient fize for a globe, is from nine to twelve inches
diameter. They are made with one neck, which is ce¬
mented to a ftrong brafs cap in order to adapt them
to a proper frame. The beft cement for eledrical pur-
pofes is made with two parts ofrofin,two of bees-wax,
and one of the powder of red okre. Thefe ingredients
are melted, and mixed together in any veffel over the
fire ; and afterwards kept for ufe. This kind of ce¬
ment flicks very fail; and is much preferable to rofin
only, as it is not fo brittle, and at the fame time infu-
lates equally well. The cylinders are made with two
necks; they are ufed to the greateft advantage without
any axis; and their common fize is from four inches
diameter and eight inches long, to twelve inches dia¬
meter and two feet long, which are perhaps as large
as the workmen can conveniently make them. The
glafs generally ufed is the beft flint; though it is not
yet abfolutely determined which kind of metal is the
beft for eleftrical globes or cylinders. The thicknefs
of the glafs feems immaterial, but perhaps the thinneft
is preferable. It has often happened, that glafs globes,
and cylinders, in the aft of whirling, have burft in in¬
numerable pieces, with great violence, and with fome
danger to the by-ftanders. Thofe accidents are fup-
I>ofed to happen when the globes, or cylinders, after
being blown, are fuddenly cooled. It will therefore
be neceffary to enjoin the workman to let them pafs
gradually from the heat of the glafs-houfe, to the at-
mofpherical temperature.
It has been long queftioned, whether a coating of
fome eleftric fubftance, as rofin, turpentine, &c. on the
infide. furface of the glafs, has any effeft to increafe its
cleftrical power; but now it feems pretty well deter-
Sed. III.
mined, that if it does not increafe the power of a good Apparatus,
glafs globe or cylinder, at leaft it does confiderably im- - “
prove a bad one. 34
The moft approved compofition for lining glafs Compoft-
globes, or cylinders, is made with four parts of Venice c'“"tjngr
turpentine, one part of rofin, and one part of bees- globes;
wax. This compofition muft be boiled for about two
hours over a gentle fire, and muft be ftirred very of¬
ten : afterwards it is left to cool, and referved for ufe.
When a globe or cylinder is to be linedwvith this mix¬
ture, a fufficient quantity of it is to be broken into
fmall pieces, and introduced into the glafs ; then, by
holding the glafs near the fire, the mixture is melted,
and equally fpread over all its internal furface, to about
the thicknefs of a fixpence. In this operation care
muft be taken,,that the glafs be made hot gradually,
and be continually turned, fo as to be heated equally
in all parts, otherwife it is apt to break in the opera¬
tion.
In refpeft to the engine which is to give motion to How the
the electric ; multiplying wheels have been generally j'J
ufed, which, properly adapted, might give the eleftric motion,
a quick motion, while they are conveniently turned by
a winch. The ufual method is, to fix a wheel on one
fide of the frame of the machine, which is turned by a
winch, and has a groove round its circumference. Upon
the brafs cap of the neck of the glafs globe, or one of
the necks of the cylinder, a pulley is fixed, whofe diame¬
ter is about the third or fourth part of the diameter of
the wheel: then a firing or (trap is put over the wheel
and the pulley; and by thefe means, when the winch
is turned, the globe or cylinder makes three or four
revolutions, for one revolution of the wheel. There is
an inconvenience generally attending this conftru&ion,
which is, that the firing is fometimes fo very flack,
that the machine cannot work. To remedy this in¬
convenience, the wheel ftiould be made moveable with
refpeft to the eledtric, fo that by means of a ferevv it
might be fixed at the proper diftance; or elfe the pulley
ffiould have feveral grooves of different radiufes on its
circumference.
It has been cuftomary with fome, to turn the cylin¬
der fimply with a winch, without any accelerated mo¬
tion ; but that feems not fufficient to produce the
greateft eleftric power the glafs is capable of giving
for the globe or cylinder (hould properly make about
fix revolutions in a fecond, which is more than can be
conveniently done with the winch only. This me¬
thod, however, on account of its fimplicity and eafy
conftrudtion, {hould not be difregarded, and it may
be conveniently ufed when no very great power is re¬
quired.
Inftead of the pulley and the firing as above de-
feribed, a wheel and pinion, or a wheel and an end-
lefs ferew, has been alfo ufed. This conftruftion an-
fwers perhaps as well as any other: but it muft be
conftrudled with great nicety; otherwife it is apt to
make a difagreeable rattling, and,, without frequent
oiling, foon wears away by the great friftion of its
parts. _ . . 3&
The next thing belonging to the eledlrical machine, Conitruc-
neceffary to be deferibed, is the rubber which is to ex- tion of the
cite the eledlric. The rubber, as it is now made, is rubber,
nothing more than a filk-cufhion fluffed with hair; and
over this cufhion is put a piece of leather, on which
* fome
ELECTRICITY.
Sea. III. ELECT
oratiis. fome amalgam has been rubbed fo as to flick as fail as
poffible to the leather. This amalgam has been found
to excite fmooth glafs the moil powerfully of any thing
yet tried. That generally ufed, is made with two
parts of quickfilver and one of tin-foil, with a fmall
quantity of powdered chalk, mixed tog-ether until they
become a mafs like paite. But an amalgam of quick¬
filver and bifmuth is now found to be much more
powerful. Some time ago it was generally ufed, and
it is now cuilomary alfo, to make the rubber of red
bafil fkin {luffed with hair ; but the filk one, as above
defcribed (which is an improvement of Dr Nooth) is
much preferable. If this iilk cufhion, on account of
adapting it to the furface of the glafs, is to be fixed
upon a metal plate, then care ihould be taken to make
the plate free from {harp points, edges, or corners; and
it fhould be as much as poffible concealed, or covered
with filk. In fhort, to conflrudt the rubber properly,
it muil be made in fuch a manner, that the fide of it,
which the furfaee of the glafs enters in whirling, may
be as perfe£t a conduflor as it can be made, in order to
fupply eledricity as quick as poffible; and the oppo-
fite part ffiould be as much a non-condudlor as poffible,
in order that none of the fluid accumulated upon the
glafs may return back to the rubber; which has been
found by experiment to be the cafe when the rubber
is not made in a proper manner.
The rubber ihould be fupported by a fpring, by
which means it may eafily fuit any inequalities that
may be found on the furface of the glafs; and by a
fcrew, it may be made to prefs harder or fofter as
occafion requires. It ihould alfo be infulated, in what¬
ever manner is moil convenient; for, whenever infla¬
tion is not required, a chain or wire, &c. may be oc-
cafionally hung upon it, and thus communicate with
the earth, or with any other body, atpleafure; where¬
as, when there is not a contrivance for infulating the
rubber, many of the moft curious experiments in elec-
_ tricity will never be performed with the machine.
Prime con- We come now to confider the prime eondu&or, or
dutfor, &c. firft condu&or; which is nothing more than an infu-
.lated condudting fubllance furniihed with one or more
points atone end, in order to colleft the elediricity im¬
mediately from the eledtric. When the conduftor is of
a moderate fize, it is ufual to make it of hollow brafs;
but when it is very large, then, on account of the price
of the materials, it is made of paileboard covered with
tinfoil or gilt paper. The conduftor is generally
made cylindrical ; but let the form be what it will, it
ihould always be made perfectly free from points, or
fliarp edges: and if holes are to be made in it, which
on many accounts are very convenient, they ihould be
well rounded, and made perfedtly fmooth. Further,
that end of the prime condudtor which is at the greateil
diftance from the eleftric, ought to be made larger than
the Veil, as the (Irongeil exertion of the eledtric fluid in
efcaping from the condudtor is always at that end.
It has been conftantly obferved, that the larger the
prime conduftor is, the longer and denfer fpark can be
drawn from it; and the reafon of this is, that the
quantity of eleftricity difcharged in a fpark, is nearly
proportional to the fize of the conduftor; on this ac¬
count, the prime condu£tor is now made much larger
than what was formerly ufed. Its fize, however, may
be fo large, that the diffipation of the ele&ricity from
R I C I T Y. 2673
its furface, may be greater than what the eleftric can Apparatus,
fupply; in which cafe, fo large a conductor would be
nothing more than an unweildy and difagreeable in¬
cumbrance.
Before wre quit the ele£trical machine, it ihould be
obferved, that, befides the above-mentioned parts, it is
neceflary to have a ftrong frame to fupport the elec¬
tric, the rubber, and the wheel. The prime conduc¬
tor ihould be fupported by ilands with pillars of glafs,
or baked wood; and not by filk firings, which admit
of continual motion. In'lhort, the machine, the prime
conduilor, and any other apparatus aftually ufed, ihould
be made to Hand as ileady as poffible, otherwife many
inconveniences will arife.
Befides the eledlrical machine, the eleftrician ihould
be provided with glafs tubes of different fizes, a pretty
large ilick of fealing-wax, or a glafs tube covered with
fealing-wax, for the negative eleftricity. He ihould,
at leaft, not be without a glafs tube about three feet
long and one inch and a half in diameter. This tube
ihould be clofed at one end, and at the other end ihould
have fixed a brafs cap with a flop-cock; which is ufe-
ful in cafe it ffiould be required to condenfe or rarify
the air within the tube.
The bell rubber for a tube of fmooth glafs,. is the
rough fide of black oiled filk, efpecially when it has
fome amalgam rubbed upon it; but the beft rubber for
a rough glafs tube, a flick of baked wood, fealing-
wax, or fulphur, is foft new flannel. g
The inflruments neceffary for the accumulation of Direttions
elettricity, are coated eleftrics ; among which, glafs for coating
coated with conduttors obtains the principal place: on jars> &c*
account of its ftrength, it may be formed into any
ffiape, and it will receive a very great charge. The
form of the glafs is immaterial with refpett to the
charge it will contain; its thicknefs only is to be con-
fidered: for the thinner it is, the higher charge it is
capable of receiving ; but it is at the fame time more
fubjett to be broken: for this reafon, therefore, a thin
coated jar or plate may be ufed very well by itfelf, and
it is very convenient for many experiments ; but when
large batteries are to be conitruftcd, then it is necef¬
fary to ufe glafs a little thicker, and care ffiould be
taken to have them perfeftly well annealed. , If a bat¬
tery is required of no very great power, as containing
about eight or nine fquare feet of coated glafs, com¬
mon pint or half-pint phials may be made ufe of.
They may be eafily coated with tin-foil, ffieet-lead, or
gilt paper, on the outfide, and brafs-filings on the in-
iide ; they occupy a fmall fpace, and, on account of
their thinnefs, hold a very good charge. But when a
large battery is required, then thefe phials cannot be
ufed, for they break very eafily ; and for that purpofe,
cylindrical glafs jars of about 15 inches high, and four
or five inches in diameter, are the moil convenient.
When glafs plates or jars, having a fufficiently large
opening, are to be coated, the beft method is to coat
them with tin-foil on both fides, which may be fixed
upon the glafs with varniffi, gum-water, bees-wax, &c.
but in cafe the jars have not an aperture large enough
to admit the tin-foil, and an inftrument to adapt it to
the furface of the glafs, then brafs-filings, fuch as are
fold by the pin-makers, may be advantageoufly ufed;
and they may be ftuck with gum-water, bees-wax, &g
but not with varniffi, for this is apt to be fet on fire by
the
2674
ELECT
Apparatus, the dlfcharge. Care mufl. be taken that the coatings
do not come very near the mouth of the jar, for that
will caufe the jar to difcharge itfelf. If the coating is
about two inches below the top, it will in general do
very well; but there are fome kinds of glafs, efpecially
tinged glafs, that, when coated and charged, have the
property of difcharging themfelves more eafily than
others, even when the coating is five or fix inches be¬
low the edge. There is another fort of glafs, like that
of which Florence flafks are made, which, on account
of fome unvitrified particles in its fubftance, is not ca¬
pable of holding the leaft charge ; on thefe accounts,
therefore, whenever a great number of jars are to be
chofen for a large battery, it is advifeable to try fome
of them firft, fo that their quality and power may be
39 afcertained.
fbbftaribe Ele&ricians have often endeavoured to find fome
capable of other eleftric, which might anfwer better than glafs for
anfwefing this purpofe, at leaft be cheaper; but, except Father
the purpofe Beccaria’s method, which may be ufed very well, no
of glafs. remarkable difcovery has been made relating to this
point. He took equal quantities of very pure colo-
phonium, and powder of marble lifted exceedingly
fine, and kept them in a hot place a confiderable time,
where they became perfeftly free from moiftilre: he
then mixed them, and melted the compofition in a pro¬
per veffel over the fire ; and, when melted, poured it
upon a table, upon which he had previoufly ftuck a
piece of tin-foil, reaching within two or three inches
of the edge of the table. This done, he endeavoured
with a hot iron to fpread the mixture all over the table
as equally as poffible, and to the thicknefs of one tenth
of an inch: he afterwards coated it with another piece
of tin-foil reaching within about two inches of the
edge of the mixture : in ftiort, he coated a plate of this
mixture like a plate of glafs. This coated plate, from
what he fays, feems to have had a greater power than
a glafs plate of the fame dimenfions, even when the
weather was not very dry : and if it is not fubjeft to
break.very eafily by a fpontaneous difcharge,. it may
be very conveniently ufed ; for it doth not very readily
attraft moifture, and confequently may hold a charge
of eleflricity better, and longer, than glafs: befides, if
broken, it may be repaired by a hot iron; but glafs,
40 when broke, can never be repaired.
Difchar- When a jar, a battery, or in general a coated elec-
gmg rod, tr;Cj ;s t0 be difcharged, the operator (hould be pra¬
ters Tc6' v‘^e<^ Wlth an inftrument called the difcharging rod,
’ which confifts of a metal rod fometimes ftraight, but
more commonly bended in the form of a C : they are
made alfo of two joints, fo as to open like a kind of
compaffes. This rod is furnifhed with metal knobs at
its extremities, and has a non-condu£ting handle, gene¬
rally of glafs or baked wood, faftened to its middle.
When the operator is to ufe this inftrument, he holds
it by the handle; and touching one of the coated fides
of the charged ele&ric with one knob, and approach¬
ing the other knob to the other coated fide, or fome
conducing fubftance communicating with it, he com¬
pletes the communication between the two fides, and
difcharges the eleftric.
The inftruments to meafure the quantity, and afcer-
R I C I T Y. Sed. III.
tain the quality, of elefVricity, are commonly called Apparatus.
electrometers, and they are of four forts: 1. The fingle  
thread; 2. the cork or pith balls; 3. the quadrant;
and, 4. the difcharging ele&rometer. The fecond fort
of eleftrometer, i. e. the cork-balls eleftrometer, was
invented by Mr Canton ; the difcharging ele&rometer
was invented by Mr Lane, and hath been improved by
Mr Henly; another on a different principle by Mr Kin-
nerfley; and the quadrant eleftrometer, which is of
lateft invention, is a contrivance of Mr Henly.
Befides the apparatus above defcribed, there are fe-
veral other inftruments ufeful for various experiments;
but thefe will be defcribed occafionally. The elec¬
trician, however, ought to have by him, not only a fingle
coated jar, a fingle difcharging rod, or, in ftiort, only
what is neceffary to perform the common experiments;
but he Ihould provide himfelf with feveral plates of
glafs, with jars of different fixes, with a variety of dif¬
ferent inftrumenta of every kind, and even tools for
conftru£ting them; in order that he may readily make
fuch new experiments as his curiofity may induce him
to try, or that may be publiftied by other ingenious
perfons who are purfuing their refearches in this branch
of philofophy.
§ 2. Defeription of the moji ufeful Electrical Machines. 4,
The firft which may be mentioned is that deferi-Defcriptio*
bed by Dr Prieftley in his hiftory of eleftricity ; pfri^[je .
which, on account of its extenfive ufe, may be defer- machine,
vedly called a univerfal eleilrical machine.—The bafis
confifts of two oblong boards, which are kept in a Si¬
tuation parallel to one another, about four inches afun-
der, by two fmall pieces of board properly adapted to
that purpofe. Thefe boards, when fet horizontally up¬
on a table, and there fixed by faftening the lower of
them with iron cranks, form the fupport of two per¬
pendicular pillars of baked wood, and of the rubber
of the machine. One of the pillars, together with the
fpring fupporting the rubber, Aides in a groove, which
reaches almoft the whole length of the upper board :
and, by means of ferews, may be placed at any requi¬
red diftance from the other pillar, which is fixed, be¬
ing let through a mortice in the upper board, and
ftrongly faftened to the lower. In thefe two pil¬
lars are feveral holes for the admittance of the fpindles
of different globes; and as they may be fituated at any
diftance from one another, they may be adapted to re¬
ceive not only globes, but alfo cylinders, or fpheroids
of different fizes. In this machine, fays Dr Prieftley,
more than one globe or cylinder may be ufed at once,
by fixing them one above the other in the different
holes of the pillars; and, by adapting to each a proper
pulley, they may be whirled all at once, and their power
united in order to increafe the ele&ricity (a) : but in
this conftruftion different rubbers cannot be conveni¬
ently applied to them all; which is a capital imperfec¬
tion.
The rubber ought to be made as above-directed. It
is fupported by a focket, which receives the cylindri¬
cal axis of a round and flat piece of baked wood, the
oppofite part of which is inferted into the focket of a
bent fteel fpring. Thefe parts are eafily feparated, fo
that
(a) When feveral globes are ufed at once, and their power united, it has been found by experiment, that the elec¬
tricity does not increafe in proportion to their number, although it is more than what may be produced by a fingle
globe. Plate CII. fig. x. ftiews a machine of this kind formerly ufed by Dr Watfon.
C Sea. III. ELECTRICITY.
ts^pparatus. that the rubber, or the piece of wood that ferns to
1 infulate it, may be changed at pleafure. The fpring
admits of a twofold alteration of pofition. It may be
either flipped along the groove, or moved in the con¬
trary direction (the groove being wider than the fcrew
which fallens the fpring), fo as to give it every deli-
rable pofition with refpeft to the globe or cylinder;
and it is, befides, furnilhed with a fcrew, which makes
it prefs harder or lighter, as the operator choofes.
The wheel of this machine is fixed to the table; it
has feveral grooves, for admitting more firings than
one, in cafe that two or three globes or cylinders are
tifed at a time; and as it is difengaged from the frame
of the machine, the latter may be fcrewed at different
Idiftances from the former, and thus fuited to the vari¬
able length of the firing.
The prime condu&or is hollow copper, made in the
fhape of a pear, fituafed with its neck upwards, and
with its bottom or rounder part upon a Hand of baked
wood; and an arched wire proceeds from its neck, ha*
ving an open ring at its end, in which fome fmall point¬
ed wires are hung, that, by playing lightly upon the
4* eleftric, collect the eleftric fluid from it.
(f h>r f1' Next to Dr Prieftley’s machine is one invented by
u ouizs. jngenhoufZ} ancl which for its fimplicity and con-
cifenefs makes a fine contrail with the former.—This
machine confifts of a circular glafs plate about one foot
diameter, which is turned vertically by a winch fixed
to the iron axis that paffes through its middle ; and it
is rubbed by four culhions, each about two inches long,
fituated at the oppofite ends of the vertical diameter.
The frame confifis of a bottom board, about a foot
fquare, or a foot long and fix inches broad, which,
when the machine is to be ufed, may be faftened by an
iron crank to the table. Upon this board two other
flender and fmaller ones are raifed, which lie parallel
to one another, and are fattened together at their top
by a fmall piece of wood. Thefe upright boards fup-
port in their middle the axis of the plate, and to them
the rubbers are faftened. The conduftor is of hollow
brafs; and from its extremities branches are extended,
which, coming very near the extremity of the glafs,
colle£t the ele&ricity from it.
The power of this machine is perhaps more than a
perfon woqld imagine by looking at it. It may be ob-
jefted, that this conftru£tion will not eafily admit of the
rubbers being infulated, nor confequently be adapted
to a great variety of experiments: but at the fame time
it mull be allowed, that it is very portable, that it is
not very liable to be out of order, and that it has a
power fufficiently ftrong for phyfical purpofes; on
which account it may be conveniently ufed.
Of the mod laft machine we (hall deferibe, is that reprefent-
iimproved ed in fig. I. (Plate XCIX.) which has all the improve-
one. ments hitherto made, except that it is not capable of
admitting different kinds, or more than one ele&ric ;
but which, indeed, it feems not to Hand in need of.
The ele&ric power of fuch a machine is equal to what
may be obtained by any other conftruftion ; and at
the fame time its fize, being neither remarkably large,
nor at all inconvenient, renders it the completed hi¬
therto contrived.—Thefe machines are made and fold
by Mr George Adams, in Fleet-ftreet, London, phi-
lofophical inftrument-maker to his majefty.
The frame of this machine confifis of the bottom
board ABC, which, when the machine is to be ufed,
is fattened to the table by two iron cranks, one of
which appears in the figure near C. Upon the bottom
board are perpendicularly raifed two ftrong wooden
pillars KL, and AH, which fupport the cylinder
and the wheel. From one of the brafs caps of the
cylinder FF, an axle of fteel proceeds, which paffes
quite through a hole in the pillar KL, and has on this
fide of the pillar a pulley I fixed upon its fquare ex¬
tremity. Upon the circumference of this pulley there
are three or four grooves, in order to fuit the variable
length of the firing ab, which goes round one of them,
and round the groove of the wheel D. The other cap
of the cylinder has a fmall cavity, which fits the coni¬
cal extremity of a ftrong fcrew, that proceeds from the
pillar H. The wheel D, which is moved by the handle
E, turns round a ftrong axle, proceeding from almoft
the middle of the pillar KL.
The rubber G of this machine is on each end twa
inches fhorter than the cylinder, (/. e. the cylinder ex-
clufive of the necks), and it is made to rub about one
fourth part of the cylinder’s circumference. It confifts
of a thin quilted cufhion of filk, fluffed with hair, and
faftened by filk firings upon a piece of wood, which
is properly adapted to the furface of the cylinder.
From the upper extremity of the cufhion'proceeds a
piece of oiled filk, that covers almoft all the upper part
of the cylinder; and to the lower extremity of the cu-
fliion, or rather of the piece of wood to which the cu-
fhion is tied, a piece of leather is faftened, which is
turned over the cufhion, i. e. ftands between it and
the furface of the cylinder. Upon this leather, which
reaches from the lower to almoft the upper extremity
of the cufhion, fome of the above-deferibed amalgam is
to be worked, fo as to be forced as much as poffible
into its fubftance. This rubber is fupported by two
fprings, fcrewed to its back, and from which it may
be eafily unferewed when occafion requires. The
two fprings proceed from the wooden cap of a ftrong
glafs pillar (b), perpendicular to the bottom board of
the machine. This pillar has a fquare wooden bafis,
that Aides in two grooves in the bottom board ABC,
upon which it is fattened by a fcrew. In this manner
the glafs pillar may be fattened at any required di-
ftance, and in confequence the rubber may be made to
prefs harder or lighter upon the cylinder. The rubber
in this manner is perfectly infulated: and when infula-
tion is not required, a chain with a fmall hook may
be hung to it, fo as to have a regular communication
with the piece of leather ; the chain then falling upon
the table, renders the rubber uninfulated.
Fig. 2. reprefents the prime conduttor AB belong¬
ing to this machine. This is of hollow brafs; and is
fupported by two glafs pillars varnifhed, which by two
brafs fockets are fixed in the board C C. This con-
duftor receives the eleflric fluid through the points of
the colleftor L, which are fet at about half an inch
diftance from the furface of the cylinder of the ma¬
chine.
If
(b) This glafs pillar, as well as the glafs feet of infulating ftools in general, Ihould be covered with varniffi, or ra¬
ther with fealing-wax ; otherwife they will infulate very imperfettly, on account of the moifture that they attraift
from the air in damp weather.
2675
Apparatus.
2676
Apparatus.
Of excitinj
pofitive anc
negative e-
leftricity.
Different
eleftrome-
tersdeferi-
bed.
ELE CTRICITY. Sed. III.
If the handle E, fig. i. of the wheel, be turned, (and,
on account of the rubber, it fhould be turned always
in the direftion of the letters a b c) this machine,
Handing in the fituation that is reprefented in the fi-
ure, will give pofitive electricity, e. the prime con-
uCtor will be electrified pofitively, or overcharged with
eleCtric fluid; for, by the action of rubbing, the cy¬
linder pumps as it were the fluid from the rubber, and
every other body properly connected with it, and gives
it to the prime conductor. But if a negative electricity
is required, then the chain muft be removed from the
rubber and hung to the prime conductor; for in this
cafe the electricity of the prime conductor will be com¬
municated to the ground, and the rubber icmaining
infulated will appear ftrongly negative. Another
conductor equal to the conductor A B, fig. 2. may be
connected with the infulated rubber, and then the o-
perator may obtain as ftrong negative electricity from
this, as he can pofitive from the conductor AB,
fig. 2.
Fig. 4. reprefents a ftand fupporting the ele&ro-
meters D D C C. B is the bafis of it, made of com¬
mon wood. A is a pillar of wax, glafs, or baked
wood. To the top of the pillar, if it be of wax or
glafs, a circular piece of wood is fixed; but if the pil¬
lar be of baked wood, that may conftitute the whole.
From this circular piece of wood proceed four arms of
glafs, or baked wood, fufpending at their ends four
eieftrometers, two of which D D are filk threads a-
bout eight inches long, fufpending each a fmall downy
feather at its end. The other two electrometers C C
are thofe with very fmall balls of cork, or of the pith
of alder; and they are conftruCted in the following
manner, a is a flick of glafs about fix inches long,
covered with fealing-wax, and flraped at top in a ring:
from the lower extremity of this flick proceed two fine
Knen threads (c) ce about five inches long, each fu¬
fpending a cork or pith-ball ^ about one-eighth of an
fnch in diameter. When this electrometer is not elec¬
trified, the threads c c hang parallel to each other, and
the cork-balls are in contact; but when electrified, they
repel one another, as reprefented in the figure. The
glafs flick a b ferves for an infulating handle, by which
the electrometer may be fupported when it is ufed
without the ftand A B.
Another fpecies of the above electrometer is repre¬
fented in fig. 3. which confifts of a linen thread, ha¬
ving at each end a fmall cork-ball. Tin's electrometer
is fufpended by the middle of the thread on any con¬
ductor proper for the purpofe, and ferves to (how the
kind and quantity of its eleClricity.
Fig. 7. reprefents Mr Henly’s quadrant electrome¬
ter fixed upon a fmall ftand, from which it may be oc-
cafionally feparated and fixed upon the prime conduc¬
tor, or in any other place at pleafure. This electro¬
meter confifts of a perpendicular ftem formed at the top
like a ball, and furnilhed at its lower end with a brafs
ferule, by which it may be fixed in one of the holes
of the prime conductor, or in its proper ftand, as oc-
cafion requires. To the upper part of the ftena or pil¬
lar, a graduated ivory femicircle is fixed; about the
middle of which is a brafs arm, which contains a pin,
or the fmall axis of the index. The index confifts of a
very lleuder ftick, which reaches from the centre of the
graduated femicircle to the brafs ferule, and at its lower Apparatus,
extremity is faftened a fmall cork-ball, nicely turned ‘~"“"
in a lathe.
The propereft wood, for the purpofe of making the
pillar and index of this electrometer, is box; and this
pillar and index Ihould be well rounded, and made as
fmooth as poffible. When this electrometer is not elec¬
trified, die index hangs parallel to the pillar, as in
fig. 7.: but, when it is electrified, the index recedes
more or lefs, according to the quantity of eleCtricity,
from the ftem; as reprefented on the prime conductor
E, fig. 2._
The main of M. Lane’s difeharging electrometer con¬
fifts in a brafs ball, about one inch and a half in dia¬
meter, ferewed to a brafs graduated rod, and adapted
to a proper fiame, fo that it may be fet at any requi¬
red diftance from the prime conductor, or the knob of
an eleCtric jar. The principal ufe of this electrome¬
ter is to let a jar difeharge by itfelf through any proper
circuit, without ufing any difeharging rod, or remo
ving any part of the apparatus; and to give (hocks
nearly of the fame ftrength. Suppofe, for inftance, that
the above-mentioned brafs ball be fet at half an inch
diftance from the prime conductor, and that a coated
jar be fituated fo as to touch the prime conductor with
its knob, and to have its outfide coating communica¬
ting with the abovementioned brafs ball. Now, it is
evident, that the circuit, from the outfide to the in-
fide of the jar, is interrupted only between the prime
conductor and the brafs ball, which lie half an inch a-
funder: therefore, when the jar is charging, and the
charge is become fo high as to ftrike through half an
inch of air, the jar will difeharge itfelf; and by keep¬
ing the brafs ball at the fame diftance from the prime
conductor, and charging the jar fucceflively, the (hocks
will be of the fame ftrength.
This electrometer is, however, fubjeCt to a great in¬
convenience; which is, that the furface of the brafs ball
is often deprived of its fmoothnefs by the force of the
explofion, in which cafe it becomes unfit for ufe. The
principal ufe for which this electrometer is intended,
/. e. to give (hocks of the fame ftrength, may be more
elegantly obtained by the above-deferibed quadrant
electrometer, which fuffers no damage by the dif-
charges ; hence a delineation and a more particular
defeription of the difeharging electrometer is unnecef-
fery. 4(S
Fig. 5. reprefents Mr Henly’s univerfal difeharger, Mr Hen-
which is of a very extenfive ufe, and is compofed ofley’s un.‘* '
the following parts. A is a flat board 15 inches long, Vur *
four inches broad, and one thick, or thereabouts,
which forms the bafis of the inftrument. B B are
two glafs pillars cemented in two holes upon the board
A, and furniftied at their top with brafs caps, each of
which has a turning joint, and fupports a fpring tube,
through which the wire D C Aides: each of thefe
caps is compofed of three pieces of brafs, connected fo,
that the wire D C, befides its Aiding through the
focket, has two other motions, viz. an horizontal and
a vertical one. Each of the wires DC, DC, is fur-
niftied with an open ring at one end, and at the other
end has a brafs ball D, which, by a (hort fpring foc¬
ket, is Aipt upon its pointed extremity, and it may be
removed from it at pleafure. E is a ftrong circular
(c) Thefe threads fhould be wetted in a weak folution of fait.
Sea. III. E L E C T I
(^.Apparatus, piece of wood five inches in diameter, having, on its
furface, a flip of ivory inlaid, and furnifhed with a
ftrong cylindrical foot, which fits the cavity of the
focket F, which is faftened in the middle of the bottom
board, and has a fcrew G, which ferves to fatten the
foot of the circular board E at any required height.
H is a fmall prefs belonging to this inftrument: it con-
fifts of two oblong pieces of board, which may be
prefled againtt each other by means of two fcrews a a:
the lower of thefe boards has a cylindrical foot equal
to the foot of the circular board E. When this prefs is
to be ufcd, it is fixed into the focket F, in the place
of the circular board E, which mutt, in that cafe, be
removed.
Fig. it. is an eleftric jar coated with tinfoil on the
infide and outfide, within three inches of the top of the
cylindrical part of the glafs, having a wire with a
round brafs knob A at its extremity. This wire paffes
through the cork D, that flops the mouth of the jar,
and at its lower end is bended fo as to touch the in¬
fide coating in feveral places. When corks are ufed
to flop eleftric jars, they fhould be made very dry, and
dipped in melted bees-wax or varnifhed.
Fig. 10. reprefents a battery compofed of 16 jars
coated in the infide and outfide with tinfoil, which all
/together contain about 12 feet of coated glafs. About
the middle of each of thefe jars is a cork that fuftains
a wire, which at the top is fattened round or foldered
to the wjre E knobbed at each end, which conne&s the
infide coatings of four jars; and by the wires F F F
the infide coatings of all the 16 jars are connected to¬
gether. Each of the wires F has a ring at one end,
through which one of the wires E paffes, and the o-
ther end has a brafs knob. If the whole force of the
battery is not required, one, two, or three rows ofjars
may be ufed at pleafure: for as each of the wires FFF
is moveable round the wire E, which pafles thro’ its ring,
and refts upon the next wire E, it may be eafily removed
from that, and turned upon the contrary wire E; and
thus the communication between one row ofjars and an¬
other may be difcontinued at pleafure. See the figure.
The fquare box that contains thefe jars is of wood
lined at the bottom with fheet-lead or tin, and hastwo
handles on two oppofite fides, by which it may be ea¬
fily removed. In one fide of the box is a hole, thro’
which an iron hook B paffes, which communicates
with the metallic lining of the box, and confequently
with the outfide coating of all the jars. To this hook
is faftened a wire, the other>end of which is conne£led
with the difcharging rod.
The difcharging rod confitts of a glafs handle A,
and two curved wires B B, which move by a joint C,
fixed to the brafs cap of the glafs handle A. The wires
B B are pointed, and the points enter the knobs DD,
to which they are fcrewed,and may be unfcrewed from
them at pleafure. By. this conftru&ion we have the
opportunity of ufing the balls or the points, as occa-
fion requires ; and as the wires are moveable by the
joint C, they may be adapted to fmaller or larger jars
at pleafure.
The battery, reprefented in the plate, is a fmall one
Vol. IV.
I I C I T Y. 2677
in comparifon to thofe now frequently ufed, and much Apparatus,
too weak for the purpofe of fome experiments, here- ^
after to be defcribed. But when a large battery is to
be conftru£led, it is better to make two, three, or
more fmall ones, as reprefented in the plate) than a
fingle large battery, which is heavy, and, on feveral
accounts, inconvenient. The force of feveral fmall
batteries may be eafily united by a wire or a chain, and
thus they may be made to a£l in every refpedl like a
large one.
F in fig. 2. is a circular brafs plate hung on the
prime condu&or by a chain, and retting in an horizon¬
tal pofition. Underneath this, there is another plate
P parallel and equal to the former {but it would be
better if it was a little larger), which is fupported by
a {land H of brafs, having alfo a focket to receive the
foot of the plate, and a fcrew G to fix it at different
diilances.
D in fig. 2. is a fly made of fmall brafs wires fixed
in a cap of brafs alfo, which is to be put upon the
pointed wire K, that is fcrewed to the prime conduc¬
tor, upon which it mutt Hand in equilibrio, like the
needle of a compafs. The other ends a, b, c, d, of the
wires are pointed and bent all one way.
It is highly requifite for an ele&rician to have by
him feveral infulating ftools, or (lands, they being very
neceffary for feveral experiments. The bed materials
to conftrudl thefe are glafs covered with fealing-wax,
and baked wood (a). A large (tool, proper to infu-
late a chair upon, or two or three perfons (landing,
may be made with a ftrong board, about two feet and
a half fquare ; and may be fupported by four feet of
glafs, or baked wood, about eight inches long. But
fmall (lands are better made with one foot or pillar,
and all of baked wood or glafs, without any conducing
fubftance in their conttruflion. Drinking-glaffes, ei¬
ther varnifhed, or in part covered with fealing wax, an-
fwer this purpofe very well.
$ 3. Practical Rules concerning the life of the eletirical
• Apparatus, and the performing of Experiments.
1. The firft thing to be obferved is, the preferva-
tion and care of the inftruments. The eleftrical ma¬
chine, 'the coated jars, and in (hort every part of the
ele&rical apparatus, (hould be kept clean, and as free
as poffible from dud and moifture.
2. When the weather is clear, and the air dry, e-
fpecially in clear and.frofty weather, the ele&rical ma¬
chine will always work well. But when the weather
is very hot, the ele£trical machine is not fo powerful:
nor in damp weather, except it be brought into a warm
room ; and the cylinder, the (lands, the jars, &c. be
made thoroughly dry.
3.. Before the machine be .ufed, the cylinder (hould
be firft wiped very clean with a foft linen cloth that
is dry, clean, and warm ; and afterwards with a clean
hot flannel, or an old (ilk handkerchief: this done, if
the winch be turned when the prime condu£lor, and
other inftruments are removed from the eledtrical ma¬
chine, and the knuckle be held at a little diftance from
the furface of the cylinder, it will be foon perceived,
15 N that
(a) The wood (hould be baked very well, even till it becomes quite brown, it being then in the heft (late for in-
fulation ; and to make it (till better, i. e. to defend it from moifture, it may be (lightly varnilhed as foon as it comes
out of the oven, or elfe boiled in linfe.ed.oil; but in this cafe, after boiling, it fhould be made hot again, and then
it is (it for ufe.
2678
A-paratus. that the eleftrlc fluid comes like a wind From the cy¬
linder to the knuckle ; and, if the motion be a little
continued, fparks and crackling will foon follow. This
indicates that the machine is in good order, and the
eleftrician may proceed to perform his experiments.
But if, when the winch is turned for fome time, no
wind is felt upon the knuckle, then the fault is, very
likely, in the rubber; and to remedy that, ufe the fol¬
lowing directions : By loofening the fcrews on the
back of the rubber, remove it from its glafs pillar,
and keep it a little near the fire, fo that its filk part
may be dried ; take now a dry piece of mutton fuel,
or a little tallow from a candle, and juft pafs it over
the leather of the rubber; then fpread a fmall quantity
of the above-defcribed amalgam over it, and force it
as much as poffible into the leather. This done, re¬
place the rubber upon the glafs pillar; let the glafs
cylinder be wiped once more, and then the machine is
fit for ufe.
4. Sometimes the machine will not work well becaufe
the rubber is not fufficiently fupplied with ele&ric fluid;
which happens when the table, upon which the ma¬
chine ftands, and to which the chain of the rubber is
conne&ed, is very dry, and confequently in a bad con¬
ducing ftate. Even the floor and the walls of the
room are, in very dry weather, bad conduCors, and
they cannot fupply the rubber fufficiently. In this cafe
the beft expedient is, to conneC the chain of the rub¬
ber, by means of a long wire, with fome moi ft ground,
a piece of water, or with the iron work of a water-
pump ; by which means the rubber will be fupplied
with as much eleCric fluid as is required.
5. When a fufficient quantity of amalgam has been
accumulated upon the leather of the rubber, and the
machine does not work very well, then, inftead of put¬
ting on more amalgam, it will be fufficient to take the
rubber off, and to fcrape a little that which is already
upon the leather.
6. It will be often obferved, that the cylinder, af¬
ter being ufed fome time, contraCs fome black fpots,
occafioned by the amalgam, or fome foulnefs of the
rubber, which grow continually larger, and greatly
obftruft its eleCric power. Thefe fpots mull be care¬
fully taken off, and the cylinder mull be frequently
wiped in order to prevent its contraCing them.
7. In charging eleCric jars in general, it mull be
obferved, that not every machine will charge them
equally high. That machine whofe ele&ric power is
the ftrongeft, will always charge the jars higheft. If
the coated jars, before they are ufed, be made a little
warm, they will receive and hold the charge the bet¬
ter.
8. If feveral jars are conne&ed together, among
which there is one that is apt to difcharge itfelf very
foon, then the other jars will foon be difcharged with
that; although they may be capable of holding a very
great charge by themfelves. When eledlric jars are to
be difcharged, the eledlrician mull be cautious, left,
by fome circum fiance not adverted to, the Ihock Ihould
pafs through any part of his body; for an unexpedted
fliock, though not very ftrong, may occafion feveral
difagreeable accidents. In making the difcharge, care
mull be taken that the difcharging rod be not placed
on the thinned part of the glafs, for that may~caufe the
breaking of the jar.
Sea. iv. j
9. Wben large batteries are difcharged, jars will be Expe- |
often found broken in it, which burll at the time of riincnts- I
the difcharge. To remedy this inconvenience, Mr "* I
Najrne fays, he has found a very effedlual method,
which is, never to difcharge the battery through a
good condudlor, except the circuit be at lead five feet
long. Mr Nairne fays, that ever fince he made ufe of
this precaution, he has difcharged a large battery near
a hundred times without ^ver breaking a Angle jar,
whereas before he was continually breaking them. But
here it mult be confidered, that the length of the cir¬
cuit weakens the force of the fhock proportionably;
the highell degree of which is in many experiments re¬
quired.
10. It is idvifable, when a jar, and efpecially a bat¬
tery, has been difcharged, not to touch its wires with
the hand, before the difcharging rod be applied to its
fides a fecond and even a third time ; as there gene¬
rally remains a refiduum of the charge, which is fome-
times very confiderable.
1 t. When any experiment is to be performed, which
requires but a fmall part of the apparatus, the remain¬
ing part of it Ihould be placed at a diilance from the
machine, the prime condudftor, and even from the
table, if that is not very large. Candles, particularly,
Ihould be placed at a confiderable diftance from the
prime condudlor, for the effluvia of their flames carry
off much of the ele&ric fluid.
Sect. IV. Entertaining Experiments.
I. The electrified cork-hall Eleftrometer.
Fix at the end of the prime condudlorthe knobbed
rod I B, fig. 2. and hang on it the eledlrometer with
the cork-balls, fig. 3. The balls will now touch one
another, the threads hanging perpendicularly, and pa¬
rallel to each other. But if the cylinder of the ma¬
chine be whirled by turning the winch E, then the
cork-balls will repel one another; and moreorlefs, ac¬
cording as the electricity is more or lefs powerful.—
If the eledlrometer be hung to a prime conductor ne¬
gatively eleCIrified, i. e. connected with the infulated
rubber of the machine, the cork-balls will alfo repel each
other. If, in this ftate of repulfion, the prime conduc¬
tor is touched with fome conducting fubftance not in¬
fulated, the cork-balls will immediately come together.
But if, inftead of the conducting fubftance, the prime
condudor is touched with an eleClric, as for inftance a
flick of fealing-wax, a piece of glafs, &c. then the
cork-balls will continue to repel each other; becanfe
the eleCtric fluid cannot be conducted through that
eleCtric: hence we have an eafy method of determining
what bodies are conductors, and what eleCtrics. This
eleCtrical repulfion is alfo fhewn by the quadrant elec¬
trometer, with a large downy feather, or the like ; for
if thefe be connected with the prime conductor, and
the winch be turned, the electrometer will raife its in¬
dex, and the feather, by the divergency of its down,
will appear fwelled in a beautiful manner.
II. Attraction and Repulfion of light Bodies.
Connect with the prime conductor the two parallel
brafs plates F, P, as reprefented in fig. 2. at about
three inches diftance from one another; and upon the
lower plate put any kind of light bodies, as bran, bits
of
ELECTRICITY.
4
;
ELECTRICITY.
Sea. IV.
Expe- of paper, bits of leaf-gold, &c.; then work the ma-
nments. chine, and the light bodies will foon move between the
two plates, leaping alternately from one to the other
with great velocity. If, inftead of bran or irregular
pieces of other matter, fmall figures of men or other
things cut in paper and painted, or rather made of
the pith of alder, be put upon the plate, they will gene¬
rally move in an ereft pofition, but wfill fometimes leap
one upon another, or exhibit different pottures, fo as
to afford a pleafing fpe&acle to an obferving com¬
pany.
III. The Flying-feather, or Shuttle-cork.
The phenomena of ele&ric attradlion and repulfion
may be reprefented alfo with a glafs tube, or a char¬
ged bottle, and fome of them in a manner more fatif-
fa&ory than with the machine.
Take a glafs tube (whether fmooth or rough is not
material); and after having rubbed it, let a fmall light
feather be let out of your fingers at the diftance of
about eight or nine inches from it. This feather wrill
be immediately attraded by the tube, and will (lick
very clofe to its furface for about two or three feconds,
and fometimes longer; after which time it will be re¬
pelled ; and if the tube be kept under it, the feather will
continue floating in the air at a confiderable diftance
from the tube, without coming near it again, except it
firft touches fome conduding fubftance; and if you
manage the tube dexteroufly, you may drive the fea¬
ther through the air of a room at pleafure.
There is a remarkable circumftance attending this
experiment; which is, that if the feather be kept at a
diftance from the tube by the force of eledric repul-
fion, it always prefents the fame part towards the tube:
—You may move the excited tube about the feather
very fwiftly, and yet the fame fide of the feather will
always be prefented to the tube.
This experiment may be agreeably varied in the
following manner: A perfon may hold in his hand an
excited tube of fmooth glafs, and another perfon may
hold an excited rough glafs tube, a ftick of fealing-
wax, or in ftiort another eledric negatively ele&rified,
at about one foot and a half diftance from the fmooth
glafs tube: a feather now may be let go between thefe
twxj differently excited-ele&rics, and it will leap alter¬
nately from one eledric to the other; and the two per-
fons will feem to drive a ftiuttle-cork from one to the
other, by the force of eledricity.
IV. The dearie Well.
Place upon an eledric ftool a metal quart mug, or
fome other conduding body nearly of the fame form
and dimenfion; then tie a fliort cork-ball eledrometer,
of the kind reprefented fig. 3. at the end of a filk
thread proceeding from the deling of the room, or
from any other fupport, fo that the eledrometer may
be fufpended within the mug, and no part of it maybe
above the mouth : this done, eledrify the mug by
giving it a fpark with an excited eledric or otherwife;
and you will fee that the eledrometer, whilft it re¬
mains in that infulated fituation, even if it be made to
touch the fides of the mug, is not attraded by it, nor
does it acquire any eledricity; but if, whilft it ftands
fufpended within the mug, a condu&or, {landing out
of the mug, be made to communicate with, or only
prefented to it, then the eledrometer is immediately
attraded by the mug.
The following experiments require to be made in the
dark: for although the eledric light in fcveral circum-
ftances may be feen in the day-light, yet its appear¬
ance in this manner is very confufed; and that the elec¬
trician may form a better idea of its different appear¬
ances, it is abfolutely neceffary to perform fuch expe¬
riments in a darkened room.
V. The Star and Pencil of dearie Light.
When the eledrical machine is in good order, and
the prime condudor is fituated with the colledor fuf-
ficiently near the glafs cylinder, turn the winch, and
you will fee a lucid ftar at each of the points of the
colledor. This ftar is the conftant appearance of the
eledric fluid that is entering a point. At the fame
time you will fee a ftrong light proceeding from the
rubber, and fpreading itfelf over the furface of the cy¬
linder ; and if the excitation of the cylinder is very
powerful, denfe ftreams of fire will proceed from the
rubber, and, darting round almoft half the circumfe¬
rence of the cylinder, will reach the points of the col¬
ledor. If the prime condudor is removed, the denfe
ftreams of fire will go quite round the cylinder; reach¬
ing from one fide of the rubber to the other. If the
chain of the rubber is taken off, and a pointed body,
as for inftance the point of a needle or a pin, is pre¬
fented to the back of the rubber, at the diftance of a-
bout two inches, a lucid pencil of rays will appear to
proceed from the point prefented, and diverge towards
the rubber. If another pointed body be prefented to
the prime condudor, it will appear illuminated with a
ftar; but if a pointed wire or other pointed conduc¬
ting body be conneded with the prime condudor, it
will throw out a pencil of rays.
VI. Draining Sparks.
Let the prime condudor be fituated in its proper
place, and eledrify it by working the machine; then
bring a metallic rod with a round knob at each end,
or the knuckle of a finger, within a proper diftance of
the prime condudor, and a fpark will be feen between
that and the knuckle or knobbed wire. The longer
and ftropget fpark is drawn from that end of the prime
condudor, which is fartheft from the cylinder, or ra¬
ther from the end of the knobbed rod I B, fixed at its
end B, fig. 2.; for the eledric fluid feems to acquire
an impetus by going through a long condudor, when
eledrified by a powerful machine. — This fpark (which
has the fame appearance whether drawn from a prime
condudor pofitively, or negatively eledrified) appears
like a long line of fire, reaching from the condudor to
the oppofed body, and often (particularly when the
fpark is long, and different conduding fubftances are
near the line of its diredion) it will have the appear¬
ance of being bended to fharp angles in different places,
exadly refembling a flaftt of lightning. It often darts
brulhes of light fide wife in every diredion.
VI. The dearie Light fiajhing between two metallic
Plates.
Let two perfons, one (landing upon an infulated
ftool, and communicating with the prime condudor,
and another {landing upon the floor, each hold in one
15 N 2 o£
2679
Expe¬
riments,
■2600
Expe¬
riments.
* See
Chetmftry.
no 484-
E L E C T I
of his hands a metal plate, in fuch a manner, that the
plates may ftand back to back in a parallel fituation,
and about two inches afunder. Let the winch of the
machine be turned, and you will fee the flalhes of light
between the two plates fo denfe and frequent, that you
may eafily diftinguifh any thing in the room. By this
experiment the eledtric light is exhibited in a very co¬
pious and beautiful manner, and it bears a ftriking re-
femblance to lightning.
VIII. To fire inflammable Spirits.
The power of the eleftric fpark to fet fire to inflam¬
mable fpirits, may be exhibited by feveral different me¬
thods, but more eafily thus: Hang to the prime con-
dudtor a fhort rod having a fmall knob at its end; then
pour fome fpirits of wine, a little warmed, into a fpoon
of metal; hold the fpoon by the handle, and place it
in fuch a manner, that the fmall knob on the rod may
be about one inch above the furface of the fpirits. In
this fituation, if, by turning the winch, a fpark be
made to come from the knob, it will fet the fpirits on
fire.
This experiment may be varied different ways, and
may be rendered very agreeable to a company of fpec-
tators. A perfon, for inftance, Handing upon an elec¬
tric ftool, and communicating with the prime conduc¬
tor, may hold the fpoon with the fpirits in his hand,
and another perfon, Handing upon the floor, may fet
the fpirits on fire by bringing his finger within a fmall
diftance of it. InHead of his finger, he may fire the
fpirits with a piece of ice, when^the experiment will
feem much more furprifing. If the fpoon is held by
the perfon Handing upon the floor, and the infu-
lated perfon brings fome conducing fubftance over-
the furface of the fpirits, the experiment fucceeds as
well.
IX. The artificial Bolognian Stone illuminated by the
eleliric Light.
The moH curious experiment to {hew the penetra¬
bility of the eleftric light, is made with the real, or
more eafily with the artificial, Bolognian ftone, invented
by the late Mr J. Canton. This phofphorus is a cal¬
careous fubflance, generally ufed in the form of a pow¬
der,. which has the property of abforbing light when
expofed to it, and afterwards to appear lucid when
brought into the dark *.—Take fome of this powder,
and, by means of fpirits of wine or ether, Hick it all
over the infide of a clear glafs phial, and Hop it with
a glafs ftopper, or a cork and fealing-wax. If this
phial be kept in a darkened room (which for this ex¬
periment muH be very dark), it will give no light; but
let two or three firong fparks be drawn from the prime
condudlor, when the phial is kept at about two inches
diHance from the fparks, fo that it may be expofed to
that light, and this phial will receive that light, and
afterwards will appear illuminated for a confiderable
time.—The pdwder may be fluck upon a board by
means of the white of an egg, fo as to reprefent fi¬
gures of planets, letters, or any thing elfe at the plea-
fure of the operator; and thefe figures may be illumi¬
nated in the dark, in the fame manner as the above-
defcribed phial.
A beautiful method to exprefs geometrical figures
with the above phofphorus, is to bend fmall glafs tubes
t I C I T Y. Se£t.
of about the tenth part of an inch diameter, in the E
fhape and figure defired, and then fill them with the rm
phofphorus powder. Thefe may be illuminated in the
manner defcribed, and they are not fo fubjedt to be
fpoiled, as the figures reprefented upon the board fre¬
quently are.—The befi method of illuminating this
phofphorus, and which Mr W. Canton generally ufed,
is to difcharge a fmall eledtric jar near it.
X. The luminous Conduflbr.
Fig. 6. Plate XCIX. reprefents a prime conductor
invented by Mr Heniy, which fhews clearly the djrcc- •
tion of the eledtric fluid palling through it, from
whence it is called the luminous conductor. The middle
part E F of this conductor is a glafs tube about 18
inches long and three or four inches in diameter. To
both ends of this tube the hollow brafs pieces F D,
BE, are cemented air-tight, one of which has a point
C, by which it receives the eledtric fluid, when fet near
the excited cylinder of the eledlrical machine, and the
other has a knobbed wire G, from which a firong fpark
may be drawn ; and from each of the pieces F£), BE,
a knobbed wire proceeds within the cavity of the glafs
tube. The brafs piece F D, or B E, is compofed of
two parts; i. e. a cap F cemented to the glafs tube,
and having a hole with a valve, by which the cavity of
the glafs tube is exhaufied of air; and the ball D, which
is fcrewed upon the cap F. The fupporters of this in-
Hrument are two glafs pillars faftened in the bottom-
board H, like the prime condudtor reprefented fig. 2.
When the glafs tube of this condudtor is exhaufted of
air by means of an air-pump, and the brafs ball is
fcrewed on, as reprefented in the figure, then it is fit
for ufe, and may ferve for a prime condudtor to an e-
ledtrical machine. If the point C of this condudtoris
fet near the excited cylinder of the machine, it will
appear illuminated with a ftar; at the fame time the
glafs tube will appear all illuminated with a weak light;
but from the knobbed wire that proceeds within the
glafs from the piece FD, a lucid pencil will ifiue out,
and the oppofite knob will appear illuminated with a
Har, which, as well as the pencil of rays, is very clear,
and difcernible among the other light that occupies
the greateft part of the cavity of the tube. If the point
C, inftead of being prefented to the cylinder, be con-
nedted with the rubber of the machine, the appearance
of light within the tube will be reverfed; the knob
which communicates with the piece FD appearing il¬
luminated with a liar, and the oppofite with a pencil
of rays; becaufe in this cafe the diredlion of the elec¬
tric fluid isjult the contrary of what it was before; it
then going from D to B, and now coming from B and
going to D.—If the wires within the tube E F, in-
flead of being furnifhed with knobs, be pointed, the
appearance of light is the fame; but it feems not fo
flrong in this, as in the other cafe.
XI. The condutting Glafs Tube.
Take a glafs tube of about two inches diameter, and
about two feet long; fix to one of its ends a brafs cap,
and to the other a ftop-cock or a valve; then, by mearis
of an air-pump, exhaufi it of air. If this tube be held
by one end, and its other end be brought near the elec¬
trified prime condudtor, it will appear to be full of
light whenever a fpark is taken by it from the prime
condudtor.
5 Sed.IV. ELECT
Expe- conduftor, and much more fo if an eleftric jar be dif-
riments. charged through it.—This experiment may alfo be
made with the receiver of an air-pump : take, for in-
ftance, a tall receiver, clean and dry ; and through a
ihole at its top infert a wire, which mart be cemented
air-tight. The end of the wire that is within the tube,
mull be pointed, but not very (harp; and the other
end muft be furnilhed with a knob. Put this receiver
upon the plate of the air-pump, and exhauft it. If
now the knob of the wire at the top of the receiver be
touched with the prime condu&or, every fpark will pafs
through the receiver in a deafe and large body of light,
from the wire, to the plate of the air-pump. When
any thing is to be touched with the prime condu&or
that is not very portable, as the air-pump above-men¬
tioned, the communication between the former and the
latter may be made by means of a rod furnilhed with
an elefbic handle, or the like..
XII. The Aurora Borealis.
Take a phial nearly of the lhape and fize of a Flo¬
rence flalk; fix a ftop-cock or a valve to its neck, and
exhauft it of air as much as pofiible with a good air-
pump. If this glafs is rubbed in the common man¬
ner u fed to excite electrics, it will appear luminous
within, being full of a flalhing light, w hich plainly re-
fembles the aurora borealis or northern light. This
phial may alfo'be made luminous, byholding.it by ei¬
ther end, and bringing the other end to the prime con-
duftor; in this cafe, all the cavity of the glafs will in-
ftantly appear full of flafhing light, which remains in
it for a confiderable time after it has been removed
from the prime conduftor.—Inftead of the above-de-
fcribed glafs veflel, a glafs tube, exhaufted of air and
hermetically fealed, may be ufed, and perhaps with
better advantage. The moft remarkable circumftance
of this experiment is, that if the phial, or tube, after it
has been removed from the prime conduflor (and even
feveral hours after its flafhing light hath ceafed to ap¬
pear), be grafped with the hand, ftrong flafhes of light
will immediately appear within the glafs, which often
reach from one of its ends to the other.
XIII. The viftble eleftric Atmofyhcre.
G I, fig. i. Plate C. reprefents the receiver with the.
plate of an air-pump. In the middle of the plate I F,
a fhort rod is fixed, having at its top a metal ball B
nicely polifhed, wrhofe diameter is nearly two inches.
From the top of the receiver, another rod A I), with
a like ball A, proceeds, and is cemented air-tight in
the neck C; the diftance of the balls from one another
being about four inches, or rather more. If, when the
receiver is exhaufted of air, the ball A be eleftrified po-
litively, by touching the top D of the rod A D with
the prime condu&or, or an excited glafs tube, a lucid
atmofphere appears about it, which although it con-
fifts of a feeble light, is yet very confpicuous, and very
well defined ; at the fame time, the ball B has not the
leaft light. This atmofphere does not exift all round the
ball A; but reaches from about the middle of it, to a
fmall diftance beyond that fide of its furface which is
towards the oppofite ball B. If the rod with the ball
A be ele&rified negatively, then a lucid atmofphere,
like the above defcribed, will appear upon the ball B,
reaching from its middle to a fraall diftance beyond
R I C I T Y. 2681
that fide of it that is towards the ball A; at the fame Expe-
time, the negatively ele£Irified ball A remains without nme“11?'
any light.—The operator in this experiment muft be
careful not to ek&rify the ball A too much; for then
the ele&ric fluid will pafs in a fpark from one ball to
the other, and the-experiment will not have the defired
effeft. A little practice, however, wdll render the ope¬
ration very eafy and familiar.
XIV. Of charging and difcharging a Phial in general.
Take a coated jar, as D E, fig. 2. Plate XCIX. and
place it upon the table near the prime condu&or, fo that
the knob of its wire, and that only, may be in contadl
with it: fix the quadrant ele&rometer E, fig. 2. upon the
prime conduftor, and then turn the winch of the ma¬
chine. You will obferve, that as the jar is charging,
the index of the ele&rometer will rife gradually as far
as 90°, or thereabouts, and then reft: when this hap¬
pens, you may conclude that the jar has received its
full charge. If now you take a difcharging rod, and
holding it by the glafs handle, apply firft one of its
knobs to the outfide coating of the jar, and then bring
the other knob near the knob of the wire of the jar, or
near the prime conduftor that communicates with it,
you will heat1 a report, and fee very vivid fparks be¬
tween the difchargrng rod, and the condufting fnb-
ftances, communicating with the fides of the jar. This
operation difcharges the jar. If, inftead of ufing the
difcharging rod, you.touch the outfide of the jar with
one hand, and bring, the other hand near the wire of
the jar, the fame fpark and report will follow ; but now
you will feel a fhock which affefts your wrifts, elbows,
and, if ftrong, your breaft alfo. If a number of per-
fons join hands, and the firft of them touches the out¬
fide of the jar, and the laft touches fhe wire commu-
' nicating with the jniide, they will all feel the fhock,
and precifely at the fame perceivable time. This (hock,
bearing no refemblance to any fenfation otherwife felt,
cannot confequently be defcribed; and in order that a
perfon may form a juft idea of it, he muft abfolutely feel
it.— A (hock may be given to any fingle part of the
body, if that part only be brought into the circuit.
XV. The Leyden. Vacuum.
Fig. 8. and 9. of Plate XCIX. reprefent a fmall phial
coated on the outfide, about three inches up the fides,
with tin-foil ; at the top of the neck of this phial; a
brafs cap is cemented, having a hole with a valve, and
from the cap a wire proceeds a few inches within the
phial, terminating in a blunt point. When this phial
is exhaufted of air, a brafs ball is fcrewed upon the
brafs cap, which is cemented into its neck, fo as to‘de¬
fend the valve, and prevent any air from getting into
the exhaufted glafs. This phial exhibits clearly the
dire&ion of the ele&ric fluid, both in charging and dif¬
charging; for if it be held by its bottom, and its brafs
knob be prefented to the prime conductor pofitively
eleftrified, you will fee that the eleftric fluid caufeth
the pencil of rays to proceed from the wire‘within the
phjal, as reprefented fig. 9,; and if it is difcharged, a
ftar will appear in the place of the pencil, as repre¬
fented in fig. 8. But if the phial is held by the brafs
cap, and its bottom be touched with the prime con-
duftor, then the point of the wire on its infide will
appear illuminated with a ftar when charging, and
with.
2682 E L E C T R
Expe- with a pend! when difcharging. If It be prefented to
rinients. a pr;me con(Juftor eleftrltied negatively, all thefe ap¬
pearances, both In charging and difcharging, will be
reverfed.
XVI. To pierce a Card and other Subjlances rvith the
elettric Explojion.
Take a card, a quire of paper, or the cover of a
book, and keep it clofe to the outfide coating of a
charged jar; put one knob of the difcharging tod upon
the card, quire of paper, &c. fo that between the knob
and coating of the jar, the thicknefs of that card, or
quire of paper, only is interpofed; laftly, by bringing
the other knob of the difcharging rod near the knob
of the jar, make the difcharge, and the eleftric matter
will pierce a hole (or perhaps feveral) quite through
the card, or quire of paper. This hole has a bur raifed
on each fide, except the card, &c. be preffed hard be¬
tween the difcharging rod and the jar; which (hows
that the hole is not made in the direftion of the paf-
fage of the fluid, but in every direftion from the centre
of the refilling body.—If this experiment be made with
two cards inftead of One, which however mull be kept
very little dillant from one another, each of the cards,
after the explofion, will .be found pierced with one or
more holes, and each hole will have burs on both fur-
faces of each card. The hole, or holes, are larger or
fmaller, according as the card, &c. is more damp or
more dry. It is remarkable, that if the noftrils are
prefented to it, they will be affefted with a fulphure-
ous, or rather a phofphoreal, fmell, juft like that pro¬
duced by an excited eleclric.
If, inftead of paper, a very thin plate of glafs, rofin,
fealing-wax, or the like, be interpofed between the
knob of the difcharging rod and the outfide coating
of the jar, on making the difcharge, this will be bro¬
ken in feveral pieces. Small infers may alfo be killed
in this manner. They may be held between the outlide
coating of the jar, and the knob of the difcharging
rod, like the above card ; and a (hock of a common
phial fent through them, will inftantly deprive them of
life, if they are pretty fmall: but if larger, they will
be affcfted in fuch a manner, as to appear quite dead
on firft receiving the itroke; but will, after fome time,
recover: this, however, depends on the quantity of the
charge fent through them.
XVII. To Jheon the Effect of the Shock fent over the Sur¬
face of a Card or other Subjiances.
Put the extremities of two wires upon the furface of
a card, or other body of an eleflric nature, fo that they
may be in one diredtion, and about one inch diftance
from one another; then, by connedling one of the
wires with the outfide of a charged jar, and the other
wire with the knob of the jar, the (hock will be made
to pafs over the card or other body. — If the card be
made very dry, the lucid track between the wires will
be vifible upon the card for a confiderable time after
the explofion. If a piece of common writing paper
be ufed inftead of the card, it will be torn by the ex¬
plofion into very fmall bits.
If, inftead of the card, the explofion is fent over the
furface of a piece of glafs, this will be marked with an
indelible track, which generally reaches from the ex¬
tremity of one of the wires to the extremity of the
I C I T Y. Sea. IV.
other. In this manner, the piece of gkfs is very fel- Expe-
dom broken by the explofion. But Mr Henly has rlmellts•
difcovered a very remarkable method to increafe the
effedt of the explofion upon the glafs ; which is by
preffing with weights that part of the glafs which lies
between the two wires, (/'. e. that part over which the
(hock is to pafs). He puts firft a thick piece of ivory
upon the glafs, and places upon that ivory a weight at
pleaftire, from one quarter of an ounce to fix pounds:
The glafs in this manner is generally broken by the
explotion into innumerable fragments, and fome of it is
abfolutely reduced into an impalpable powder. If the
glafs is very thick, and refifts the force of the explo¬
fion, fo as not to be broken by it, it will be found
marked with the mod lively prifmatic colours, which
are thought to be occafioned by very thin laminae of the
glafs, in part feparated from it by the (hock. The
weight laid upon the glafs is always (hook by the explo¬
fion, and fometimes it is thrown quite off from the
ivory. This experiment may be mod conveniently made
with the univerfal difcharger, fig. 5. of Plate XCIX.
XVIII. To fwell Clay, and break fmall Tubes, by the
elettric Explofon.
Roll up a piece of foft tobacco-pipe clay in a fmall
cylinder C D, fig. 2. Plate C. and infert in it two
wires A, B, fothat their ends without the clay maybe
about a fifth part of an inch from one another. If a
(hock be fent through this clay, by connedfing one of
the wires A or B with the outfide of a charged jar,
and the other with the infide, it will be inflated by the
(hock, i. e. by the fpark, that paffes between the two
wires, and, after the explofion, will appear as repre-
fented fig. 3. If the (hock fent through it is too
ftrong, and the clay not very moift, it will be broken
by the explofion, and its fragments fcattered in every
direftton. To make this experiment with a little va¬
riation, take a piecfe of the tube of a tobacco-pipe, a-
bout one inch long, and fill its bore with moift clay;
then infert in it two wires, as in the above rolled clay;
and fend a (hock through it. This tube will not fail
to burl! by the force of the explofion, and its frag¬
ments will be fcattered about to a great diftance. If,
inftead of clay, the above-mentioned tube of the to¬
bacco-pipe, or a glafs tube (which will anfwer as
well), be filled with any other fubftance, either eleftric
or non-eledlric, inferior to metal, on making the dif¬
charge, it will be broken in pieces with nearly the
fame force. This experiment is the invention of Mr
Lane, F. R. S.
XIX. To make the elettric Spark vifible in Water.
Fill a glafs tube of about half an inch diameter,
and fix inches long, with water; and to each extremi¬
ty of the tube adapt a cork, which may confine the
water; through each cork infert a blunt wire, fo that
the extremities of the wires within the tube may be
very near one another; laftly, connedl one of thefe
wires with the coating of a fmall charged phial, and
touch the other wire with the knob of it > by which
means the (hock will pafs through the wires, and caufe
a vivid fpark to appear between their extremities with¬
in the tube. In performing this experiment, care muft
be taken that the charge be exceedingly weak, other-
wife the tube will burft. C in fig. 4. Plate C. re-
pre-
Sed. IV. E L E C T R
Kxpe- prefents a common drinking glafs almoft full of water.
riments. ^ g are two knobbed wires, fo bent, that their knobs
may be within a little diftance of one another in the
water. If one of thefe wires be connedled with the
outfide coating of a pretty large jar, and the other
wire be touched with the knob of it; the explofion
which mud pafs through the water from the knob of
one of the wires to that of the other, will difperfe the
water, and break the glafs with a furprifing violence.
This experiment is very dangerous if not conduced
with great caution.
XX. To fire Gun-powder.
Make a ftnall cartridge of paper, and-fill it with
gun-powder, or elfe fill the tube of a quill with it; in-
fert two wires, one at each extremity, fo that their
ends within the quill, or cartridge, may be about one
fifth of an inch from one another : this done, fend the
charge of a phial through the wires; and the fpark be¬
tween their extremities, that are within the cartridge,
or quill, will fet fire to the gun-powder. If the gun¬
powder be mixed -with fleel-filings, it will take fire
more readily, and with a very fmall fhock.
XXI. To Jirike Metals into Glafs.
Take two flips of common window-glafs about three
inches long, and half an inch wide ; put a fmall flip
of gold, filver, or brafs leaf, between them, and tie
them together, or elfe prefs them together between
the boards of the prefs H, belonging to the univerfal
difcharger fig. 5. Plate XCIX. leaving a little of the
metallic leaf out between the glafles at each end; then
fend a fhock through this metallic leaf, and the force
of the explofion will drive part of the metal into fo clofe
a contaft. with the glafs, that it cannot be wiped off,
or even be affetfted by the common menftrua which
otberwife would diffolve it. In this experiment the
glaffes are often fhattered to pieces ; but whether they
are broken or not, the indelible metallic tinge will al¬
ways be found in feveral places, and fometimes thro’
the whole length of both glaffes.
XXII. To Jlain Paper or Glafs.
Lay a chain, which forms a part of the circuit be¬
tween the two Tides of a charged jar, upon a fheet of
white paper; and if a fhock be fent through it, the
paper will be found ftained with a blackifh tinge at the
very jun&ure of the links. If the charge be very large,
the paper, inftead of being ftained with fpots, is burnt
through. If the chain be laid upon a pane of glafs
inftead of paper, the glafs will often be found ftained
with fpots in feveral places, but (as might be expec¬
ted) not fo deep as the paper. If this experiment be
made in the dark, a fpark will be feen at every junc¬
ture of the links; and if the links are fmall, and the
fhock pretty ftrong, the chain will appear illuminated
like a line of fire.
XXIII. The lateralExplofion.
If a jar be difcharged with a difcharging rod that
has no ele&ric handle, the hand that holds it, in ma¬
king the difcharge, feels fome kind of fhock, efpecial-
ly when the charge is confiderable. In other words:
A perfon, or any conducing fubftance, that is connec¬
ted with one fide of a jar, but forms no part of the
I C I T Y.
circuit, will feel a kind of fhock, i. e. fome effeft of
the difcharge. This may be rendered vifible in thefol- _
lowing manner. Connefl with the outfide of a char¬
ged jar a piece of chain ; then difcharge the jar thro’
another circuit, as for inftanee with a difcharging rod
in the common way, and the chain that communicates
with the outfide of the jar, and which makes no part
of the circuit, will appear lucid in the dark, i. e. fparks
will appear between the links; which fhows, that the
eledfric fluid, natural to that chain, mart by fome means
have been difturbed. This chain will alfo appear lu¬
minous, if it is not in contadl with the outfide of the
jar, but only very near it; and on making the dif¬
charge, a fpark will be feen between the jar, and the
end of the chain near it. This eledtrical appearance
out of the circuit of a difcharging jar, is that which
we call the lateral explojlon ; and to make it appear in
the moft confpicuous manner, obferve the following me¬
thod, which is of that Dr Prieftley.
When a jar is charged, and ftands upon the table
as ufual, infulate a thick metallic rod, and place it fo
that one of its ends may be contiguous to the outfide
coating of the jar; and within about half an inch of
its other end, place a body of about fix or feven feet
in length, and a few inches in breadth: then put a
chain upon the table, fo that one of its ends may be
about an inch and a half diftant from the coating of the
jar: at the other end of the chain apply one knob of
the difcha'rging rod, and bring the other knob to the
wire of the jar, in order to make the explofion. On
making the difcharge in this manner, a ftrong fpark.
will be feen between the infulated rod, which commu¬
nicates with the coating of the jar, and the body near
its extremity, which fpark does not alter the ftate of
that body in refpeft to ele&ricity. Whether this la¬
teral explofion is received on flat and fmooth furfaces,
or upon /harp points, the fpark is always equally long
and vivid.
XXIV. To difcharge a Jar filently.
When a large jar is fully charged, which would give
a terrible fhock, put one of your hands in contact with
its outfide coating ; with the other hold a /harp point¬
ed needle, and keeping the point dire&ed towards the
knob of the jar, proceed gradually near it, until the
point of the needle touches the knob. This operation
difeharges the jar entirely ; and you will either receive
no /hock at all, or fo fmall a one as can hardly be
perceived. The point of the needle, therefore, has fi¬
lently and gradually drawn all the fuperfiuous fluid
from the infide furface of the eledlric jar.
XXV. Drawing the Elettricity from the prime Conduc¬
tor by a Point.
Let a perfon hold the knob of a brafs rod at fuch a
diftance from the prime jpondu&or, that fparks may
eafily fly from the latter to the former, when the ma¬
chine is in motion. Then let the winch be turned ; and
while the fparks are following one another, prefent the
/harp point of a needle at nearly twice the diftance
from the prime condu&or, that the knobbed rod is
held; and you will obferve that no more fparks will go
to the rod remove the needle entirely, and the fparks
will be feen again ;—prefent the needle, and the fparks
difappear: which evidently /hows, that the point of
2683
riments.
2684
riments.
ELECT!
the needle draws off filently almoft all the fluid that
the cylinder throws upon the prime condu&or.
If the needle be fixed upon the prime condu£tor with
the point outward, and the knob of a difcharging rod,
or the knuckle of a finger, be brought very near the
prime condu&or, though the excitation of the cylin¬
der may be very ftrong, yet you will perceive that no
fpark, or an exceeding fmall one, can be obtained from
the prime condu&or.
XXVI. The dearie Fly.
Fix the fly formerly deferibed upon the prime con-
duftor, as reprefented by D, fig. 2. of Plate XCIX. then
turn the winch of the machine, and the fly will imme¬
diately begin to move round, in an horizontal pofition,
and in the dire&ion of the letters i. e. contrary
to the direction of the points of the wires. If the ex¬
periment is repeated with a cdndtiftor negatively elec¬
trified, the fly will turn the fame way as before, viz.
in the direction of the letters a deb- The above
fly does not move in vacuo; and even if placed un¬
der a clofe receiver, it will turn but for a little while,
and then flop; for the quantity of air contained in
the receiver may become readily and equally eledfri-
fied. If, when the fly under the clofe receiver is
flopped, you put the end of your finger on the out-
iide of the glafs, oppofite to one of the points of the
fly, this will move again brifkly; and by altering the
pofition of your finger occafionally round the glafs, you
may continue its afiion a confiderable time, viz. till
molt of that part of the glafs is charged.
XXVII. The ekarified Cotton.
Take a fmall lock of cotton, extended in every di-
reition as much as conveniently can be done; and by a
linen thread about five or fix inches long, or by a
thread drawn out of the fame cotton, tie it to the end
of the prime conductor: then let the winch of the ma¬
chine be turned, and the lock of cotton, on being e-
le&rified, will immediately fwell, by. repelling its fila¬
ments from one another, and will ftretch itfelf towards
the neareft conductor. In this fituation let the winch
be kept turning, and prefent the end of your finger,
or the knob of a wire, towards the lock of cotton,
which will then immediately move towards the finger,
and endeavour to touch it; but take with the other
hand a pointed needle, and prefent its point towards
the cotton, a little above the end of the finger, and
you will obferve the cotton immediately to {brink up¬
ward, and move towards the prime condudlor.—Re¬
move the needle, and the cotton will come again to¬
wards the finger.—Prefent the needle, and the cotton
will {brink again.
XXVIII. The ekarified Bladder.
Take a large bladder well blown, and cover it with
gold, filver, or brafs leaf, flicking it with gum-wa¬
ter : fufpend this bladder at the end of a filk thread,
at leaft fix or feven feet long, hanging from the ceiling
of the room ; and ele&rify the bladder, by giving it a
ftrong fpark with the knob of a charged bottle : this
done, take a knobed wire, and prefent it to the bladder
when motionlefs; and you will perceive, that as the
knob approaches the bladder, the bladder alfo moves
towards the knob, and, when nearly touching it, gives
t I C I T Y. Sed. IV.
it the fpark, which it received from the charged phial, Expe-
and thus it becomes uneleftrified- Give it another rimeilts'
fpark, and, inftead of the knobed wire, prefent the
point of a needle towards it, and you will perceive that
the bladder will not be attrafled by, but rather recede
from, the point, efpecially if the needle be very fud-
denly prefented towards it.
XXXI. The ekarified Capillary Syphon'.
Let a fmall bucket of metal, full of water, be fuf-
pended from the prime condudlor; and put in it a glafs
fyphon of fo narrow extremity, as that the water will juft
drop from it. If, in this difpofition of the apparatus,
the winch of the machine be turned, the water, which,
when not electrified, only dropt from the extremity of
the fyphon, will now run in a full ftream, which will
even be fubdivided into fmaller ftreams ; and if the ex¬
periment be made in the dark, it will appear beauti¬
fully illuminated.
XXX. The ekarified Bells.
Figure 5. of Plate C. reprefents an inftrument ha¬
ving three bells, which are caufed to ring by the
power of eledtric attraction and repulfion. B isa brafs
piece furniftied with a hook, by which it may be fuf-
pended from the rod proceeding from the extremity
of the prime condudtor A. The brafs bells C and
E, are fufpended by brafs chains ; but the middle bell
D, and the two fmall brafs clappers between C D and
D E, are fufpended by filk threads. From the con¬
cave part of the bell D a brafs chain proceeds, which
falls upon the table, and has a filk thread F at its ex¬
tremity. The apparatus being difpofed as in the fi¬
gure, if the cylinder of the machine be turned, the clap¬
pers will fly from bell to bell with a very quick mo- ,
tion, and the bells will ring as long as they are kept
eled rifled.
The two bells C and E, being fufpended by brafs
chains, are firft eledlrified: hence they attradl the clap¬
pers, communicate to them a little eledlricity, and re¬
pel them to the uneledrified bell D ; upon which the
clappers depofit their eledlricity, and then run again -
to the bells C, E, from which they acquire more elec¬
tricity, &c. If, by holding the filk thread F, the
chain of the middle bell be raifed from the table, the
bells, after ringing a little while, will flop ; becaufe
bell D, remaining infulated, will foon become as ftrong-
ly eledlrified as either of the two other bells; in which
cafe the clappers, having no opportunity to depofite the
eledlricity that they acquire from the bells C, E, muft
confequently flop.
If this experiment be made in the dark, fparks will
be feen between the clappers and the bells.
XXXI. The Spider fieemingly animated by Ekaricity.
Fig. 6. of Plate C. reprefents an eledlricjar, ha¬
ving a wire C D E fattened on its outfide, which is
bended fo as to have its knob E as high as the knob
A. B is a fpider made of cork, with a few fhort
threads run through it to reprefent its legs. This fpi¬
der is fattened at the end of a filk thread, proceeding
from the ceiling of the room, or from any other fup-
port, fo that the fpider may hang mid-way between
the two knobs A, E, when the jar is not charged. Let
the place of the jar upon the table be marked; then
charge
cl Sea. IV. ELECTRICITY. 2677
JF,xpe- charge the jar, by bringing its knob A in contaft with
rimcnts^ tj,e Condn<ftor, and replace it in its marked place.
The fpider will now begin to move from knob to knob,
and continue this motion for a confiderable time, fome-
times for feveral hours.
The infide of the jar being charged pofitively, the
fpider is attrafted by the knob A, which communi¬
cates to it a fmall quantity of ele&ricity ; the fpider
then becoming pofTefled of the fame eleftricity with
the knob A, is repelled by it, and runs to the knob
E, where it difcharges its ele&ricity, and is then at-
tra&ed by the knob A, and fo on. In this manner
the jar is gradually difcharged; and when the dif-
charge is nearly compleated, the fpider finiihes its mo¬
tion.
XXXII. The Spiral Tube.
Fig. 7. of Plate C. reprefents an inftrument com-
pofed of two glafs tubes CD, one within another,
and clofed with two knobbed brafs caps A and B.
The innermoft of thefe tubes has a fpiral row of fmall
round pieces of tin-foil ftuck upon its outfide furface,
and lying at about one thirtieth of an inch from each
other. If this inftrument be held by one of its extre¬
mities, and its other extremity be prefented to the
prime condu&or, every fpark that it receives from the
prime conductor will caufe fmall fparks to appear be¬
tween all the round pieces of tin-foil ftuck upon the
innermoft tube; which in the dark affords a pleafing
fpe&acle, the inftrument appearing encompaffed by a
fpiral line of fire.
The fmall round pieces of tin-foil are fometimes
ftuck upon a flat of glafs A B C D, fig. 8. fo as to re-
prefent curve lines, flowers, letters, &c.; and they are
illuminated after the fame manner as the fpiral tube,
i. e. by holding the extremity C or B in the hand,
and prefenting the other extremity to the prime con-
du&or, when the machine is in motion.
XXXIII. The Dancing Balls.
Fix a pointed wire upon the prime condu&or, with
the point outward; then take a glafs tumbler, grafp
it with your hands, and prefent its infide furface to the
point of the wire upon the prime conductor, while the
machine is in motion : the glafs in this manner will
foon become charged ; for its infide furface acquires
the ele&ricity from the point, and the hands ferve as
a coating for the outfide. This done, put a few pith
balls upon the table, and cover them with this charged
glafs tumbler. The balls will immediately begin to
* leap up along the fides of the glafs, as reprefented
fig. 9. Plate C. and will continue their motion for a
confiderable time.
XXXIV. The Elcdrical Jack.
This is an invention of Dr Franklin’s, and turns
with confiderable force, fo that it may fometimes be
ufed for the purpofes of a common jack. A fmall up¬
right fhaft of wood paffes at right angles through a
thin round board of about 12 inches diameter, and
turns on a (harp point of iron fixed in the lower end,
while a ftrong wire in the upper end, pafiing through
a fmall hole in a thin brafs plate, keeps the (haft truly
vertical. About 30 radii, of equal length, made of
Vol. IV, 6
fafti-glafs cut into narrow (lips, iffue horizontally from Expo
the circumference of the board, the ends moft diftant nments-
from the centre being about four inches apart. On
the end of every one a brafs thimble is fixed. If now
the wire of a bottle ele&rified in the common way be
brought near the circumference of this wheel, it will
attract the neareft thimble, and fo put the wheel in
motion. That thimble, in pafiing by, receives a fpark ;
and thereby being eledtrified, is repelled, and fo driven
forwards; while a fecond, beinj* attra&ed, approaches
the wire, receives a fpark, and is driven after the firft;
and fo on, till the wheel has gone once round; when
the thimbles before eledtrified approaching the wire,
inftead of being attradled, as they were at firft, are re¬
pelled, and the motion prefently ceafes. But if another
bottle which had been charged thro’ the coating, or
otherwife negatively eledfrified, is placed near the fame
wheel, its wire will attradl the thimble repelled by the
firft, and thereby double the force that carries the
wheel round. The wheel therefore moves very fwiftly,
turning round 12 or 15 times in a minute, and with
fuch force, that a large fowl fpitted on the upper (haft
may be roafted by means of it.
XXXV. The Self-moving Wheel.
This appears more furprifing than the former, tho’
conftrudted upon the fame principles. It is made of &
thin round plate of window-glafs 17 inches in diame¬
ter, well gilt on both fides, all but two inches next the
edge. Two fmall hemifpheres of wood are then fixed
with cement to the middle of the upper and under
fides, centrally oppofite; and in each of them a ftrong
thick wire eight or ten inches long, which together
make the axis of the wheel. It turns horizontally on
a point at the lower end of its axis, which reds on a
bit of brafs cemented within a glafs falt-celler. The
upper end of its axis paffes through a hole in a thin
brafs plate, cemented to a long and ftrong piece of
glafs; which keeps it fix or eight inches diftant from
any non-eleclric, and has a fmall ball of wax or metal
on its top to keep in the fire.
In a circle on the table which fupports the wheel,
are fixed 12 fmall pillars of glafs, at about 11 inches
diftance, with a thimble on the top of each. On the
edge of the wheel is a fmall leaden bullet, commu¬
nicating by a wire with the gilding of the upper fur¬
face of the wheel; and about fix inches from it, is an¬
other bullet communicating in like manner with the
under furface. When the wheel is to be charged by
the upper furface, a communication muft be made from
the under furface to the table. As foon as it is well
charged, it begins to move. The bullet neareft to a
pillar moves towards the thimble on that pillar; and,
palling by, electrifies it, and is then repelled from it.
The fucceeding bullet, which communicates with the
other furface of the glafs, more ftrongly attra&s that
thimble on account of its being electrified before by
the other bullet; and thus the wheel increafes its mo¬
tion, till the refiftance of the air regulates it. It will
go half an hour; and make, one minute with another,
20 turns in a minute, which is 600 turns in the whole;
the bullet in the upper furface giving in each turn 12
fparks to the thimbles, making in all 2500 fparks;
while the fame quantity of fire is thought to be recei¬
ved by the under bullet. The whole fpace moved over
2678 ELECT
Expe- by thefe bullets in the mean time is 2500 feet. If,
runents. ;nftea(j Qf two bullets, you put eight, four communi¬
cating with the upper and four with the under furface,
the force and fwiftnefs will be greatly increafed, and
the wheel will make about 50 turns in a minute; but
then, it will not continue moving for fuch a long time.
Thefe wheels may be applied to the ringing of chimes,
and the moving of fmall orreries, &c.
XXXVI. The Magic Figure.
This is a contrivance of Mr Kinnerfley; and is per¬
haps more calculated to give furprife, than any other
experiment in eleftricity. It is made in the following
manner: Having a large mezzotinto, with a frame and
glafs, (fuppofe of the king), take out the print, and cut
a pannel out of it near two inches diftant from the
frame all round. If the cut be through the pidture, it
is nothing the worfe. With thin palle, or gum wa¬
ter, fix the board that is cut off on the infide of the
glafs, preffing it fmooth and clofe; then fill up the va¬
cancy, by gilding the brafs well with leaf-gold or
brafs. Gild likewife the inner edge of the back of the
frame all round, except the top part, and form a com¬
munication between that gilding and the gilding be¬
hind the glafs; then put in the board, and that fide is
finifhed. Turn up the glafs, and gild the forefide ex¬
actly over the back gilding; and when it is dry, cover
it, by pafting on the pannel of the pifture that has
been cut out; obferving to bring the correfpondent parts
of the board and pidture together, by which the pic¬
ture will appear of a piece as at firft; only part is be¬
hind the glafs, and part before. Laftly, hold the pic¬
ture horizontally by the top, and place a little move-
able gilt crown on the king’s head. If now the pic¬
ture is moderately eledirified, and another perfon take
hold of the frame with one hand, fo that his fingers
touch its infide gilding, and with the other endeavour
to take off the crown, he will receive a terrible blow,
and fail in the attempt. The operator, who holds the
pidture by the upper end, where the infide of the frame
is not gilt, to prevent its falling, feels nothing of the
fhock; and may touch the face of the pidture without
danger, which he pretends to be a teft of his loyalty.
XXXVII. Imitations of the Planetary Motions.
From the prime condudtor fufpend fix concentric
hoops of metal, at different diftances from each other;
and under them, on a (land, place a metal plate at the
diftance of about half an inch. Then place upon the
late within each hoop, and near to it, a round glafs
ubble blown very light: thefe bubbles and the di¬
ftances between the hoops ftiould correfpond to the
different diameters of the planets and thofe of their
orbits ; but as that cannot be on account of the vaft
difproportion between them, it muft fuffice here to
make a difference that bears fame relation to them.
Now, the hoops being eledtrified, the bubbles placed
upon the plate, near the hoops, will be immediately at-
tradfed by them, and they will continue to move round
the hoops as long as the eledtrification continues. If
the eledtricity is very ftrong, the bubbles will frequent¬
ly be driven off from the hoops, and make a variety
of furprifing motions round their axis, and running hi¬
ther and thither on the plate, after which they will
come back to the hoops and run round them as before.
R I C I T Y. Seel. IV. 1
If the room is darkened, all the glafs balls will appear Expe- ]
beautifully illuminated. rimentt. ^ ;
Another method of imitating the planetary motion*
is, by means of a hollow cork or pith ball, fufpended
by a filk thread, as mentioned under the article Astro¬
nomy, n° 102. The fame experiment will fucceed with
a metallic ball ftrongly eledtrified either way. It is fi-
milar to thofe by Mr Grey formerly mentioned. As it
will not fucceed without the candle, (fora vial charged
with an eledtricity oppofite to the former will not do),
it feems moft likely that Mr Grey had fucceeded in his
experiments by the unheeded circumftance of fome-
times having a candle near him when he made them.
Other imitations of thefe motions have been contrived, ■ [1
and an ingenious perfon may contrive to vary thefe and
other eledtrical experiments almoft infinitely. Small
orreries, planetariums, clocks, &c. have been con-
ftrudted to go by the blaft of eledtric matter iffuing
from a point: but as thefe are in no way connedted with
eledtricity, and would move as well by means of the
draught of air through a chimney, or a current of wa¬
ter, we apprehend it is needlefs to give any particu¬
lar defeription of them.
XXXVIII. The Thunder-houfe.
Fig. 10. of Plate C. is an inftrument reprefenting the
fide of a houfe, either furnilhed with a metallic con-
dudtor, or not; by which both the bad effedts of light¬
ning ftriking upon a houfe not properly fecured, and
the ufefulnefs of metallic condudtors, may be clearly
reprefented. A is a board about three quarters of an
inch thick, and (haped like the gable-end of a houfe.
This board is fixed perpendicularly upon the bottom-
board B, upon which the perpendicular glafs pillar
CD is alfo fixed in a hole about eight inches diftant
from the bafis of the board A. A fquare hole ILMK,
about a quarter of an inch deep, and nearly one inch
wide, is made in the board A, and is filled with a fquare
piece of wood nearly of the fame dimenfions. It is
mentioned nearly of the fame dimenfions, becaufe it
muft go fo eafily into the hole, that it may drop off
by the lead ftiaking of the inftrument. A wire LK is
faftened diagonally to this fquare piece of wood. An¬
other wire IH of the fame thicknefs, having a brafs
ball H, ferewed on its pointed extremity, is faftened
upon the board A ; fo alfo is the wire M N, which is
ftiaped in a ring at O. From the upper extremity of
the glafs pillar C D, a crooked wire proceeds, having
a fpring focket F, through which a double knobbed
wire flips perpendicularly, the lower knob G of which
falls juft above the knob H. The glafs pillar DC muft
not be made very faft into the bottom board; but it
muft be fixed fo as it may be pretty eafily moved round
its own axis, by which means the brafs ball G may be
brought nearer or farther from the ball H, without
touching the part EFG. Now when the fquare piece
of wood LMIK (which may reprefent the fliutter of
a window or the like), is fixed into the hole fo, that
the wire LK ftands in the dotted reprefentation IM,
then the metallic communication from H to O is com¬
plete, and the inftrument reprefents a houfe furnifhed
with a proper metallic conduftor: but if the fquare
piece of wood LMIK is fixed fo, that the wire LK
ftands in the diredtion LK, as reprefented in the fi¬
gure, then the metallic conduflor HO, from the top
if Sea. V. ELECT
Theory, of the boufe to Its bottom, Is interrupted at IM, in
ir which cafe the houfe is not properly fecured.
Fix the piece of wood LMIK fo, that its wire may
be as reprefented in the figure, in which cafe the me¬
tallic conduftor H O is difcontinued. Let the ball G
be fixed at about half an inch perpendicular diftance
from the ball H; then, by turning the glafs pillar DC,
remove the former ball from the latter; by a wire or
chain connect the wire E F with the wire Qjof the jar
P, and let another wire or chain, fattened to the hook
O, touch the uutfide coating of the jar. Conne£t the
I wire Qjivith the prime conductor, and charge the jar:
then, by turning the glafs pillar DC, let the ball G
came gradually near the ball H ; and when they are
arrived fufficiently near one another, you will obferve,
that the jar explodes, and the piece of wood LMIK
is pufhed out of the hole to a confiderable diftance from
the thunder-houfe. Now the ball G, in this experi¬
ment, reprefents an ele£trified cloud, which when it is
arrived fufficiently near the top of the houfe A, the e-
le&ricity ftrikes it; and as this houfe is not fecured with
I a proper condu&or, the explofion breaks off a part, i. e.
knocks off the piece of wood IM.
Repeat the experiment with only this variation, viz.
that this piece of wood IM is fituated fo, that the wire
LK may ftand in the fituation IM, in which cafe the
conductor H O is not difcontinued ; and you will ob¬
ferve, that the explofion will have no effeft upon the
piece of wood LM, this remaining in the hole un¬
moved; which ftiows the ufefulnefs of the metallic con-
duttor.
Further. Unfcrew the brafs ball H from the wire
H I, fo that this may remain pointed. With this
difference only in the apparatus, repeat both the above
experiments; and you will find that the piece of wood
LM is in neither cafe moved from its place, nor any
explofion will be heard; which not only demonftrates
the preference of the conduftors with pointed termina¬
tion to thofe with blunted ones; but alfo fhows that a
houfe, furnifhed with fharp terminations, although not
furnifhed with a regular conduftor, is almott fufficiently
guarded againft the effedts of 1 ightning. See Thunder.
Sect. V. Of the different Theories of EleBricity,
•with the principal Experiments brought in fa¬
vour of each, and •which tend more particularly
to fbevj the nature of the Eleftric Fluid.
It is not to be fuppofed, that the phenomena of
eleftricity would long be obferved without attempts to
account for them. In fa£t, this was attempted by
Thales, who firft obferved the attra&ive power of am¬
ber. At this property he was fo much furprifed, that
he reckoned the amber to be animated. With re¬
gard to the fentiments of Theophraftus on this fub-
je<tt, we are entirely in the dark; but, among the
pEIedhic eIe&r'cians, all the phenomena were derived from
phenomena unttuous effluvia emitted by the excited eledtric. Thefe
afe iberl to were fuppofed to fatten upon all bodies in their way,
unftuoHsef-and to carry back with them all that were not too hea-
UVI*‘ vy. For, at that time, effluvia of every kind were fup¬
pofed to return to the bodies from which they were
emitted ; fince nobody could otherwife account for the
fubftance not being fenfibly wafted by the conftant
emiffion. When thefe light bodies on which the unc-
l I C I T Y. 2679
tuous effluvia had fattened were arrived at the excited Theory,
eledtric, a frefh emiffion of the effluvia was fuppofed to ““
carry them back again. But this effedt of the efflu¬
via was not thought of till eleftric repulfion, as well a«
attra&ion, had been fully obferved.
The difeovery of a difference between conducing
and non-condudting fubftances, threw confiderable dif¬
ficulties in the way of thofe who maintained the hypo-
thefis of undtuous effluvia. When the Newtonian phi-
lofophy began to be pretty generally received, the
terms attrattion and repul/ion were quickly introduced
into eledtricity, as well as other branches of philofo-
phy ; and the eledfric effluvia, inftead of being of an
unttuous nature, were faid to be of an attradiive or re-
pulfive one. At the fame time, the apparent flop
which is put to the progrefs of thefe effluvia by any
eledlric fubftance, introduced a queftion not yet well
decided, viz. Whether eledtric bodies are penetrable by
the fluid or not. 48
When Mr Du Fay difeovered the two oppofite fpe- T.wo e|ec*
cies of eledtricity, at that time diftinguifhed by thejf1'
names of vitreous and refmous, and afterwards by jyjr cju
thofe of plus and minus, or pofitive and negative, he
formed the idea of two diftindt eledlric fluids. Both
thefe were fuppofed to have a repulftve power with re-
fpedt to themfelves, but an attractive one with regard
to one another.
As long as eledtrical attradlion and repulfion were
the only phenomena to be accounted for, this theory
ferved the purpofe well enough. To account for at¬
tradlion and repulfion by an attrattive and repulfive
power, was indeed no explication at all; but it afforded
a change of terms, which is frequently enough mif-
taken for an explanation both in eledlricity and other
parts of philofophy.—At laft, however, Mr Du Fay
dropped his opinion concerning the exittence of two
eledlric fluids, and thought that all the phenomena
might be accounted for from the adlion of a Angle one.
The vitreous or pofitive eledlricity, which was fuppofed
to be the ftronger, he thought might attradl the ne¬
gative, or weaker, eledlricity.—It is indeed true, that,
in all experiments, the pofitive eledlricity doth manifeft
a fuperiority in ftrength over the negative, fomething
like that fuperior degree of vigour which is obferved
in the north pole of a loadilone over the fouth pole.
According to Mr Du Fay’s own principles, however,
had this been the cafe, a body pofitively eledlrified
ought to have attradled one eledlrified negatively more
weakly than one not eledlrified at all; which is con¬
trary to experience. 49
During all this time, however, it was imagined, that Eleflric
the eledlric matter, whether it confitted of one or more
fluids, was produced from the eledlric body by fric- come fr0£^
tion ; but by a difeovery of Dr Watfon’s, it became the earth,
univerfally believed, that the glafs globes and tubes
ferved only to fet the fluid in motion, but by no means
to produce it.—He was led to this difeovery by ob-
ferving, that, upon rubbing the glafs tube, while he
was {landing upon cakes of wax or rofin, (in order, as
he expedled, to prevent any difeharge of the eledlric
matter upon the floor), the power was, contrary to his
expedlatiod, fo much leffened, that no fnapping could
be obferved upon another perfon’s touching any part
of his body ; but that, if a perfon not eledtrified held
his hand near the tube while it was rubbed, the fnap-
15 O 2 ping
a68o ELECT
Theory, ping was very fenfible.—The event was the fame when
“the globe was whirled in fimilar circumllances. For,
if the man who turned the wheel, and who, together
with the machine, was fufpended upon fills, touched
the floor with one foot, the eleftric fire appeared upon
the condu&or; but if he kept himfelf free from any
communication with the floor, little or no fire waspro-
duced.---He obferved, that only a fpark or two would
appear between his hand and the infulated machine,
unlefs he at the fame time formed a communication
between the conduftor and the floor; but that then,
there was a conftant and copious flux of the eleftric
matter obferved between them. From thefe, and fome
other experiments of a fimilar kind, the Do&or dif-
covered what he called the complete circulation of the
ele&ric matter. When he found, that, by cutting off
the communication of the glafs globe with the floor,
all eleftric operations were flopped, he concluded, that
the electric fluid was conveyed from the floor to the
rubber, and from thence to the globe. For the fame
reafon, feeing the rubber, or the man who had a com¬
munication with it, gave no fparks but when the con-
dudtor was connefted with the floor, he as naturally
concluded, that the globe was fupplied from the con-
JO ductor, as he had before concluded that it was fupplied
Dr Wat- from the rubber.---From all this he was at laft led to
ton’s theo- form a new theory of eleftricity, namely, that, in all
eleftric operations, there was both an afflux of ele&ric
an e ux. matter t0 ^ gl0be an(j the condudtor, and likewife an
efflux of the fame ele&ric matter from them.---Finding
that a piece of leaf filver was fufpended between a plate
electrified by the condudtor, and another communi¬
cating with the floor, he reafons from it in the follow¬
ing manner. “ No body can be fufpended in equili-
brio but by the joint aftion of two different directions
of power : fo here the blaft of eleCtric ether from the
floor fetting through it, drives the filver towards the
plate eleCtrified. We find from hence, likewife, that
the draught of eleCtric ether from the floor is always
in proportion to the quantity thrown by the globe
over the gun-barrel (the prime conductor at that time
made ufe of), or the equilibrium by which the filver is
fufpended could not be maintained.’’---Some time af¬
ter, however, the Do&or retraced this opinion con¬
cerning the afflux and efflux, and fuppofed that all the
eleCtric phenomena might be accounted for from the
excefs or diminution of the quantity of eleCtric matter
contained in different bodies. This theory was after¬
wards adopted by Dr Franklin, and continues to be
yx generally received.
Difficulty One great difficulty with which the firft eleCtricians
the'direc-^ were embarrafied, (and which is yet fcarcely removed),
tion of the was t0 afcertain the direction of the fluid. At firff,
eleflric all eleCtric powers, as we have already obferved, were
fluid. fuppofed to refide in the excited globe or glafs tube.
The eleCtric fpark therefore was fuppofed to proceed
from the electrified body towards any conductor that
was prefented towards it. It was never imagined there
could be any difference in this refpeCt, whether it was
amber, glafs, fealing-wax, or any thing elfe that was
excued. This progrefs .of the eleCtric matter was
thought to be quite evident to the fenfes; and there¬
fore, the obfervation of eleCtric appearances at an infu¬
lated rubber occafioned the greateft aftonifhment.—
In this cafe, the current could not be fuppofed to flow
R I C I T Y. Sedt. Y.
both from the rubber and the conductor, and yet the Theory,
firft appearances were the fame. To provide a iupply "
of the eleCtric matter, therefore, philofophers were obli¬
ged to fuppofe, that, notwithftanding appearances were
in both cafes much the fame, the eleCtric fluid was
really emitted in qne cafe by the eleCtrified body, and
received by it in the other. But now being obliged
to give up the evidence from fight for the manner
of its progrefs, they were at a lofs, whether, in the
ufual method of eleCtrifying by excited glafs, the
fluid proceeded from the rubber to the conductor, or
from the conduClor to the rubber.—It was, however,
foon found, that the eleCtricity at the rubber was the
reverfe of that at the conductor, and in all refpeCts the
fame with that which had before been produced by the
friCtion of fealing-wax, fulphur, rofin, &c. Seeing,
therefore, that both the eledricities were produced at
the fame time, by one and the fame eleCtric, and by
the fame friCtion, all philofophers were naturally led to
conclude, that both were modifications of one fluid;
though in what manner that fluid was modified through¬
out the immenfe variety of eleCtric phenomena, was a
matter not eafy to be determined. ^
On this CubjeCt, the Abbe Nollet adopted the doc- Abbe Nol- 1!
trine of afflux and efflux already mentioned. He fup- let’s theory. !J
pofed, that, in all eleCtrical operations, the fluid is
thrown into two oppofite motions; that the afflux of
this matter drives all light bodies before it by impulfe
upon the ele&rified body, and its efflux carries them
back again. He was, however, very much embarraffed
in accounting for faCts where both thefe currents muff
be confidered; as in the quick alternate attraction and
repulfion of light bodies by an excited glafs tube, or
other excited eleCtric. To obviate this difficulty, he
fuppofes that every excited eleClric, and likewife every
body to which eleCtricity is communicated, has two
orders of pores, one for the emiflion of the effluvia, and
another for the reception of them.-—Mr de Tour im¬
proved upon Nollet’s hypothefis, and fuppofed that
there is a difference between the affluent and effluent
current; and that tlie particles of the fluid are thrown
into vibrations of different qualities, which makes one
of thefe currents more copious than the other, accord¬
ing as fulphur or glafs is nfed.---It is impoflible, how¬
ever, that fuppofitions fo very arbitrary could be at all
fatisfa&ory, or received as proper folutions of the elec¬
tric phenomena.
No lefs difficult was it for philofophers to determine 1
the nature of the eleClric fluid, than its manner of ac- opinions J
ting.---It had been in a manner generally believed, concerning j
that fire was not a diftinCt element, but arofe from^^^^® j
fome violent repulfions, rarefactions, &c. among the tric I
particles of ignited bodies. The great refemblance of
the eleClric fluid to elementary fire, however, feemed
ftrongly to militate againft this opinion. The hypo¬
thefis therefore of fire as a diftinCt principle or element,
began to revive. Some maintained, that the eleCtric
fluid was really this principle ; others thought that it
was a fluid fuigeneris, very much refembling that of
fire ; while others, with Mr Boulanger at their head,
imagined that it was nothing more than the finer parts
of the atmofphere, which crowded upon the furfaces of
eleClric bodies, when the groffer parts had been driven
away by the friCtion of the rubber.
This laft opinion, however, foon received a full re¬
futation
Sea. V. ELECTRICITY. 2681
Theory, filiation from the experiments of Dr Watfon above-
" ' mentioned; by which it was proved, that the ele 'ric
matter came not from the atmofphere, but from the
earth.---About the fame time the Leyden phial was
difcovered, and the extraordinary effedts of it rendered
the inquiries into the nature of the eledfric fluid much
more general than before. But ftill, the violent pre¬
judice againft the exiftence of fire as a real element or
fluid diftindt from terreftrial bodies, continued in its full
vigour, and the molt extravagant theories were ac-
quiefced in, rather than the Ample pofition above-
mentioned.---It would be'tedious, and indeed impof-
fible, to'|rive an aecount of all the theories which were
now invented. One of the moll remarkable, and molt
Mr Wil- confiftent, was that of Mr Wilfon,---According to this
fon s theo- gentleman, the chief agent in all the operations of elec-
ry’ tricity, is Sir Ifaac Newton’s ether; which is more or
lefs denle in all bodies in proportion to the fmallnefs
of their pores, except that it is much denfer in ful-
phureous and uni’uous bodies. To this ether are
afcribed the principal phenomena of attradlion and re-
pulfion : the light, the fulphureous or rather phof-
phoreal fmell with which violent dle&ricity is always
attended, and other fenfible qualities, are afcribed to
the groffer particles of bodies driven from them by the
forcible adtion of this ether. He alfo endeavours to
explain many electrical phenomena by means of a fub-
tile medium at the furface of all bodies; which is the
caufe of the refradtion and refledtion of the rays of
light, and alfo refills the entrance and exit of this ether.
This medium, he fays, extends to a fmall diftancefrom
the body, and is of the fame nature with what is called
the eleftric fluid. On the furface of condu&ors this
medium is rare, and eafily admits the pafiage of the
eleftric fluid; whereas, on the furface of eledlrics, it is
denfe and refills it. - The fame medium is rarefied by
heat, which thus changes conduftors into non-conduc¬
tors. - By far the greater number of philofophers,
however, rejefted the opinion of Mr Wilfon; and as
they neither chofe to allow the eleftric fluid to be fire
nor ether, they were obliged to own that it was a fluid
fui generis, i. e. one of whofe nature they were totally
ignorant.
But, while philofophers were thus embarrafifedin their
eledlrical theories, a vail number of interefting pheno¬
mena were difcovered by the afliduity of a number of
different eleftricians in differentcountries.—Mr Winck-
ler obferved, that if glafs was rubbed on the infide, it
would Ihew ftrong appearances of ele&ricity on the
outfide; which feemed to favour the opinion of the
permeability of glafs to the eleftric matter.—Other
German eleftricians ufed feveral globes at a time, and
^ imagined they found effefts proportionable; though
Great this has fince been denied. Such a prodigious force,
jiower of e- however, could they excite by means of thefe globes
leitricny whirled by a large wheel, and rubbed by the hand or
fomephilo- Wlt^ woo^en doth, that, according to their own ac-
fophers. counts, blood could be drawn from a finger by means
of the eleftric fpark, the Hein would burlt, and a wound
appear, as if made by a cauftic. If feveral globes or
tubes were ufed, they faid, that the motion of the
heart and arteries would be very perceptibly increafed
in fuch as were eleftrified ; and that if a vein was o-
pened in thefe circumltances, the blood iffuing from it
would appear like lucid phofphorus, and run out falter
than when the perfon was not eleftrified.—Mr P. Gor- Theory,
don, a Scots Benediftine monk, andprofeflbr of philo-'"“
fophy at Erfurd, increafed the eleftric fparks to fuch
a degree, that they were felt from a man’s head to his
foot, fo that he could hardly take them without fall¬
ing down with giddinefs, and fmall birds were killed
by them. This was effefted by conveying the eleftri-
city with iron wires to the diftance of 200 ells from
the place of excitation. He alfo found, that the fparks
were ftronger when the wires were thick than when
they were fmall.
While the power of eleftricity was thus tried, ano- Eleftric
ther queflion of great importance was likewife decided, flmci f
namely, Whether eleftricity afted according to the ^nfin*C"to
largenefs of the furface of bodies. This was found to thelarge-
be in proportion to the furface, and not the folid con- nets of elec-
tents. The magnetic effluvia alfo were found not to in- tr>fie<l fur-
terfere in the leaft with the eleftrical ones. An eleftri- face*
fied loadttone attrafted light bodies of all kinds by its
eltftric virtue, at the fame time that it attrafted iron
and Heel by its peculiar magnetic virtue.—The attrac¬
tive virtue of eleftricity was alfo found to pervade glafs
fo powerfully, that a thread was attrafted thro’ five
exhaulled receivers, and feemingly with more vigour
than it would have been by the excited tube alone in
the open air.
Sdch was the ftate of philofophical opinfons concern- Dr Frank¬
ing eleftricity, when Dr Franklin firft invented his hn ^theory,
theory concerning pofitive and negative, or plus and
minus, eleftricity. This had bfeen already fuggefted by
Dr Watfon, but was not fo fully explained by him as by
Dr Franklin; on which account the latter is generally
reckoned, to be the foie inventor. According to this
theory, all the operations in eleftricity depend upon
one fluid extremely fubtile and elaftic. Be¬
tween the particles of this fluid there fubfifts a very
ftrong repulfion with regard to each other, and as
ftrong-an attraftion with regard to other matter. Thus,
according to Dr Franklin’s hypothefis, one quantity of
eleftric matter will repel another quantity of the fame,
but will attraft and be attrafted by any terreilrial
matter that happens to be near it. The pores of all
bodies are fuppofed to be full of this fubtile fluid; and
when its equilibrium is not difturbed, that is, when
there is in any body neither more nor lefs than its na¬
tural (hare, or than that quantity which it is capable
of retaining by its own attraftion, the fluid does not
manifeft itfelf to our fenfes. The aftion of the rubber
upon an eleftric difturbs this equilibrium, occafusning
a deficiency of the fluid in one place, and a redundancy
of it in another. This equilibrium being forcibly di¬
fturbed, the mutual repulfion of the particles of the
fluid is neceflarily exerted to reflore it. If two bodies
be both of them overcharged, the eleftric atmofpheres
repell each other, and both the bodies recede from one
another to places where the fluid is lefs denfe. For as
there is fuppofed to be a mutual attraftion between all
bodies and the eleftiic ftuid, fuch bodies as are eleftri¬
fied mull go along with their atmofpheres. If both the
bodies are exhaufted of their natural ftiare of this fluid,
they are both attrafted by the denfer fluid exitting ei¬
ther in the atmofphere contiguous to them, or in other
neighbouring bodies; which occafions them ftill to re¬
cede from one another as if they were overcharged.
This is the Franklinian doftrine concerning the caufe
o£
2682
ss
Difficulty
why bodies
negatively
eleftrified
ELECTRICITY.
S9
Different
fplutions of
this diffi¬
culty.
of ele&ric attraction and repulfion ; but it is evident,
that the reafon juft now given why bodies negatively
attracted ought to repel one another, is by no means
fatisfa<5k>ry. Dr Franklin himfelf had framed his hypo-
thefis before he knew that bodies negatively eleftrified
would repel one another; and when he came afterwards
to learn it, he was furprifed, and acknowledged that he
could not fatisfa&orily account for it *.— Other phi-
lofophers therefore invented different folutions of this
difficulty, of which that above mentioned is one. But
by fome this was reje&ed. They faid, that as the den-
fer eleftric fluid, furrounding two bodies negatively e-
ledtrified, afts equally on all fxdes of thofe bodies, it
cannot occafion their repulfion. The repulfion, accor-
trary eleftricity on a ftratum of its fubftance that is at i
little diftance from the eleftrified body ; and, in confe-
quence of this ftratum, it acquires another ftratum con-
trarilyele£trified,and at a little diftance from the former;
to this, other ftrata fucceed, alternately pofleffed of po-
fitive and negative eleftricities, and decreafing in power
till they vanifh. This affertion is eafily proved by fe-
veral experiments, particularly the following. If the
end of a pretty long glafs tube be prefented to a body
eleftrified, for inttance, pofitively, the tube will be
found eleftrified pofitively alfo for the-fpace of one or
two inches at that end ; but beyond that fpace, will be
found two or three inches ele&rified negatively : after
that another pofitive eleftricity will appear; and foal-
Sea. V,
Theory.
ding to them, is owing rather to an accumulation of ternately, a pofitive and a negative zone will follow
Mr Caval-
lo's folu-
tion.
the ele&ric on the furfaces of the two bodies; which
accumulation is produced by the attraction and the
difficulty the fluid finds in entering them. This diffi¬
culty is fuppofed chiefly to be owing to the air on the
furface of bodies, which Dr Prieftley fays-is probably
a little condenfed there. This he deduces from an ex¬
periment of Mr Wilfon, corrected by Mr Canton.
The experiment was made in order to obferve the
courfe of the eleftric light through a Torricellian va¬
cuum. A lingular appearance of light was obferved
upon the furface of the quickfilver, at which the fluid
was fuppofed to enter. Mr Wilfon fuppofed that this
was owing to a fubtile medium fpread over the furface
of the quickfilver, and which prevented the eafy en¬
trance of the ele&ric fluid. • But this was afterwards
difcovered by Mr Canton to be owing to a fmall
Sxantity of air which had been left in the tube. It is
^ ain, however, that as the attraction is equal all round,
andlikewife the difficulty with which the fluid penetrates
the air, bodies negatively eleCtrified ought not to repel
one another on this fuppofition more than the former.
Nay, they ought to attraft each other ; becaufe, in the
place of contaft, the refiftance of the air would be ta¬
ken off, and the eleCtric fluid could come from all o-
ther quarters by the attraction of the bodies.
Mr Cavallo, who feems to have undertaken the de¬
fence of this hypothefis in all cafes, gives another rea-
fbn why bodies negatively eleCtrified fhould repel each
other. In a chapter entitled, “ A Compendious view
of the principal properties of EleCtricity,” among o-
thers he gives the following: “ No electricity can be
obferved upon the furface of any eleCtrified body, ex¬
cept that furface is contiguous to an eleftric, which elec¬
tric can fome how or other acquire a contrary eleCtri-
oity at a little diftance. Otherwife :—No eleCtricity
can appear upon the furface of any eleCtrified body, ex¬
cept that furface is oppofite to another body which has
attually acquired the contrary eleCtricity, and thefe
contrarily eleCtrified bodies are feparated by an eleCtric.
On confidering this principle, (adds he), it may be
afked. Why any electricity can be obferved upon the
furface of an eleCtrified body that is infulated at a con-
fiderable diftance from other conductors? Or, Which
is the eleCtric that is contiguous to the furface of an
eleCtrified conductor or excited eleftric, and which has
actually acquired a contrary eleCtricity at a little di¬
ftance from the faid furface ?- To this queftion it is an-
fwered, that the air is, in general, the eleCtric which is
oppofite to the furface of any eleClrified body ; which,
not being a perfect conductor, does eafily acquire a con¬
one another, always weaker and weaker in power, till
at laft they quite vanifh. This fhows, that, in gene¬
ral, when an eleCtric fufficiently denfe is prefented to
an eleCtrified body, it acquires fucceffive zones or ftra¬
ta of pofitive and negative eleCtricity.”
From this faCt, (which, with the utmoft impropriety,
he terms a law of eleCtricity, whereas it is molt evident¬
ly the ejfeft of a law, and not the law itfelf,) Mr Ca¬
vallo gives the following reafon why bodies negatively
eleCtrified repel one another. “ As to the repulfiore
exifting between bodies pofleffed of the fame eleCtricity;
in order to underftand its explanation thoroughly, the
reader mult be reminded of the principle above-men¬
tioned, which is, that no eleCtricity, /. e. the eleCiric fluid
proper to a body, can either be augmented or dimi-
nifhed upon the furface of that body, except the faid
furface is contiguous to an eleCtric, which can acquire
a contrary eleCtricity at a little diftance : from whence
it follows, that no eleCtricity can be difplayed upon
the facing furfaces of two bodies that are fufficiently
near to one another, and both poflefled of the fame
eleCtricity ; for the air that lies between thofe conti¬
guous furfaces has no liberty of acquiring any contrary
eleCtricity. This being premifed, the explanation of
eleCtric repulfion becomes very eafy. Suppofe, for in-
ftance, that two fmall bodies are freely fufpended by
infulated threads; fo that, when they are not eleCtri¬
fied, they may hang contiguous to one another. Now
fuppofe thefe bodies to be eleCtrified either pofitively
or negatively, and then they muft repel one another;
for either the increafed or the diminilhed natural quan¬
tity of eleftric fluid in thefe bodies will endeavour to
diffufc itfelf equally over every part of the furfaces of
thefe bodies; and this endeavour will caufe the faid
bodies to recede from each other, fo that a quantity of
air may be interpofed between their furfaces, fufficicnt
to acquire a contrary eleCiricity at a little diftance from
the faid furfaces. Otherwife : If the bodies pofleffed
of the fame eleCtricity do not repel each other, fo that
a fufficient quantity of air may be interpofed between
their furfaces, the increafed quantity of eleCtric fluid
when the bodies are eleCtrified pofitively, or the rem¬
nant of it when they are eleCtrified negatively, by the
above principle cannot be diffufed equally throughout
or over the furfaces of thefe bodies ; for no electricity
can appear upon the furfaces of bodies in contaCt, or
that are very near each other. But the eleCtric fluid,
by atrraCting the particles of matter, endeavours to
diffufe itfelf equally throughout or over the furfaces of
thefe bodies; therefore the faid bodies are, by this en¬
deavour.
Sc&.V. ELECT
Theory, deavour, forced to repel one another.”
This theory is evidently no folution of the difficulty;
InfufEcient ^ee,nS lt 18 on^y explaining one fa& by another, which
' requires explanation at lead as much as the firft. But
though this (hould be overlooked, it is ftill infufficient;
for, granting that bodies negatively eleftrified ought
to repel one another till the electricity is equally dif-
fufed along their furfaces, yet when this is accompliffi-
ed, the repulfion ought to ceafe. Now, there is no oc-
cafion for fuppofing the bodies to be eleSrified while
they are in contact, or nearly fo. One may be electri¬
fied negatively in one corner of a room, and another
in the other. The electrification may alfo be continued
for any length of time we pleafe, fo that it is not pof-
fible to fuppofe but the eleCtric matter mult have dif-
fufed itfelf equally along the furfaces of both: yet, if
we attempt to bring thefe bodies together, we lhall
find that they will repel each other very violently ;
which ought not to be the cafe, according to Mr Ca-
rallo’s fuppofition.
Dr Frink- What gave the greateft reputation to Dr Franklin’s
lin’s expla- theory, however, is the eafy folution which it affords
the'^heno- of all the phenomena of the Leyden phial. The fluid
inena of the *s ffipP0^e<i to move with the greateft eafe in bodies
Leyden which are conduftors, but with extreme difficulty in
phial. dedrictper fe; infomuch that glafs is abfolutely imper¬
meable to it. It is moreover fuppofed, that all eleCtrics,
and particularly glafs, on account of the fmallnefs of
their pores, do at all times contain an exceeding great,
and always an equal quantity of this fluid; fo that no
more can be thrown into anyone part of any eleftric fub-
ftance, except the fame quantity go out at another, and
the gain be exaftly equal to the lofs. Thefe things
being previoufly fuppofed, the phenomena of charging
and discharging a plate of glafs admit of an eafy lolu-
tion. In the ufual manner of eleftrifying by a Smooth
glafs globe, all the eleCtric matter is fupplied by the
rubber from all the bodies which communicate with
it. If it be made to communicate with nothing but
one of the coatings of a plate of glafs, while the con¬
ductor communicates with the other, that fide of the
glafs which communicates with the rubber muft necef-
farily be exhaufted in order to fupply the conductor,
which muft convey the whole of it to the fide with
which it communicates. By this operation, therefore,
the eleCtric fluid becomes almoft entirely exhaufted on
one fide of the plate, while it is as much accumulated
on the other; and the difeharge is made by the eleCtric
fluid rufhing, as foon as an opportunity is given it by
means of proper conductors, from the fide which was
overloaded, to that which is exhaufted.
It is not, however, neceflary to this theory, that the
very fame individual particles of eleCtric matter which
were thrown upon one fide of the plate, fhould make the
whole circuit of the intervening conductors, efpecially in
very great diftances, fo as actually to arrive at the ex¬
haufted fide. It may be fufficient to fuppofe, that the
additional quantity of fluid difplaces and occupies the
fpace of an equal portion of the natural quantity of
fluid belonging to thofe conductors in the circuit which
lay contiguous to the charged fide of the glafs. This
difplaced fluid may drive forwards an equal quantity
of the fame matter in the next conductor; and thus
the progrefs may continue till the exhaufted fide of the
glafs is fupplied by the fluid naturally exifting in the
R I C I T Y. 2683
conductors contiguous to it. In this cafe, the motion Theory
of the eleCtric fluid, in an explofion, will rather refemble
the vibration of the air in founds, than a current of it
in winds.
It will eafily be acknowledged, (fays Dr Prieft-
ley,), that while the fubftance of the glafs is fup¬
pofed to contain as much as it can poffibly hold
of the eleCtric fluid, no part of it can be forced in¬
to one of the fides, without obliging an equal quan¬
tity to quit the other fide : but it may be thought
a difficulty upon this hypothefis, that one of the
fides of a glafs plate cannot be exhaufted, without
the other receiving more than its natural fhare; parti¬
cularly, as the particles of this fluid are fuppofed to be
repulfive of one another. But it muft be confidered,
that the attra&ion of the glafs is fufficient to retain
even the large quantity of eleftric fluid which is natu¬
ral to it, againft all attempts to withdraw it, unlefs
that eager attraction can be fatisfied by the admiffion
of an equal quantity from fome other quarter. When
this opportunity of a fupply is given, by connecting one
of the coatings with the rubber, and the other with the
conductor, the two attempts to introduce more of the
fluids into one of the fides are made, in a manner, at
the fame inftant. The aCtion of the rubber tends to
difturb the equilibrium of the fluid in the glafs; and no
fooner has a fpark quitted one of the fides, to go to
the rubber, than it is fupplied by the conductor on the
other; and the difficulty with which thefe additional
particles move in the fubftance of the glafs, effectually
prevents its reaching the oppofite exhaufted fide. It is
not faid, however, but that either fide of the glafs may
give or receive a fmall quantity of the eleCtric fluid,
without altering the quantity on the oppofite fide. It
is only a very confiderable part of the charge that is
meant, when one fide is faid to be filled while the other
is exhaufted.
It is a little remarkable, adds Dr Prieftley, that the
eleCtric fluid in this, and in every other hypothefis,
ffiould fo much refemble the ether of Sir Ifaac Newton
in fome refpeCts, and yet differ from it fo effentially in
others. The eleCtric fluid is fuppofed to be, like e-
ther, extremely fubtile and elaftic, that is, repulfive of
itfelf; but inftead of being, like the ether, repelled by
all other matter, it is ftrongly attracted by it: fo that,
far from being, like the ether, rarer in the fmall than
in the large pores of bodies, rarer within the bo¬
dies than at their furfaces, and rarer at their furfaces
than at any diftance from them; it muft be denfer in
fmall than in large pores, denfer within the fubftance
of bodies than at their furfaces, and denfer at their fur¬
faces than at a diftance from them.
To account for the attraction of light bodies, and Attraffion
otbere le&rical appearances, in air of the fame denfity and repul-
with the common atmofphere, when glafs (which is t^iro’
fuppofed to be impermeable to electricity) is interpo-
fed ; it is conceived, that the addition or fubtrac- for-
tion of the eleCtric fluid, by the aCtion of the excited
eleCtric on one fide of the glafs, occafions, as in the
experiment of the Leyden phial, a fubtraCtion or addi¬
tion of the fluid on the oppofite fide. The ftate of the
fluid, therefore, on the oppofite fide being altered, all
light bodies within the fphere of its aCtion muft be af-
feCted in the very fame manner as if the effluvia of the
excited eleCtric had actually penetrated the glafs, ac¬
cording
2684
Theory, cording to the opinions of all cleftricians before Dr
Franklin.
This hypothefis has been in fome meafure improved
by Mr uEpinus, in a treatife entitled, “ Tentamen
theorise Eleftricitatis & Magnetifmi.” He extends
the property of impermeability to air, and all eleftrics,
as well as glafs. He fuppofes impermeability to con-
fift in the great difficulty with which elcftric fubftances
admit the fluid into their pores, and the flownefs with
which it moves in them. In confequence of this im¬
permeability of air to the ele&ric fluid, he denies the
exiftence of eleftric atmofpheres, and thinks that Dr
Franklin’s theory will do much better without them.
He alfo imagines, that all the particles of matter are
repulfive of one another: for that otherwife (fince all
fubftances have in them a certain quantity of the elec¬
tric fluid, the particles of which repel one another and
are attrafted by all other matter), it could not happen,
that bodies in their natural ftate with refpeft to elec¬
tricity, ftiould neither attrafr nor repel one another.
He alfo introduces a number of mathematical calcula¬
tions ; the refult of which (fays Dr Prieftley, with a
63 great deal of probability) cannot be depended upon.
Principles The above is a full explanation of the theory of e-
Dr"Frank ^c^r'c*ty at Prefent m°ft generally received. It de¬
lin'* theory Pen(^s on t^ie following principles. I. All terreftrial fub-
depends. fiances, as well as the atmofphere which furrounds the
earth, are full of eleftric matter. 2. Glafs, and other
eleftric fubftances, though they contain a great deal
of eleftric matter, are neverthelefs impermeable by it.
3. This eleftric matter violently repels itfelf, and at-
trafts all other matter. 4. By the excitation of an e-
leftric, the equilibrium of the fluid contained in it is
broken; and one part of it is overloaded with eleftri-
city, while the other contains too little. 5. Conduc¬
ting fubftances are permeable to the eleftric matter
through their whole fubftance, and do not conduft it
merely over their furface. 6. Pofitive eleftricity is
when a body has too much of the eleftric fluid, and
negative eleftricity when it has too little. Of thefe
pofitions we fhall now adduce thofe proofs drawn from
different fafts, which feem in the ftrongeft manner to
confirm them.
I. “ All terreftrial fubftances, as well as the atmof-
“ phere which furrounds the earth, are filled with e-
“ leftric fluid.”—Of this the proofs are very eafy.
There is no place of the earth or fea, where the elec¬
tric fire may not be collefted by making a commu¬
nication between it and the rubber of an eleftric ma¬
chine. Therefore, confidering that the whole earth
is moift, that moifture is a conduftor of eleftricity,
and that every part of the earth muft thus communi¬
cate with another, it is certain that the eleftric mat¬
ter muft diffufe itfelf as far as the moifture of the earth
reaches; and this we may reafonably fuppofe to be to
Proofs4of the very centre.
atmofphe- With regard to the atmofphere, the cafe is equally
rical eleftri-clear. We have formerly mentioned in general, that
c't5r’ Dr Franklin, and others, had collefted eleftricity from
6s the atnaofphere in great quantity during the time of
Mr Caval- thunder-ftorms ; but it is now found that it may be
tions 'con- C0Ne<-^.e^ b °m the air at any time. The beft inftrument
cerning the ^or t^is PurP°^e *s tbe electrical kite. Mr Cavallo,
eleftrieal wbo hath made a great many experiments in atmofphe-
kite. rical eleftricity, obferves that the whole power of this
Sea. V.
machine lies in the firing. A common fchool-boy’s Theory,
kite anfwers the purpofe as well Ss any other. The beft ——-
method of making the firing is by twifting two threads
of common twine with one of that copper- thread which
is ufed for trimmings. When a kite conftrufted in this
manner was raifed, he fays, he always obferved the
firing to give figns of eleftricity, except once. The
weather was warm, and the wind fo weak, that the kite
was raifed with difficulty, and could hardly be kept up
for a few minutes. Afterwards, however, when the
wind increafed, he obtained, as ufual, a pretty ftrong
pofitive eleftricity. Concerning the management of
this kite he gives the following direftions.
“ In raifing the kite, when the weather is very
cloudy and rainy, in which time there is danger of
meeting with a great quantity of eleftricity, I generally
ufe to hang upon the firing AB (Plate Cl. fig. 2.)
the hook of a chain C, the other extremity of which
falls on the ground. Sometimes I ufe another caution
befides, which is to Hand upon an infulating ftool; in
which fituation, I think, that if any quantity of elec¬
tricity, fuddenly difcharged by the clouds, ftrikes the
kite, it cannot much affeft any perfon. As to infu-
lated reels, and other fuch like inftruments that fomc
gentlemen have ufed to raife the kite without any dan¬
ger of receiving a fhock ; fit for the purpofe as they
may appear in theory, they are yet very inconve¬
nient to be managed. Except the kite be raifed in the
time of a thunder-florm, there is no great danger for
the operator to receive any fhock. Although I have
raifed my eleftrical kite hundreds of times without any
caution whatever, I have very feldom received a few
exceedingly flight fhocks in my arms. In time of a
thunder-ftorm, if the kite has not been raifed before,
I would not advife a perfon to raife it while the ftormy
clouds are juft overhead ; the danger at fuch a time
being very great, even with the precautions above-
mentioned: at that time the eleftricity of the clouds
may be obferved, without raifing the kite, by a cork-
ball eleftrometer held in the hand in an open place, or,
if it rains, by the eleftrometer for rain, to be defcribed
hereafter.
“ When the kite has been raifed, I generally intro¬
duce the firing thro’ a window into a room of the houfe,
and faften it to a ftrong filk lace, the extremity of
which is generally tied to a heavy chair in the room.
In fig. 14. of Plate XCIX. AB reprefents part of the
firing of the kite which comes within the room; C re¬
prefents the filk lace; D E a fmall prime conduftor,
which, by means of a fmall wire, is connefted with the
firing of the kite; and F reprefents the quadrant elec¬
trometer fixed upon a (land of glafs covered with feal-
ing wax, which I ufed to put near the prime conduc¬
tor rather than to fix it in a hole upon the conduftor,
becaufe the firing AB fometimes ftiakes fo as to pull
the prime conduftor down, in which cafe the quadrant 66
eleftrometer would be broken. G reprefents a glafs Quality of
tube about 18 inehes long, with a knobbed wire ce* jifowoh-*
mented to its extremity; which inftrument I ufe to ob- fenred.
ferve the quality of tfie eleftricity, when the eleftricity
of the kite is fo flrong, that I think it not fafe to come
very near the firing. The method is as follows. I
hold the inftrument by that extremity of the glafs tube
which is fartheft from the wire, and touch the firing
of the kite with the knob of its wire; which being in-
fulated
ELECTRICITY.
Sea. V.
j Theory, fulated, acquires a fmall quantity of eleflricity from it,
"f which is fufficient to afcertain its quality when the
knob of the inftrument is brought near an ele&rified
eleftrometer. Sometimes when I raife the kite in the
night-time, out of the houfe, where I have not the con-
- venience of obferving the quality by the attrattion and
repulfion, or even by the appearance of the ele&ric
light, I make ufe of a coated phial, which I can
charge at the ftring ; and, when charged, put into
my pocket, where it will keep charged even for fe-
veral hours. The conftruftion of this phial is as fol¬
lows. Befides the coating on the infide and outfide,
! which this phial has in common with others of the fame
kind, a glafs tube open at both ends is cemented into
its neck, and proceeds within the phial, having a fmall
wire faftened to its lower extremity, which touches
the infide non-ele&ric coating. The wire, with the
knob of this phial, is cemented into another gjafs tube,
which is nearly twice as long, and fmalier than the
tube cemented into the neck of the phial. The wire is
cemented fo, that only its knob projects out of one
end, and a fmall length of it out of the other end of
the tube. If this piece with the wire be held by the
middle of the glafs tube, it may be put in or out of
the tube which is in the neck of the phial, fo as to
touch the fmall wire at the lower extremity of it, and
that without difcharging the phial if it is charged. I
have kept fuch a phial charged for fix weeks together,
and probably it would keep much longer if it was to
be tried.
“ By making ufe of this inftrument, I am obliged
to keep the kite up no longer than it is neceflary to
charge the phial, in order to obferve the quality of the
eleftricity in the atmofphere; for after the kite has
been drawn in, and brought home, I can then examine
the ele&ricity of the infide of the phial, which is the
fame as that of the kite. When the eledricity of the
kite is very ftrong, I fix a chain coriimunicating with
the ground, at about fix inches diftance from the ftring,
which may carry off its ele&ricity in cafe this ftiould
6^ increafe fo much as to put the byttanders in danger.”
Greatqnan- With all his caution, however, it feems Mr Cavallo
tity.ot cc' could not always avoid danger, even when there was
brought n0 thunder; as appears from the following account.—
down from “ O&ober i.8th, < 775. After having rained a great deal
* cloud. in the morning and night before, the weather became
a little clear in the afternoon, the clouds appearing fe-
parated, and pretty well defined. The wind was weft,
and rather ftrong, and the atmofphere in a temperate
degree of heat. In thefe circumftances, at three P. M.
I raifed my ele&rical kite with 360 feet of ftring. Af¬
ter the end of the firing had been infulated, and a lea¬
ther ball covered with tin-foil had been hanged to it,
I tried the power and quality of the eleftricity, which
appeared to be pofitive and pretty ftrong. In a fhort
time, a fmall cloud paffing over, the eleftricity increafed
a little; but the cloud being gone, it decreafed again
to its former degree. The ftring of the kite was now
faftened by the filk lace to a poft in the yard of the
houfe, and I was repeatedly charging two coated phials
and giving (hocks with them. While I was fo doing,
the ele&ricity, which was ftill pofitive, began to de-
creafe, and in two or three minutes it became fo weak
that it could hardly be perceived with a very fenfible
cork-ball eleftrometer. Obferving at the fame time,
Vol. IV.
2685
that a large and black cloud was approaching the ze- Theory,
nith (which, no doubt, caufed the decreafe of eleftri-
city), indicating imminent rain, I introduced the end
of the firing through a window in a firft-floor. room,
wherein I faftened it by the filk lace to an old chair.
The quadrant eleftrometer was fet upon the fame win¬
dow, and was by means of a wire conneded with the
ftring of the kite. Being now three quarters after
three o’clock, the eledricity was abfolutely impercep¬
tible: however, in abdut three minutes time it became
again perceptible; but, upon trial, was now found to
be negative. It is therefore plain, that its flopping
was nothing more than a change from pofitive to ne¬
gative ; which was evidently occafioned by the approach
-of the cloud, part of which by this time had reached
the zenith of the kite, and the rain alfo had begun to
fall in large drops. The cloud alfo came farther on ;
the rain increafed; and the eleftricity keeping pace with
it, the eledrometer fuon arrived at 150. Seeing now
that the eletfricity was pretty ftrong, I began again to
charge the two coated phials, and to give (hocks with
them; but the phials had not been charged above three
or four times, before I perceived that the index of the
eledrometer was arrived at 350, and was keeping ftill
increafing. The (hocks being now very fmart, I de-
fifted from charging the phials any longer; and, confi-
dering the rapid advance of the eledricity, thought to
take off the infulation of the ft ring, in cafe that, if it
(hould increafe farther, it might filently be conduded
to the earth without caufing any bad accident by be¬
ing accumulated in the infulated ftring. To effed this,
as I had no proper apparatus near me, I thought to
remove the filk lace, and fallen the ftring itfelf to the
chair. Accordingly I difengaged the wire that con¬
nected the electrometer with the ftring; laid hold of
the ftring; untied it from the filk lace, and faftened it
to the chair : but while I effeded this, which took up
lefs than half a minute of time, I received about 12 or
15 very ftrong (hocks, which 1 felt all along my arms,
in my bread, and legs; (baking me in fuch a manner,
that I had hardly power enough to effed my purpofe,
and to warn the people in the room to keep their di¬
ftance. As foon as I took my hands off the ftring,
the electricity (in confequence of the chair being a
bad conductor) began to fnap between the ftririg and
the (butter of the window, which was the neared body
to it. The fnappings, which were audible at a good
diftance out of the room, were at firft ifochronous with
the (hocks which I had received; but, in about a mi¬
nute’s time, oftener; fo that 'the people of the houfe
compared their found to the rattling noife of a jack
going when the fiy is off. The cloud now was juft over
the kite; it was black, and well defined, almoft of a
circular form, its diameter appearing to be about 40°.
The rain was copious, but not remarkably heavy. As
the cloud was going off, the eledrical fnapping began
to weaken, and in a (liort time became inaudible. I
went then near the ftring, and finding the eledricity
weak, but (till negative, I infulated it again, thinking
to keep up the kite fome time longer : but obferving
that another larger and denfer cloud was approaching
towards the zenith, and I had then no proper appara¬
tus at hand to prevent every poffible bad accident, re-
folved to pull the kite in: accordingly a gentleman
who was by me began pulling it in, while I was wind-
15 P »n2
ELECTRICITY.
2686
ELECTRICITY. Sea. V.
Another
inftrnment
for obfer-
ving the
Theory. ;ng Up the firing. The cloud was now very nearly over
the kite; and the gentleman told me that he had re¬
ceived one or two flight (hocks in his armsand that,
if he was to receive another, he would certainly let the
firing go: upon which I laid hold of the firing, and
pulled the kite in as fail as I could without any far¬
ther obfervation ; being then ten minutes after four
o’clock.—N. B. There was neither thunder nor light¬
ning perceived that day, nor indeed for fome days be¬
fore or after.”
Befides the kite, Mr Cavallo has given us the follow¬
ing defcription of fome other inftruments he ufes for
„ difcovering the ele&ricity of the atmofphere. “ Fig. 11.
leftricity of Qf Plate C. reprefents a very Ample inftrument for
fphere”0* nia^'ng experiments on the eledlricity of the atmo¬
fphere; and which, on feveral accounts, feems to be the
mod proper for that purpofe. A B is a common joint¬
ed fifhing-rod, without the lad or fmalled joint. From
the extremity of this rod proceeds a flender glafs tube
C, covered with fealing-wax, and having a cork D at
its end, from which a pith-ball ele&rometer is fufpend-
ed. H G I is a piece of twine fadened to the other
extremity of the rod, and fupported at G by a fmall
firing F G. At the end (I) of the twine, a pin is fa¬
ttened ; which when pufhed into the cork D, renders
the electrometer E uninfulated. When I would ob-
ferve the eledlricity of the atmofphere with this indru-
ment, I thrud the pin (I) into the cork D ; and holding
the rod by its lower end A, projedt it out from a win¬
dow in the upper part of the houfe, into the air, rai-
fingthe end of the rod with the eledtrometer, fo as to
make an angle of about 50 or 6o° with the horizon.
In this fituation I keep the indrument for a few fe-
conds; and then pulling the twine at FI, the pin is
difengaged from the cork D : which operation caufes
the dring to drop in the dotted fituation K L ; and
leaves the electrometer infulated, and eledtrified with
an ele* ricity contrary to that of the atmofphere. This
done, I draw the electrometer into the room; and ex¬
amine the quality of the eledlricity, without obdruc-
tion either from wind or darknefs. With this indru¬
ment I have made obfervations on the electricity of the
atmofphere feveral times in a day, for feveral months;
and from them I have deduced the following general
obfervations, which feem to coincide with thofe made
*9 with the kites.’
lions drawn “ i> That there is in the atmofphere at all times
a quantity of eledlricity ; for whenever I ufe the a-
bovementioned indrument, it always acquires fome elec¬
tricity.
“ 2. That the electricity of the atmofphere, or
fogs, is always of the fame kind, namely, pofitive;
for the eleCrometer is always negative, except when
it is evidently influenced by heavy clouds near the
zenith.
“ 3. That,in general, the dronged eledlricity is ob-
fervable in thick fogs, and alfo in frody weather ; and
the weaked, -when it is cloudy, warm, and very near
raining : but it does not feem to be lefs by night than
in the day.
“ 4. That in a more elevated place the eledlricity is
ftronger than in a lower one ; for having tried the at-
mofpherical eledlrometer both in the done, and iron
gallery on the cupola of St Paul’s cathedral, I found
that the balls diverged much more in the latter than in
from the
experi¬
ments.
the former 1'efs elevated place. Hence it appears, that Theory,
if this rule takes place at any didance from the earth, " "j
the eledlricity in the upper regions of the atmofphere
mud be exceedingly drong.”
The conclufions drawn from the experiments with
the kites, are as follow.
“ 1. The air appears to be eledlrified at all times ;
its eledlricity is conliantly pofitive, and much dronger
in frody than in warm weather; but it is by no means
lefs in the night than in the day time.
“ 2. The prefence of the clouds generally leffens
the eledlricity of the kite; fometimes it has no effedl
upon it; and it is very feldom that it increafes it a
little.” To this, the above-mentioned indance is a
mod remarkable exception.
“ 3. When it rains, the eledlricity of the kite is ge¬
nerally negative, and very feldom pofitive.
“ 4. The aurora borealis feems not to affedt the elec¬
tricity of the kite.-
“ 5. The eledlric fpark taken from the dring of
the kite, or from any infulated condudlor connedled
with it, efpecially when it does not rain, is very lel-
dom longer than a quarter of an inch ; but it is excetd-
ingly pungent. When the index of the eledtrometer
is not higher than 20°, the perfon that takes the fpark
will feel the effedl of it in his legs ; it appearing more
like the difcharge'of an electric jar, than the fpark
taken from the prime condudlor of an eledtrical ma¬
chine.
“ 6. The eledlricity of the kite is generally dronger
or weaker, according as thq dring is longer or (horter ;
but it does not keep any exadt proportion to it. The
eleclricity, for indance, brought down by a dring of
too yards, may raife the index of the electrometer to
20, when, with double that length of dring, the in¬
dex of the eledrometer will not go higher than 25.
“ 7. When the weather is damp, and the eledlricity
is pretty drong, the index of the eledrometer, after
taking a fpark from the (tring, or prefenting the knob
of a coated vial to it, rifes furprifingly quick to its u-
fual place; but in-dry and warm weather it riles ex¬
ceedingly flow.” 79
From thefe obfervations, little doubt can be enter- Eledlrome-
tained of the atmofphere’s being always full of eledlric
matter. From Mr Cavallo’s obfervations, however, it
appears alfo, that the rain which defcends from the
clouds is full of eledric matter. The method of pro¬
ving this, is by an indrument called by Mr Cavallo an
eleflrometer for rain, and of which he gives the follow¬
ing defcription. “ A B C I, Plate XCIX. fig. it.
is a drong glafs tube about two feet and a half long,
having a tin funnel D E cemented to its extremity,
which funnel defends part of the tube from the rain.
The outfide furface of the tube from A to B, is co¬
vered with fealing-wax ; fo alfo is the part of it which
is covered by the funnel. F I> is a- piece of cane, round
which brafs wires are twided in different diredlions, fo
as to catch the rain eafily, and at the fame time to-
make no refidance to the wind.. This piece of cane is
fixed into the tube; and a flender wire proceeding from
it goes through the bore of the tube, and communi¬
cates with the drongwire AG, which i§ thrud into a
piece of cork fadened to the end A of the tube. The
end G of the wire A G is formed in a ring, from.which
I fufpend a more or lefc fenlible pith-ball ele&rometer
At
Sed. V. ELECTRICITY. 2687
Theory, as occafion requires. This inftrument is faftened to the
f| fide of the window-frame, where it is fupported by
ftrong brafs hooks at C B ; which part of the tube is
covered with a filk lace, in order to adapt it better to
the hooks. The part F C is out of the window, with
the end F elevated a little above the horizon. The re¬
maining part of the inftrument comes through a hole
in one of the lights, of the falh within the room, and
no more of it touches the fide of the window than the
part C B. When it rains, efpecially in paffing fhowers,
this inftrument, {landing in the fituation above de-
fcribed, is frequently ele&rified ; and, by the diver¬
ging of the ele&rometer, the quantity and quality of
the ele&ricity of the rain may be obferved, without
any danger of a miftake. With this inftrument I have
obferved, that the rain is generally, though not ai¬
rways, ele&rified negatively; and fometimes fo ftrongly,
that I have been able to charge a final! coated phial at
the wire A G. This inftrument fhould be fixed in fuch
a manner that it may be eatily taken off from the win¬
dow, and replaced again as occafion requires ; for it
will be necefiary to clean it very often, particularly
?r when a fhower of rain is approaching,
pocket e- u plate C. fig. iz. reprefents a pocket eledlro-
defcribed ^ n1cter* which on feveral accounts feems preferable to
thofe generally in ufe. The cafe or handle of this
eleftrometer is formed by a glafs tube about three
inches long, and three tenths of an inch in diameter,
half of which is covered with fealing-wax. From one
extremity of this tube, viz. that without fealing-wax,
a fmall loop of filk proceeds, which ferves occafionally
to hang the ele&rometer on a pin, &c. To the other
extremity of the tube a cork is adapted, which, being
cut tapering on both ends, can fit the mouth of the
tube with either end. From one extremity of this
cork, two linen threads proceed, a little Ihorter than
the length of the tube, fufpending each a little cone
of pith of alder. When this eledtrometer is to be
ufed, that end of the cork which is oppofite to the
threads, is puftied into the mouth of the tube; then
the tube forms the infulated handle of the pith e-
le&rometer as reprefented fig. 13. But when the
eledtrometer is to be carried in the pocket, then
the threads are put into the tube, and the cork flops
it as reprefented fig. 12. The peculiar advantages
of this eledtrometer are, its convenient fmall fize, its
great fenfibility, and its continuing longer in good
order than any other. Fig. 14. reprefents a cafe,
to carry the above defcribed eledtrometer in. This
cafe is like a common toothpick cafe, except that
it hath a piece of amber fixed on one extremity
A, which may occafionally ferve to ele&rify the e-
ledtrometer negatively; and on the other extremity it
has a piece of ivory faftened upon a piece of amber
BC. This amber B C ferves only to infulate the ivory,
which, when infulated, and rubbed againft woollen
cloths, acquires a pofitive eledtricity, and is therefore
ufeful to eledtrify the eledlrometer pofitively.”
From this very full explanation of the methods by
which the eledtric fluid can be procured from the at-
mofpheie itfelf, from rain and vapour, at all times, it
is impofiible to doubt of the truth of the firft pofition
on which Dr Franklin’s theory depends, viz. that “ all
“ terreftrial fubftances, as well as the atmofphere which
u /unrounds the earth, are filled with eledtric fluid.”
2. The fecond pofition requifite for eftablifliing Dr Tluory-
Franklin’s theory is, “ That glafs and other eledtric
“ fubftances, tho’ they contain a great deal of eledtric
“ matter, are neverthel t fs impermeable by it.”—Th is af-
fertion evidently has a contradidiory appearance. It is
very difficult, if not impoffible to conceive, that any
fubftance can be full of a fluid, and yet impermeable
by that fluid ; efpecially when we continually talk of
putting in an additional quantity into one fide and ta¬
king out of the other. Nay, what is ftill more extra¬
ordinary, the thinner the glafs is, i. e. thequantity
of eledtric matter it can contain, the tnore we are able to
put into it ; for the thinner a glafs is, the greater
charge it can receive. f*-
The chief arguments for the impermeability of glafs ^m-
by the eledtric fluid are drawn from the phenomena of permeat,iij.
the Leyden phial. It is indeed very plain, that there ty of glafs
is in that cafe an expulfion of fire from the outfide at refuted,
the fame time that it is thrown upon the infide. This
appears from numberlefs experiments, but is moft rea¬
dily obfervable in the following. Let a coated phial be
fet upon an infulating (land, and the knob of another
phial be brought near the coating of the firft. As foon
then as the eledtric fparks are difeharged from the
prime condudtor to the knob of the firft bottle, an e-
qual number will be obferved to proceed from the coat¬
ing of the firft to the knob of the fecond. This is
very remarkable, and an unphilofophical obferver will
fcarce ever fail to conclude, that the fire runs diredtly
through the fubftance of the glafs. Dr Franklin,
however, concludes that it does not, becaufe there is
found a very great accumulation of eledlricity on the
infide of the glafs, which difeovers itfelf by a violent
flafti and explofion when a communication is made
between the outfide and infide coatings. But it muft be
obferved, that there is here no other reafon for con¬
cluding the glafs to be impermeable, except that we
fuppofe the eledtric matter to be accumulated on one fide
of the glafs, and deficient on the other. If this fup-
pofition therefore cannot be proved, the evidence of
fenfe, which indeed is very ftrong in favour of the per¬
meability, muft undoubtedly preponderate. It is faid
indeed, that if the glafs was permeable by the eledtric
matter, a phial would be difeharged immediately after
being charged, or rather could never be charged at all;
becaufe the matter would no fooner be thrown upon
one fide, than it would fly off from the other. This fup-
pofition, however, depends entirely upon the above-
mentioned one, namely, that in bodies pofitively elec¬
trified there is an accumulation, and in fuch as are ne¬
gatively eledtrified there is a deficiency of fluid; which,
never can be proved.
Another argument againft the permeability of glafs
and other eledtrics is, that coated phials, it is faid,
Handing upon eledlric fubftances, cannot be charged.—-
This, however, feems to be very much exaggerated.
A phial, though ever fo perfedtly infulated, will always
receive a charge from a machine that adts very power¬
fully.— Nay, it is certain, that though a phial is placed
in fuch a manner, that both its knob and outfide coat¬
ing are in contadl with the prime condudtor, it will
ftill receive .a charge ; much lefs indeed in this cafe
than in any other, but ftill the {hock will be percep¬
tible.
In 1759, Mr Wilfon read a paper before the Royal
aj P 2 Society,
2688 ELECTRICITY, Sett. V.
Theory. Society, in which the permeability of glafs by the elec-
’ trie fluid was aflerted. The experiments from which
he deduced this conclufion, were the following. ■■ He
took a very large pane of glafs, a little warmed ; and
holding it upright by one. edge, while the oppofite
edge reded upon wax, he rubbed the middle part of
the furface with his finger, and found both fides elec¬
trified plus. He accounted for this from the eleftrical
fluid palling through the glafs from his finger to the
oppofite fide. But here Dr Priedley obferves, that on
Franklin’s principles it ought to be fo. If one fide be
rubbed by the finger, it acquires from it fome elec¬
trical fluid. This being.fpread on the glafs as far as
the rubbing extended, repels an equal quantity of that
contained in the other fide of the glafs, and drives it
out on that fide, where it dands as an atmofphcre, fo
that both fides are found pofitively electrified. Mr
Wilfon alfo tried another experiment, which feemed
more decifive than the former: Having by him a
pane of glafs, one fide of which was rough and the
other fmooth, he rubbed it flightly on one fide ; upon
doing which, both fidcs were electrified minus.—This
alfo Dr Priedley attempts to reconcile with Franklin’s
hypothefis. “ As the electric fluid, contained in the
glafs, fays he, is kept equal in both fides by the com¬
mon repulfion ; if the quantity in one fide is diminifhed,
the fluid in the other fide, being lefs repelled, retires
inward, and leaves that furface alfo minus.” - But here
it is impoflible to avoid obferving, that Dr Priedley’s
own words, in the ftronged manner, militate againd
the doctrine he means to edablilh. The quantity of
fluid in one fide being diminilhed, that on the other,
he fays, retires inward: but into what does it retire ?
If into the fubdance of the glafs, then the glafs is un¬
doubtedly permeable by it; and this is the very thing
53 which Dr Friedley argues againd.
The elec- III. “ The eleftric matter violently repells itfelf, and
can ^t be attra<^s other matter.” —The proofs of this pofition
proved re- are cfi'efiy derived from the following experiment, and
pulfive of others of a fimilar kind.—Let a fmooth piece of metal
itfelf. be infulated, ^nd bring an excited glafs tube near one
end of it. A fpark of pofitive eledricity will be ob¬
tained from the other end; after which, if the tube is
fuddenly removed, the metal becomes ele&rified nega¬
tively. Here, then, it is faid, is a plain repulfion of
one part of the eleftric fluid by another. That con¬
tained in the tube repels the fluid contained in the
neared end of the metal ; of confequence it is accumu¬
lated in the other end, and when the tube is removed,
the metal is found to be deprived of part of its natural
quantity of eleftricity, or is electrified negatively.—
On fuch experiments as this, however, it is obvious to
remark, that we ought fird to prove that pofitive elec¬
tricity confifis in an accumulation, and negative elec¬
tricity in a deficiency, of the ele&ric fluid. But while
this is only fuppofed, it is impoffible that any proofs
drawn from the fuppofitiou can be conclufive.
IV. “ By the excitation of an ele£tric,the equilibrium
** of the fluid contained in it is broken, and one part is
“ overloaded with electricity, while the other contains
too little.” This pofition is entirely hypothetical. No
electrician hath yet explained, in a fatisfaCtory manner,
how the fluid is procured by the excitation of glafs or
any other eleCtric fubdance. Dr Prieflley, indead of
giving an explanation, propofes feveral queries con¬
cerning it. Mr Cavallo tells us, that the a£t of exci- Theory.
tation pumps as it were the eleCtric fluid from the rub- '" t!
ber, and confequently from the earth. He adds, i3ecca7rp,>s
“ By what mechanifm one body extracts the-eleCtric hypothefis \
fluid from another, is not yet known. The celebrated concerning j
Father Beccaria fuppofes that the aftion of rubbing excitation. J
increafeth the capacity of the eleCtric, i. e. renders that
part of the eleCtric which is actually under the rubber,
capable of containing a greater quantity of eleCtric
fluid : hence it receives from the rubber an additional
fliare of fluid, which is manifefled upon the furface of
the eleCtric, when that furface is come out from the
rubber ; in'which date it lofes, or, as it were, contracts
its capacity. Signior Beccaria’s experiment to prove
this fuppofition is the following. He caufed a glafs
plate to be rubbed by a robber applied on one fide of
the plate, while it was turning vertically; and holding
at the fame time a linen thread on the other fide of the
plate jud oppofite to the rubber, he obferved that the
thread was not attracted by that part of the glafs
which correfponded to the rubber, but by that which
was oppolite to the furface of the glafs that had juft
come out from the rubber; which (hews, that the fluid
acquired by the glafs plate did not manifell its power
until the furface of the glafs was come out from the
rubber.” —But from this experiment it feems impollible
to draw any conclufion concerning the capacity of glafs
either one way or other. It is evident, therefore, that
whatever parts of Dr Franklin’s hypothtfis red on this
fuppofition concerning excitation, are entirely void of
evidence. is
V. “ Conducing bodies are permeable by the elec- Whether 1
“ trie fluid through the whole of their fubftance, and do 'J16 eleC*rie i
“ not condudl it merely over their furface.” - The proof vadestfie* ^
mod commonly adduced in favour of this pofition, is fubftance of '
the following experiment. Take a wire of any kind of conductors. .
metal, and cover part of it with fome eleCtrie fubdance,
as rofin, fealing-wax, &c. then difeharge a jar through
it, and it will be found that it Conducts as well with as
without the eleCtric coating. This, fays Mr Cavailo,
proves that the eleftric matter pafies through the fub-
dance of the metal, and not over its furface. A wire,
adds he, continued through a vacuum, is alfo a convin¬
cing proof of the truth of this afiertion.—Even here,
however, the proof, if impartially conlidered, will be
found very defective. It is a faCt agreed upon by all
philofophers, that bodies which to us are apparently in
contaft, do neverthelefs require a very confiderable de¬
gree of force to make them actually touch one another.
Dr Priedley found that a weight of fix pounds was ne-
ceflary to prefs 20 (hillings into clofe contact, when ly¬
ing upon one another on a table. A much greater
weight was necedary to bring the links of a chain into
contaCt with each other. It cannot be at all incredible,
therefore, that a wire, though covered with fealing-
wax or rofin, diould dill remain at fome little didance
from the fubdance which covers it. The following
experiments of Dr Priedley alfo feem to be much in
favour of the fuppofition that the eleCtric fluid pafles
chiefly over the furface of condufting fubdances.
“ From the very fird ufe of my battery, (fays he,) I
had obferved a very black fmoke or dud to arife on
every difeharge, even when no wire was melted; and
the brafs chain I made ufe of was of a confiderable
thicknefs. I obferved, that a piece of white paper, on
which
Sea.V. ELECTRICITY.
2689
Theory, which lay the chain I was ufing to make the difeharge,
’ was marked with a black (tain, as if it had been burnt,
wherever it had touched it. I neglefted the experi¬
ment, till, feme time after, obferving a very ftriking ap¬
pearance of the fame kind, I was determined to attend
to the circumftances of it 'a little more particularly. I
made my chain very clean, and wrapping it in white
paper, I made a difeharge of about 40 fquare feet
through it, and found the ftain wherever it had touched
the paper. Some time after I wrapped the paper, in
the fame manner, round a piece of brafs wire ; but,
making a difeharge through it, faw no ftain. To af-
certain whether this appearance depended upon the dif-
continuity of the metallic circuit, I ftretched the chain
with a confiderable weight, and found the paper on
which it lay as the (hock paffed through it, hardly
marked at all. Finding that it depended upon the
difeontinuity, I kid the chain upon white paper, ma¬
king each extremity fail with pins ftuck through the
links; and when I had made the difeharge, obferved
that the black ftains were direftly oppofite to the body
of the wire that formed the chain, and not to the in¬
tervals, as I had fometimes fufpefted. A chain five
feet four inches long, which weighed one ounce, feven-
teen penny-weights, four grains, loft exaftly half a
grain after each difeharge.
A chain “ In making the mark above-mentioned, I once
fliortened happened to lay the chain fo as to make it return at a
trlclhocir ^laiP angle> 'n order to imprefs the form of a letter
upon the paper; and obferved, that, on the difeharge,
the part of the chain that had been doubled was dif-
placed, and pulled about two inches towards the reft
of the chain. At this I was furprifed, as I thought it
lay fo, that it could not Aide by its own weight. Upon
this I repeated the experiment with more accuracy.
I ftretched the whole chain along a table, laying it
double all the way, and making it return by a very
lharp angle. The confequence always was, that the
chain was (hortened about two inches, and fometimes
more, as if a fudden pull had been given to it by both
the ends.---Sufpefting that the black fmoke which
rofe at every difeharge, might come, not from the
chain, but from the paper, or the table on which it lay,
and which was probably burnt by the contaift of it, I
let the chain hang freely in the air; but, upon making
the difehayge, I obferved the fame grofs black fmoke
that had before rifen from the paper or the table.
Fig. 4. Plate Cl. reprefents the foots made upon the
paper by a chain laid over it. The breadth of the
fpots is about the mean thicknefs of the wire of the
chain, and a b marks the place to which that part of
the chain which returned was thrown back by the dif¬
eharge.
“ Being willing to try what would be the d¥e& of
laying the chain in contaft with non-condu£tors, I
dipped it in melted rofin till it had got a coating of con¬
fiderable thicknefs. When it was quite ftiff, I laid it
carefully, without bending, upon white paper, and
made the difeharge through it. The rofin was in-
ftantly difperfed from all the outfide of the chain, it
being left as clean as if none had ever been put on.
That with which the holes in the chain had been filled,
having been impelled in almoft all directions, was
beaten to powder; which, however, hung together,
but was perfectly opaque; whereas it had been quite
tranfparent before this ftroke. I next laid the chain Theory,
upon a piece of glafs, which was marked in the moft
beautiful manner wherever the chain had touched it;
every fpot the width and colour of the link. The me¬
tal might be feraped off the glafs at the outfide of the
marks; but, in the middle part, it was forced within
the pores of the glafs. On the outfide of this metal¬
lic tinge was the hlack duft, which waaeafily wiped off.
From thefe experiments it would feem, that the elec¬
trical flafh had paffed over the furface of the chain ra¬
ther than through its fubftance; feeing it threw off the
rofin with fuch extreme violence. The fame thing ap¬
pears from the manner in which ele&ricity generally
adls, which is not according to the folid contents of any
fubftance, but according to the dimenfions of its fur-
face. It is not to be doubted, however, but that,
where a great quantity of eledtric matter is. made to
pals along a very fmall wire, it will enter the fubftance
of the metal. This appears from the poffibility of
melting wires by the force of ele&ric batteries, and
even totally diflipating them into fmall globules. To
accomplifti this, it is only neceffary to conned! the hook
communicating with the outfide coating of a battery,,
containing at leaft 30 fquare feet of coated furface,
with a wire that is about one fiftieth part of an inch
thick and about two feet long. The other end of it
mult be faltened to one end of the difeharging rod i
this done, charge the battery; and then by bringing
the difeharging rod near its wires, lend the explofion
through the fmall wire, which by this means will be
made red hot, and melted, fo as to fall upon the floor
in different glowing pieces. When a wire is melted in
this manner, fparks are frequently feen at a confiderable
diftance from it, which are red hot particles of the me¬
tal, that, by the violence of the explofion, are fcattered
in all diredtions. If the force of the battery is very
great, the wire will be entirely difperfed by the explo¬
fion, fo that none of it can be afterwards found.---If it
is required to melt fuch particles as cannot eafily be
drawn into wires, ores, for inftance, or grain-gold, they
may be fet in a train upon a piece of wax : they are ^
then to be put into the circuit, and an explofion fent
through them, which, if fufficiently ftrong, will melt
them as well as the wires. If a wire is ftretched by
weights, and a Ihock is fent through it which renders
it juft red hot, the wire, after the explofion, is found to
be confiderably lengthened. ‘ rr
VI. The lalt pofition on which Dr Franklin’s theory D' Frank-
depends, and which indeed may be called the founda- tJ‘^ishyp<>“
tion of the whole, is, “ That pofitive eledtricity is an ac- Cei ning po-
“ cumulation, or too great a quantity, of eledtric matter fitive and
“ contained in a body ; and negative eledtricity is when negative e-
“ there is too little.” Of this, however, there is not one
folid proof; and all attempts that have hitherto been provecl<
made to prove it, are only arguing in a circle, or pro¬
ving the thing by itfelf. Thus, for inftance, a body
eledtrified poiitively, attradts one that is eledtrified ne¬
gatively; becaufe the firft has too much, and the other
too little, eledtric matter. But how do we know that
one has too much and the other too little eledtricity ?
Becaufe they attradt each other.—Again, it has been
proved, that when a phial is eledtrified politively, there
is as conftant a ftream of fire from the outfide coating, as
there is from the condudtor to the infide coating.
Therefore, it is faid, the outfide of the glafs has too
little*
2690
Theory, little, and the infide too much, ele&ricity. But how
is this known to be the cafe? Becaufe glafs is imper¬
meable by the electric fluid. And how is glafs known
to be impermeable? Becaufe, in the above experi¬
ment, one fide has too much, and the other too little,
eledtricity.---Thus, in every inftance, the arguments for
Dr Franklin’s hypothefis return into themfelves, and
no conclufion can be drawn from them. In the fubfe-
quent fedtion, the nature of the eledtric fluid is parti¬
cularly confidered, where the improbability of its ever
being accumulated in the fubftance of folid bodies will
more plainly appear. *
Sec t. VI. An Inquiry into the Nature of the Elec¬
tric Fluid; •with an Attempt to explain theprinci-
palPhenomena of EleFlricityyfrom the known laws
by which other Fluids are obferved to all upon one
another.
In making this inquiry, or indeed any other, it is
proper to take for granted as little as pofiible. No
pofition Ihould be aflumed as the bafis of any reafon-
ing whatever, except what has been proved by incon-
teftable fads. In the prefent cafe, therefore, it is fuf-
flcient to affume as a fad what hath been already pro¬
ved by innumerable experiments, namely, That the air,
the earth, and fea, are all filled with eledric fluid.
The queftion which molt naturally fuggetts itfelf when
this is once admitted, is, Whence hath the eledric fluid
come? is it eflentially inherent in thefe bodies, or hath
it come from without.?---This cannot be refolved, with¬
out confidering the nature of the fluid itfelf, and whe¬
ther it is analagous to any other which is more gene¬
rally known.
'§ 1. Proofs of the Identity of the Eleclric Fluid and Ele¬
mentary Fire or Light of the Sun.
The fimilarity between the eledric matter and fire,
naturally fuggefted to the firft obfervers, that it was no
other than elementary fire, which pervaded all fubfcan-
ces, as we hfve already mentioned. This, however,
was objeded to; and the principal objedion was, that
though the qledric matter emitted light, and had the
appearance of fire, it neverthelefs wanted its moft ef-
fential quality, namely, burning. In particular, the
blafl which comes from an eledrified point, feels cold
inftead of being hot; and where great quantities of the
fluid are forced with violence through certain fubflan-
ces, and thus fet them on fire, it was thought that the
fire might be occafioned by the internal commotion
^8 excited among their fmall particles. This objedion,
■Gun-pow- however, feems now to be totally removed. The dif-
der fired by pUte concerning the preferable utility of pointed or
llafl;tle<^nC knobbed condudors for fecuring buildings from light¬
ning, occafioned the fitting up of a more magnificent
apparatus than had ever appeared before. An immenfe
condudor was conftru&ed at the expence of the board
of ordnance, and fufpended in the Pantheon. It con-
fifted of a great number of drums covered with tin-foil,
which formed a cylinder of above 155 feet in length,-
and more than 16 inches in diameter ; and to this vaft
condudor were occafionally added 4800 yards of wire.
The eledric blaft from this machine fired gun-powder
in the moft unfavourable circumftances that can be
imagined, namely, when it was drawn off by a fharp
Sea. vr,
point, in which cafe it has generally lefs force than in Theory.
any other. The method of doing this was as follows.  
Upon a ftaff of baked wood a ftem of brafs was fixed,
which terminated in an irpn point at the top. This
point was put into the end of a fmall tube of Indian
paper, made fomewhat in form of a cartridge, about
an inch and a quarter long, and two tenths of an inch
in diameter. When the cartridge was filled with com¬
mon gun-powder, unbruifed, a wire communicating
with the earth was then faftened to the bottom of the
brafs ftem. The charge in the great cylinder being
continually kept up by the motion of the wheel, the
top of the cartridge was brought very near the drums,
fo that it frequently even touched the tin-foil with
which they were covered. In this fituation a fmall faint
luminous ftream was frequently obferved between the
top of the cartridge and the metal. Sometimes this
ftream would fet fire to the gun-powder the moment it
was applied ; at others, it would require half a minute
or more before it took effe£t. But this difference in
time was fuppofed to be owing to fome fmall degree
of moifture in the powder or the paper, which was al¬
ways unfavourable to the experiment. Tinder was
fired much more readily.”
As it therefore appears, that the electric fluid, when
it moves through bodies either with great rapidity, or
in very great quantity, will let them on fire, it feems
fcarce difputable, that this fluid is the fame with the
element of fire. For further proofs of this opinion,
which is now adopted by fome very eminent philofo-
phers, fee the articles Fire and Heat.—This being
once admitted, the fource from whence the eleftric
fluid is derived into the earth and atmofphere, muft be
exceedingly evident, being no other than the fun him-
felf. The vaft quantity of light which continually
comes from him to the earth muft of neceffity be ab-
forbed by that opaque body, at leaft in great part. It
is impoffible it can remain there, becaufe there is a
perpetual fucceflion of new quantities coming from the
fun. It muft be obferved, however, that as this fluid
receives a great number of different diredtions after
once it enters the earth, it cannot appear in its natu¬
ral form of fire or light, till it receives a new motion
fimilar to what it had when proceeding from the fun.
The folar light only burns, or produces heat, when di- A&ioh of
verging from a centre, or converging towards one. die eleilric
The heat is always greateft at the central point; and 11lau”er antl
even there, no heat is produced except where thelight
paffes through a refifting medium. In thofe cafes like-
wife the eledtric fluid burns. When difcharged with
violence from an eleftrified bottle, it flies out on all
fides, and then will fire gun-powder or other combu-
ftible fubftances. The fame thing it will do when con-
verging towards a point, if in fufiicient quantity, as
was obferved in the experiment with the large conduc¬
tor abovementioned. But when the eleftric fluid nei¬
ther meets with any confiderable refiftance, diverges
from a centre, nor converges towards one, it is almoft
always invifible, and without heat. A moft remark¬
able proof of this we have, even when a vaft quantity
of eledtric matter is forced to go through a very fmall
wire. Dr Prieftley tells us he had once an opportuni¬
ty of obferving what part of the condudtors which form
an eledtric circuit, are moft affected by the explofion.
Upon difcharging a battery of 51 fquare feet thro’ an
ELECTRICITY.
Sea. VI. ELECTRICITY. 2691
Theory, iron wire nine inches long, the whole of it was glowing
~ hot, and continued fo for fome feconds. The middle
part grew cool firft, while both the extremities were
fenfibly red. When the wire was afterwards examined,
both the extremities were found quite melted ; an inch
or two of the part next to them was extremely brittle,
and crumbled into fmall pieces on being handled ;
while the middle part remained pretty firm, but had
quite loft its polifti, fo that it looked darker than be¬
fore. This is precifely what would have happen¬
ed, had both ends been put into a common fire. We
are very fure, that the fame quantity of eleftric matter
paffed through the middle of the wire, that entered
one end of it a*d went out at the other. Why then
did it not produce the fame degree of heat in the
middle that it did at each end ? The reafon is plain :
At one end it was in a ftate of csnvergence from the
battery to the point of the wire ; at the other, it was
in a ftate of divergence from the point of the wire to
the battery. At the points, therefore, an intenfe heat
was produced ; but in the middle, where the fluid nei¬
ther converged nor diverged, but moved forwards in a
parallel direftion, the heat was much lefs. Now we
know that this is the cafe with the folar light itfelf. At
the focus of a burning-glafs there is an intenfe heat
both where the convergence ends and the divergence
begins. But where this divergence confiderably ceafes,
and the motion of the light becomes more parallel,
the heat is vaftly diminiflied. The cafe is the fame
with a common fire, and with all burning bodies ; for
heat never acts but from a centre, and is always greateft
at the central point. It is true, that we can never
produce eleftric fire without at the fame time produ¬
cing a violent fliock exceedingly different from the burn¬
ing of common fire. But the reafon of this is, that we
cannot produce a divergence in a ftream of ele&ric mat¬
ter, without at the fame time giving it fuch a motion
in fome other diredb'on, that its impetus becomes very
perceptible. If it was in our power to make the flafh
produced by an ele&ric bottle keep its place, we can¬
not fuppofe that any fliock, or other fenfation than
heat, would be felt. But there is no poffibility of hin¬
dering it from flying with prodigious celerity from one
fide of the bottle to the other. Therefore, as it is
neither in a ftate of divergence or convergence, except
where it comes out from and enters into the bottle, no
fenfatiou is perceived except what arifes from its
change of place ; and hence it is faid, that the eltiftric
matter hath no heat.
5 2- The Identity of Ekttric Matter and Light far¬
ther confidered; with feme pof tive Proofs, that elec¬
tric Subjlances are actually penetrated by- the eleftric
,0 Tluid.
Objeftion The only objection of any ftrength which can arife
the^rn'e^ identity of the ele£tric fluid and light is, the fur-
netrabiUty Pr‘^nS ea/e Wlt^ which the latter penetrates glafs, and
of glafs an- feeming. flop which is put to the motions of the
fwered. former when a piece of glafs or any other de&ric
fubftance is prefented to it. Here, however, it muft
be obferved, that light, as proceeding from a luminous
body, muft be regulated by very different laws from
light which isabforbed by opaque bodies, and confe-
quently fubje&ed to motions quite different from what
it originally had. Water, the only fluid with which
we are very well acquainted, (for all others we know Theory,
are regulated by the fame laws), is capable of two very "
different motions. The one is a redlilineal one, by
which great quantities of it run from one place to an¬
other. The other is not fo eafily explained. It may,
however, be very readily obferved, by throwing a fmall
ftone into a pool of water. A great number of con¬
centric circles will be propagated from the place where
the ftone fell, as from a centre, which will gradually
grow larger and larger. If another ftone is thrown in
at fome diftance, fimilar circles will proceed from the
place where it fell. Thefe will meet with the former,
and crofs them without interfering with each other in the
leaft. It is certain, however, that two ftreams of wa¬
ter rufliing oppofite to one another, would ftiatter
and deftroy each other. If, therefore, there is a diffe¬
rence in the motion of the ele£tric fluid when it burns,
and when it does not, (which there certainly is), we
may eafily fuppofe it poffible, that glafs fliould ob-
ftruft one kind of motion and not another: In which
cafe, the glafe would feem to be permeable by the fluid
when manifefting itfelf by the firft kind of motion, and
not fo when it manifefts itfelf by the other. 8*
It hath commonly been thought, that the tranfpa- Sl,rPr,lfinS'
rency of bodies depends upon the re&ilinear dire&ion coni
of their pores, and.opacity upon the fituation of them ceming the
in fome other direftion. Ele&rical experiments, how- tranfparen-
ever, have (hewn that this is not the cafe. Sealing- CY oi bo*
wax and pitch are as opaque bodies as we are acquaint- ies‘
ed with ; yet in Mr Hawklbee’s experiments mention¬
ed, n° 4. thefe fubftances were both rendered tranfpa-
rent by the action of the ele&ric fluid. Thefe experi¬
ments are confirmed by fome others ftill more furpri-
fing, mentioned by Dr Prieftley. One was made by
S. Beccaria. He difeharged an ele&ric (hock through
fome brafs duft fprinkled between two plates of feal-
ing-wax. The whole was perfectly luminous and
tranfparent. The moft extraordinary experiment, how¬
ever, was made by Dr Prieftley himfelf, of which he
gives the following account. “ I laid a chain in con-
taft with the outfide of a jar lightly on my finger, and
fometimes kept at it a fmall diftance by means of a thin
piece of glafs; and, if I made the difeharge at the di-
ttanceof about three inches, the electric fire wasviiible
on the furface of the finger, giving it a fudden concuf-
fion, which feemed to make it vibrate to the very bone;
and when it happened to pafson that fide of the finger
which was pppofite to the eye, the whole feemed per-
feftly tranfparent in the dark.” gi
Experiments of this kind, though they have not hi- Confequen-
therto been purfued by any eledrician, feem to be ces from
more worthy of notice than almoft all others. One them,
confequence which may be derived from them is, that
there is in bodies, whether eledric or non-eledric, a
certain fubtile medium, on the motion of which, tranf-
parency depends. That isj when the medium is at
reft, the body is opaque; but when fet in motion, it
becomes tranfparent. This motion, we fee, maybe
given in two different ways. One is by Ample elec¬
trification in vacuo, according to Mr Haukefbee’s ex¬
periments.- The other is, by fending the flafh of an
eltdrified bottle over their furface. In Dr Prieftley’a
experiment, he could determine the motion to be of the
vibratory kind; and hence we may eafily conclude!
that fome bodies may be conftruded in fuch a manner,
that
2692 ELECT
Theory, that they are capable of tranfmitting the vibrations of
this fluid, but not any other kind of motion. Such
kinds of bodies will be naturally tranfparent: but
others, whofe particles are difpofed in fuch a manner
that the vibrations cannot be propagated through them
■without eonfiderable violence, are naturally opaque.
The queftion then only is, What is this fubtile medi¬
um, the vibrations of which occafion tranfparency ?
It is fcarce poflible to anfwer. this queftion in ano¬
ther manner than by faying, that it is the ele&ric
fluid. That it is this fluid which gives the power
to eledlric fubftances, has never been denied. That
the motion of this fluid along the furfaces of bodies
throws another fluid within them into vibrations, is
alfo evident from the experiments above-mentioned.
All bodies are confefled to be full of ele&ric matter:
therefore, if a quantity of the fame matter pafles over
the furface of any body, it muft affedt what is within
its fubftance with a motion of fome kind or other; be-
caufe it affefts that which lies on the outfide, and this
cannot fail to affedt all the reft.—This motion Dr
Prieftley’s experiment determines to be of the vibratory
or tremulous kind; and, indeed, it is natural to think
it fhould be fo. The vibrations of the eledtrical fluid,
therefore, eondudt light through opaque bodies. But
whatever fluid is condudf ed by the vibration of another,
muft itfelf alfo vibrate while it is fo condudted. Light,
therefore, vibrates when emitted from luminous bodies.
In the prefent cafe, thefe vibrations are originally oc-
cafioned by the eiedtric flafti. They are condudfed
through opaque bodies by the vibrations of the elec¬
tric fluid. The air is alfo full of the fame fluid. The
air is naturally-tranfparent ; but we have feen that
83 tranfparency confifts only in the eafy tranfmifiion of a
Light pro- vibratory motion of the eledfric fluid. The light,
vfbrat,?obneoffherefore’ PerPetua% condudted by means of the
the eleftric vibrations of this fluid: therefore, the vibrations of the
fluid. eledtric fluid and light are the fame; for no two fluids
are always capable of fetting one another in motion
precifely in the fame manner, unlefs their nature is in
all refpedls cxadlly the fame.
Thefe experiments feem in the ftrongeft manner
to prove the identity of the eledtric fluid and light,
and that both are tranfmitted through eledlric as well
as other fubftances. Thereafon, therefore, ofthefeem-
ing ftop, which is obferved in our eledtrical operations
by the intervention of glafs, is, that'in all artificial elec¬
tricity, the fluid has a very confiderable progreffive
motion, which cannot be eafily propagated through
the folid fubftance of any body, efpecially where there is
a pretty ftrong refiftance on the other fide; which fh all
afterwards be ftiewn to be the cafe with this fluid when
palling through ele&ric fubftances.
5 3- Of the Paffage of the Eleftric Fluid over the Sur-
8 ^ facet and through the Subjlance, of different Bodies.
Dr Pried- Dr Priestlev hath made many very curious expe-
ley’s expe- riments concerning the difcharging of eledtric {hocks
whhice °Ver t*1C ^ur^ace different bodies; and finds, that by
this means a battery may be made to difcharge itfelf at
a much greater diftance than it would do if fent di-
redlly through the air. The experiments were begun
with ice; and he firft accidentally difcovered, that,
when the Ihock of a common jar was difcharged on a
plate of ice, it would fometimes run over the furface
R 1 c 1 r Y. Sefl. VI.
and ftrike the chain diredtly on the other fide. With Theory.
a Angle jar, however, the diftance was not much greater   
than what it would have palled over in the ufual way;
but, with a battery, it exceeded the ufual diftance in a
very great degree.—Endeavouring to make a circular with raw
fpot, fuch as he had formerly made on metals, upon a fkfti.
piece of raw flelh, he took a leg of mutton, and laying
the chain that communicated with the outfide of the
battery over the (hank, he took the explofion on the
outward membrane, about feven inches from the chain;
but was greatly furprifed to obferve the eleftric fire
not to enter the flelh, but to pafs in a body along the
furface of it to come to the chain. Thinking that this
might be occalioned by the fatty membrane on which
the explofion was made, he again laid the chain in the
fame manner over the (hank, and took the explofion
upon the mufcular fibres, where they had been cut off
from the reft of the body; but ftill the fire avoided
entering the flefti, made a circuit of near an inch round
the edge of the joint, and palled along the furface to
come to the chain as before, though the diftance was
near 11 inches. Imagining that this effeft was pro¬
moted by the chain lying lightly on the furface of the
flefti, and therefore not aftually in contaft with it, he
took another explofion upon the hook of the chain,
which was thruft into the flefti. On this the fire en¬
tered the mutton; and as he held it in his hands, both
his arms were violently (hocked up to his (houlders. g5
The Doftor next determined to try the effeft of dif- With wa»
ferent condufting fubftances in the fame manner; and ter*
of thefe water was the moft obvious. “ Next day,
fays he, I laid a brafs rod communicating with the
outfide of the battery, very near the furface of a quan¬
tity of water, (to refemble the chain lying upon the
furface of the flefti, without being in contaft with it),
and, by means of another rod furniftied with knobs,
made a difcharge on the furface of the water, at the
diftance of feveral inches from any part of the rod;
when the eleftric fire ftruck down to the water, and,
without entering it, pafled vifibly over its furface till
it arrived at that part of the rod which was neareft the
water, and the explofion was exceedingly loud. If the
di-ftance at which I made the difcharge exceeded feven
or eight inches, the eleftric fire entered the water, ma¬
king a beautiful ftar upon its furface, and yielding a
very dull found.—When I firft made this experiment
of the eleftric flafti pafiing over the furface of wa¬
ter, I thought it neceflary, that neither the piece of
metal communicating with the outfide, nor that com¬
municating with the infide, of the jars, ftiould touch
the water immediately before the difcharge. But I
afterwards found, that the experiment would anfwer, *
though either, or even both of them, were dipped in
the water: for, in this cafe, the explofion would ftill
prefer the furface to the water itfelf, if the diftance
was not very great; and would even pafs at a greater
diftance along the furface, when there was a nearer
paffage from one rod to the other in the water.”
He afterwards tried to pafs the eleftric flafti over Withmai^
the furfaces of a great number of different bodies, but other bo-:
found it impoflible with a great number of them. He
therefore imagined, that this property of condufting a
(hock over its furface was peculiar to water and raw
flefti. It was found, however, that the flafti paffed
over the furface of a touch-ftone, and likewife over a
piece ;
ELECTRICITY.
Sea. vi.
I Theory, piece of the beft kind of iron ore, exceedingly fmooth
fr*“ on fome of its fides. The piece was about an inch
thick, and three inches in its other dimenfions. The
full charge of a jar of three fquare feet would not enter
it. The explohon pafied over the furface of oil of vt*
triol with a dull found and a red colour ; but in all
other cafes, if it paffed at all, it was in a bright flame,
and with a report peculiarly loud. It pafled over the
furface of the naoft highly reftified fpirit of wine with¬
out tiring it; but when too great a diflance was taken,
the eledtric fire entered the fpirit, and the whole w3s
in a blaze in a moment.
This was the cafe when fuch fubftances were em¬
ployed as arc but indifferent conduftors of ele&ricity;
raw fleih, for inftance, water, &c. When good conduc¬
tors were ufed, fucb as charcoal of different kinds, no
remarkable appearances were produced. So far was the
fhock from pafiing vifibly over the furface of any metal,
that, if the diltance through the air, in order to a paf-
fage through the metal, was ever fo little nearer than
the diltqnce between the two furfaces, it never failed to
enter the metal; fo that its entering the furface of the
metal, and its coming out again, feemed to be made with¬
out oblf rudf ion. If as much water was laid on a fmooth
piece of brafs as could He upon it, it would not go over
the furface of the water, but always ftruck through the
water into the metal. But if the metal lay at any
confiderable depth under the water, it would prefer the
furface. It even pafled over three or four inches of
the furface of water as it was boiling in a brafs pot,
amidft the Hearn and bubbles, which feemed to be no
hindrance to it.—Animal fluids, however, of all kinds,
feemed peculiarly to favour this pafiage of the elec¬
tric matter over their furface ; and the report of thefe
explofions was manifellly louder than when water was
ufed. In all cafes of this kind, the report was conli-
derably louder than when the difeharge was made in
the common way. The explofions were obferved by
perfons out of the houfe, and in a neighbouring houfe,
very much to refemble the fmart cracking of a whip.
“ But, (fays DrPrieflley,) the found made by thefe ex-
ploiions, though by far the loudeft that ever I heard of
the kind, fell much Ihort of the report made by a lingle
jar, of no very great fize, of Mr Rackftrow’s; who
fays, that it was as loud as that of a piftol.” He alfo
obferves, that when the eleftrical explofion does not
pafs over the furface of the water, but enters it, a re¬
gular ftar is made upon the furface, confifting of ten
or a dozen rays: and what is very remarkable, thofe
rays which ftretch towards the brafs rod that commu¬
nicates with the outlide of the battery are always
longer than the reil; and if the explofion is made at
fuch a diftance as to be very near taking the furface,
thofe rays will be four or five times longer than the
reft, and a line bounding the whole appearance will be
an ellipfis, one of whpfe foci is perpendicularly under
_ 87 the brafs knob with which the difeharge is made,
fjots^ro When an ele&ric battery is difeharged upon fmooth
diiced'by pieces of metal, the effefts are very different from any
eleflrical of thofe we have yet mentioned. Dr Prieftley having
expioiions. conftru&ed fome large batteries, determined to try
what would be the effects of a very great eledftric power
difeharged upon metals and other fubftances ; and, in
the courfe of his random experiments, he made the fol¬
lowing difeoveries. “ June 13, 1766, (fays he), af-
Vol. IV.
ter having difeharged a battery of about 40 fquare feet Theory
with a fmooth brafs knob, I accidentally obferved upon
it a pretty large circular fpot, the center of which
feemed to be fuperficially melted, in a great number of
dots; larger near the centre, and fmaller at a diftance
from it. Beyond this fpot was a circle of black duft
which was eaiily wiped off: but what I was moll ftruck
with was, that after an interruption of melted places,
there was an entire and exadt circle of fliining dots,
confifting of places fuperficially melted like thofe at
the centre. The appearance of the whole, exclufive of
the black duft, is reprefented Plate Cl. fig. x. n° 1.
“ June 14. I took the fpot upon fmooth pieces of
lead and filver. It was in both cafes like that on the
brafs knob ; only the central fpot on the filver confift-
ed of dots difpofed with the utmoft exadlnefs, like
radix from the centre of a circle, each of which termi¬
nated a little ftiort of the external circle. I took the
circular fpot upon polilhed pieces of feveral metals with
the charge of the fame battery, and obferved that the
cavities in fome of them were deeper than in others; as
I thought in the following order, beginning with the
deepelt, tin, lead, brafs, gold, fteel, iron, copper, fil¬
ver.—I will not be pofitive as to the order of fome of
the metals; but filver was evidently not affedted a fourth
part fo much as gold, and much lefs than any of the
others. The circles were marked as plain, but the im-
preffion was more fuperficial.
“ I alfo made the explofion between a piece of lead
juft folid after melting, and another fmooth piece that
I had kept a confiderable time. The piece of frelh
lead was melted more than the other, but there was no
other difference between them. The femimetals, as
bifmuth and zinc, received the fame impreffion as the
pxoper metals; being melted nearly as much as iron.
I made three difeharges between a piece of highly po-
liftied fteel and a piece of very fmmoth iron, and in all
cafes thought the fteel was more deeply melted than
the iron.
“ Prefently after I had obferved the fingle circle, I
imagined, that, whatever was the caufe of the appear¬
ance, it was not improbable but that two or more con¬
centric circles might be procured, if a greater quan¬
tity of coated glai's was ufed, or perhaps if the explofion
was received upon metals that were more eafily fufed
than brafs. Accordingly, June 27, taking the mode¬
rate charge of a battery confifting of about 38 fquare
feet, upon a piece of tin, I firft obferved a fecond outer
circle, at the fame diftance from the firft, as the firft
was from the central fpot. It confifted of very fine
points hardly vifible, except when held in an advanta¬
geous light; but the appearance of the whole was very
beautiful, and was fuch as is reprefented Plate Cl.
fig. 1. n° 2.
“ Having hitherto found the circles the mod di-
ftinft on metals that melt with the leaft degree of heat,
I foon after procured a piece of that compofition which
melts in boiling water; and having charged 60 fquare
feet of coated glafs, I received the explofion with it,
and found three concentric circles ; the outermoft of
which was not quite fo far from the next to it, as that
was from the innermoft. All the fpace within the firft
circle was melted; but the fpace was very well defined,
and by no means like a central fpot, which in this cafe
was quite obliterated. The appearance of thefe three
15 con-
2694
Theory, concentric circles is reprefented Plate Cl. fig.
——— rphe difiance at which the difcharge was made occa-
fioned no difference in the diameter of thefe circular
fpots. When, by putting a drop of water upon the
brafs rod communicating with the infide of the bat¬
tery, I made the difcharge at the difiance of two inches;
the fpot was juft the fame as if it had been received at
the diftance of half an inch, i. e. about a quarter of
an inch in diameter. Attempting to fend an elettric
Ihock over the furface of quickfilver or melted lead, I
found that it would not pafs; though neither of the
rods with which the difcharge was made, touched the
metals. A dark imprtffion was made on the furfaces
of both the quickfilver and the lead of the ufual fize
of the circular fpot; and remained very vilible not-
withttanding the ftate of fufion in which the metals
were.”
§ 4. The Eleftric Fluid vioves thro* the Suhjlance of E-
kflrics, though ’with difficulty. In mojl cafesy it paffies
over the Surface of good Conduttors.
This will appear from a confideration of the phe¬
nomena abovementioned, and fome others. The elec¬
tric moft univerfally prefent is air. That the fluid
pervades its fubftance is evident to our eye-fight; for
if a pointed body is placed on the prime conduftor,
and at the fame time the cylinder is brilkly turned, a
continual ftream of blue fire will be obferved to iffue
from the point. This is undoubtedly the fluid itfelf
83 made vifible by the refiftance it meets with from the
Methods of air* That the ele&ric fluid in this cafe pervades the
elettrifying air to a confiderable diftance, is alfo evident from the
the air of a different methods by which the air of a room may be
room. ele&rified. One method is that abovementioned: One
or more needles are fixed on the prime condu&or,
which is kept ftrongly ele&rified for about 10 minutes.
If, afterwards, an eleftrometer is brought into the
room, the air will (hew that it has received a confider¬
able quantity of eleftricity; for the balls will feparate,
and continue to do fo even after the apparatus has been
quite removed out of the room. Another method of
ele&rifying the air is to charge a large jar and infulate
it; then conneft a (harp-pointed wire, or a number of
them, with the knob of the jar; and make a communi¬
cation from the outfide coating to the table. If the jar is
chargedpofitively, the air of the room will likewife foon
become deftrified pofitively; but if the jar is charged
negatively, the air will alfo become negative. To this
it may be replied, that the air is always full of conduc¬
ting fubftances, and that by means of them the elec¬
tricity is propagated from one part of the air to ano¬
ther. But whether this is the cafe or not, it is certain
that the air, notwithfianding all the conducting fub¬
ftances it may contain, is in faift an eleCtric, and ca-
89 pable of receiving a charge like glafs, or any other e-
To charge a leCtric fubftance. To this purpofe there is a very cu-
plateof air. rjous experiment made in the following manner. Take
two fmooth boards, of a circular form, and each about
three or four feet in diameter. Coat one fide of each
with tin-foil, which fhould be parted down and bur-
nifhed, and turned over the edge of the board. Thefe
boards mart be both infulated, parallel to one another,
in a horizontal pofitioru They muft be turned with
their coated fides towards each other; and (hould be
placed in fuch a manner as to be eafily moved to or
Sed. VI.
from each other; to do which, it will be proper to fix Theory.
to one of the boards a ftrong fupporter of glafs or ba-
ked wood, and to fufpend the other by filk firings from
the cieling of the room ; from which it may be lower¬
ed at pleafure by means of a pulley. When thefe boards
are placed in the manner above defcribed, and about
an inch diftant from one another, they may be ufed
exadly as the coatings of a pane of glafs. If a fpark
is given from the condudor to the upper board, a fpark
will inftantly be difcharged from the lower one, if any
conduding fubltance is prefented to it. By continuing
to give fparks to the upper board, and to take them
from the lower one, the air between them will at laft be¬
come charged like a piece of glafs; and if a communi¬
cation is made between them, they will explode, give
the (hock, &c. like glafs.
In this experiment it feems impoflible to deny that
the air is penetrated by eledric fluid. The diftance of
an inch is fo fmall, that it muft appear ridiculous to
fay that this fpace is penetrated only by a repulfve
popery when in other cafes we plainly fee the fluid pe¬
netrating it to three or four times that diftance. The
fiat furface of the boards indeed makes the motion of
the eledric fluid through the plate of air gradual and
equal, fo that it is not feen to pafs in fparks or other-
wife; but this is neceffary to its receiving a charge, as
will be afterwards explained.
If one eledric fubftance is penetrable by the elec¬
tric fluid, we muft be led firongly to fufped at leafi,
that all the reft are fo too. That rofin, pitch, fealing-
wax, &c. are fo, hath been already proved ; and from
thence, if we reafon analogically, we muft conclude
that glafs is likewife penetrable by it. A very ftrong
additional proof of this is, that the eledric (hock can¬
not be fent over the furface of glafs. If this fub¬
ftance was altogether impenetrable to the fluid, it is
natural to think, that it would run over the furface of
glafs very eafily. But inftead of this, fo great is its
propenfity to enter, that a (hock fent through between
two glafs plates, if they are preffed pretty clofe toge¬
ther, always breaks them to pieces, and even reduces
part of them to a powder like fand. This laft effed
cannot be attributed to any other caufe than the electric
fluid entering the pores of the glafs ; and meeting with
refiftance, the impetus of its progreflive motion violently
forces the vitreous particles afunder in all diredions. 90
To this violent impetus of the electric fluid when Accounts
once it is fet in motion, we may alfo with fome proba- globes
bility afcribe the burfting of eledric globes, both fuch
as are made of glafs, and other materials, in the ad of operations,
excitation. Dr Prieftley hath given feveral inftances
of this accident. “ The fragments, (fays he), have
been thrown with great violence in every diredion, fo
as to be very dangerous to the byftanders. This acci¬
dent happened to Mr Sabbatelli, in Italy; Mr Nollet,
in France; Mr Beraud, at Lyons; Mr Boze, at Wit-
temberg; Mr Le Cat, at Rouen ; and Mr Robein, at
Rennes. The air in the infide of Mr Sabbatelli’s globe
had no communication with the external air,, but that
of the Abbe Nollet had. This lafi,. which was of
Englifh flint glafs, had been ufed for: more than two
years, and was above a line thick. It burft like a bomb
in the hands of a fervant who was rubbing it, and the
fragments, none of which were above an inch in dia¬
meter, were thrown to a confiderable difiance. The
Abbe
ELECTRICITY.
. n° 3.
S'e^. VI. E L E C T :
Theory. Abbe fays, that all tbe globes which were burft in that
*” manner, exploded after five or fix turns of the wheel;
and he afcribes this effeft to the aftion of the eledric
matter making the particles of the glafs vibrate in a
manner he could not conceive.
“ When Mr Beraud’s globe burft, (and he was the
firft to whom this accident was ever known to happen),
he was making fome experiments in the dark on the
8th of February, 1750. A noife was firft heard as of
fomething rending to pieces; then followed the explo-
fion ; and when the lights were brought in, it was ob-
ferved that thofe places of the floor which were oppo-
fite to the equatorial diameter of the globe were ftrew-
ed with fmaller pieces, and in greater numbers, than
thofe which w-ere oppofite to other parts of it. This
globe had been cracked, but it had been in conftant
_ufe in that ftate above a year ; and the crack had ex¬
tended itfelf from the pole quite to the equator. The
proprietor afcribed the accident to the vibrations of
the glafs, and thought the crack had fome way impe¬
ded thefe vibrations. When Mr Boze’s globe broke,
he fays that the whole of it appeared, in the aft of
breaking, like a flaming coal. Mr Boulanger fays,
that glafs globes have fometimes burft like bombs, and
have wounded many perfons, and that their fragments
have even penetrated feveral inches into a wall. He
alfo fays, that if globes burft in whirling by the gun-
barrel’s touching them, they burft with the fame vio¬
lence, the fplinters often entering into the wall. The
Abbe Noilet had a globe of fulphur which burft as
he was rubbing it with his naked hands; after two or
three turns of the wheel, having firft cracked inwardly.
It broke into very fmall pieces, which flew to a great
diftance, and into a fine duft ; of which part flew a-
gainft his naked bread, where it entered the Ikin fo
deep, that it could not be got off without the edge of
pi a knife.”
Proofs of From thefe appearances we muft neceffarily con-
elude, not only that the eleftric fluid moves within the
(in<y over fubftance of eleftric bodies, but that it fometimes moves
the°Airfare with extreme violence ; fo that its repulfive power fe-
«f conduc- parates even the minuteft particles from each other ;
and this could not happen without a thorough pene¬
tration of the eleftric body. — It feems, however, more
difficult to fhew, that the eleftric matter does not ge¬
nerally pafs direftly through the fubftance of metals,
but over their furface. A little confideration, how¬
ever, will fhew, that this muft very probably be the
cafe. If we compare Dr Prieftley’s experiments on
metals related in $ 3. with the effects of the folar light
collefted in the focus of a burning-glafs upon the fame
metals, we fhall find a confiderable degree of refem-
blance. Under the article Burning-glass, it is ob-
ferved, that, notwithftanding the prodigious power of
that concave mirror with which Mr Macquer melted
platina, all bodies did not melt equally foon in the fo¬
cus. In particular, polifhed filver, though a very
fufible metal, did not melt at all. It is not to be doubt¬
ed, that this was owing to the complete refleftion of
the light by the filver; and had polifhed pieces of all
the metals been tried, it is equally certain, that the
difficulty of melting them would have been found ex-
aftly proportioned to their refleftive power. Something
like this happened with Dr Prieftley ; for filver waslefs
touched by the eleftric explofion than any other metal.
l I C I T Y. 2695
The violent progreffive motion of the fluid indeed for- Theory,
ced it into the metal, but at the fame time the reflec-
tive power of the filver hindered it from going fo deep
as it had done in the others. The cafe was ftill more
evident when melted lead and quickfilver were ufed.
Thefe have a very great refleftive power ; and though
by reafon of the extreme violence wherewith the fluid
ftruck them, part of their fubftance might naturally
have been fuppofed to be diffipated as in the hard me¬
tals, yet we find this was not the cafe. Only a
black fpot was made on the furface, and the fluid was
immediately difperfed, moft probably over the furface
of the metal.
It is not indeed eafy to bring a decifive proof in fa¬
vour of this hypothefis. The extreme fubtilty, and,
in moft cafes, invifibility, of the eleftric fluid, render all
reafoning about its motions precarious. It is incre¬
dible, however, that this fluid fhould pafs through the
very fubftance of metallic bodies, and not be in the
leait retarded by their folid particles. In thofe cafes,
where the folid parts of metals are evidently penetrated,
i. e. when wires are exp^ded, there is a very manifeft
refiftance ; for the parts of the wire are fcattered about
with violence in all direftions. The like happened in
Dr Priettley’s circles made on fmooth pieces of metal.
Part of the metal was alfo difperfed and thrown off,
for the circular fpots were compofed of little cavities.
If therefore the fluid was difperfed throughout the
fnbftance; and not over the furface of the metal, it is
plain, that a wire whofe diameter was equal to one
of thofe circular fpots, ought alfo to have been de-
ftroyed by an explofion of equal ftrength fent through
it. But this would not have been the cafe. A wire
whofe diameter is equal to one of thofe circular fpots
reprefented in n° 1, 2, 3. fig. 1. Plate Cl. would with¬
out injury conduft a Ihock much greater than any bat¬
tery hitherto conftrufted could give. It is moft pro¬
bable therefore, that though violent flaflies of eleftri-
city, which aft alfo as fire, will enter into the fubftance
of metals and confume them; yet it immediately dif-
fperfes itfelf over their furface, without entering the
fubftance any more, till being forced to colleft itfelf
into a narrow compafs it again afts as fire.
In many cafes, the eleftric fluid will be condufted
very well by metals reduced to a mere furface, fo that
we can fcarce fay they have any thicknefs at all. A
piece of white paper will not conduft a fhock without
being torn in pieces, as it is an eleftric fubftance. But
aline drawn upon it with a black-lead pencil will fafe-
ly convey the charge of feveral jars. It is impofiible
we can think that the fire here paffes through the fub-
Jlance of the black-lead ftroke. It muft run over its
furface; and if we confider fome of the properties of
metals, we lhall find, that there is very great reafoa
for believing that their condufting :power lies at their
furface.
The metals are, of all terreftrial fubftances, thofe
which refleft the light moft powerfully. Sir Ifaac
Newton hath Ihewn that this refleftive power they
have not from their fubftance as metals, but from
what he calls a repulftve power, fpread equally over
their furface. The exiftence of this repulfive power
hath already been taken notice of in feveral inftances,
particularly in that of a chain, whofe links cannot be
brought into contaft with each other without a confi-
j 5 derable
i6i)6
Theory, derable degree of force. It Is exceedingly probable,
that the repulfive power by which the links of the
chain are kept afunder, and that by which the rays of
light are refle£led, are one and the fame. As the e-
leftric fluid is known to pervade all fubftances, and
metals as well as others, it feems alfo probable, that the
repullive and refieftive power on the fubftance of me¬
tals is no other than the eleftric fluid itfelf in a quiefcent
ftate. Perhaps it may be thought abfurd to afcribe
the reflediion of light to a fubftance of fuch extreme
fluidity and tenuity as the eleftric fluid is ; but we find
that th- vacuum of an air-pump, a medium of near¬
ly equal tenuity with the eleftric fluid, (as will elfe*
where be proved), is in fome cafes capable of reflec¬
ting light very powerfully. Now it is certain, that no¬
thing can be fuppofe'd to give fuch an eafy paffage to
the eleAric fluid as itfelf; becaufe it is the thinned;
and moft fubtile of all the fubftances we know, and
therefore muft make the leaft vefiftance. Hence the
fluid Aides over the furface of a piece of metal with fur-
prifing eafe; and when a large furface of metal is elec¬
trified, the effedt is proportionable to the extent of it,
becaufe all that quantity of electric fluid which is
fpread over the furface, ealily receives the motion com¬
municated by the electrical machine.
The vacuum of an air-pump is found to be a very
good conductor, and by means of it the mot ion of the
fluid is rendered vifible. Hence this is brought as an
argument that the eledtric fluid always paffcs through
the fubftance of condudtors. That it doth fo in fome
cafes is indeed very evident, but it theo meets with con-
liderable refiftance; and, even in the prefent inftance,
the pafling thro’ the vacuum of an air-pump, where it
is oppofed by a confiderable quantity of the fame kind
of fluid, gives fuch a confiderable refiftance, that it will
prefer a paflage along a metalline rod to one through
a vacuum. With regard to charcoal, and other con¬
dudtors of that kind, as they are very porous, and like-
wife compofed of fine fpiculae, it is probable the fluid
may run along the furface of the fpiculse, and at the
fame time through the fubftance of the coal. Even in
palling over the bell condudtors, however, this fluid
meets with fome refiftance, as it will prefer a Ihort paf¬
fage through the air to a long one through the belt
condudtors.
§ 5. The exceeding great Velocity arid Strength of the
ILlettric Fluid are not owing to a repulfive Power a-
mong its Particles, but to the mutual Aciion of the Air
and Eleftric Fluid upon themfelves and one another.
The arguments for a repulfive power exifting be-
pi tween the particles of the eleftric fluid are very incon-
Eleftric clulive. Some of them have been already taken notice
to*be^10*" °k r^'^e ftrongeft's that drawn from the appearance
repulfive of the eledtric fire ifiuing from a point, or from any
itfelf. body highly eleftrified. In the open air this diverges
exceflively; and very often divides into feveral diftinft
rays, which by avoiding each other feem to be vio¬
lently repulfive. That they are not fo in reality,
> however, is plain from the appearance they have in
vacuo; when, the refiftance of the atmofphere be¬
ing taken off, the eledtric light would have room to
fpread more widely. Fig. 15. Plate C. reprefents
an exhaufted receiver with an eleftrified wire difchar-
ging a ftreatn of this fluid from itfelf, by means of its
Sea. VI.
communication with a machine. If the eledtric matter Theory,
then was really elaftic, or endowed with a power re- "
pulfive of itfelf, it is impoffible it could pafs in an un¬
interrupted column through an exhaufted receiver as in
the figure. A column of air, if blown fwiftly thro’
the orifice of a fmall pipe, will go forward a confider¬
able way, if it is counterbalanced by air like itfelf on
every fide. But if fuch a column enters a vacuum,
what we call its elaflicity, occafions it to be diflipated
in a moment, and equally diffufed through the whole
exhaufted receiver. But this by no means happens
to the eledtric fluid ; for even the fmali divergency re-
prefented in the figure, feems entirely owing to fome
quantity of air left in the air-pump. Dr Watfon, by
means of a long bent tube of glafs filled with mercury*
and inverted, made all the bended part which was a-
bove the mercury, the moft perfeft vacuum that can be
made. This vacuum he infulated; and one of the ba¬
tons of mercury being made to communicate with the
prime condudtor, when fome non-eleftric fubftance
touched the other, the eledtric matter pervaded the va¬
cuum in a continued arch of lambent flame, and, as far
as the eye could follow it, without the leaft divergen¬
cy. From thefe experiments it appears, that there is
in the vacuum of an air-pump, as well as in the Tor¬
ricellian vacuum, a fluid of nearly the fame denfity
with the eleftvic one : that the eleftric fluid is not re¬
pulfive of itfelf, but is reiilted by the atmofphere; and
therefore all appearances of eledtrical light are lefs
bright in vacuo than in the open air; becaufe, the
more refiftance the matter meets with, the brighter is
the flafh.
Thus, as long as a ftream of eledtric fluid is moved
through a medium of an equal denfity with itfelf, the
equable preffure of the fluid all round will keep the lu¬
minous ftream from diverging ; but if the preflure is
taken off from any part of the receiver, the preflure of
the reft will immediately force the ftream to that place,
as reprefented fig. 16. That it is by a preffure of this
kind, and not by any obfcnre attrattive power, that this
is occafioned, will be rendered very probable from the
following example. Suppofe a pot or kettle is boiling
violently over a fire, and in fuch a fituation that there
is very little agitation in the furronnding air. The
equal preflure of the atmofphere will then force the
fleam ftraight upwards in a cylindrical column ; but if
any objedt is brought near the edge of the pot, fo that
the preffure of the atmofphere is taken off on one fide,
the fleam wfill be directly forced upon that body,- or
feemingly attrafted by it. The eledtric matter there¬
fore, being capable of having its motions refilled by
the air, muft immediately fly to that place where the
refiltance is leaft; but in the cafe above-mentioned, this
is belt done by applying a condufting fubftance to the
fide of the receiver, or one along which the fluid can,
run downward to the earth. This, however, will be
more fully explained when we fpeak of the phenomena
of the Leyden phial.
From this Ample principle, viz. that fluids impelled
by any force will always tend towards that place where
there is the leaft refiftance, may moft of the phenome- ,
na of eleftricity be explained. The firil thing to be ^,re'SI"0jf_
confidered is, From what fource it originally derives gjouspo^r
the aftonifliing agility and flrength difplayed in its of eleftri-
motions. If it is granted that the eledtric fluid is the city.
fame
ELECTRICITY.
Sea. VI.
Theory, fame with the folar light, the ultimate caufe of its mo-
    mentum muft be the power by which the light of the
fun is emitted. As this power extends through re¬
gions of (pace which to our conceptions are truly infi¬
nite, fo muft the power itfelf be ; and it is plain, that
by its equable aftion all round, throughout the whole
fpace through which the fun’s light is propagated, the
preffure of it upon all bodies muft be equal all round,
and confequently it can neither move them 'one way nor
another. But if, by the intervention of feme other
power, the preffure is leffened upon any particular
part, a current of eleiftric matter will fet towards that
part, with a force exactly proportioned to the diminu¬
tion of the preffure. Thus, in the Common experi¬
ments of the air-pump, when the air is exhaufted from
a glafs veffel, the preffure of the fuperincumbent atmo-
fphere is directed towards every part of the glafs, fo
that if it is of a flat fquare ftiape, and not very ftrong,
it will certainly be broken. But after the air is ex¬
haufted, the veffel is difeovered to be full of another
* See fubtile fluid of the fame nature with the electric one *.
Vacuum. Jf this could alfo be extrafted from the veffel, the pref-
fure on its tides would neceffarily be much greater, be
caufe not only the atmofphere, but. the whole fur-
rounding ether or eleftric matter, would urge towards
the place; and it is not probable, that this preffure
could be refitted by any terreftrial power whatever.
T'he momentum of the eledtric matter therefore, in our
experiments, depends_on two caufes, viz. the preffufe
of the atmofphere upon the eleftric matter, and the
preffure of one part of this matter upon another. The
celerity with which it moves may be explained from its
parts lying in contadt with each other throughout the
wide immenfity of fpace. Hence the great tendency
of the fluid to circulate; becaufe, from whatever point
a ftream of it is fent off, there the preffure is leffened,
and the ftream, finding no place empty for its recep¬
tion, muft neceffarily have a tendency to return to the
place from whence it came, as there it meets with the
leaft refiftance ; and hence, when a paffage is opened
for it, by which it can return to this point, it is urged
thither with great violence, the equable preffure is re-
ftored, and the artificial motion ceafes.
§ 6. The manner in which an Eleftric Subjlance be¬
comes excited, or diffufes its Eleftric Virtue.
This will eafily appear, from confidering the means
taken for the excitation of a common cylinder for elec¬
tric experiments. The glafs is a fubitance, as we have
already feen, into whioh the deftric matter is very apt
to enter. To the furface of the glafs is applied fome
amalgam fpread on leather. This is a metallic fub-
ftance which has an exceeding great refledlive power,
being that which is employed for filveriaing looking-
glaffes. The dedtric fluid therefore runs over its fnr-
face with great eafe, and there is always a certain
quantity of this fluid in a ftate of ftagnation on its fur-
face. At the place where the cylinder touches the
amalgam, the air is excluded, and confequently the
deftric fluid hath there a tendency to rife more than
at any other part of the furface where the atmofphere
preffes with its full force. When the cylinder begins
to turn, it neceffarily forces before it a fmall quantity
of that deftric matter which lay upon the furface of
the amalgam. To underftand this the more eafily,
697
we muft confider that property which glafs has of Theory,
tranfmitting the dedlric fluid through it, and refufing ~
it a paffage along its furface. Thus we may conceive
it to be formed of a vaft number of exceedingly fmall
tubes placed clofe to each other. If we fuppofe any
fubftance made by art of fuch a texture, we would find
it impoffible to pour water along its furface, though it
would-very eafily run through it. If fuch a fubftance
was made in the fttape of a cylinder, and turned brilkly
round, with its furface juft touching a quantity of wa¬
ter contained in a veffel,-the confequence would be,
that the water would be fcattered around in all direc¬
tions. The cafe feems to be the fame with the more
fubtile de&ric fluid. The glafs cylinder throws out
part of the de&ric fluid lying on the furface of the
amalgam. This quantity is perpetually renewed from
the conducing fide of the rubber. The quantity
which is thrown out cannot be conduced over the fur¬
face of the glafs, nor can it pafs through it; becaufe
it is refifted by the air in the infide, and, in fome mea-
fure, by the glafs itfelf. It is alfo refifted by the air
on the outlide ; but as that refiftance is lefs than what
is made by the air and glafs both put together, the
fluid naturally forces itfelf into the open air. Still,
however, there neither is, nor can be, any accumula¬
tion of the matter itfelf. It cannot enter the air with¬
out difplacing the eleftric matter which was there be¬
fore. This will difplace more of the fame kind, and
fo on, till at laft the motion is communicated to the
eleftric matter lodged in fome part of the earth. From
thence it is propagated to the rubber of the eleftric
machine, and thus a kind of circulatory motion is car¬
ried on.—By the excitation of an eltftric fubftance,
therefore, the fluid is not accumulated, but only fet in
motion. The reafon of that feeming accumulation
obfervable about the excited cylinder is,, the refiftance
which the fluid meets with from the air. This in-
ftantly produces a divergency in the ftream of eleftric
matter, and a vibratory ftruggle betwixt it and the air ;
which, again, produces the appearances of fire and
light, for the reafons already given.
That this kind of vibratory motion or ftruggle be- Proofs of
tween the eleftric fluid and air always takes place when the vibrato-
the latter is fet in motion, feems evident from the fen- ^
fation which is felt when a ftrongly excited eleftric is tr;c *
brought near any part of the human body. This is
fuch as would be occafioned by a fpider’s web drawn
lightly along the fkin, or rather by a multitude of
fmall infefts crawling upon the body. It is, however,
more clearly proved by an experiment made by Dr
Prieftley. He was defirous to know whether the elec¬
tric fluid was concerned in the freezing of water or
not. For this purpufe, he Cxpofed two difhes of wa¬
ter to the open air in the time of a fevere froft. Oiie
of them he kept pretty ftrongly eleftrifted; but could
obferve no difference in the time either when it began
to freeze, which was in about three minutes, or in the
thicknefs of the ice, when both had been frozen for
fome time. Happening to look out at the window
through which he had put the diflies, he obferved on
each fide of the eleftrified wire, the fame da-ncing va- 9J
pouf which is feen near the furfate of the earth in aWhyanex-
bot day, or at any time near a body ftrongly heated, baufted cy-
If the glafs cylinder which we want to excite is ex- llnde‘' can"
baufted of air, the eleftric matter, inftead of flying off eX"
into
ELECTRICITY.
2698 ELECTRICITY. Sea. VI.
Theory, into the air, runs direftly through the glafs; and, meet*
'' "~*ng w'th h>me refillance from the vacuum as it is called,
a weak light is produced in the infide, but no figns of
•ele&ricity are perceived on the outfide of the glafs.
The fame thing happens by giving the cylinder or tube
a metallic coating. The fluid colle&ed from the rub¬
ber runs dire&ly through the glafs, and along the fur-
face of the metallic coating, which keeps off the pref-
fure of the air contained in the glafs. — If an ekdtric
lining is ufed, and the glafs is exhaulted of air, the mo¬
tion of the fluid becomes vifible through both, and the
whole is trartfparent, -as already obferved.—If the cy¬
linder is lined with an ele&ric fubllance, and the air is
not exhaufted, the ek&ricity on the outfrde is often
confiderably increafed ; but the reafon of this is not
evident. Moil probably it is owing to the different
kind of ele&ricity acquired by the infide lining ; for
ele&ricity of any kind always produces its oppofite at
a fmall diftance, the reafon of which lhall be afterwards
96 given.
Nor one If the air within the cylinder is condenfed, the elec-
•filletl with -yr;ca] appearances on the outfide aredeflened in pro*
con cn e p0rt;0n_ The reafon of this feems to be, that though
it is neceflary that the fluid fliouid not go through the
fubftance of the glafs very eafily, yet it isrequifite that
its paflage fliouid not be totally’obftrufted, and there¬
fore the eleflric experiments fucceed beft when the air
within the glafs is a little rarefied. We mull alfo con-
frder, that when an additionahquantity of air is forced
into the cylinder, an equal bulk of electric matter is
•forced out. The reft of the matter, therefore, which
is contained all round the glafs, prefles violently into
its pores-; ?but this preffure, being direftly oppolite to
what happens when the glafs is excited, muft of con-
fequence hinder the excitation. If the glafs is now
made very hot, the prelfure of the atmofphere is kept
off, and the paffage of the eleftric fluid through the
.glafs and condenfed air is rendered eafier, and therefore
the ele&ric appearances on the outfide return.
On the fame principles may we explain the excita¬
tion of a folid (tick of glafs, fealing-wax, or fulphur.
Though thefe have no air within them, yet they have
a very confiderable quantity of ele&ric matter, which
refifts an expulfion from its places and therefore, tho’
it may yield a little when the rubber is applied to the
outfide, yet it will inftantly throw off into the atmo¬
fphere what the rubber has left oh the furface; becaufe
the refiftance is leaft towards that place, as foon as the
ele&ric has come out from under the rubber. Hence
alfo, we fee the reafon why no figns of eleftricity are
obferved on glafs to which the rubber is immediately
applied ; namely, becaufe the preffure being equally
great all round, no part of the electric fluid can be
thrown off into the atmofphere, in order to fet the reft
in motion.
The only thing neceffary to be added in confirma¬
tion of this theory of excitation is, that eleftric fub-
flances of the fame kind cannot be excited by rub¬
bing them againft one another. Thus glafs cannot be
excited by rubbing it againft glafs, &c. Mr Wilcke
obferved, that when two pieces of glafs were rubbed
upon each other in the dark, a ,very vivid light appear¬
ed upon them ; which however threw out no rays, but
adhered to the place where it was excited. It was at¬
tended with a ftrong phofphoreal fmell, but no attrac¬
tion or repulfion. From this experiment he inferred, Theory,
that friftion alone would not excite ele&ricity; but"
that to produce this effeft, the bodies rubbed together
muft be of different natures with refpeft to their at-
tra&ing the eleftric fluid.
$ 7. Of Pof the and Negative Elettricity.
From what hath been already advanced, it will pretty
plainly appear, that to increafe the quantity of eleftric
fluid in any body is a thing impoffible, unlefs we alfo
augment the fize of the body. All the fine pores of
every terreftrial fluid are exceedingly full, and unlefs
we feparate the minuteft particles of the body farther
from one another than they are naturally, we cannot
introduce more of the ele&ric fluid into it than there
was before. This fluid, we have already feen, is not,
like the air, endued with a repulfive force between its
particles; and therefore it muft be incompreffible. If
it is incomprefiible, all the phenomena attending it
muft be owing to its various motions, and the feeming
accumulations of it muft be owing only to its more
brilk aftion in fome places than in others. But before
a complete folution of the phenomena of pofitive and
negative eleftricity can be given, it is neceffary to (hew
that thefe are not fo effentially diftindl and oppofite
as they have been thought to be, but may be convert¬
ed into each other in Tuch cafes as we cannot pofiibly
fuppofe either an addition or fubtraftion of the eleftric
fluid.
This pofition, however oppofite to the common opi¬
nions on the fubjeft, may be proved by the following
experiments. 1. Let a coated phial be fet upon an infu- Met®Jds
lating ftand, and let its knob be touched by the knob changing
of another phial negatively electrified. A fmall fpark pofitive and
will be obferved between them, and both fides of the negative
infulated phial will inftantly be eleftrified negatively.
Now, though we may fuppofe the one fide of the another.
phial which is touched by the negatively eleftrified one
to lofe part of its fire, yet this cannot be the cafe with
the other, becaufe there is nothing to take it away, and
therefore it ought to appear in its natural ftate.
2. Let a phial, having a pith-ball eleCIrometer fatten¬
ed to its outfide coating, be flightly charged pofitively, .
and then fet upon an infulated ftand. The outfide is
then negatively ele&rified, or, according to Dr Frank¬
lin’s theory, has too little ele&ric matter in it. The
pith-balls, however, will touch each other, or feparate
but in a very fmall degree: but let the knob of another
bottle, which hath received a ftrong charge of pofitiv»
eleflricity, be brought near to the knob of the firft, and
the pith-balls on the outfide will diverge with pofitive
eleftricity. Now, it is impoflible that any fubftance
can have both too much and too little eleCtric matter
at the fame inftant: yet we fee that negative eleftrici-
ty may thus inftantaneoufly be converted into the po¬
fitive'kind, in circumftances where no addition of fire
to the outfide can be fuppofed. 3. Let the fame phial,
with the pith-balls affixed to its outfide coating, be
flightly charged negatively, and then infulated. The
outfide is now eleftrified pofitively, or, according to
Dr Franklin’s hypothefis, has too great a quantity of
eledric fluid. Neverthelefs, upon bringing the knob
of a phial ftrongly ele&rified negatively to that of the
infulated one, the pith-balls will inftantly diverge with
negative eleftricity. 4. Let a phial receive as full a
charge
Sea. VI. ELECTRICITY. 2699
Theory, charge of pofitive ele&riclty as it can contain, and then lated bottle are eleftrified pofitively; but as foon as Theory
infulate it. Charge another very highly with negative the finger is brought near to the outfide, the pofitive
ele&ricity. Bring the knob of the negative bottle eleftricity is difcharged by a fpark, and a negative one
near that of the pofitive one, and a thread will play appears. But from what hath been already advanced,
brilkly between them. But when the knobs touch it is evident, that pofitive eleftricity is when the fluid
each other, the thread after being attracted will be re- hath a tendency to leave any body, and the negative
pelled by both. The negative eleftricity is fomehow eledlricity when it hath the fame tendency to enter it.
or otherfuperinduced upon the pofitive; and, fora few Therefore, as the ele&ric fluid is fubjeft to mechanical
moments after the bottles are feoarated. both will feem laws as well as other fluids, it mult follow, that thefe
to be eleftrified negatively. But, if the finger is
brought'near the knob of that bottle on which the ne¬
gative eledtricity was fuperinduced, it will inftantly be
difiipated, a fmall fpark ftrikes the finger, and the bottle
appears pofitively charged as before.
From thefe metamorphofcs of pofitive into negative,
or negative into pofitive eledtricity, it feems proven in
the molt decifive manner, that pofitive eledtricity doth
not confift in an accumulationy nor the negative kind in
a deficiency, of the eledtric fluid. We are obliged,
therefore, to adopt the only probable fuppofition,
namely, that both of them arife entirely from the dif¬
ferent diredtions into which the fluid is thrown in dif¬
ferent circumftances. The only method, therefore, of
giving an intelligible explanation of pofitive and nega¬
tive eledtricity is by confidering the different diredtion
e8 of the fluid in each.
letermf °f ^ 8reat variety methods have been contrived to
ning the di-a^certai11 t^’e dirediion °f the eledtric fluid, but all of
reftion of them feem uncertain except that which is drawn from
the fluid, the appearance of eledtric light. The luminous matter
appearing on a point negatively eledtrified is very fmall,
refembling a globule ; it makes little noife, and has a
kind of hilling found. The pofitive eledtricity, on the
other hand, appears in a diverging luminous Itream,
which darts a confiderable way into the air, with a
crackling noife. Now, it is certain, that in whatever
cafe the eledtric fluid darts from the point into the air,
in that cafe it mull be the molt refilled by it; and this
is evidently in the pofitive eledtricity. In this, the rays
evidently diverge from the points. We may, indeed,,
fuppofe them to be converging from many points in the
furrounding air towards the metallic point. But why
fltould we imagine that a vifible ray would break out
from one place of the atmofphere more than another?-.
The air, we know, refills the motion of the eledtric
fluid, and it certainly mult refill it equally. Of confe-
quence, when this fluid is coming from the air. towards
a pointed condudtor, it muff percolate llowly and in-
vifibly through the air on all fides equally,, till it
comes fo near that it is able to break through the in¬
termediate fpace; and as this will likewife be equal, or
nearly fo, all round, the negative eledtricity mull ap¬
pear like a Heady luminous globule on. the point, not
lengthening or Ihortening by flalhes as the pofitive kind
does. Eledtricians have therefore determined with a
great deal of reafon, that when a point is eledtrified.,
pofitively the matter flows out from.it.
It is to be remarked,, however, that in mod-cafes, if
not in all, a body cannot be eledtrified negatively till it
has firft become pofitively eledtrified; and it is in the.
adt of difeharging its politive eledtricity that it becomes
negative. Thus, fuppofe a coated phial to be fet up¬
on an infulated Hand, and its knob is approached by
that of another bottle charged pofitively: a fmall fpark
is obferved between them, and both fides of the infu-
tendencies are produced and kept up by the motions
excited originally in the air, and eledtric fluid in the
air, funounding thefe bodies. If this principle is kept
in view, it will lead us to an eafy explanation of many
eledtrical phenomena, for which no fatisfadtory reafon
hath hitherto been given.
Of Elettric Attraction and Repulfwn.
It hath now been fhewn, that, in bodies eledtrified
pofitively, there is a flux of eledtric matter from their
furface all round ; that is, the fluid contained in their
pores pulhes out on every fide, and communicates a li-
milar motion to the eledtric fluid contained in the ad¬
jacent atmofphere. This muff of neceflity very foon
exhauft the body of its eledtric matter altogether, if it
was not inftantaneoufly fupplied with it after every e-
miflion. But this fupply is immediately procured from
the furrounding atmofphere. The quantity fent off is
inftantly returned from the air, and the vibratory mo¬
tion or ftruggle between the air and eleflric fluid, which
hath been often mentioned, immediately takes place.
The pofitive eledtricity therefore confills in a vibratory
motion in the air and eledtric fluid ; and the force of
this vibration is diredted outwards from the eledtrified
body. In bodies negatively eledtrified, the fluid con¬
tained in the neighbouring atmofphere is diredted to¬
wards the body fo eledtrified.. But it iV certain, that
this motion inwards cannot be continued unlefs there
is alfo a motion of the fluid outwards from the body.
In this cafe alfo there is a vibratory motion, but the
force of it is diredted. inwards, and as the fource of it
lies not in the body,, but in the furrounding, atmo¬
fphere, it manifefts itfelf fomewhat lefs vigoroufly. 9p,
The reafon why thefe motions are continued for fuebi Why eleo-
a length of time as we fee they are, is, the extreme rnc aPPear~-
mobility of. the eledtric fluid. It doth not indeed ap-'j^**
pear from any experiments, that this fluid hath the long,
lead fridtion among its parts. A motion once induced
into it muff therefore continue for ever, until it is
counteradled by fome other motion of the fame fluid.
Hence, when a vibratory motion is once introduced
among the particles of the eledtric fluid contained in
any. fubftance, that motion will be kept up by the fur¬
rounding fluid, let the body be removed to what place
we pleafe. There is no occafion indeed for fuppofing
any thing like an eledtric atmofphere round the eledtri¬
fied body. The cafe is cxadlly the fame as with a
burning body. Let a candle be carried to what place,
we will, it will ftill burn ; but it would be abfurd to.
fay, that the fire furrounded it like an atmofphere, as
we know the fire is kept up by the air only, which is
changed every moment. In like manner, the pofitive
and negative eledtricities, which are two different mo¬
tions of the eledtric fluid, are kept up by the air and
eledtric matter contained in it; and, wherever the elecr
trifled body is carried, thefe fluids are equally capable
2700 E L E C T R
Theory, ©f continuing theiti.
The phenomena of attraftion and repulfton are now
eafily explained. Let us fuppofe a body potitively
eleftrified fufpended by a fmall thread, at a ditlanee
from any other. The vibration above-mentioned, in
which pofitive ele&ricity confifts, being kept up by the
equable prelTure on all fides, the body is neither moved
to one fide nor another. But when a negatively elec¬
trified body is brought near, the force of the vibration
being direflfed outwards in the one, and inwards in the
other, the preffure of the fluid in the intermediate
fpace between them is greatly leflened ; and of con-
fequence the preffure on the other (ides drives them to¬
gether, and they are faid to attratt each other. If
another body, eleftrified alfo pofitively, is brought near
to the firft, the force of the vibrations are directly
oppofed to one another* and therefore the bodies re¬
cede from each other, and are faid to repel one ano¬
ther.—The cafe is the fame with two bodies negative¬
ly eledtrified: for there the ete&ricity, as far as it ex¬
tends round the bodies, confifts of a vibratory motion
of the electric fluid; and the vibrations being direfted
towards both the bodies, as towards two different cen¬
tres, muft neceffarily caufe them recede from each o-
ther; becaufe, if they remained in contafft, the vibra¬
tory motions would interfere with and deftroy one
another.
When a fmall body is brought within the fphere of
another’s elettricity, the equable preflure of that vibra¬
tory or eleftrical fphere is fomewhat lefiened upon the
fide near which the fecond body is brought; and there¬
fore it is immediately impelled towards the firft, by the
aft ion of the furrounding fluid, in order to keep up the
■equilibrium. As foon as it arrives there, the vibra¬
tions of the fluid around the firft body being commu¬
nicated to that within the pores of the fecond, it im¬
mediately acquires a fphere of eleftricity as well as the
firft, and is confequently repelled. The repulfion con¬
tinues till the vibration ceafes either by the aftion of
the air, or by the body coming in contaft with another
much larger than itfelf, in which cafe the eleftricity is
faid to be difcbarged. If, after this difcharge of elec¬
tricity, the fecond body is ftill w’ithin the eleftric
fphere of the firft, it will immediately be attrafted, and
very foon after repelled, and fo on alternately till the
eleftricity of the former totally ceafes.
$ 9. Of the Difcharge of Eletlricity by Sparks upon blunt
Conductors, and filently by pointed ones.
The manner in which this is accomplifhed will bed
ioo appear from confidering the nature of what is com-
Eleftricity monly called elettricity. This cannot appear but in an
only (hews eleftric fubftance, and the fubftance in which it doth
itfelf in the appear is the air. The prime conduftor of an elec-
Eir‘ trical machine difcovers no other properties in itfelf
when eleftrified, than it had before. The metal is
equally hard, (hining, and impenetrable. The elec¬
tricity, or properties of attrafting, repelling, &c. are all
lodged in the air ; and if the conduftor is placed in va¬
cuo, they inftantly ceafe. It hath already been (hewn,
that the eleftric matter runs over the furface of con-
dufting fubftances in great quantities, like a dream of
water running from one place to another. In this
manner it will not pafs over the furface of eleftrics. It
enters their fubftance, and pafles through it with a vi-
I C I T Y. Sea. VI.
bratory motion. This vibratory motion always (hews Theory,
a refiftance ; nor is it in any cafe pofiible to induce a '
vibration without firft inr.prefling a motion in ore di-
reftion, and then refifting it by a contrary motion.
Round the furface of an eleftrified body fufpended in
the air, therefore, there is always an-equable preffure.,
by which the emiffion of the eleftric fluid is every mo¬
ment checked, and by which its vibrations are occa-
fioned. When a metallic fubftance is brought near the
eleftrified body, the fluid has an opportunity of making
its efcape, provided it could get at the metal, becaufe
it could run along its furface. The preffure of the air
is alfo leffened on that fide which the condufting fub¬
ftance approaches. The whole effort of the eleftric
matter contained in the vibratory fphere is exerted
againft that Angle place, becaufe the refiftance is lead.
If the body has a broad furface, however, the difpro-
portion between thefe refiftances is not fo great as
when its furface is lefs. Let us fuppofe, for inftance,
that the furface of the condufting fubftance contains
an inch fquare, and that the whole furface of the elec¬
trified fphere contains only fix fquare inches. When
the condufting fubftance approaches, all the preffure is
direfted towards that place ; and the effort made by
the eleftric matter to efcape there, is five times as great
as what it is any where elfe. Neverthelefs, though it
has a vibratory motion in the fubftance of the air, it
cannot have a progreffive motion through it without
violently difplacing its parts; and an inch fquare of air
makes a confiderable refiftance. At laft, however, if
this refiftance is every moment made Ids by approach¬
ing the condufting fubftance nearer to the eleftrified
body, the eleftric matter breaks through the thin plate
of air, (trikes the conduftor, and runs along it. The
fpark is produced by the refiftance it meets with from
the air.— But if, inftead of a body with a broad fur¬
face, we prefent the point of a needle, whofe furface is
perhaps not above the ten-thoufandth part of a fquare
inch, the effort of the eleftric matter to difcharge itfelf
there will be 60,000 times greater than at any other
place, becaufe the whole effort of the fix fquare inches,
of which we fuppofe the furface of the eleftric fphere
to confift, is exerted againft that Angle point. The air
alfo refills, as in the former cafe; but it can refill only
in proportion to the extent of its furface which covers
the condufting body ; and this, being only the ten-
thoufandth part of a fquare inch, muft be exceeding¬
ly little. As foon therefore as a needle, or any other
fine pointed body, is prefented to an eleftrified fub¬
ftance, the eleftric matter is urged thither with great
velocity; and as it hath an opportunity of running
along the needle, its vibrations quickly ceafe, and the
eleftricity is faid to be drawn off.—This drawing off,
however, does not extend all round the eleftrified bo¬
dy, if means are ufed to keep up the eleftricity perpe¬
tually. Thus, if, on the end of the prime conduftor,
there are faftened a number of fine threads, hairs, &c.
when the cylinder is turned, the threads on the end
will diverge, and fpread out like as many rays pro¬
ceeding from a centre. If a point is prefented on one
fide of the conduftor, though at a confiderable di-
ftance, the threads on one fide will lofe their diver¬
gency and hang down, but thofe on the other fide
will continue to diverge. The reafon of this is, the
difficulty with which the eleftric fluid gets thro’ the
atmo-
Sea. VI. ELECTRICITY.
Theory, atmofphere, even where the refiftance of it is made as
 little as pofiible ; and hence alfo we may fee why more
condu&ors than one may be neceflary for the fafety of
large buildings. See Thunder.
$ 9. Why Pojitive Electricity hath a tendency to induce
the Negative Kind on any Body kept tv it bin itsfphere
of aCtion, and why Negative EleCiricity produces the
Pofitive Kind in fimilar circumftances.
This is one of the ele&rical phenomena moft diffi¬
cult to be folved ; and indeed feems totally infol-
vable, unlefs we give up the idea of accumulation and
deficiency of the ele&ric fluid in different bodies. On
Dr Franklin’s principles, no folution hath been at¬
tempted. Mr Cavallo places this among the proper-
ties of ele&ricity for which he doth not pretend to ac¬
count, but gives as the caufes of other phenomena. It
is indeed certain, that if a body hath already too much
ele&ricity or any thing elfe, it cannot be continually
taking from thofe around it; and if it hath too little,
it cannot be continually giving them. By attending
to the principles above laid down, however, this phe¬
nomenon admits of an eafy folution. As pofitive elec¬
tricity confifts in a vibratory motion of the ele&ric
matter in the pores of any body, and to fome diftance
through the air, while at the fame time the force is
directed outwards from the body, it is plain, that if
any other body is brought within this fphere, the di¬
rection of the vibration is changed; for what is ca/-
tvards from the one, is inwards to the other. But a
vibratory motion, the force of which is direCled in¬
wards, is what conftitutes negative electricity ; and,
therefore, no fooner is any body placed at fome diftance
from one pofitively eleftrifitd, than it immediately be¬
comes negatively fo. The fame reafon may be given
why negative eledlricity produces the pofitive kind on
a body placed near it. In the negative kind, the force
of the vibration is direfted inwards. If another body
io, is brought near, the vibration which is inwards to the
Why a mo- firft, muft be outwards from the fecond, which thus
,Ion becomes pofitively eleftrified. The only difficulty
on one fide here, is to account for this motion, which is only in¬
is fiuMenly ward or outward to one fide of the body brought near
propagated the eleftrified one, being fo fuddenly propagated all
round a round. This, however, muft eafily be feen to arife
0 from the extreme fubtilty of the eleftric fluid, and its
effort to keep up an equilibrium in all parts, which it
will never fuffer to be broken. When this fluid pufhes
inward to one fide of a body, the fluid contained in
that body would immediately yield, and allow a free
paffage to what came after, if its yielding was not ob-
ftrufted by fomething on the other fide. This obftruc-
tion arifes from the air, which cannot admit a progref-
five motion of ele&ric matter through it. No fooner,
therefore, is a puffi ®iade againft one fide than a con¬
trary one is made againft the other ; and thus the body
,ol inftantly becomes eleftrified all round.
Zones of On thefe principles, alfo, may we account for the
pofitiye and zones Df pofitive and negative eleftricity which are to
leftricfiy6 '3e ^oun^ on furface of glafs tubes * ; and efpecially
accounted i*1 eleftrified air. When the prime conduftor of a
for. machine is ftrongly eleftrified pofitively, it is throwing
* Seen0 tfo. out the fluid from it in all direftions. The air can¬
not receive this fluid without throwing out that which
it'alfo contains; and this (hews, that Ample eleftrifx-
Vol. IV.
cation can neither increafe nor diminilh the denfity of the
air, which is alfo vouched by numberlefs experiments.
But, if the air throws out its eleftric fluid in all direc¬
tions, it muft throw part of it back upon the conduc¬
tor, and confequently obftruft its operations. This
likewife is found to be the cafe; for it is impoffible to
make an eleftric machine aft long with the fame de¬
gree of ftrength, owing to the eleftricity communica¬
ted from it to the air. But if the conduftor and air
are thus reciprocally throwing the eleftric matter back
upon one another, it is impoffible but another zone of
air which lies at a greater diftance muft be continual¬
ly receiving it, or be eleftrified negatively. But this
cannot receive, without alfo emitting the fluid it con¬
tains; which, therefore, will be thrown upon another
zone behind it, and partly back upon the firft. The
original force of the fluid being now fpread over a large
fpace, will confequently be diminifhed ; and the fuc-
ceeding zone will be eleftrified weakly, though pofi¬
tively. In like manner, a fucceeding zone muft yield,
and receive the fluid from this; which will confe¬
quently be eleftrified negatively, though weaker than
the former : and thus zones of pofitive and nega¬
tive eleftricity will gradually fucceed each other in
the air, till no traces of either are to be found.—In
thefe zones, it muft be remembered, that there is a
centre peculiar to each, and/rom this centre the vibra¬
tions proceed either inward or outward. Thus, when
the machine is firft fet in motion, a vibration is pro¬
pagated from it as from a centre to fome diftance in
the air, and the air is at firft negatively eleftrified. But
as this vibratory motion cannot be extended far in one
direftion, vibrations begin to be propagated in all di¬
reftions from another centre at fome diftance. The
conduftor becomes then lefs pofitively eleftrified than
before; however, by means of the machine, its eleftri¬
city is ftill kept up, though weaker; but a zone of air
beyond the firft, where the refiftance is much lefs, be
comes negatively eleftrified. This again cannot con¬
tinue long till vibrations outwards arife from another
centre, and fo on. It is fcarce needful to add here,
that the longer the eleftrification is continued, and the
ftronger it is, the broader thefe zones muft be.
§10. Of the Leyden Phial.
The phenomena of the Leyden phial are eafily
explained from what hath been already advanced.
Glafs and other eleftric fubftances are fo conftituted,
that they can tranfmit the vibratory motions of the
eleftric matter, though they cannot admit of any
confiderable progreffive one.. Condufting fubftances,
on the other hand, admit of a progreffive motion, but
not fo eafily of a vibratory one. When the eleftric
fluid is procured from the earth by an eleftric ma¬
chine, if the conduftor had a communication with the
earth, all the matter collefted by the cylinder would
run along the conduftor into the earth, and not a fpark
or other appearance of eleftricity would be procured
in the air. But when the conduftor is infulated, the
matter is forced to go off into the air, and there pro¬
duces the vibratory motions already mentioned. If a
pane of glafs which has no metallic coating touches
the conduftor, though it is permeable by the vibratory
motion of the fluid, yet a confiderable refiftance is
made, and the fluid cannot eafily diffufe itfelf over its
15 R furface.
270I
Theory.
C702
io3
In what
phial be¬
comes char
ged.
104
Why it re¬
tains its
charge.
JOS
Reafon of
its dif-
charge.
ELECT
furface. Neverthelefs, it will foon fliew figns of ha¬
ving received ele&ricity, that is, of having the fluid
within its pores thrown into a vibratory motion. This
motion is dire&ed outwards, from the middle of the
fubftance of the glafs, to the ftirface, and a confider-
able way beyond it on both fides. Both fides of the
glafs are then pofitively ele£trified. If a conducing
fubftance touches one of the fides of the glafs, the vi¬
brations on that fide are deftroyed ; becaufe the fluid
which oecafioned them yields to the refiftance it met
with, and runs along the conductor into the earth. But
no fooner is this done, than the power which refifted
the vibration outward from the glafs, having got the
better in the manner juft now explained, a new vibra¬
tion is produced by that refifting power; and the force
of this vibration is diredted towards the fide from
whence the eledtricity was drawn off, which therefore
becomes eledfrified negatively. Thus may we undtr-
ftand how a pane of glafs, or any other eledlric, may
receive pofitive eledlricity on the one fide, and nega¬
tive on the other, to as high a degree as we pleafe.
But there is found to be a limit to every charge of e-
ledlricity we can give; and this limit is the refiftance
of the air. A phial will contain double the charge in
air doubly condenfed, that it does in the common at-
mofphere; and when once the vibration becomes too
great to be borne, the pofitive fide of the glafs throws
out pencils of light, and will receive no more eledlri-
city in that ftate of the atmofphere.
Thus, in every charged phial, there is a violent im-
pulfe or vibration of the fluid, outward from the pofi¬
tive, and inward to the negative, 'fide. As long as
thefe continue, the phial continues charged. As the
eleftric fluid feems to be fubjedt to no other natural
power, but controuls all its own addons only by mo¬
ving in oppofite diredlions, it is plain, that if a char¬
ged phial is carefully kept from any of thofe means by
which it is known to be difeharged, it muft keep its
charge for a long time ; and thus, by keeping phials
within glafs cafes, their charge will be retained for fix
or eight weeks, or perhaps a great deal longer. The
only method of difeharging a phial, is by making a
communication between its coatings. The fluid pref-
fing out of the pofitive fide, now yields to the preflure
of that from the negative fide, and runs along the c'on-
dudtor. But no fooner does it come near the negative
fide of the phial, than, meeting with more of the fame
kind, the current of which is diredted the fame way,
both together break through the air with a violent
flalh and crack, and all appearances of eledlricity ceafe.
— In this, as ,in all other eleftrical experiments, it is
eafy to fee, that the force, velocity, &c. of the fluid
depends entirely on the preflure of that which furrounds
us. Nature hath appointed a certain conftitution or
modification of the eledtric fluid in all terreftrial bo¬
dies, and likewife all round the earth. In our elec¬
trical experiments, we violate this conftitution in fome
degree. When this violation is but fmall, the powers
of nature operate gently in repairing the diforder we
have introduced; but when any confiderable deviation
is occafioned, the natural powers reftore the original
conftitution with extreme violence..
It I C I T Y.
Sea. VI.;
$11. The Phenomena of the Eleftrophorus accountedfor. . rhe°ry‘ 1
The eledtrophorus is a machine reprefented Plate
Cl. fig. 3. It confifts of two plates, A and B, ufually
of a circular form; though they may be made fquare,
or of the figure of a parallellogram, with more eafe, and
with equal advantage. At firft the under plate was
of glafs, covered over with fealing-wax ; but there is
little occafion for being particular either with regard Conflruc-
to the fubftance of the lower plate, or the eletlric !10"of t*11
which is put upon it. A metallic plate, however, is ^ roI> '
perhaps preferable to a wooden one, though the latter |
will anfwer the purpofe very well. This plate is to be
covered with fome eleftric fubftance. Pure fulphur
anfwers very near as well as the dearer electrics, feal¬
ing-wax, gum-lac, &c.; but it hath this bad quality,
that, by rubbing it, fome exceeding fubtile fleams are
produced, which infea the performs clothes, and even
his whole body, with a very difagreeable fmell, and
will change filver in his pocket to a blackilh colour.—
The upper plate of the ele&rophorus is a brafs plate,
or a board or piece of paftthoard covered with tinfoil
or gilt paper, nearly of the fame fize with the eledtric
plate, though it will not be the worfe that it is
fomewhat larger. It is furnifhed with a glafs handle
(I), which ought to be ferewed into the centre. The
manner of ufing this machine is as follows.—Firft,
the plate B is excited by rubbing its coated fide with
a piece of new white flannel, or a piece of hare’s flein.
Even a common hard brulh, having the hair a little
greafed, will excite fulphur extremely well. When this
plate is excited as much as poffible, it is fet upon the
table with the ele£tric fide uppermoft. Secondly, the
metal plate is laid upon the-excited ele&ric, as repre¬
fented in the figure. Thirdly, the metal plate is
touched with the finger or any other condudlor, which,
on touching the plate, receives a fpark from it. Laftly,
the metal plate A, being held by the extremity of its
glafs handle (I),isfeparatedfromtheele;f?ricplate; and,
after it is elevated above that plate, it will be found
ftrongly ele&rified with an electricity contrary to that
of the eleftric plate; in which cafe, it will give a very
ftrong fpark to any condudtor brought near it. By
fetting the metal upon the eledlric plate, touching it
with the finger, and feparating it fuccefiively, a great
number of fparks may be obtained apparently of the
fame ftrength, and that without exciting again the elec¬
tric plate. If thefe fparks are repeatedly given to the
knob of a coated phial, this will prefently become
charged. roy
“ As to the continuance of the virtue of this elec- Caval-
tric plate, (fays MrCavallo), when once excited, with-,o s. ot>fep“
out repeating the excitation, I think there is not theVlitl0“S"
leaft foundation for believing it perpetual, as fome
gentlemen have fuppofed; it being nothing more than
an excited electric, it muft gradually lofe its power by
imparting continually fome of its eleftricity to the air,
or other fubftanees contiguous to it. Indeed its elec¬
tricity, although it could never be proved to be perpe¬
tual by experiments, lafts a very long time, it having
been obferved to be pretty ftrong feveral days, and
even weeks, after excitation. The great duration of the
electricity of this plate, I think, depends upon two
eaufes: firft, becaufe it does not lofe any eleftricity by
the operation of putting the metal plate upon it, &Ci
and*
Sea VI.
Theory, and, fecondly, becaufe of its flat figure, which expofes
“ it to a lets quantity of air, in comparifon with a flick of
fealing-wax, or the like, which, being cylindrical, ex¬
pofes its furface to a greater quantity of air, which is
continually robbing the excited eleftrics of their virtue.
“ The firfl experiments that I made, relative to this
machine, were with a view to difcover which fubflance
would anfwer beft for coating the glafs plate, in order
to produce the greatefl effeft. I tried feveral fubltan-
ces either fimple or mixed; and at laft I obferved, that
the ftrongefl in power, as well as the eafiefl, I could
conftrudl, were thofe made with the fecond fort of
fealing-wax, fpread upon a thick plate of glafs. A
plate that I made after this manner, and no more than
fix inches in diameter, when once excited, could charge
a coated phial feveral times fucceffively, fo ftrongly as to
pierce a hole through a card with the difcharge. Some¬
times the metal plate, when feparated from it, was fo
ftrpngly eleftrified, that it darted ftrong flafhes to the
table upon which the eledlric plate was laid, and even
into the air, befides caufing the fenfation of the fpider’s
web upon the face brought near it, like an eleftric
ftrongly excited. The power of fame of my plates is
fo ftrong, that fometimes the eleflric plate adheres to
the metal when this is lifted up, nor will they feparate
even if the metal plate is touched with the finger or
other conduflor. It is remarkable, that fometimes
they will not aft well at firft, but they may be rendered
very good by fcraping with the edge of a knife the
fhining or glofly furface of the wax. This feems ana¬
logous to the well-known property of glafs, which is,
that new cylinders or globes, made for eleflrical pur-
pofes, are often very bad eleflrics at firft; but that they
improve by being worked, i. e. by having their furface
iog a little worn. Paper alfo has this property.
Expert- “ after having excited the fealing-wax, I lay the
-merits with plate with the wax upon the table, and the glafs up-
thc elettro- permoft, i. e. contrary to the common method; then,
^ orus‘ on making the ufual experiment of putting the metal
plate on it, and taking the fpark, &c. I obferve it to
be attended with the contrary eleflricity: that is, if I
lay the metal plate upon the eleftric one, and, while in
that fituation, touch it with an infulated body, that
body acquires the pofitive ele&ricity; and the metallic,
removed from the eleflric plate, appears to be nega¬
tive ; whereas it would become pofitive, if laid upon
the excited wax. This experiment, I find, anfwers in
the fame manner if an eleflric plate is ufed which has
the fealing-wax coating on both fides, or one which
has no glafs plate.
“ If the brafs plate, after being feparated from, be
prefented with the edge toward the wax, lightly touch¬
ing it, and thus be drawn over its furface, I find that
the electricity of the metal is abforbed by the fealing-
wax, and thus the eleftric plate lofes part of its power;
and if this operation is repeated five or fix times, the
eleftric plate lofes its power entirely, fo that a new ex¬
citation is neceffary in order to revive it.
“ If, inftead of laying the eleftric plate upon the
table, it is placed upon an eleftric Hand, fo as to be ac¬
curately infulated, then the metal plate fet on it, ac¬
quires fo little eleftricity, that it can only be difcover-
ed with an eledtrometer; which (hows, that the elec¬
tricity of this plate will not be confpicuous on one fide
of it, if the oppofite fide is not at liberty either to part
2703
with, or acquire more of the eleflric fluid. In confe-
quence of this experiment, and in order to afcertain how"
the oppofite fides of the eleflric plate would be affefled
in different circumftances, I made the following expe¬
riments.
“ Upon an eleflric (land E, (fig. 3, Plate Cl.) I
placed a circular tin-plate, nearly fix inches in diame¬
ter, which by a fiender wire H communicated with an
eleflrometer of pith-balls G, which was alfo infulated
upon the eleflric {land F. I then placed the excited
eleftric plate D of fix inches and a quarter in diameter,
upon the tin-plate, with the w'ax uppermoft; and on
removing my hand from it, the eleflrometer G, which
communicated with the tin-plate, /. e. w ith the under
fide of the eleflric plate, immediately opened with ne¬
gative eleftricity. If, by touching the eleflrometer, I
took that eleftricity off, the eleflrometer did not after¬
wards diverge. But if now, or when the eleftrometer
diverged, I prefented my hand open, or any other un-
infulated conduflor, at the diftance of about one or
two inches, over the eleftric plate, without touching
it, then the pith-balls diverged; or, if they diverged be¬
fore, came together, and immediately diverged again
with pofitive eleftricity:—! removed the hand, and the
balls came together ;—approached the hand, and they
diverged : and fo on.
“ If, while the pith-balls diverged with negative
eleftricity, I laid the metal plate, holding it by the ex¬
tremity K of its glafs handle, upon the wax, the balls
came, for a little time, towards one another, butfoon
opened again with the fame, i. e. negative eleftricity.
“ If, whilft the metallic retted upon the eleftric
plate, I touched the former, the eleftrometer imme¬
diately diverged with pofitive eleflricity; which if, by-
touching the eleflrometer, I took off, the eleflrometer
continued without divergence.— I touched the metal
plate again, and the eleftrometer opened again ; and
fo on for a confiderable number of times, until the
metal plate had acquired its full charge. On taking
now the metal plate up, the eleflrometer G inftantly
diverged with ftrong negative eleflricity.
“ I repeated the above-defcribed experiments, with
this only difference in the difpofition of the apparatus,
i. c. I laid the eleftric plate D with the excited feal¬
ing-wax upon the.circular-tin-plate, and the glafs up¬
permoft ; and the difference in their refult was, that
where the eleftricity had been pofitive in the former
difpofition of the apparatus, it now became negative,
and vice verfa ; except that, ✓when I firft laid the elec¬
tric plate upon the tin, the eleftrometer G diverged
with negative eleflricity, as well in this as in the o-
ther difpofition of the apparatus.
“ I repeated all the above experiments with an elec¬
tric plate, which befides the fealing-wax coating on
one fide, had a ftrong coat of varnifti on the other
fide, and their refult was fimilar to that of thofe made
with the above-defcribed plate.”
This is Mr Cavallo’s account of the eleftrophorus; Mi (takes in
but there is one part of it in which he mutl certainly Mr Caval-
be miftaken. He tells us, that “ if inftead of laying lo’sobfer-
the eleftric plate upon the table, it is fet upon an elec- vations.
trie ftand, fo as to be accurately infulated, then the
metal plate fet on it acquires fo little eleftricity, that
it can only be difeovered by an eleftrometer.” In
what manner this gentleman came to miftakc a plain
15 R 2 faft
ELECTRICITY.
2704
Theory.
ELECTRICITY.
SeA. VII.
Singular
appearance
on inlula-
ting an e-
leftropho-
General rea
fon of all
the pheno¬
mena.
fad fo egregloufly, is not eafy to determine ; but it is with the earth, the vibratory motion is impeded by the Mifcella-
"certain, that an ele&rophorus, inltead of having its progreflive one towards the earth. This makes the p''xCO"rSj
virtue impaired by being infulated, has it greatly in- refiitance on the under fide lefs, and therefore the vi- ^Ys."
creafed, at leatt the fphere of its a&ivity is greatly en- bratory motion on the upper part extends but a fmall *
larged. When lying on the table, if the upper plate way. When the plate is infulated, the eledric matter
is put upon it without being touched with the finger, has not an opportunity of efcaping to the earth as be¬
lt will not Ihew much lign of eledricity. But as foon fore, becaufe it is Itrongly refilled by the air; a vi-
as it is put on the eledric Hand, both the upper and bration therefore takes place on both fides, and ex-
under fide appear llrongly negative. A thread will be tends to a great dillance from the plate. When the
attraded at the diftance of eight or ten inches. If upper plate is fet upon the eledrophorus* the fame
both the upper and under fide are touched at the fame kind of eledricity, viz. the negative kind, is commu-
time, a ftrong fpark will be obtained from both, but nicated to it. When both fides are touched, with the
always of the fame kind of eledricity, namely, thene- finger, or with any other conduding fubftance, both
gative kind. If the upper plate is now lifted up, a eledricities are fuddenly taken off, becaufe the eledric
ftrong fpark of pofitive eledricity will be obtained matter running along the conduding fubftance on both
from it; and on putting it down again, two fparks of fides, puts an end to the vibratory motion in the air,
negative eledricity will be produced. which conftitutes the very effence of what we call
The Angularity of this experiment is, that it pro- eledricity. There is now a quiet and equal balance of
duces always double the quantity of negative eleciricity the eledric matter on both fides, and therefore no
that it doth of the pofitive kind; which cannot be figns of eledricity are fiiewn. But as foon as the up-
done by any other method yet known. Another very per plate is taken off, this balance is deftroyed. The
furpriling circumftance is, that when the eledrophorus fluid in the metal plate had not been able to penetrate
remains in its infulated fituation, you need not always the eledric fubftance in fuch a manner as to put a ftop
touch the upper and under fide of the plates at once, to the vibrations of what was within it. As foon then
in order to procure pofitive eleftricity from the upper as the plate is taken off, the eledricity, or vibratory
plate: It is fufficient to touch both fides only once. On motion towards the eledric, breaks out at that fide,
lifting up the upper plate, a fpark of pofitive eleetrici- But this motion inwards to the eledric, which confti-
ty is obtafned as already mentioned. On putting it tntes negative eledricity, neceffarily becomes outward
down again, a fpark of the negative kind is obtained from the plate ; and as no motion of the fluid can be
from the upper plate, even though you do not touch produced on one fide of a body, but what is imme-
the lower one. On lifting up the upper plate, a fpark diately communicated to the other, the upper plate
of pofitive eledricity is obtained, but weaker than it becomes eledrified pofitively, and the under one nega-
would have been had both fides been touched at once, tively on both fides.
Putting down the upper plate again without touching
both, a ftiU weaker fpark firft of negative and then of Sect. VII. Mifcellaneous Experiments.
pofittve eledricity will be obtained from the upper one. J
Thus, the fparks will go on continually diminilhing, to In this fedion are comprehended fome of thofe ef-
the number perhaps of two or three hundred. But at feds of the eledric matter which may properly be rec-
laft, when the eledricity of the whole machine feems koned anomalous, and for which it is impoffible to af-
to be totally loft, if both fides are touched at once, it fign any reafon. Some very remarkable ones of this
will inftantly be reftored to its full ftrength, and the kind are thofe on colours, of which Mr Cavallo M2
double fpark of negative, with the Angle one of pofi- gives the following account. “ Having accidentally Mr Caval-
tive eledricity, will be obtained without intermiffion as ebferved, that an eledric (hock fent over the furface ^0 5
before. of a card, marked a black ftroke upon a red fpot of™^**
To account for all thefe phenomena very particular- the card, I was from this induced to try what would
ly, is perhaps impofiible, without a greater degree of be the effed of fending fhocks over cards painted with
knowledge concerning the internal fabric of bodies than different water-colours. Accordingly, I painted feveral
we have accefs to attain. In general, however, it is cards with almoft every colour I had, and fent ftiocks
evident, that the phenomena of the eledrophorus a- (a) over them, when they were very dry ; making ufe
rife from the difpofition that the eledric matter hath of the univerfal difeharger, fig. 5. Plate XCIX. The
to keep up an equilibrium within itfelf throughout e- effeds were as follow.
very part of the univerfe. In confequence of this, no Vermilion was marked with a ftrong black track,
motion of the eledric matter can be produced upon the about one tenth of an inch wide. This ftroke is ge-
one fide of a body, but it muft immediately be balan- nerally Angle, as reprefented by A B, fig. 17. of
ced by a correfponding one on the oppofite fide; and Plate XCIX. Sometimes it is divided in two towards the
in proportion to the ftrength of the one, fo will the middle, like EF ; and fometimes, particularly when
ftrength of the other be. When the under plate of the the wires are fet very dillant from one another, the
eledrophorus is excited, the negative eledricity, of vi- ftroke is not continued, but interrupted in the middle, ,
bratory adion of the eledric matter towards the ex- like G H. It often, although not always, happens,
cited fide, is producedj and the moment that fuch an that the imprefiion is marked ftronger at the extremi-
adion is produced on one fide, it is refifted by a fimi- ty of that wire, from which the eledric fluid iffues, a&
lar one on the oppofite fide, and thus the eledropho- it appears at E, fuppofing that the wire C communi-
fus becomes negatively eledrified on both fides. As cates with the pofitive fide of the jar ; whereas the ex-
Jong as the under part of the machine communicates tremity of the ftroke, contiguous to the point of the
wire
(a) The force generally employed was the full charge of one foot and a half of coated glafs.
Sc«Tt. VII. ELECTRICITY.
2705
MifccJla- wire D, is neither fo ftrongly marked, nor furrounds
neons t}jC wjre f0 much, as the other extremity E.
Experi- <t (^armjne rece;Ved a faint and flender impreflion of
— a purple colour.
“ Verdigreafe was Ihook off from the furface of
the card ; except when it had been mixed with ftrong
gum-water, in which cafe it received a very faint im-
preffion.
“ White-lead was marked with a long black track,
not fo broad as that on vermilion.
“ Red lead was marked with a faint mark much like
carmine.
“ The other colours I tried were orpiment, gam¬
boge, fap-green, red ink, ultramarihe, Pruflian blue,
and a few others, which were compounds of the a-
bove ; but they received no imprefiion.
“ It having been infmuated, that the ftrong black
mark, which vermilion receives from the eletfric fhock,
might poffibly be owing to the great quantity of ful-
phur contained in that mineral, I was induced to make
the following experiment. I mixed together equal
quantities of orpiment and flower of fulphur ; and with
this mixture, by the help, as ufual, of very diluted
gum-water, I painted a card ; but the ele&ric (hock
fent over it left not the leaft impreflion.
“ Defirous of carrying this inveftigation on colours
a little further, with a particular view to determine
fomething relative to the properties of lamp-black and
oil (b), I procured fome pieces of paper painted on
both fides with oil colours; and fending the charge of
two feet of coated glafs over each of them, by making
the interruption or the circuit upon their furfaces, I
obferved that the pieces of paper painted with lamp¬
black, Pruflian blue, vermilion, and purple brown,
were torn by the explofion ; but white lead, Naples
yellow, EngHfti ochre, and verdigreafe, remained un¬
hurt.
“ The fame fliock fent over a piece of paper painted
very thickly with lamp-black and oil left not the leaft
impreffiom I fent the ftiock alfo over a piece of paper
unequally painted with purple brown, and the paper
was torn where the paint lay very thin, but remained
unhurt where the paint was evidently thicker. Thefe
experiments I repeated feveral times and with fome
little variation, which naturally produced different ef-
fefts ; however, they all feem to point out the follow¬
ing propofitions.
“ I. A coat of oil-paint over any fubftance, de¬
fends it from the effefls of fuch an eleftric ftiock, as
would otherwife injure it; but by no means defends it
from any ele&ria fhock whatever. II. No one colour
feems preferable to the others, if they are equal in fub¬
ftance, and equally well mixed with oil; but a thick
coating does certainly afford a better defence than, a
thinner one.
“ By rubbing the abovementioned pieces of paper,
I find that the paper painted with lamp-black and
oil is move eafily excited, and acquires a ftronger elec¬
tricity,, than the papers painted with the other colours;.
and, perhaps, on this account it may be, .that lamp¬
black and Cil might refill the fhopk fomewhdt better
than the other paints. Mifcella-
“ It is remarkable, that vermilion receives the black neous
imprefiion, when painted with linfeed oil, nearly as Cents'
well as when painted with water. The paper painted 
with white lead and oil, receives alfo a black mark 5
but its nature is very Angular. The track, when firft
made, is almoft as dark as that marked on white-lead,
painted with water; but it gradually lofes its black-
nefs, and in about an hour’s time (or longer, if the
paint is not frefh), it appears without any darknefs, and
when the painted paper is laid in a proper light, ap¬
pears only marked with a colouriefs track, as if made
by a finger-nail. 1 fent the fhock alfo over a piece of
board, which had been painted with white-lead and
oil about four years before, and the explofion marked
the black track upon this alfo: this track, however,
was not fo ftrong, nor vanifhed fo foon, as that marked
upon the painted paper; but in about two days time,
it alfo vanifhed entirely.”
Another very remarkable property of the ele£lric E!eftric
fluid is, that it both calcines, vitrifies, and revivifies, fhock cal-
metals. The calcination of them appears from Dr ^1,ies> ^’tn'
Prieftley’s experiments with the brafs chain, mention-^
ed n° 75. where the black duft was plainly a calx of tals.
the metal. The vitrification is performed by exploding
fmall wires of any kind with the fhock of a battery.
In this cafe, the fmall globules of metal, even though
gold, filver, or platina, are found to be completely
vitrified.—The revivification is an experiment of Mr
Beccaria. This he did by making the explofion be¬
tween two pieces of the calces ; and thus he revivified
feveval metallic fuhftances, particularly zinc, and even
produced real quickfilver from cinnabar. In this cafe,
he always obferved ftreaks of black beyond the colour¬
ed metallic ftains; owing, as he fuppofed, to thephlo-
gifton driven from the parts that were vitrified, when
the other part revivified the calx.
Mr Beccaria alfo difeovered another very remarkable Mr Bccca*
property of the eleftric matter ; namely, that when it ria’s expe¬
ls obliged to pafs through air, or any other fubftance l^me,lt)s to
through which it makes its way with difficulty, it
throws before it all light conducing fubftances it can matter
find, in order to facilitate its own paffage ; and thus it throws
will pafs through a greater quantity of refifting medium hght con-
than it would otherwife be able to do. The experi-
ments from which Mr Beccaria drew this conclufion, before it.
were the following.' He put a narrow piece of leaf-
filver between two plates of wax, laying it acrofsthem,
but fo that it did not quite reach one of the fides. The
difeharge being made through this ftrip of metal, by
bringing a wire oppofite to the filver, at the place where
it was difeontinued ; the filver was found melted, and
part of it difperfetl all along the track, that the elec¬
tric matter took between the plates of wax, from the
filver to the wire. Happening once to receive, inad¬
vertently, the chargeofa fmall jar through fomefmoke
of fpirit of nitre, a hole was made. in his thumb,
where the fire entered, and which he thought could
only have been made by the acid carried along by the
tleftric fluid. Dr Priefttey hath made feveral more ex¬
periments, in order to afcei tain this remarkable pro¬
perty,
Cb) “It has often been obferved, that when lightning has ft ruck the mails of fhips, it has pafled over fuch
parts of the mafts as were covered with lamp black and tar, or painted with lamp-black and oil, without the leaft-
Injury, at the fame time that it has Havered the uncoated parts in fuch a manner as to render the mafts ufelefs.” For.
a particular account of fuch fadls, fee the article Th-under.
2706 ELECT
Mifcella- perty, and of which he gives the following account,
neous <( I difcharged frequent Ihocks, both of a common
meats." jar’ anc^ another of three fquare feet, through trains of
brafs duft, laid on a ftool of baked wood, making in-
nj terruptions in various parts of the train ; and always
Dr Pried- found the brafs dull fcattered in the intervals, fo as to
THnents^on conne<^ t^le two disjoined ends of the train ; but then
ithS fubjeft. was hkewife fcattered nearly as much from almoft
all other parts of the train, and in all dire£tions. The
fcattering from the train itfelf was probably occafion-
ed by fmall eleftric fparks between the particles of the
dull; which, caufing a vacuum in the air, drove all
that light matter to a confiderable diftance. But the
particles of the duft, which were ftrowed in the in¬
tervals of the train, fome of which were at leaft
three inches, could hardly be conveyed in that man-
“ When fmall trains were laid, the difperfion was
the moft confiderable, and a light was very vilible fn
the dark, illuminating the whole circuit. It made no
difference, in any of thefe experiments, which way the
fhock was difcharged.
ts When I laid a conliderable quantity of the duft
at the ends of two pieces of chain, through which the
Ihock paffed, at the diftance of about three inches from
one another, the duft was always difperfed over the
whole interval, but chiefly laterally ; fo that the great-
eft quantity of it, lay in arches, extending both ways,
and leaving very little of it in the middle of the path.
It is probable, that the ele&ric power would have
fpread it equally, but that the vacuum made in the air,
by the palfage of the fluid from one heap of duft to the
other, difperfed it from the middle part.
“ I then infulated a jar of three fquare feet, and up¬
on an adjoining glafs-ttand laid a heap of brafs duft;
and at the diftance of feven or eight inches a brafs rod
communicating with the outfide of the jar. Upon
bringing another rod, communicating with the infide,
•upon the heap of duft, it was difperfed in a beautiful
manner, but not one way more than another. How¬
ever, it prefently reached the rod communicating with
the outfide.
“ Making two heaps, about eight inches afunder,
I brought one rod communicating with the infide up¬
on one of them, and another rod communicating with
the outfide upon the other. Both the heaps were dif-
fperfed in all dire£tions, and foon met; prefently after
which the jar was difcharged, By means of this dif¬
perfed duft, in one full explofion. When the two
heaps were too far afunder to promote a full difeharge
at once, a gradual difeharge was made thro* the fcat¬
tered particles of the duft.
“ When one heap of duft was laid in the centre of
the (land, and the two rods were made to approach on
each fide of it, they each attra&ed the duft from the
fide of the heap next to them, and repelled it again in
all direftions. When they came very near the heap,
the difeharge wa.; made through it, without giving it
any particular motion. v
“ All thefe experiments fliow, that light bodies,
poffeffed of a confiderable ftiare of eleftricity, difperfe
in all direftions, carrying the ele&ric matter to places
not abounding with it; and that they fometimes pro¬
mote a fudden difeharge of great quantities of that
matter from places where it^ was lodged, to places
R I C I T Y. Sea VIE
where there was a defeft of it. But an accident led Mifcella-
me to a much more beautiful, and perhaps a more fa- j/160”-
tisfaftory manner of demonilrating the latt part of this ments*" !
propofition, than any that I hit upon while 1 was pur  
filing my experiments with that defign.
“ Hanging a drop of water upon the knob of a
brafs rod communicating with the infide of my battery,
in order to obferve what variety it might occafion in
the circular fpots abovementioned, I was greatly fur-
prifed to find the explofion made all at once, at the di¬
ftance of two inches.
“ I afterwards put fome brafs duft upon a plate
of metal communicating with the infide of the battery;
and making the difeharge thro’ the duft, it exploded at
the diftance of an inch and a half. The duft rofe to¬
wards the difcharged rod, and from thence was dif¬
perfed in all direftions.
“ Thefe experiments are the more remarkable, as
they demonftrate fo great a difference between the di¬
ftance at which the battery may be made to difeharge
at on,ce, by the help of thefe light bodies, and with¬
out them. When the difeharge of a battery by the
knobs of brafs rods, in the open air, is at the diftance
of about half an inch ; it will, by this means, be made
at about two inches.” tl(!
The motions of the eleftric fluid, though prodigi- Experi-
oufly quick, are not inftantaneous. The fhock of the ments con-
Leyden phial, indeed, hath been tranfmitted ^eei"^tg
wires of feveral miles in length, without taking up any the eleftric
fenfible fpace of time. That is, fuppofing two perfons fluid,
to hold the ends of the wire, one communicating with
the knob, and the other with the outfide coating of the
phial, both would feel the Ihock at the fame inftant;
nor would it make any alteration though a confider¬
able part of the furface of the ground was made part
of the conduftor. Dr Prieftley relates feveral very cu¬
rious experiments made with a view to afeertain this
point foon after the Leyden phial was difeovered.
Thefe experiments were planned and direfted by Dr
Watfon, who was prefent at every one of them. His
chief afliftants were Martin Folkes, Efq; prefident of
the royal fociety, Lord Charles Cavendifh, Dr Bevis,
Mr Graham, Dr Birch, Mr Peter Daval, Mr Trem-
bley, Mr Ellicott, Mr Robins, and Mr Short. Many-
other perfons, and. fome of diftinftion, gave their at¬
tendance occafionally.
Dr Watfon, who wrote the hiftory of their proceed¬
ings, in order to lay them before the royal fociety,
begins with obferving (what was verified in all their
experiments), that the eleftric ftiock is not, ftriftly
fpeaking, condufted in the ftiorteft manner poffible, un-
lefs the bodies through which it paffes conduft equally
well; for that, if they conduft unequally, the circuit
is always formed through the beft conduftors, though
the length of it be ever fo great.
The firft attempt thefe gentlemen made, was to con-
yey the eleftric fliock acrofs the river Thames, making
ufe of the water of the river for one part of the chain
of communication. This they accomplilhed on the
14th and 18th of July 1747, by faftening a wire all
along Weftminfter bridge, at a confiderable height a-
bove the water. One end of this wire communicated
with the coating of a charged phial, the other being
held by an obferver, who, in his other hand, held an
iron rod, which he dipped into the river. On the op-
Sea. VII. ELECTRICITY. 2707
Mifcella pofite fide of the river, flood a gentleman, who like-
neous wjfe dipped an iron rod in the river with one hand ;
merits' anc^ ,n t^e ot^er a wire, the extremity of which
 L_ might be brought into contaft with the wire of the
phial.
Upon making the difcharge, the fhock was felt by
the obfervers on both fides the river, but more fenfibly
by thofe who were ftationed on the fame fide with the
machine; part of the eleclric fire having gone from the
wire down the moift ttones of the bridge, thereby ma¬
king feveral (horter circuits to the phial, but flill all
palling through the gentlemen who were ftationed on
the fame fide with the machine. This was, in a man¬
ner, demonftrated by fome perfons feeling a fenfible
ftiock in their arms and feet, who only happened to
touch the wire at the time of one of the difcharges,
when they were Handing upon the wet fteps which led
to the river. In one of the difcharges made upon this
occafion, fpirits were kindled by the fire which had
gone through the river.
Upon this, and the fubfequent occafions, the gen¬
tlemen made ufe of wires, in preference to chains, for
this, among other reafons, that the ele&ricity which
was conduced by chains was not fo ftrong as that
which was conduced by wires. This, as they well
obferved, was occafioned by the junctures of the links
not being fufficiently clofe, as appeared by the fnap-
ping and flalhing at every juncture where there was
the leaft feparation. Thefe lefler fnappings, being nu¬
merous in the whole length of a chain, very fenfibly
leflened the great difcharge at the gun-barrel.
Their next attempt was to force the eleftrical ftiock
to make a circuit of two miles, at the New River at
Stoke Newington. This they performed on the 24th
of July 1747, at two places ; at one of which the di-
ftance by land was 800 feet, and by water 2000: in
in the other, the diftance by land was 2800 feet, and
by water 8000. The difpofition of the apparatus was
fimilar to what they before ufed at Weftminfter bridge,
and the effeft anfwered their utmoft expe&ations. But
as, in both cafes, the obfervers at both extremities of
the chain, which terminated in the water, felt the
fhock, as well when they flood with their rods fixed
into the earth 20 feet from the water, as when they
were put into the river; it occafioned a doubt, whe¬
ther the eleftric circuit was formed through the wind¬
ings of the river, or, a much ftiorter way, by the ground
of the meadow: for the experiment plainly ftiewed,
that the meadow-ground, with the grafs on it, conduc¬
ted the ele&ricity very well.
By fubfequent experiments they were fully convin¬
ced, that the ele&ricity had not in this cafe been con¬
veyed by the water of the river, which was two miles
ip length; but by land, where the diftance was only
one mile; in which fpace, however, the eleflric matter
muft neceflarily have pafled over the New River twice,
have gone through feveral gravel pits, and a laree
ftubble field. 6
July 28th, they repeated the experiment at the fame
place, with the following variation of circumftances.
The iron wire was, in its whole length, fupported by
dry flicks, and the obfervers flood upon original elec¬
trics; the effea of which was, that they felt the ftiock
much more fenfibly than when the condufting wire had
lain upon the ground, and whea the obfervers had like-
wife flood upon the ground, as in the former experi- Mifcella-
ment.
Afterwards, every thing elfe remaining asbefore, the mentSt
obfervers were direfted, inftead of dipping their rods —  
into the water, to put them into the ground, each 15a
feet from the water. They were both fmartly flruck,
though they were diftant from each other above 500
feet.
The fame gentlemen, pleafed with the fuccefs of
their former experiments, undertook another, the objedt
of which was, to determine whether the eledric virtue
could be conveyed through dry ground; and, at the
fame time, to carry it through water to a greater di-
llance than they had done before. For this purpofe,.
they pitched upon Highbury-barn beyond Iflington,
where they carried it into execution on the 5th of Au-
guft 1747. They chofe a ftation for their machine, al-
moft equally diftant from two other Rations for obfer¬
vers upon the New River; which were fomewhat more
than a mile afunder by land, and two miles by water.
They had found the ftreets of London, when dry, to
conduct very ftrongly, for about 40 yards; and the
dry road at Newington about the fame diftance. The
event of this trial anfwered their expectations. The
ele&ric fire made the circuit of the water, when both
the wires and the obfervers were fupported upon ori¬
ginal eleftrics, and the rods dipped into the river.
They alfo both felt the ftiock, when one of the obfer¬
vers was placed in a dry gravelly pit, about 300 yards
nearer the machine than the former ftation, and too
yards diftant from the river: from which the gentle¬
men were fatisfied, that the dry gravelly ground had
conduced the eleftricity as ftrongly as water.
From the ftiocks which the obfervers received in
their bodies, when the eledlfic power was condufted
upon dry flicks, they were of opinion, that, from the
difference of diftance Amply eonfidered, the force of the
ftiock, as far as they had yet experienced, was very
little if at all impaired. When the obfervers flood
upon eleftrics, and touched the water, or the ground,
with the iron rods, the ftiock was always felt in their
arms or wrifts; when they flood upon the ground with
their iron rods, they felt the (hock in their elbows,
wrifts, and ankles ; and when they flood upon the
ground without rods, the (hock was alvyays felt in the
elbow and wrift of that hand which held the conduc¬
ting wire, and in bpth ankles.
The laft attempt of this kind which thefe gentle¬
men made, and which required all their fagacity and:
addrefs in the eonduft of it, was to try whether the
eleftric ftiock was perceptible at twice the diftance to
which they had before carried it, in' ground perfedly
dry, and where no water was near; and alfo to diftin-
guifti, if poffible, the refpedive velocity of ele&ricity
and found.
For this purpofe they fixed upon Shooter’s-hill, and
made their firft experiments on the 14th of Auguft
1747; a time when, as it happened, but one ftiower of
rain had fallen during five preceding weeks. The wire
communicating with the iron rod, which made the dif¬
charge, was 673>2 feet in length, and was fupported
all the way upon baked flicks ; as was alfo the wire
which communicated with the coating of the phial,
which was 3868 feet long, and the obfervers were di¬
ftant from each other two miles. The refult of the ex-
plofioa
2708 ELECT
Mifcella- plofion demonftrated, to the fatisfa£Hon of the gentle-
Ex°eri- men Pre^ent> that the circuit performed by the eleftric
ments. matter was four miles, viz. two miles of wire, and
--—two of dry ground, the fpace between the extremities
of the wires; a diftance which, without trial, as they
juftly obferved, was too great to be credited. A gun
was difcharged at the inftant of the explofion, and the
obfervers had ftop-watches in their hands, to note the
moment when they felt the fhock: but, as far as they
could diftinguilh, the time in which the elettric mat¬
ter performed that vaft circuit might have been inltan-
taneous.
In all the explofions where the circuit was made
of confiderable length, it was obferved, that though
the phial was very well charged, yet that the fnap at
the gun-barrel, made by the explofion, was not near
fo loud as when the circuit was formed in a room ; fo
that a by-ftander, fays Dr Watfon, though verfed in
thefe operations, would not imagine, from feeing the
flafh, and hearing the report, that the ftroke at the ex¬
tremity of the conducing wire could have been confi¬
derable ; the contrary whereof, when the wires were
properly managed, he fays, always happened.
Still the gentlemen, unwearied in thefe purfuits, were
defirotis, if poffible, to afcertain the abfolute velocity
of ele&ricity at a certain diftance; becaufe, though in
the laft experiment, the time of its progrefs was cer¬
tainly very fmall if any, they were defirous of know¬
ing, fmall as that time might be, whether it was mea-
furable; and Dr Watfon had contrived an excellent
method for that purpofe.
Accordingly, on the 5th of Auguft 1648, the gen¬
tlemen met once more, and the laft time, at Shooter’s-
hill; when it was agreed to make an ele&ric circuit of
two miles, by feveral turnings of the wire in the fame
field. The middle of this circuit, they contrived to be
in the fame room with the machine, where an obferver
took in each hand one of the extremities of the wires,
each of which was a mile in length. In thia excellent
difpolition of the apparatus, in which the time between
the explofion and the-ftiock might have been obferved
to the greateft exaftnefs, the phial was, difcharged fe¬
veral times; but the obferver always felt himfelf fhock-
ed at the very inftant of making the explofion. Upon
this the gentlemen were fully fatisfied, that through
the whole length of this wire, which was 12,276 feet,
T17 the velocity of the ele&ric matter was inftantaneous.
Sometimes With all this furprifing velocity, however, it is cer-
the fluid tajn> tjjat fic|es 0f a c}iarged phial may be touched
move more quickly, even by the beft condu&ors, that all the
flowly. eleftric matter hath not time to make the circuit, and
the phial will remain but half difcharged. If the up¬
per plate of an ele&rophorus alfo is very fuddenly
touched with the finger, or any other conduftor, a
very fmall fpark will be obtained on lifting it up ;
though a very ftrong one would be got if the finger
. was kept longer upon it. But how this feeming flow-
nefs can be reconciled with the immeafurable velocity
above-mentioned, doth not appear. It is certain, in¬
deed, that this fluid is confiderably refifted in its paflage
through, or over, every fubftance. It will even prefer
a fhort paflage in the air where it is violently refifted,
to one along a wire of very great length; but here, as
in every other cafe, it feemsto divide its force, and to
break out through feveral different paffages at once.
R I C I T Y. Sed. VII. ,
A method of ascertaining this hath been contrived by Mifcella- '
Dr Prieftley, thus. Bend a wire, about five feet long, neons ,[
in the form reprefented Plate C. fig. 17. fo that the 1
parts A B may come within half an inch of one ano-   1^, j.
ther; then conneft the extremities of the wire with the
hook of the battery, and fend a fhock through it. On
making the explofion, a fpark will be feen between A
and B ; which fhews that the fluid choofes a fhort paf-
fage through the air, rather than the long one through
the wire. The charge, however, does not pafs entirely
between A and B, but part of it goes alfo through the
wire. This may be proved by putting a flender wire
between A and B: for, on making the difcharge with
only this addition in the apparatus, the fmall wire will
hardly be made red hot; whereas, if the large wire
A D B be cut in D, fo as to difeontinue the circuit
A D B, the fmall wire will be melted, and even ex¬
ploded, by the fame (hock that before made it fcarcely
red hot.— But though we can eafily (hew that the elec¬
tric fluid always meets with refiftance, it is by no means
eafy to fhew why the fame refiftance,which puts a tem¬
porary flop to-its motions in fome cafes, doth not fo
in all. u3 li
Another curious experiment in eleflricity is the Water he- It
converting of conducing fubftances into ele&rics by e*ec'; I
cold, and of changing eleflrics into conduftors by
heat. The firft hath yet been done only in the in-
ftance of water. This is a difeovery of Mr Achard’s
at Berlin, who, in the month of January 1776, ob¬
ferved, that water frozen to the 20th degree below the
freezing point of Reaumur’s thermometer, anfwering
to the 13th below o of Fahrenheit’s, is an ele&ric. He
tried his experiments in the open air, where he found,
that a rod of ice two feet long, and two inches thick,
was a very imperfect condu&or when Reamur’s ther¬
mometer was at fix degrees below o; and that it would
not in the leaft conduA when the thermometer was
funk to 200. By whirling a fpheroid of ice in a pro¬
per machine, he even electrified the prime conductor
fo as to attraCt, repel, give fparks, &c. The ice made
ufe of was free from air-bubbles, and quite tranfparent;
to produce which, he ufed to fet a veflel containing di-
ftilled water to be frozen, upon the window of a room
which was rather warm with refpeCt to the ambient
air; fo that the water began to freeze on the one fide
of the veflel, while on the other it was ftill liquid. jjg
To prove that glafs and other eleCtrics become con- Eledtrics |
duCtors when very hot: Take a fmall glafs tube of about become
one twentieth of an inch in diameter, and above a foot ^0n^”^0r* :j
long; clofe it at one end, and introduce a wire into it, y
fo that it may be extended through its whole length;
let two or three inches of this wire projeft above the
open end of the tube, and there faften it with a bit of
cork; tie round the clofed end of the tube another
wire, which will be feparated from the wire within the
tube only by the glafs interpofed between them. In
thefe circumftances, endeavour to fend a ftiock through
the two wires, e. the wire inferted in the glafs tube,
and that tied on its outfide, by connecting one of them
with the outfide, and touching the other with the knob
of a charged jar ; and you will find that the diicharge
cannot be made, unlefs the tube be broken; becaufe
the circuit is interrupted by the glafs at the end of the
tube, which is interpofed between the two wires. But
put that end of the tube to which the wire is tied
Plate Cl.
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Sea. VII. ELECTRICITY. 2709
Mifcclla- into the fire, fo that it may become juft red-hot, then
neons endeavour to difeharge the jar again through the wires,
n lent s'" and you will find that the explofion will be eafily tranf-
 mined from wire to wire through the fubftance of the
glafs, which, by being made red-hot, is become a con-
dinftor.
In order to afeertain the conducing quality of hot
relinous fubftances, oils, &c. bend a glafs tube in the
form of an arch C E FD, fig. 16. Plate XCIX; and tie a
filk firing GCD to it, which ferves to hold it by
when it is to be fet near the fire; fill the middle part
of this tube with rofin, fealing-wax, &c. then intro¬
duce two wires A E, B F, through Us ends, fo that
they may touch the rofin, or penetrate a little way in
it. This done, let a perfon hold the tube over a clear
fire, fo as to melt the rofin within it; at the fame time,
by connedfing one of the wires A or B with the out-
fide of a charged jar, and touching the other with the
knob of the jar, endeavour to make the difeharge
through the rofin, and you will obferve, that while the
rofin is cold, no ftiocks can be tranfmitted through it;
but it becomes a condudlor according as it melts; and
when totally melted, then the (hocks will pafs through
it very freely.
To (how that hot air is a condu&or, ele&rify one of
the cork-ball ele&rometers fufpended upon the (land
fig. 7. of Plate XCIX. or electrify the prime condudlor
with the quadrant ele&rometer; then bring a red-hot iron
within a fufficient diftance of the eleftrometer or prime
condu&or, and you will find that they foon lofe their
electricity, which is certainly conduced by the hot air
contiguous to the iron ; for if the experiment be re¬
peated with the fame iron when cold, /. e. by bringing
it within the fame diftance of the eleCIrified electrome¬
ter or* prime conductor, their electricity will not be
conducted away as before. It has been obferved, that
a battery may be difeharged by introducing a red-hot
iron between two knobs interpofed, and Handing at
fome diftance from each other in the circuit; but if, Mifcella-
inftead of iron, there be introduced a piece of red-hot ,’eou*
glafs between the knobs, (the diftance between them ^'5;
remaining as at firft), the battery cannot be difeharged:  ■ ■■
whence we may infer, that either hot air is not fo good
a condudor as has been imagined; or elfe, that air
heated by iron is ftronger with refpeCt- to its conduc¬
ting power, than when heated by the red-hot glafs.
Befides thefe, there are a number of other anoma¬
lous appearances exhibited by the^eleftric fluid. Some
of the principal ofthem are the phenomena of the Tour¬
malin, the Gymnotus is/eC/Woo, Torpedo, &c. for
a particular account of which, fee thefe articles. See alfo
Magnetism, Lightning, Thunder, &c. The effeCls
of medical eleCtricity are confidered under the article
Medicine. On this laft fubjeCt we (hall juft mention
the conftruCHon of an inftrument which, Mr Cavallo
fays, is very ufeful for curing the tooth-ach. It is re-
prefented Plate XCIX. fig. 15. and confifts of two wires
A E, BE, fixed in two holes in the piece of baked
wood H. Thefe wires, from C to D, and G to Ft
are bended in a plane inclined to the reft of the wires;
their extremities D E, F E, being again bended to¬
wards one another, and in the plane CAGE. The
extremities A B are bended in a ring. When this in¬
ftrument is to be ufed, it mult be applied in fuch a
manner that the affeCted tooth may be pretty clofely
embraced by the two wires at E ; which being flexible,
may be adjufted fo that they will receive teeth of dif¬
ferent fixes: then the end A, or B, of one of the wires,
mull be connected with the outfide of a charged jar,
and the end of the other wire with the knob of the jar,
fo as to make the (hock pafs through the wires of the
inftrument, and, of confequence, through the tooth.
“ A Angle (hock, (fays Mr Cavallo), fent through an
affeCted tooth in this manner, will often cure it inftan-
taneoufly; it is, however, always proper to fend two
or three (hocks through it.”
E L E
ELECTROMETER. See Electricity, n° 45.
ELECTROPHORUS. Ibid. n° 106.
ELECTRUM, in natural hiftory. See Amber.
ELECTUARY, in pharmacy, a form in which both
officinal and extemporaneous medicines are frequently
made. See Pharmacy, n° 883, &c.
ELEEMOSYNJE, and Eleemosynarius. See
Alms, and Almoner.
ELEGANCE, or Elegancy, an ornament of po-
litenefs and agreeablenefs (hewn in any difeourfe, with
fuch a choice of rich and happy expreffions, as to rife
politely above the common manners, fo as to (trike
people of a delicate tafte.
It is obferved, that elegance, though irregular, is
preferable to regularity without elegance : that is, by
being fo fcrupulous of grammatical conftru&ion, we
lofe certain licences wherein the elegance of language
confifts.
ELEGIAC, in ancient poetry, any thing belong¬
ing to elegy. See Elegy.
ELEGIT, in law, a writ of execution, which lies
for a perfon who has recovered debt Or damages; or
upon a recognizance in any court, againft a defendant
•SeePotfry, that is not able to fatisfy the fame in his goods.
M° <!a• ELEGY, a mournful and plaintive kind of poem*..
Vol. IV.
E L E
ELEMENT, a term ufed by philofophers to de¬
note the original component parts of bodies, or thofe
into which they are ultimately refolvable f. t See C7;e-
Some of the ancients reprefented the elements as no
corruptible, and fome as incorruptible. Thofe who
maintained the incorruptibility of the elements, fup-
pofed them to be atoms, i. e. bodies which could not
be divided, or broke into pieces. Of this opinion were
Democritus, Epicurus, &c.
Among thofe who held the elements to be corrup¬
tible, fome reckoned there was but one, and fome that
there were feveral elements. Heraclitus held fire, A-
naximenes air, Thales Milefius water, and Hefiod
earth, to be the only element. The Peripatetics con¬
tended for four elements, fire, air, earth, and water.
Some of thefe philofophers confidered only the fenfible
properties of bodies, fuch as pellucidity and opacity, to
be elements. Of this number Ariftotle himfelf is (aid
to have been. For, confidering the four principal qua¬
lities that fall under the fenfe of touch, he njade four
elements: the firft, cold and dry; the fecond, cold and
moift; the third, hot and moift ; and the fourth, hot
and dry. To give names to thefe elements, he inqui¬
red in what things thefe qualities were found chiefly
to prevail. Accordingly, taking earth to be the coldeft,
15 S and
E L E [ 27
E'ement, and at the fame time the drieft, of all things, he called
the firft element earth. Water being the coldeft and
moifteft of all things, he called his fecond element wa¬
ter; and imagining air to be the hotteft and moifteft
of all things, he called his third element air. Laftly,
fire being the hotteft and drieft of all things, he called
his fourth element fire.
The Cartefians admitted only of three elements,
which they pretend were all that could arife from the
firft divifion of matter, the whole mafs of which they
fuppbfed to have been from the beginning whirled
round feveral different centres. The firft element was
eompofed of the angular parts and prominences broke
ftff from the particles of matter by its continual motion.
This was the materia fuhtilis. The fecond element was
made up of the particles from which the materia fuhti-
fij was broke off, which were now become round; and
the third element confifted of the particles which yet
remained irregular.
Succeeding philofophers have differed greatly in their
Opinions; fome adopting the Epicurean or atomical
hypothefis, and fome the Ariftotelian. It is, however,
eafy to fee, that the queftion concerning elements can
never be folved. If we embrace the atomical fyftem,
we muft be confcious that we know not what an atom
is. We can have no idea of a body that doth not con-
fift of parts, and confequently which cannot be made
lefs than it is. If we adopt the notion of infinite di-
vifibility, or, which is much the fame, of the Ariftote¬
lian qualities, we ftiall find ourfelves equally embarraf-
fed. Some have imagined that there are two diftintft
elements, which they call the celejlial and terrefirial
matter. Both thefe they cortfider as made up of atoms;
but they fuppofe the atoms of the firft to be adtive,
and of the fecond paffive. It is difficult, however, to
maintain this hypothefis without allowing one kind of
atoms to be animated. Certain it is, that we fee
one part of matter in many cafes adting upon, and gi¬
ving motion to, another; but whether the matter which
is pafiive in one cafe doth not become aftive in another,
is a thing not eafy to be determined. The utmoft that
can be faid upon the fubjeft feems to be, that as long
as matter is fubjedt to our eye-fight and other fenfes,
we can talk intelligibly about it; but when its parts
become too final! to be obferved by them, we are then
totally in the dark.
Element, in a figurative fenfe, is ufed for the prin¬
ciples and foundations of any art or fcience; as Euclid’s
Elements, &c.
ELEMI, or Elemy, in the materia medica, a kind
of refin, very improperly called gum elemi. There are
two forts of it kept in the (hops; the one genuine, and
brought from Ethiopia ; the other fpurious, and the
produce of America. The true kind is a yellowifh re¬
fin, with a caft of green and white ; its fmell is ftrong
and not unpleafant, and its tafte acrid and bitter. It
is very inflammable, and readily diffolves in oil and
other fat fubftances over the fire ; which two cha-
fadlers alone fufficiently diftinguifh it from the gums:
■bin this genuine elemi is very rare in Europe.
The fpurious elemi is a whitifh refin produced from
a tall tree, with pinnated leaves, not unlike thofe of
the pear-tree. It is in fome degree pellucid, and of a
fragrant fmell. It is only ufed externally, being great¬
ly recommended for refolving tumours, deterging ul-
to ] E L E
cers, wounds, &e. though Dr Lewis is of opinion, its Elephant,
internal ufe might be advantageous in many cafes. E ephanta.
ELEPHANT, in zoology. See Elephas.
American Elephant; An animal only known in a
foffile date, and that but partially, from the teeth, fome
of the jaw-bones, the thigh-bones, and vertebra;, found
with many others five or fix feet beneath the furface on
the banks of the Ohio. But thefe bones differ in fe¬
veral refpefts from thofe of the elephant; for which, fee
Bones. As yet the living animal has evaded our
fearch. Mr Pennant thinks it “ more than probable,
that it ftill exifts in fome of thofe remote parts of the
vail new continent unpenetrated yet by Europeans.
Providence maintains and continues every created fpe-
cies ; and we have as much affurance that no race of
animals will any more ceafe while the earth remaineth,
than feed-time and harvejl, cold and heat. Jammer and
winter, day or night."
ELEPHANT-Z?<?^/e. See ScARABXtUS.
Knights of the Elephant, an order of knighthood
in Denmark, conferred upon none but perfons of the
firft quality and merit. It is alfo called the order of
St Mary. Its inftitution is faid to have been owing to
a gentleman among the Danifh croifes having killed
an elephant, in an expedition againft the Saracens, in
1184; memory of which, king Canutus inftituted
this order, the badge of which is a towered elephant,
with an image of the holy virgin encircled with rays,
and hung on a watered Iky-coloured ribbon, like the
George in England.
ELEPHANTA, a fmall, but very remarkable
ifland about five miles from the caftle of Bombay in
the Eaft Indies. Of this we have the following de-
fcription from Mr Groffe’s voyage to the Eaft Indies.
“ It can at moft be but about three miles in compafs;,
and confifts of almoft all hill: at the foot of which, as
you land, you fee, juft above the fliorc, on your right,
an elephant, coarfely cut out in (lone, of the natural
bignefs, and at fome little diftance not impoffible to be
taken for a real elephant, from the ftone being natu¬
rally of the colour of that bead. It'(lands on a plat¬
form of (tones of- the fame colour. On the back of this
elephant was placed, Handing, another young one, ap¬
pearing to have been all of the fame ftone, but has been
long broken down. Of the meaning, or hiftory, of this
image, there is no tradition old enough to give any
account.
“ Returning then to the foot of the hill, yon afcend
an eafy flant, which about half way up the hill brings
you to the opening or portal of a large cavern hewn
out of a folid rock, into a magnificent temple: for fuch
furely it may be termed, confidering the immenfe work-
manfhip of fuch an excavation ; and feems to me a far
more bold attempt, than that of the pyramids of E-
gypt. There is a fair entrance into this fubterraneous
temple, which is an oblong (quare, in length about 80
or 90 feet, by 40 broad. The roof is nothing but tire
rock cut flat at top, and in which I could not difcenr
any thing that did not (how it to be all of one piece-
It is about 10 feet high, and fupported towards the
middle, at equi-diftance from the fides and from one
another, with two regular rows of pillars of a fingular
order. They are very maffive, (hort in proportion to
their thicknefs, and their capital bears fome refemblance
to a round cufliion prefled by the (uperincumbent
mounf-
E L E [ jyit 1 E L E
Elephants mountain, with which they are alfo of one piece. At
It the further end of this temple are three gigantic fi-
tine!D gures; the face of one of them is at leaft five feet in
 length, and of a proportionable breadth. But thefe
reprefentations have no reference or connexion, either
to any known hiftory, orjthe mythology of the Gentoos.
They had .continued in a tolerable ftate of prefervation
and wholenefs, confidering the remotenefs of their an¬
tiquity, until the arrival of the Portuguefe, who made
themfelves mafters of the place; and in the blind fury
of their bigotry, not fuffering any idols but their own,
they muft have even been at feme pains to maim and
deface them, as they now remain, confidering the hard-
nefs of the ftone. It is faid they even brought field-
pieces to the demolition of images, which fo greatly
deferved to be fpared for the unequalled curiofity of
them. Of this Queen Catherine of Portugal was, it
feems, fo fenfible, that (he could not conceive that any
traveller- would return from that fide of India, without
viftting the wonders of this cavern; of which too the
fight appeared to me to exceed all the deferiptions I
had heard of them. About two thirds of the way up
this temple, on each fide, and fronting each other, are
two doors or outlets into fmaller grots or excavations,
and freely open to the air. Near and about the door¬
way, on the right-hand, are feveral mutilated images,
fingle and in groupes. In one of the laft, I remarked
a kind of refemblance to the ftory of Solomon divi¬
ding the child, there {landing a figure with a drawn
fword, holding in one hand an infant with the head
downwards, which it appears in a£t to cleave through
the middle. The outlet of the other on the left hand,
is into an area of about 20 feet in length, and 12 in
breadth ; at the upper end of which, as you turn to the
right, prefents itfelf a colonade covered at top, of to
or i 2 feet deep, and in length anfwering to the breadth
of the area: this joins to an apartment of the mod re¬
gular archite&ure, an oblong fquare, with a door in
perfect fymmetry ; and the whole executed in quite a
contrary tafte and manner from any of the oldeft or
beft Gentoo buildings any where extant. I took par¬
ticular notice of fome paintings round the cornices,
not for any thing curious in the defign, but for the
beauty and frefhnefs of the colouring, which mull have
lafted fome thoufands of years, on fuppofing it, as
there is all reafon to fuppofe it, cotemporary with the
building itfelf. The floor of the apartment is gene¬
rally full of water, its pavement or ground-work not
permitting it to be drawn off, or to be foaked up. For
it is to be obferved, that even the cavern itfelf is not
vifitable after the rains, until the ground of it has had
time to dry into a competent hardnefs.”
ELEPHANTIASIS, called alfo the lepra of the
Arabians, in medicine, a chronical difeafe, one of the
two fpecies of leprofy, which affe£ls the whole body,
where even the bones as well as the fkin-are covered
with fpots and tumours, which being red, at laft turn
black. See (the Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
ELEPHANTINE, in Roman antiquity, an appel¬
lation given to the books wherein were regiftered the
tranfa&ions of the fenate and magiftrates of Rome, of
the emperors or genetals of armies, and even of the
provincial magiftrates; the births and clafles of the
people, and other things relating to the cenfus.
They are fuppofed to have been fo called, as being
made of ivory; though fome will have them to have
been W'ritten on the inteftines of elephants.
ELEPHANTOMACHI. See Ethiopia.
ELEPHAS, or the Elephant, in zoology, a ge¬
nus of quadrupeds belonging to the order of bruta.
The charadlers are thefe: The elephant has no fore¬
teeth in either jaw, and the dog-teeth are very long {
the probofejs, or trunk, is long, and capable of laying
hold of any thing; and the body is fomewhat naked.
The elephant is the largeft of all land-animals. From
the front to the origin of the tail he is generally about
16 feet long, from the end of the trunk 25 feet, and
about 14 feet high. The circumference of the neck is
17 feet, and the circumference of the body at the grof-
feft part 25 feet 10 inches; the tail is about 6 feet
long, and 24- in circumference. The circumference of
the legs is about 6 feet. The eyes are fmall in pro¬
portion to the fize of the animal. The muzzle is very
different from that of any other quadruped ; it is no¬
thing but the origin of a long trunk which hangs be¬
tween the two large tufles ; the mouth appears behind
the trunk, which ferves in place of an upper lip, and
the under lip terminates in a point. The tail is fhort,
and fmall in comparifon of the trunk, which has the
appearance of a long thick tail placed before. The feet
are (hort, round, clumfy, and only diftinguiftiable by
the toes. The trunk is, properly fpeaking, the nofe
extended, and terminated by a couple of noftrils. But,
befides ferving as an organ of fmell, the trunk performs
all the funftions of a ftrong and dexterous arm. The
trunk of an elephant is about 8 feet long, 54 feet in
circumference near the mouth, and one foot and a half
near the extremity: it is a pipe of an irregular conical
figure, and widened at the end: the fuperior fide of
the trunk is convex, and furrowed tranfverfely; and
the inferior fide is flat, and has two longitudinal rows
of fmall protuberances refembling the tentacula of the
filk-worm and moft other caterpillars. The upper part
of the trunk correfponds wdth the extremity of the
nofe in other quadrupeds, and anfwers the fame inten-
tion; the inferior part ferves as an upper lip, including
the noftrils at the fame time. For the trunk is a conti¬
nued canal, divided into two cavities by a longitudinal
partition : thefe cavities afeend along the forepart of
the upper jaw, where they make a turn inward, and de-
feend into the palate, and then terminate in two fepa-
rate orifices; they have likewife each a feparate orifice
at the end of the trunk. At the place where thefe ca¬
vities make a turn, and before they enter into the bones
of the head, there is a moveable cartilaginous plate fi-
tuate in fuch a manner as enables the animal to {hut
the canal, and to prevent the water, with which it 00-
cafionally fills the trunk, from entering into the paflage
of the nofe where the organs ferving for the fenfation
of fmell are placed. The elephant can move the trunk
in all dire&ions ; he can extend or ftiorteu it at plea-
fure, without altering the diameters of the two canals
within. By this means refpiration is not interrupted,
whatever be the fituation of the trunk; and the water
is allowed to remain till the animal chufes to throw it
out by an exfpiration. Each canal is lined with afmooth
ftrong membrane, and the fqrface of the trunk is co¬
vered with another ftrong membrane or (kin. The fub-
ftance contained between the exterior and interior
membranes, is a compofition of longitudinal and tranf-
15 S 2 verfe
Elepfaii-
tomachi,
Elephas.
E L E [ 2712 ] E L E
Elephant, verfe mufcles, which ferve to extend and contraft the
” length of the trunk. At the extremity of the trunk
there is a concave protuberance, in the bottom of which
are the two paffages of the noftrils. The inferior part
of the protuberance is thicker than the fides, and the
fuperior part is ftretched out like a finger about five
inches long; which, together with the edges of the
whole extremity of the trunk, takes on different figures
according to the neceffuies of the animal. It is by this
organ that the animal lays hold of food, or other fub-
ftances; which he manages with as much dexterity as
a man does his hand, taking up grains of corn, or the
fmalleft piles of grafs, and conveying them to his
mouth. When he drinks, he thrufts his trunk into the
water, and fills it by drawing in his breath, and ex-
haufting the air: when the trunk is thus filled with
water, he can either throw it out to a great diftance,
or drink it by putting the end of the trunk in his
mouth.
The two large tufks, which fome call the horns of
the elephant, are of a yellowiih colour, and extremely
hard. The bony fubllance of which they are compo-
fed is known by the name of ivory, and much ufed in
different branches of manufafture.
The ears are very large, and refemble thofe of an
ape. The fkin of the elephant has but few hairs on it,
and placed at great diftances from each other. It is
full of wrinkles, like thofe on the palm of a man’s
hand, befides many chaped and greafy ridges. The fe¬
male has two dugs, one on each fide of the breaft. The
parts of generation are fmall in proportion to thofe of
other animals. The penis refembles that of a horfe.
The female organ is fituated near the middle of the
belly, more than two feet diftant from the ufual fitua-
tion in other quadrupeds: when they copulate, the fe¬
male lies down on her back.
Elephants, even in a favage ftate, are peaceable and
gentle creatures. They never ufe their weapons but in
defence of themfelves or companions. Their focial dif-
pofitions are fo ftrong, that they are feldom found a-
Jone, but march always in large troops: the oldefl; and
mofl: experienced lead the van ; the younger, or lame
ones, keep in the middle; and thofe of a fecond rate,
as to age, walk in the rear. The females carry their
young on their tufks, embracing them at the fame time
with their trunk. They feldom march in this regular
order but when they reckon the journey dangerous,
fuch as an expedition to cultivated lands, where they
expedt to meet with refiftance. On other occafions they
are lefs cautious; fome of them falling behind or fepa-
rating from the reft, but feldom fo far as to be with¬
out the reach of affiftance by alarming and affembling
their companions. It is only thefe wanderers that the
hunters dare attack: for it would require a whole army
to aflail a troop of them ; and even an army would be
unable to conquer them without lofing a number of
lives. It is dangerous to offer them the leaft injury:
for they run ftraight upon the offender; and, although
the weight of their body be great, their fteps are io
large, that they eafily outrun the fwifteft man, whom
they either pierce with their tufks, or feize with their
trunk, dart him in the air like a ftone, and then trample
him under their feet. But they never attack any per-
fbn, unlefs when provoked. However, as they are ex¬
tremely fenfible and delicate with regard to injuries, it
is always prudent to keep out of their way. Travel- Elephant,
lers who frequent thefe countries kindle large fires, and   “
beat drums during the night, in order to prevent their
approach. After being once attacked by men, or fall¬
ing into any ambufh, they are faid never to forget the
injury, but fearch for every opportunity of getting re¬
venge. As they are endowed perhaps with a more ex-
quifite fenfation of fmell than any other animal, owing
to the great extent of their nofe, they can fcent a man
at a very great diftance, and trace him by his foot-
fteps.
Elephants are peculiarly fond of the banks of rivers,
deep valleys, and marfhy grounds, efpecially when well
fhaded with trees. They delight in drawing up water
into their trunks, even when they do not drink it, and
amufe themfelves in dafhing the water around. They
cannot endure cold, and are equally averfe to an ex¬
cels of heat: in order to avoid the fcorching heat of
the fun, they retire to thethickeft and moft fhady parts
of the foreft. The bulk of their bodies is fo enormous,
that they do not chufe to go into deep waters fo fre¬
quently as fome other quadrupeds; although the length
of their trunk, which they raife ftraight up, and by
which they refpire, is a great advantage in Ivvimming.
The ordinary food of elephants is roots, herbs,
leaves, the tender branches of trees, fruits, and grains:
but they abhor flefh or fiih. When any of them dif-
covers a fine pafture, he immediately calls and invites
his companions to come and eat with him. As they
devour a large quantity of food in a ftrort time, they
are always fhifting their pafture; when they meet with
cultivated grounds, they make a prodigious defolation,
and deftroy more plants by their feet than they ufe for
nourifhment; which laft is very confiderable, amounting
to 150 pounds of herbage every day: by this means, as
they conftantly graze in large troops, they lay wafte
whole fields in an hour. The Indians and negroes em¬
ploy every art to prevent them from vifiting their culti¬
vated lands, making great noifes, and burning large fires
round their fields. However, thefe precautions are
not always fufficient to prevent the elephants from vi¬
fiting them. They chafe away the domeftic animals,
put the men to flight, and fometimes even throw down
their limber huts. Elephants are hardly fufceptible of
fear; the only things which can furprife them, or flop
their courfe, are artificial fires, fuch as fquibs, crack¬
ers, &c. the effebls of which are fo fudden and fb
quickly repeated, that the elephants frequently turn
back ; and when one runs, all the reft inftantly follow
his example.
Although the focial difpofition in the elephant be
exceeding ftrong; yet whenever the females come iu
feafon, it immediately gives place to the ftronger and
more interefting pafiiou of love. They obferve the
greateft delicacy in their amours, abhorring nothing
fo much as to be feen by their companions. The troop
divide themfelves into couples, fteal off into the moft
fecret places of the foreft, and then give way to all the
impulfes of nature, which are lively and lading in pro¬
portion to the long period of abftinence ; for the fe¬
male goes with young two years, and it is only once
in three years that the feafon of love returns. They
bring forth but one at a time; which, as foon as it comes
into the world, is as large as a wild boar, and is furniih-
ed with teeth ; however, the large tulks do not make
their
E L E
[ 2713 ] E L E
I Elephant, their appearance till fome time after, and at the age of
fix months they are feveral inches long. Elephants of
this age are as large as an ox, when in a natural (late.
But it is incredible how they degenerate when inflaved
and under the management of men. Their difgufl and
chagrin for the lofs of liberty feems never to depart
from their minds. In this ftate, though they feel, at
the proper feafons, the ftrongeft defines for the fex, no
art can allure them to copulate: but the natural paf-
fion, reftrained by an excefs of modefty, burfts out into
fuch violent fits of fury and refentment, that the icrong-
eft chains are hardly fufficient to command them. This
is a ftriking difference betwixt the elephant and mod
other tamed animals. It is only the individual that we
can enflave ; the fpecies, in fpite of all our endeavours,
ftill retain their original freedom and independence.
The manner of taking and taming elephants, there¬
fore, merits our attention. In foreits and fuch places
as are frequented by elephants, the Indians choofe a
fpot and inclofe it with ftrong pallifades; they ufe the
largeft trees as the principal (lakes, to which are fixed
fmaller ones in a tranfverfe direction. Thefe crofs-trees
are fixed fo as to allow a man to pafs eafily through.
There is likewife a large port left for the elephant,
over which is fufpended a ftrong barrier, which is let
down as foon as he enters. In order to decoy him in¬
to the inclofure, the hunters take along with them a
tame female in feafon, and travel about till they come-
fo near as that the cry of the female can reach a male,
whorti they previoufly obferve in the foreft; then the
guide of the female makes her give the cry peculiar to
the feafon of love: the male inftantly replies, and fets
out in queft of her. The guide then makes the female
proceed towards the artificial inclofure, repeating her
cries from time to time as (he goes along. She enters
into the inclofure, the male follows her, and the In¬
dians immediately fhut the port behind him. He no
' fooner difcovers the hunters, and that he is inclofed,
than his pafiion for the fex is converted into rage and
fury. The hunters entangle him with ftrong ropes;
they fetter his legs and trunk; they bring two or three
tame elephants in order to pacify and reconcile him to
his condition. In a word, they reduce him to obedi¬
ence in a few days, by a proper application of torture
and carefles. There are many other methods of catch¬
ing elephants. Inftead of making large inclofures with
pallifades, like the kings of Siam, and other monarchs,
the poor Indians content themfelves with a very Ample
apparatus: they dig deep pits in the roads frequented
by elephants, covering them over with branches of
trees,, turf, &c. When an elephant falls into one of
thefe pits, he is unable to get out again.
The elephant, when tamed, is the moft friendly and
obedient of all animals:, he is-entirely attached to the
perfon who feeds and takes care of him. In a ftiort
time he nnderftands figns, and the found of his matter’s
voice. He difiinguifhes the language of paffion, of
command, of fatisfadlion ; and ads accordingly. He
receives his orders with attention,, and executes them
with prudence and alacrity, but without precipitation.
He eafily learns to bow his knees and lower his body,
for the convenience of thofe who mount him. He ca-
refles his friends with his trunk. He lifts burdens with
his trunk, and affifts thofe who are loading him in lay¬
ing them on his back. He delights in ftiining harnefs
and trappings. When yoked in a cart or waggon, he Elephant
pulls equally and cheerfully, unlefs he be abufed by “
injudicious chaftifements. His guide is generally
mounted on his neck, with a fmall rod of iron (harp at
the point in his hand; he direds his motion by prick¬
ing him on the ears and head; but, for the moft part,
a word is fufficient.
A tame elephant will do more labour than fix horfes i
but then he requires a proportional quantity of food.
They are the principal beads of burden in many parts
of Africa and the Eaft Indies. They carry facks and
bundles of all kinds on their neck, back, and tuiks.
They never lofe or damage any thing committed to
their care: they will (land on the edge of a river, take
bundles off their necks and tuiks, lay them carefully
in a boat wherever they are defired, and try with their
trunk whether they are properly fituated; if they be
loaded with cades, they go in queft of Hones to prop
them and prevent them from rolling.
The elephant is not only the moft tradlable, but the
moft intelligent, of animals ; fenfible of benefits, re-
fentful of injuries, and endowed even with a fenfe of
glory.—In India, they were once employed in the LudoJph.
launching of (hips : one was directed to force a very Com. in hift,
large veftel into the water; the work proved fuperior
to his ftrength : his mafter, with a farcaftic tone, bid
the keeper take away this lazy bead and bring ano¬
ther :. the poor animal inftantly repeated his efforts,
fraftured his (kull, and died on the fpot. In Delli, an
elephant paffing along the ftreets, put his trunk into a
taylor’s (hop, where (everal people were at work: one
of them pricked the end with his needle: the bead
paffed on; but in the next dirty puddle filled his trunk
with water, returned to the (hop, and fpurting every
drop among the people who had offended him, fpoilt
their work.
An elephant in Adfmeer, which often paffed thro’ 1H<L
the bazar or market, as he went by a certain herb-
woman, always received from her a mouthful of greens:
at length he was feized with one of his periodical fits
of rage, broke his fetters, and, running through the
market, put the crowd to flight ; among others, this
woman, who in hade forgot a little child (he had'
brought with her. The animal recolledling the fpot
where his benefaftrefs was wont‘to fit, took up the in¬
fant gently in his trunk, and placed it in fafety on a
(tall before a neighbouring houfe. Another, in his
madnefs, killed his comae ox governor: the wife feeing
the misfortune, took her two children and flung them
before the elephant, faying, “ Now you have dc ftroyed
their father, you may as well put an end to their lives
and mine.” It inftantly (lopped, relented, took the
greatell of the children, placed him on its neck, adop¬
ted him for its caraac, arid never afterwards would per¬
mit any body elfe to mount it.
At the Cape of. Good-Hope, it.is cuftomary to kill
thofe animals, for the fake of their teeth, by the chace.
Three horfemen, well-mounted and armed with Jances, id9i
attack the elephant alternately, each relieving the other cw/c
as they fee their companion preffed, till the bead is p. 160.
fubdued. Three Dutchmen (brothers), who had made
large fortunes by this bufinefs, determined to retire to
Europe, and enjoy the fruits of their labours ; but re-
folved, before they, went, to have a lad chace by way
of amufement: they met with their game, and began
the.
E L E
Sttep'has tie attack in the ufual manner; but unfortunately one
Elevator t^e‘r ^or^cs down and flung its rider: the enra-
 L. ged animal inftantly feized the unhappy man with its
trunk, flung him up to a vaft height in the air, and re¬
ceived him on one of its tufks; then turning towards
the two other brethren, as if it were with an afpe£t of
revenge and infult, held out to them the impaled
wretch wreathing on the bloody tooth.
From the earlieft accounts in hiftory, the eaftern na¬
tions have employed elephants in war; Alexander the
Great was the firft European who ever mounted an
elephant. He carried a numBtr of them into Greece,
which Pyrrhus employed fome years after againft the
Romans at the battle of Tarentum. Both the Greeks
and Romans foon learnt to get the better of thefe mon-
ftrous animals ; they opened their ranks and allowed
them to pafs through ; neither did they attempt to
hurt them, but threw darts, &c. at their guides. Now
that fire-arms are the principal inftruments of war, ele¬
phants, who are terrified at the noife and flame, inttead
of being ufeful, would only tend to embarrafs and con-
fufe an army. However, in Cochin and other parts
iof Malabar, as alfo in Tonquin, Siam, and Pegu,
where fire-arms are little underltood, they are (Ull'ufed
in battle. The guide fits aftride upon the neck, and
the combatants fit or {land upon the other parts of the
body.
When the elephant is properly managed, he lives ve¬
ry long even in a ftate of flavtry and labour. That fome
have lived in this ftate 130 years, is pretty well authen¬
ticated. In a natural ftate, they often exceed 200
years, and propagate their fpecies till they are 120: It
is 30 years before they come to their full growth.
The elephant inhabits India, and fome of its greater
iflands, Cochin China, and fome of the provinces of
China. It abounds in the fouthern parts of Africa,
from the river Senegal to the Cape ; and from thence
as high as Ethiopia on the other fide. They are found
in the greateft numbers in the interior parts, where
there are vaft forefts, near the fides of rivers. They
are not at prefent domefticated in Africa, but only in
the more civilized parts of Afia. They are much more
numerous in Africa. In fome parts they fwarm fo,
that the Negroes are obliged to make their habitations
under ground for fear of them. They are killed and
eaten by the natives, and the trunk is faid to be a de¬
licious morfel. All the teeth are brought from Afri¬
ca : they are frequently picked up in the woods; fo
that it is uncertain whether they are (hed teeth, or thofe
of dead animals. The African teeth which come from
Mofambique, are 10 feet long; thofe of Malabar only
three or four; the largeft in Afia are thofe of Cochin
China, which even exceed the fize of the elephants of
Mofambique. The Ikin is. thick, and, when drefled,
proof againft a mufket ball. The flefti, the gall, the
{kin, and the bones, are faid to be ufed medicinally by
the Chinefe.
ELEVATION, the fame with altitude or
height.
Elevation of the Hoft, in the church of Rome,
that part of the mafs where the prieft raifes the hoft
above his head for tlfe people to adore.
ELEVATOR, in anatomy, the name of feveral
mufcles, fo called from their ferving to raife the parts
of the body to which they belong.
E L G
ELEVATORY, in furgery, an inftrument for Elcvatmy
raifing deprefled or fradured parts of the fcull, to be H.
applied after the integuments and periofteum are re- ein*
moved. See Surgery.
ELEVENTH, or chord of the eleventh. See In¬
terval.
ELEUSINIA, in Grecian antiquity, a feftival
kept in honour of Ceres, every fourth year by fome
ftates, but by others every fifth. The Athenians celebra¬
ted it at Eleufis, a town of Attica ; whence the name.
It was celebrated with a world of ceremony, and per-
fons of both fexes were initiated in it; it being deem¬
ed impious to negled doing fo. The myfteries were
of two forts ; the lefler, and the greater : whereof the
former were facred to Proferpine, Ceres’s daughter;
and the latter to Ceres herfelf. According to Lac-
tantius, they confifted in a myftical reprefentation of
what mythologifts teach of Ceres ; tho’ fome of the
Chriftian fathers will have the great myftery, or fecret»
which they were forbidden by law, upon pain of death,
to divulge, to have been the reprefentation or figures
of both male and female privities, which were handed
about and expofed to the company.
ELEUTHERIA, another feftival celebrated at
Platasa, by delegates from almoft all the cities of
Greece, in honour of Jupiter Eleutherius, or the af-
fertor of liberty.
It was inftituted in memory of the victory obtained
by the Grecians, in the territories of Plataea, over
Mardonius, the Perfian general left by Xerxes with a
mighty army to fubdue Greece.
ELF, a term now almoft obfolete, formerly ufed to
denote a fairy, or hobgoblin ; an imaginary being, the
creature of ignorance, fuperftition, and craft #. * See Fair/.
ELF-y^rnnu/, in natural hiftory, a name given to the
flints, anciently faftiioned into arrow-heads, and ftill
found fofiile in Scotland, America, and feveral other
parts of the world : they are believed by the vulgar to
be {hot by fairies, and that cattle are fometimes killed
by them.
ELGIN, the capital of the county of Murray in
Scotland, fituated on the river Lofey about fix miles
north from the Spey, in W. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat.57.
40. Mr Pennant fays, it is a good town, and hath
many of the houfes built over piazzas ; but, excepting
its great cattle-fairs, has little trade. It is principal¬
ly remarkable for its ecclefiaftical antiquities. The ca¬
thedral, now in ruins, has been formerly a very mag¬
nificent pile. The weft door is very elegant and rich¬
ly ornamented. The choir is very beautiful, and has
a fine and light gallery running round it ; and at the
call ^nd are two rows of narrow windows in an excel¬
lent Gothic tafte. The chapter-houfe is an o&agon;
the roof fupported by a fine Angle column with neat
carvings of coats of arms round the capital. There is
ftill a great tower on each fide of this cathedral ; but
that in the centre, with the fpire and whole roof, are
fallen in ; and form moft awful fragments, mixed with
the battered monuments of knights and prelates. Boe¬
thius fays, that Duncan, who was killed by Macbeth
at Invernefs, lies buried here. The place is alfo
crowded with a number of modern tomb-ftones. ---
The cathedral was founded by Andrew de Moray, in
1224, on a piece of land granted by Alexander II.;
and his remains were depofited in the choir, under a
tomb
[ 27H 1
FUas
II
Elizabeth
ELI [ 27
tomb of blue marble, in 1244. The great tower was
built principally by John Innes bifhop of this fee, as ap-
. pears by the inicription cut on one of the great pillars :
“ Hie Jacetin Xto, pater et dominus, Dominus Jo¬
hannes ds Innes, hujus ecclefias Epifcopus ;—qui hoc
notabileopus incepit et perfeptennium edificavit.”
ELIAS, the prophet, memorable for having e-
fcaped the common cataftropheof mankind ; being ta¬
ken up alive into heaven, in a Sery chariot, about 895
B. C. See the Bible.
ELICHMAN (John), a native of Silefia in the
17th century, who pra&ifed phyfic at Leyden, and was
remarkable for underftanding 16 longuages. He fup-
ported an opinion, that the German and Perfian lan¬
guages were derived from the fame origin. His La¬
tin tranflation of the Tablet of Cebes, with the Arabic
verfion and the Greek, was printed at Leyden in 1640,
under the care of Salmafius, who prefixed thereto a
very ample preface.
ELIQUATION, in chemiftry, an operation by
•which a more fufible fubftance is feparated from one
that is lefs fo, by means of a heat fufficiently intenfe to
melt the former, but not the latter. Thus an allay of
copper and lead may be feparajed by a heat capable of
melting the latter, but not the former.
ELISHA the prophet, famous for the miracles he
performed, died about 830 B. C. See the Bible.
ELISION, in grammar, the cutting off or fup-
prefiing a vowel at the end of a word, for the fake
of found, or meafure, the next word beginning with
a vowel.
Elifions are pretty frequently met with in Englilh
poetry, but more frequently in the Latin, French,
&c. They chiefly confift in fupprellions of the a, e,
and i, though an elifion fuppreffes any of the other
vowels.
ELIXATION, in pharmacy, the extra&ing the
virtues of ingredients by boiling or ftewing.
ELIXIR, in medicine, a compound tin&ure ex-
traftedfrom many efficacious ingredients. Hence the
difference between a tinfture and an elixir feems to be
‘this, that a tindlure is drawn from one ingredient,
fometimes with an addition of another to open it and
to difpofeit to yield to the .menftruum ; whereas an e-
lixir is a tih&ure extra&ed from feveral ingredients at
the fame time. See Pharmacy, n° 388, >bc.
ELIZABETH, queen of England, daughter of
Henry VIII. and Anna Bojeyn, was born at Green¬
wich, September 7th, 1533. According to the hu¬
mour of the times, fhe was early inftructed in the
learned languages, firft by Grindal, who died when (lie
was about 17, and afterwards by the celebrated Roger
Afcham. She acquired likewife confiderable know¬
ledge of the Italian, Spanifh, and French languages.
Dr Grindal was alfo her preceptor in divinity, which
flie is faid to have ftudied with uncommon application
and induftry. That Elizabeth became a Proteftant,
and her fifter Mary a Papift, was the effedt of that
caufe which determines the religion of all mankind \
namely, the opinion of thofe by whom they were edu¬
cated : and this difference of opinion, in their tutors,
is not at all furprifing, when we recoiled, that their
father Harry was of both religions, or of neither.
But the ftudies of our illuftrious princefs were not
confined merely to languages and theology : (he was
!5 ] ELI
alfo inftru&ed in the political hiftory of the ancients; Elirabetfe.
and was fo well {killed in mufic, as to fing and play
“ artfully and fweetly.”
After the (hort reign of her brother Edward, our he¬
roine being then about 20 years of age, her fifter fire-
£rtf«£/-acceding to the crown, Elizabeth experienced a
confiderable' degree of perfecution, fo as to be not a
little apprehenfive of a violent death. She was accu-
fed of nobody knows what; imprifoned ; and, we are
told, inhumanly treated. At laft, by the interceffion
of king Philip of Spain, (he was fet at liberty ; which
(lie continued to enjoy, till, on the death of her pious
fifter, (he, on the 17th of November 1558, afeended
the throne of England. Her political hiftory, as a
queen, is univerfally known, and admired * : but her * See (in¬
attention to the government of her kingdom did not to- ^ory,of)
tally fufpend her purfuit of learning. Afcham, in his att
School ■majler, tells us, that, about the year 1563, five
years after her acceffion, (he being then at Windfor;
befides her perfeft readinefs in Latin, Italian, French,
and Spanifli, (he read more Greek in one day, than fome
prebendaries of that church did read Latin in a whole
week, (p. 21.)—She employed Sir John Fortefcue to
read to her, Thucydides, Xenophon, Polybius, Eu¬
ripides, JEfchines, and Sophocles. (Ballard, p. 219.)
—That the Latin language was familiar to her, is evi¬
dent from her fpeech to the univerfity of Oxford, when
(he was near fixty ; alfo from her fpirited anfwer to the
Polifti ambaffador in the year 1598. And that (he
was alfo (killed in the art of poetry appears, not only
from the feveral feraps which have been preferved, but
likewife from the teftimony of a cotemporary writer,
Puttenham, in his Art of Engl. Poetry (a very fcarce
book). Thefe are his words:—“ But, laft in recital,
“ and firft in degree, is the queen, whole learned, de-
“ licate, noble mufe, eafily furmounteth all the reft,
“ for fenfe, fweetnefs, or fubtilty, be it in ode, ele-
“ gy, epigram, or any other kind of poem,” &c. In
this author are to be found only a fpecimen of 16 ver-
fes of her Englifti poetry. “ But/’ fays Mr Wal¬
pole, “ a greater inftance of her genius, and that too
“ in Latin, was her extempore reply to an infolent
“ prohibition delivered to her from Philip II. by hi*'
“ embaffador, in this tetraftic.
Te veto ne pergas bello defcndere Belgas ::
Queb Dracus eripuit, mine reltituantur oportet :
Quas pater evtrtit, jubeo te condere cella- :
Religio pap* fac reftituatur ad migtiem.
“ She inftantly anfwered him, with as much fpirit as
“ (he ufed to return his invafions,”
Ad Grseeas, bone rex, fient tnandata calendas.
Being earneftly preffed by a Romifti prieft, during:
his perfecutiort, to declare her opinion concerning the
real prefence of Cbrift’s body in the wafer, (he an¬
fwered,
Chrift was the.word that fpake it ;
He took the bread, and brake it ;
And what that word did make it,
That I believe, and take it.
Fuller's Ally State.
She gave the chara&ers of four knights of Notting-
hamfhire in the following diftich :
Gervafethe gentle, Stanhope the (lout,
Markham the lion, and Sutton the lout.
Waif. Cat.
Coming
■Elizabeth
Ell.
ELL [ 27
Coming into a grammar-fchool, (he charadterifed
three claffic authors in this hexameter :
Perfius a crab-ftaff; bawdy Martial; Ovid a fine wag.
Full. Worth, of War-w. 116.
Sir Walter Raleigh having wrote on a window,
Fain would I climb, yet fear I to fall;
She immediately wrote under it,
If thy heart fail thee, climb not at all.
Worth. ofDevonJh. iSt.
Doubtlefs, (he was a woman of fingular capacity,
and extraordinary acquirements; and, if we could for¬
get the (lory of the Scottifti Mary, and of her favou¬
rite Eifex, together with the burning a few Anabap-
tifts, we might pronounce her the moft illuftrious of
illuftrious women. She died in her palace at Rich¬
mond, the 24th of March, 1602, aged 70, having
reigned 44 years; and was interred in the chapel of
Henry VII. in Weftminfter abbey. Her fuccelfor
James erefted a magnificent monument to her memory.
— She wrote, I. The mirrour, or glafs of the ftnful
foul. This was tranflated put of French verle into
Englifh profe, when (he was eleven years old. It was
dedicated to queen Catharine Parr. Probably it was
never printed ; but the dedication and preface are pre-
ferved in the Sylloge efijlolarum, in Hearne’s edition of
Livii Foro-Julienfts, p. 161. 2. Prayers and medi~
tations, &c. Dedicated to her father, dated at Hat¬
field, 1545. Manufcript, in the royal library. 3..^
dialogue out of Xenophon, in Greek, between Hiero a
king, yet fame time a private perfon, and Simonides a
.poet, as touching the life of the prince and private man.
Firft printed, from a manfcript in her majefty’s own
hand-writing, in the Gentleman’s Magazine for 1743.
4. Two orations of Ifocrates, tranflated into Latin.
5. Latin oration at Cambridge. Preferved in the
king’s library: alfo in Hollinflied’s Chron. p. 1206;
and in Fuller’s Hift. of Cambr. p. 138. 6. Latin o-
ration at Oxford. See Wood’s Hift. and Antiq. of
Oxf. lib. i. p. 289. alfo in Dr Jebb’s Append, to his
Life of Mary, Queen of Scots. 7. A comment on
Plato. 8. Boethius de confolatione phiiofophix, tranf¬
lated into Englifti anno 1593. 9- Sallujl de hello Ju-
gurthino, tranflated into Engliflt anno 1590. iq. A
play of Euripides tranflated into Latin, Cat. of Royal
jduth. ir. A prayer for the ufe of her fleet in the
great expedition in 1596. 12. Part of Horace’s art
of poetry, tranflated into Englifti, anno 1598. 13. Plu¬
tarch de curiofitate, tranflated into Englifh. 15. Let¬
ters on various occafions to different perfons; feve-
ral fpeeches to her parliament; and a number of o-
ther pieces.
Elizabeth Petrowna, (daughter of Peter the
Great), the laft emprefs of Ruflia, diftinguiftied her-
felf by her fignal clemency. She made a vow, that no
perfon (hould be put to death in her reign, and (he
ftri&ly obferved it. The example has been followed,
and confirmed by law, under the prefent auguft fove-
reign of Ruflia, Catharine II. Elizabeth died in 1762,
in the 21ft year of her reign and 5 2d of her age.
ELK, in zoology. See Cervus.
ELL, a meafure of length, different in different
countries : but thofe moftly ufed, are the Englifti and
Fleraifli ells; whereof the former is three feetnine inches,
16 ] E L O
or one yard and a quarter; and the latter only 27
inches, or three quarters of a yard. In Scotland, the
ells contains 37-^5- Englifli inches.
ELLIPSIS, in geometry, a curve line returning in¬
to itfelf, and produced from the fedtion of a cone by a
plane cutting both its lides, but not parallel to the
bafe. See Conic Sections.
Ellipsis, in grammar, a figure of fyntax, where¬
in one or more words are not expreffed ; and from this
deficiency, it has got the name ellipfs.
ELLIPTIC, or Elliptical, lomething belong¬
ing to an ellipfis.
ELLIPOMACHROSTYLA, in natural hiftory,
a genus of imperfedl cryftals, with fingle pyramids;
one end of their column being affixed to fomefolid bo¬
dy. They are dodecahedral, with thinner hexangular
columns and hexangular pyramids.
Of thefe cryftals, authors enumerate a great many
fpecies ; among which are the whitifh pellucid fprig
cryftal, a bright brown kind, a dull brown kind,
and a bright yellow kind, all which are farther di¬
ftinguiftied according to the different lengths of their
pyramids.
ELLIPOPACHYSTYLA, in natural hiftory, a
genus of imperfedt cryftals, compofed of 12 planes, in
an hexangular column, terminated by an hexangular
pyramid at one end, and irregularly affixed to fome o-
therbody at the other, with (horter columns.
There are two fpecies of thefe cryftals ; one ffiort,
bright, and colourlefs, found in great plenty in New
Spain and other parts of America; the other, a (hort,
dull, and dufley brown one, found in Germany, and
fometimes in England.
ELM, in botany. See Ulmus.
ELMACINUS (George), author of a Hi/lory of
the Saracens, was born in Egypt towards the middle of
the 13th century. His hiftory comes down from Ma¬
homet to the year of the Hegira 512, anfwering to the
year of our Lord 1134; in which he fets down year by
year, in a very concife manner, whatever regards the Sa¬
racen empire, intermixed with fome paffages relating
to the eattern Chriftians. His abilities muff: have been
confiderable; fince, though he profeffed Chriftianity,
he held an office of truft near the perfons of the Maho¬
metan princes. He was fon to Yafer A1 Amid, fecre-
tary to the council of war under the fultans of Egypt
for 45 years ; and in 1238, when his father died, fuc-
ceeded him in his place. His hiftory of the Saracens
was tranflated from Arabic into Latin by Erpinius;
and printed in thefe two languages in folio, at Ley¬
den, in 1625. Erpinius died before the publication;
but Golius took care of it, and added a preface. It
was dedicated by Erpinius’s widow to Dr Andrews,
biftiop of Wincffefter.
ELOCUTION. See Oratory, Part III.
ELOGY, a praife or panegyric bellowed on any
perfon or thing, in confideration of its merit. The
beauty of elogy confifts in an exprefiive brevity. Eu-
logiums (hould not have fo much as one epithet, pro¬
perly fo called, nor two words fynotiymous: they
(hould ftri&ly adhere to truth ; for extravagant and
improbable elogies rather leffen the charadter of the
perfon or thing they would extol.
ELOHI, Eloi, or Elohim, in feripture, one of the
names of God. But it is to be obferved, that angels,
prin*
Ellipfis
I!
Elohi.
ELS r 2617 1 E L Z
oined princes, great men, judges, and even falfe gods, are
II fometimes called by this name. The fequel of the dif-
inorc' courfe is what affifts us in judging rightly concerning
the true meaning of this word. It is the fame as E-
loha. One is the Angular, the other the plural. Ne-
verthelefs Elohim is often conltrudted in the Angular
number, particularly when the true God is fpoken of;
but when falfe gods are fpoke of, it is conftrued rather
in the plural.
ELOINED, in law, AgniAes reftrained or hinder¬
ed from doing fomething: thus it is faid, that If thofe
within age be eloined, fo that they cannot fue perfon-
ally, their next friend lhall fue for them.
ELONGATION, in aftronomy, the digreffion or
recefs of a planet from the fun, with refpedt to an eye
placed on our earth. The term is chiefly ufed in fpeak-
ing of Venus and Mercury, the arch of a great circle
intercepted between either of thefe planets and the fun
being called the elongation of that planet from the fun.
Elongation, in furgery, is an imperfedl luxation,
occafloned by the ftretching or lengthening of the li¬
gaments of any part.
ELOPEMENT, in law, is where a married wo¬
man departs from her hufband, and cohabits with an
adulterer ; in which cafe the hufband is not obliged to
allow her any alimony out of his eftate, nor is he
chargeable for neceflaries for her of any kind. How¬
ever, the bare advertiflng a wife in the gazette, or o-
ther public papers, is not a legal notice to perfons in
general not to truft her; though: a perfonal notice
iven by the hufband to particular perfons is faid to
e good.—An adion lies, and large damages may be
recovered, againft a perfon for carrying away and de¬
taining another man’s wife.
ELOQUENCE, the art of fpeaking well, fo as to
aflfeft and perfuade. See Oratory.
ELSHEIMER (Adam), a celebrated painter,
born at Francfort on the Maine, in 1574. He was
Arit a difciple of Philip Uffenbach a German ; but his
deflre of improvement carrying him to Rome, he foon
became a moft excellent artift in landfcapes, hiftory,
and night-pieces, with fmall flgures. His works are
but few; and the great pains he beftowed in Anifhing
them, raifed their prices fo high, that they are hard¬
ly any where to be found but in the cabinets of prin¬
ces. He was of a melancholy turn, and funk un¬
der the embarraffments of his circumftances in 1610.
James Ernelt Thomas of Landau was his difciple; and
imitated his flyle fo nicely, that their performances are
not eaflly diftinguiflied.
ELSIMBURG, a port-town of Sweden, in the
province of Gothland, and territory of Schonen, feat-
ed on the Ade of the Sound; over againft. Elfinore. It
was formerly a fortrefs belonging to the Danes; but
all the fortiflcations were demoliftied in 1679, and
there is only one tower of a caftle which remains unde-
molifhed. It now belongs to Sweden. E. Long. 13.
20. N- Lat. 56. 2.
ELSINORE, a port-town of Denmark, feated on
the Sound, in the ifle of Zealand. The Sound is a
ftrait of the Baltic Sea, of which this is one of the
quays, for here the Danes take toll of all the mer¬
chant (hips which go to the Baltic. Sometimes two
or three hundred veffels pafs through it in a day. E.
Long. 13. 23. N. Lat. 56. o.
Vol. IV.
ELVAS, a large town, and one of the belt and -Elras
moft important in Portugal, feated in the province of £jz|,'v-r
Alentejo, a few miles from the frontiers of .Eftrama- z V1 '
dura, in Spain. It is built on a mountain, and is
ttrongly fortiAed with works of free-ftone. The
ftreets of the town are handfome, and the houfes neat;
and there is a ciftern fo large, that it will hold water
enough to fupply the whole town Ax months. The
water is conveyed to it by a magniAcent aqueduct,
three miles in length, fuftained in fome places by four
or flve high arches, one upon another. It was bom¬
barded by the French and Spaniards in 1706, but
without effedt. It has generally a garrifon of one thou-
fand men. The king founded an academy here, in
1733, for young gentlemen. W. Long. 7. 28. N.
Lat. 38. 39.
ELUL, in ancient chronology, the 12th month of
the Jewifti civil year, and the Axth of the ecclefiafti-
cal: it conAfted of only 29 days, and anfwered pretty
nearly to our Auguft.
ELUTRIATION, in chemiftry, an operation per¬
formed by wafhing folid fubftances with water, ftir-
ring them well together, and hattily pouring off the
liquid, while the lighter part remains fufpended in it,
that it may thereby be feparated from the heavier
part. By this operation metallic ores are feparated
from earth, ftones, and other unmetallic particles ad¬
hering to them.
ELY, a city and bifliop’s fee of Cambridgdhire, A-
tuated about 12 miles north of Cambridge. E. Long.
13'. N. Lat. 52. 24.
It is a county of itfelf, including the territory a-
round; and has a judge who determines all caufes civil
and criminal within its limits.
ELYOT (Sir Thomas), a gentleman of eminent
learning in the 16th century, was educated at Oxford,
travelled into foreign countries, and upon his return was
introduced to court. His learning recommended him
to Henry VIII. who conferred the honour of knight¬
hood on him, and employed him in feveral embaflies;
particularly, in 1532, to Rome, about the divorce of
queen Catharine, and afterward to Charles V. about
1536. He wrote, The cajlle of health, The gover¬
nor, Banquet of Sapience, Of the education of chil¬
dren, De rebus viemorabilibus Anglia, and other
books ; and was highly efteemed by all his learned co¬
temporaries.
ELYSIUM, or Elysian Fields, in heathen my¬
thology, certain plains, abounding with woods, foun¬
tains, verdure, and every delightful object; fuppo-
fed to be the habitation of heroes and good men af¬
ter death.
According to fome, the fable of ElyAum is of Phoe¬
nician extraftion, or rather founded upon the account
of paradife delivered in the Scriptures.
ELZEVI R,( Lewis, Bonaventure, Abraham, Lewis,
and Daniel), Ave celebrated printers at Amfterdam
and Leyden ; who greatly adorned the republic of let¬
ters by beautiful editions of the beft authors of anti¬
quity. Lewis began to be famous at Leyden about
the year 1595; and wasthe Arft who diftinguiflied the
v confonant from the u vowel. Daniel died about the
year 1680, and was the laft of the family who excel¬
led in the printing art. The Elzevirs printed feveral ,
catalogues of their editions ; but the laft, publiftied by
15 T Da-
E M B
Emanation Daniel, is confiderably enlarged : it was printed at
EmbiLr» ■ -^■m^er^am ’n The types of thefe printers were
m a ming j-o e]egant> tj)at name has been given to all beau¬
tiful types, particularly of the fmall kind, ever fince.
EMANATION, the aft of flowing or proceeding
from fome fource or origin ; or the thing that proceeds
from that aftion.
EMANCIPATION, in the Roman law, the fet-
ting free a fon from the fubjectron of his father; fo
that whatever moveables he acquires belong in pro¬
perty to him, and not to his father, as before eman¬
cipation.
Emancipation puts the fon in a capacity of managing
his own affairs, and of marrying without his father’s
confent, tho’ a minor. Emancipation differs from ma-
numiffion, as the latter was the aft of a mafter in fa¬
vour of a flave, whereas the former was that of a father
in favour of his fon.
There were two kinds of emancipation: the one
tacit, which was by the fon’s being promoted to fome
dignity, by his coming of age, or by his marrying, in
all which cafes he became his own mafter of courfe.
The other, exprefs; where the father declared be¬
fore a judge, that he emancipated his fon. In perform¬
ing this, the father was firll to fell his fon imaginarily
to another, whom they called pater fiduciarius, father
in truft; of whom being brought back again by the
natural father, he manumitted him before the judge by
a verbal declaration.
Emancipation ftill obtains in France with regard to
minors or pupils, who are hereby fet at liberty to ma¬
nage their own effefts, without the advice or direftion
of their parents or tutors.
EMARGINATED, among botanifts. See Bo¬
tany, p. 1276.
EMASCULATION, the aft of caftrating or de¬
priving a male of thofe parts which charafterife his
fex. Se Castration, and Eunuch.
EMBALMING, is the opening a dead body, ta¬
king out the inteftines, and filling the place with o-
doriferous and deficcative drugs and fpices, to prevent
its putrifying. The Egyptians excelled all other na¬
tions in the art of preferving bodies from corruption ;
for fome that they have embalmed upwards of 2000
years ago, remain whole to this day, and are often
brought into other countries as great curiofities. Their
manner of embalming was thus; they fcooped the
brains with an iron fcoop, out at the noftrils, and
threw in medicaments to fill up the vacuum ; they al-
fo took out the entrails, and, having filled the body
with myrrh, caflia, and other fpices, except frankin-
cenfe, proper to dry up the humours, they pickled it
in nitre, where it lay foakingfor 7c days. The body
was then wrapped up in bandages of fine linen, and
gums, to make it ftick like glue; and fo was delivered
to the kindred of the deceafed, entire in all its features,
the very hairs of the eye-lids being preferred. They
ufed to keep the bodies of their anceftors, thus em¬
balmed, in little houfes magnificently adorned, and
took great pleafure in beholding them, alive as it
were, without any change in their fize, features, or
complexion. The Egyptians alfo .embalmed birds,
&c. The prices for embalming were different; the
higheft was a talent, the next 29 minae, and fodecrea-
fing to a very fmall matter: but they who had not
E M B
wherewithal to anfwer this expenoe, contented them- Imbarge ?
felves with infufing, by means of a fyringe, thro’ the II
fundament, a certain liquorextrafted from the cedar; E,r|her* •
and, leaving it there, wrapped up the body in fait of ni- wteks' ;
tre : the oil thus preyed upon the inteftines, fo that
when they took it out, the inteftines came away with
it, dried, and not in the leaft putriiied: the body being
enelofed in nitre, grew dry, and nothing remained be-
fides the Ikull glued upon the bones.
The method of embalming ufed by the modem E-
gyptians, according to Maillet, is to waih the body fe-
veral times with rofc-water, which, he elfewhere ob-
ferves, is more fragrant in that country than with us;
they afterwards perfume it with incenfe, aloes, and a
quantity of other odours, of which they are by no
means fparing; and then they bury the body in a
winding fheet, made partly of iilk and partly of cot¬
ton, and moiftened, as is fuppofed, with fome fweet-
feented water or liquid perfume, though Maillet ufes
only the term moijlened; this they cover with another
cloth of unmixed cotton, to which they add one of the
richeft fuits of clothes of the deceafed. The expence,
he fays, on thefe occafions, is very great,,though no¬
thing like what the genuine embalming eoft in former
times.
EMBARGO, in commerce, an arreft on ftiips or
merchandife, by public authority; or a prohibition
of ftate, commonly on foreign (hips, in time of war,
to prevent their going out port, fometimes to pre¬
vent their coming in, and fometimes both, for a limi¬
ted time.
The king may lay embargoes on fhips, or employ
thofe of his fubjefts, in time of danger, for the fervice
and defence of the nation : but they muft not be for
the private advantage of a particular trader, or com¬
pany ; and therefore a warrant to ftay a fingle Ihip is
no legal embargo. No inference can be made from
embargoes which are only in war-time ; and are a pro¬
hibition by advice of council, and not at profecution
of parties. If goods be laden on board, and after an
embargo or reflraint from the prince or ftate comes
forth, and then the mafter of the (hip breaks ground,
or endeavours to fail, if any damage accrues, he muft
be refponfible for the fame ; the reafon is, becaufe his *
freight is due, and muft be paid, even tho’ the goods
be feized as contraband.
EMBASSADOR. See A mbassador.
EMBASSY, the office or fund ion of an A mbas¬
sador.
EMBDEN, a port-town and city of Germany, ca¬
pital of a county of the fame name, now in poffeffion
of the king of Pruffia; it is fituated at the mouth of
the river Ens. E. Long. 6.45. N. Lat. 53. 50.
EMBER-weeks, are thofe wherein the ember or
embring days fall.
In the laws of king Alfred, and thofe of Canute,
thofe days are ymbren, that is, circular days,
from whence the word was probably corrupted into
ember-days : by the canonifts they are called quatuar
amii tempera, the four cardinal feafons, on which the
circle of the year turns : and hence Henftraw takes the
word to have been formed, viz. by corruption from
temper of tempera.
The ember-days are the Wednefday, Friday, and
Saturday, after Quadragefima Sunday, after Whit-
funday.
[ 27'3 ]
E M B
funday, after Holy-rood day in September, and after
~ St Lucia’s day in December : which four times anfwer
well enough to the four quarters of the year, Spring,
Summer, Autumn, and Winter.
Mr Somner thinks they were originally falls, in-
ftitnted to beg God’s blefiing on the fruits of the
earth. Agreeably to which,' Skinner fuppofes the
word ember taken from the alhes, embers, then ftrew-
ed on the head.
Thefe ember-weeks are now chiefly taken notice of,
on account of the ordination of priefts and deacons ;
becaufe the canon appoints the Sundays next fucceed-
ing the ember weeks, for the folemn times of ordina¬
tion : Tho’ the bifhops, if they pleafe, may ordain on
any Sunday, or holiday.
EMBERIZA, in ornithology, a genus of birds,
belonging to the order of pafferes. The bill is coni¬
cal, and the mandibles recede from each other towards
the bafe ; the inferior mandible has the Tides narrowed
inwards, but the upper one is ftill narrower. There
are 24 fpecies j of which the molt remarkable are,
1. The nivalis, or great pyed mountain-finch of
Ray, and the fnow-bird of Edwards, has white-
wings, but the outer edge of the prime-feathers are
black ; the tail is black, with three white, feathers on
each fide.
Thefe birds are called in Scotland fno’vj-flakes, from
their appearance in hard weather, and in deep fnows.
They arrive in that feafon among the Cheviot-hills, and
in the Highlands, in amazing flocks. A few breed in
the Highlands, on the fummit of the higheft hills, in
the fame places with the ptarmigans ; but the greateft
numbers migrate from the extreme north. They ap¬
pear in the Shetland iflands; then in the Orkneys; and
multitudes of them often fall, wearied with their flight,
on veffels in the Pentland Frith. Their appearance
is a certain, fore-runner of hard weather, and ftorms of
fnow, being driven by the cold from their common re¬
treats. Their progrefs fouthward is probably thus j
Spitzbergen and Greenland, Hudfon’s Bay, the Lap-
land Alps, Scandinavia, Iceland, the Ferroe Hies,
Shetland, Orkneys, Scotland, and the Cheviot-hills.
They vifit at that feafon all parts of the northern he-
mifphere, Pruffia, Auftria, and Siberia. They arrive
lean, and return fat. In Auftria, they are caught and
fed with millet, and, like the ortolan, grow exceffively
fat. In their flights, they keep very clofe to each
other, mingle moft confufedly together, and fling
themfelves colle&ively into the form of a ball; at
which inftant the fowler makes great havock among
them.
2. The miliaris, or grey emberiza, is of a greyifh
colour, fpotted with black in the belly, and the orbits
are reddilh. It is the bunting of Englifh authors, and
a bird of Europe.
3. The hortulana, or ortolan, has black wings; the
firft three feathers on the tail are white on the edges,
only the two lateral are black outwardly. The orbits
of the eyes are naked and yellow; the head is greenilh,
and yellow towards the inferior mandible. It feeds
principally upon the panick-grafs ; grows very fat; and
is reckoned a delicate morfel by certain epicures. It
is a bird of Europe.
4. The citrinella, or ye low-hammer, has a blackifh
tail, only the two outward iide-feathers are marked on
[ 27’9 1
E M B
the inner edge with a (harp white fpot. It is a bird of Emblem,
Europe, and comes about houfes in winter: it builds Emhoft‘ng~
its neft on the ground in meadows.
5. The fchosniclas, or reed-fparrow, has a black
head, a blackilh-grey body, and a white fpot on the
quill-feathers. It inhabits marfhy places, moft com¬
monly among reeds, from which it. takes its name. Its
neft is worthy of notice for the artful contrivance of it,
being fattened to four reeds, and fufpended by them
like a hammock, about three feet above the water; the
cavity of the neft is deep, but narrow ; and the mate¬
rials are bullies, fine bents, and hairs. It lays four or
five eggs of a bluilh white, marked with irregular pur-
plifh veins, efpecially on the larger end. It is a bird
much admired for its fong; and, like the nightingale,
it fings in the night.
EMBLEM, embahma, a kind of painted aenigma,
which, reprefenting fome obvious hiftory, with reflec¬
tions underneath, inftrudls us in fome moral truth or
other matter of knowledge. See Devise,./Enigma, &c.
Such is that very fignificant image of Scaevola hold¬
ing his hand in the lire; with the words, Agere et pati
farther Romanum eji, “ To do and fuffer courageoufly
is Roman.”
The word is pure Greek, formed of the verb ty.£a\-
aov t0 caji in, to infert. Suetonius relates, that Tibe¬
rius made the word be erafed out of the decree of the
Roman fenate, becaufe borrowed from another lan¬
guage.
The emblem is fomewhat plainer and more obvious
than the asnigma.—Gale defines emblem an ingenious
pi&ure, reprefenting one thing to the eye, and another
to the underftanding.
The Greeks alfo gave the name Emblems,
to inlaid or Mofaic works, and even to all kinds of
ornaments of vafes, moveables, garments, &c. And
the Latins ufed embleina in the famefenfe. Accordingly,
Cicero reproaching Verres with the ftatues and fine
wrought works he had plundered from the Sicilians,
calls the ornaments fixed thereto (and which on occa-
fion might be feparated from them) emblemata. Add,
that Latin authors frequently compare the figures and
ornaments of difcourfe to thefe emblemata. Thus, an
ancient Latin poet praifing an orator, fays, that all his
words were ranged like the pieces in Mofaic:
Sfuam lepide compofle, ui tefleruU omne’.
Arte pavimcnti, ulque embkmate vcrmiculato.
With us, emblem ordinarily fignifies no more than
a painting, baffb relievo, or other reprefentation, in¬
tended to hold forth fome moral or political inftruftion.
What diftinguilhes an emblem from a devife, is, that
the words of an emblem have a full, complete fenfe of
themfelves; nay, all the fenfe and fignification which
they have together with the figure. But there is a yet
further difference between emblem and devife: for a
devife is a fymbol appropriated to fome perfon, or that
expreffes fomething which concerns him particularly ;
whereas an emblem is a fymbol that regards all the
world alike.
Thefe differences will be more apparent, from com¬
paring the emblem abc^re quoted, with the devife of a
candle lighted, and the words, Juvando confmnar, “ I
wafte myfelf in doing good.” See Devise.
EMBOSSING, or Imbossing, in archite&ure and
fculpture, the forming or fafhioning works in relievo,
15 T 2 whether
E M B [ 2720 ] E M E
Embiazitre whether cut with a chifel or otherwife.
Embofiing is a kind of fculpture, wherein the figures
  1_ flick out from the plane whereon it is cut : and ac¬
cording as the figures are more or lefs prominent, they
are faid to be in alto, mezzo, or baffo, relievo; or high,
mean, or low, relief. See Enchasing.
EMBRASURE, in archite&ure, the enlargement
made of the aperture of a door or window, on the in-
fide of the wall; its ufe being to give the greater play
for the opening of the door or cafement, or to admit
the mote light.
EMBROCATION, in furgery and pharmacy, an
external kind of remedy, which conlifts in an irriga¬
tion of the part affedted, with fome proper liquor, as
oils, fpirits, &c. by means of a woollen or linen cloth,
or a fpunge, dipped in the fame.
EMBROIDERY, a work in gold, or filver, or filk
thread, wrought by the needle upon cloth, fluffs, or
muflin, into various figures. In embroidering fluffs,
the work Is performed in a kind of loom; becaufe the
more the piece is ftretched, the eafier it is worked.
As to muflin, they fpread it upon a pattern ready de-
figned; and fometimes, before it is flretched upon the
pattern, it is ftarched, to make it more eafy to handle.
Embroidery on the loom is lefs tedious than the other,
in which, while they work flowers, all the threads of
the muflin, both lengthwife and breadthwife, muft be
continually counted; but, on the other hand, this laft
is much richer in points, and fufceptible of greater va¬
riety. Cloths too much milled are fcarce fufceptible
ef this ornament, and in effeft we feldom fee them em¬
broidered. The thinneft muflins are left for this pur-
pofe; and they are embroidered to the greateft per-
feftion in Saxony: in other parts of Europe, how¬
ever, they embroider very prettily, and efpecially in
France.
There are feveral kinds of embroidery : as, 1. Em¬
broidery on the ftamp; where the figures are railed and
rounded, having cotton or parchment put under them
tofupport them. 2. Low embroidery; where the gold
and filver lie low upon the fketch, and are ftitched with
filk of the fame colour. 3. 'Guimped embroidery: this
is performed either in gold or filver; they firft make a
Iketch upon the cloth, then put on cut vellum, and
afterwards fow on the gold and filver with filk thread:
in this kind of embroidery they often put gold and filver
cord, tinfel, and fpangles. 4. Embroidery on both
fides; that which appears on both fides of the fluff.
5. Plain embroidery; where the figures are flat and
even, without cords, fpangles, or other ornaments.
By flat. 22. Geo. II. c. 36. no foreign embroidery,
or gold and filver brocade, fliall be imported, upon
pain of being forfeited and burnt, and penalty of 100I.
for each piece. No perfon fhall fell, or expofe to fale,
any foreign embroidery, gold or filver thread, lace,
fringe, brocade, or make up the fame into any gar¬
ment, on pain of having it forfeited and burnt, and
penalty of tool. All fuch embroidery, &c. may
be feized and burnt; and the mercer, &c. in whofe cu-
ftody it was found-, fliall forfeit tool.
EMBRUN, or Ambrun, a city of Dauphiny, in
France, near the confines of Piedmont. E. Long. 6.
6. and N. Lat. 44. 35.
EMBRIO, in phyfiology, the firft rudiments of an
animal in the womb, before the feveral members are
diftin&ly formed; after which period it is denominated Emerald,
a fetus. See Generation, arid Fetus.  
EMERALD, a genus of precious ftone, very green
and tranfparent; and, as to hardnefs, the next after
the ruby. The word is formed from the French
raudffy and that from Jniaragdus, which fig-
nifies the fame. Others derive it from the Italian fine*
raldo, or the Arabic zomorrad.
Our jewellers diftinguifh emeralds into two kinds;
the oriental, and occidental. The emeralds of the Eaft-
Indies are evidently finer than thofe of any other part
of the world: but our jewellers, fcldom meeting with
thefe, call the American emeralds the oriental; and
ufually fell cryftal, accidentally tinged with green, un¬
der the name of the occidental emerald: thefe being
alfo the molt common, there has grown an opinion a-
mong the lapidaries, that the emerald is no harder than
the cryftal; becaufe what they take to be emeralds,
are in general only cryftals.
The genuine emerald, in its moft perfe& flate, is
perhaps the moft beautiful of all the gems; it is found
of various fizes, but ufually fmall; a great number of
them are met with of about the fixteenth part of an
inch in diameter, and they are found from this to the
fize of a walnut.
The emerald is of different figures like the diamond
and many of the other gems; being fometimes found in
a roundifh or pebble-like form, but much more fre¬
quently in a columnar one, refembling common cryftal:
the pebble-emeralds are always the hardeft and bright-
eft, but are feldom found exceeding the fize of a pea :
the cryftalliform ones grow fevtral together, and are
often larger: the pebble-kind are found loofe in the
earths of mountains, and fands of rivers ; the columnar
are found ufually bedded in, or adhering to, a white,
opake, and coarfe cryftalline mafs, and fometimes to
the jafper or the prafius.
The oriental emerald is of the hardnefs of the fap-
phire and ruby, and is fecond-pnly to the diamond in
luftre and brightnefs : the American is of the hardnefs
of the garnet; and the European fomewhat fofter than
that, yet confiderably harder than cryftal: It lofes its
colour in the fire, and becomes undiftinguiftiable from
the white fapphire.
The oriental emeralds are very fcarce, and at pre-
fent found only in the kingdom of Cambay. Very few
of them have of late been imported into Europe, info-
much that it has been fuppofed there were no oriental
emeralds ; but, lately, fome few have been brought
from Cambay into Italy, that greatly excel the Ame¬
rican ones. The American, being what pur jewellers
cal! oriental emeralds, are found principally about Peru ;
and the European are principally from Silefia.
Rough Emeralds.'—Thofe of the firft and eoarfeft
fort, ca)led/>/tf/7,vi?.r, for grinding, are worth 27 ftiillings
fterLing the marc, or 8 ounces. The demi- morillons, 81-
fterl. per marc. Good morillons, which are only little
pieces, but of fine colour, from 13.I. to 15 1, per marc.
Emeralds, larger than morillons, and called of the third
colour ox fort, are valued at from 50I. to 601. the
marc. Emeralds, called of the fecorid fort, which are
in larger and finer pieces than the preceding, are worth
from 65 1. to 751. per marc. Laftly, thofe of the firft
colour, otherwife called negres cartes, are worth from
iiol. to 115I.
Eme-
Emerald.
Phil. Com.
_p. 607.
E M E [ 272
Emeralds ready cut, or polijhed and not cut, being
' of good ftone, and a fine colour, are ’worth,
Thofe weighing one cara&, or four grains O' 10
Thofe of two cara&s ,      x 7
Thofe of three carafts     2 5
Thofe of four cara&s     3 10
Thofe of five carafts   ——. 4 10
Thofe of fix cara&s      7 10
Thofe of feven carafts      15 o
Thofe of eight carafts     19 o
Thofe of nine carafts      23 o
Thole of ten carafts     33 o
To counterfeit Emeralds : Take of natural cryftal,
four ounces; of red-lead, four ounces; verdigreafe,
forty-eight grains; crocus martis, prepared with vine¬
gar, eight grains : let the whole be finely pulverized
and lifted ; put this into a crucible, leaving one inch
empty : lute it well, and put it into a potter’s furnace,
and let it Hand there as long as they do their pots.
When cold, break the Crucible; and you will find a
matter of a fine emerald colour, which, after it is cut
and fet in gold, will furpafs in beauty an oriental eme¬
rald.
EMERY, in natural hiftory, a rich iron-ore found in
large mafies of no determinate lhape or fize, extremely
hard, and very heavy. It is ufually of a dulky brown-
ilh red on the furface; but when broken, is of a fine
bright iron-grey, but not without fome tinge of red-
nefs; and is fpangled all over with Ihining fpecks,
which are fmall flakes of a foliaceous talc, highly im¬
pregnated with iron. It is alfo fometimes very red,
and then ufually contains veins of gold. It makes no
effervefcence with any of the acid menftruums; and is
found in the ifland of Guernfey, in Tufcany, and many
parts of Germany.
Dr Lewis is of opinion, that fome kinds of emery
may contain the metal called platina, and on this fub-
jedt has the following curious obfervations. “ Alonfo
Barba mentions a fubftance called chumpi; which is a
hard ftone of the emery kind, participating of iron, of
a grey colour Ihining a little, very hard to work, be-
caufe it refills the fire much, found in Potofi, Chocaya,
and other places, along with blackilh and reddilh ores
that yield gold. If platina is really found in large
maffes, either generally or only now and then, one
might reafonably expedt thofe maffes to be fuch as are
here defcribed.
“ Of the fame kind perhaps alfo is the mineral men¬
tioned by feveral authors under the name of Spanilh
emery, fmiris Hifpanica, which Ihould feem, from the
accounts given of it, to be no other than platina or its
matrix. The fmiris is faid to be found in the gold
mines, and its exportation prohibited; to contain films
or veins of native gold ; to be in great requeft among
the alchemifts ; to have been fometimes ufed for the
adulteration of gold ; to Hand, equally with the noble
metal, cupellatiun, quartation, antimony, and the regal
cement; and to be feparable from it by amalgamation
with mercury, which throws out t\\e fmiris and retains
the gold ; properties ftrongly charadteriftic of platina,
and which do not belong to any known fubftance be
fides. This debafement of gold per extrattum fniri
dis Hifpanici is mentioned by BeCher in his Minera are
naria, and feveral times hinted at in his Phyfica fubter
] E M E
ranea. Both Becher and Stahl indeed call the fub¬
ftance, which the gold receives from the emery, an
earth, whereas platina is undoubtedly a metal; but this
does not at all invalidate our fuppofition, for they give
the name of earth alfo to the fubftance which copper
receives from calamine in being made into brafs, which
is now known to be metallic.
“ From thefe obfervations I have been led to fuf-
pedl, that the European emeries likewife might pof-
libly participate of platina. If this was certain, it
would account fatisfadlorily for the ufe which fome of
the alchemifts are laid to have made of emeries and
other ferrugineous ores ; and we fliould no longer
doubt, or wonder, that by treating gold with thefe
kinds of minerals, they obtained a permanent augmen¬
tation ; that this augmentation, though it refifted lead,
antimony, aquafortis, and the regal cement, was fepa¬
rable, as Becher owns it was, by quickfilver; and that,
when it exceeded certain limits, it rendered the gold
pale and brittle.
“ If emery contains platina, I imagined it might
be difcoverable by boiling the powdered mineral in
melted lead, and afterwards working off the lead upon
a left or cupel. The experiment w-as made with eight
ounces of the finefl powder of common emery, and the
fame quantity of lead; which were covered with black
flux to prevent the fcorification of the lead, and urged
with a ftrong fire for two or three hours. The lead
became hard, rigid, of a dark colour, and a granulated
texture, as if it had really imbibed fome platina from
the emery; but in cupellation it worked almoft entirely
off, leaving only a bead about the fize of a fmall pin’s
head, which was probably no other than filver con¬
tained in the lead.
“ I repeated the experiment, with fome variation,,
thinking to obtain a more perfedl refolution of the
emery by vitrifying it wdth the lead. Two ounces of
fine emery, and fix ounces of minium, were well mixed
together, and urged with a ftrong fire, in a clofe cru¬
cible, for an hour: they melted into an uniform dark
brownifh glafs. The glafs was powdered, mixed with
four ounces of fixt alkaline fait and fome powdered-
charcoal, and put into a frefh crucible, with fome com¬
mon fait on the furface : The fire was pretty ftrongly
excited; but the fufion w'as not fo perfeft as could be
wifhed, and only about two ounces of lead were found
revived. This lead had fuffered nearly the fame change
as that in the foregoing experiment; and, like it, gave
no appearance of platina on being cupelled.
“ It feems to follow from thefe experiments, that
the emery employed in them contained no platina ; but
as it is not to be fuppofed that all emeries are of one
compofition, other forts may deferve to be fubmitted:
to the fame trials. As gold is contained in fome par¬
cels of common minerals, and by no means in all the,
individuals of any one fpecies; platina may poffibly in
like manner be found in fome European ores, though
there is not the lead footftep of it in other parcels of
the fame kind of ore.”
EMETICS, medicines that induce vomiting.
EMINENCE, a title of honour peculiar to cardi¬
nals. See Cardinal.
EMIR, a title of dignity among the Turks, figni-
fying a prince.
This title was firft given to the caliphs; but when
they
E M O [ 2722 ] E M P
•tmiffary they afTumed the title of fultans, that of emir remained
II to their children ; as that of Csefar among the Romans.
At length the title came to be attributed to all who were
 ^—judged to defcend from Mahomet by his daughter Fa-
timah, and who wear the green turban inftead of the
white. The Turks make an obfervation, that the
emirs, before their fortieth year, are men of the great-
eft gravity, learning, and wifdom; but after this, if
they are not great fools, they difcover fome figns of
levity and ftupidky. This is interpreted by the Turks
as a fort of divine impulfe in token of their birth and
fan&ity. The Turks alfo call the vizirs, balhaws, or
governors of provinces, by this name.
EMISSARY, in a political fenfe, a perfon employ¬
ed by another to found the opinions of people, fpread
certain reports, or a£t as a fpy over other people’s ac¬
tions.
Emissary Vejfels, in anatomy, the fame with thofe
more commonly called Excretory.
EMISSION, in medicine, a term ufed chiefly to
denote the ejaculation of the fcmen, or feed, in the a&
of coition. See Coition, and Generation.
EMMERICK, a rich fortified town of Germany,
in the circle of Weftphalia, and duchy of Cleves. It
carries on a good trade with the Dutch, and both
Proteftants and Catholics have the free exercife of their
religion. The ftreets are neat and regular, and the
houfes tolerably built. It was taken by the French in
1672, and delivered to the eledtor of Brandenburgh in
1673, under whofe jurifdidlion it now is. It is feated
near the Rhine. E. Long. 5. 29. N. Lat. 52. 5.
F.MMIUS (Ubbo), born at Gretha in Eaft Frief-
land in 1547, was a very learned profeffor, and chofen
redlor of the college of Norden in 1579. This femi-
nary flouriftied exceedingly under his care ; and de¬
clined as vifibly after he was eje&ed, in 1587, for re-
fufing to fubfcribe the Confeffion of Auglburg. The
year after, he was made re&or of the college of Leer;
and when the city of Groningen confederated with the
United Provinces, the magiftrates appointed him rec¬
tor of that college: which employment he filled with the
higheft repute near 20 years ; until, the college being
eredled into an univerfity, he was the firft redor, and
one of the chief ornaments of it by his le&ures, till
his infirmities prevented his public appearance. His
wifdom was equal to his learning; fo that the gover¬
nor of Friefland and Groningen often confulted him,
and feldom failed to follow his advice. He wrote
Vetus Gracia illujlrata, 3 vols ; Decades Reruns Frefi-
caruns;’and many other valuable works. He died in
1625.
EMOLLIENTS, in medicine and pharmacy, are
fuch remedies as flieath and foften the afperity of the
humours, and relax and fupple the folids at the fame
time.
EMOLUMENT, is properly applied to the profits
arifing daily from an office, or employ. The word is
formed of the Latin emolumentum, which, according to
fome, primarily lignifies the profits redounding to the
miller from his mill; of molo, niolere, to grind.—The
patent, or other inftrument, whereby a perfon is pre¬
ferred to an office, gives him a right to enjoy all the
dues, honours,profits, and emoluments belonging there¬
to.—Emolument is alfo ufed, in a fomewhat greater la¬
titude, for profit or advantage in the general.
EMOTION and Passion, in the human mind, Emotioai*
are thus diftinguiftied by a celebrated writer *. An II
internal motion or agitation of the mind, when it EmPerolv I
palfeth away without defire, is denominated an emo- - El cm. of;
tson; when defire follows, the motion or agitation
is denominated a pafion. A fine face, for example, 1' 4I’
raifeth in me a pleafant feeling: if that feeling vanifli
without producing any effedt, it is in proper lan¬
guage an emotion} but if the feeling, by reiterated
views of the objedf, becomes fufficiently ftrong to occa-
fion defire, it lofes its name of emotion, and acquires
that of pajjion* The fame holds in all the otlu, paf-
fions. The painful feeling railed in a fpe&ator by a
flight injury done to a ftranger, being accompanied
with no defire of revenge, is termed an emotion ; but
that injury raifeth in the ftranger a ftronger emotion,
which being accompanied with defire of revenge, is a
paffion. External expreffions of diftrefs produce in the
fpedlator a painful feeling, which being fometimes fa
flight as to pafs away without any effedt, is an emo¬
tion; but if the feeling be fo ftrong as to prompt de¬
fire of affording relief, it is a paffion, and is termed
pity. Envy is emulation in excels: if the exaltation of
a competitor be barely difagreeable, the painful feel¬
ing is an emotion ; if it produce defire to deprefs him,
it is a paffion. See Passion.
EMPALEMENT, an ancient kind of punilhment,
which confifted in thrufting a ftake up the fundament.
Empalement of a Flower, the fame with Calix.
EMPEDOCLES, a celebrated philofopher and
poet, was born at Agrigentum, a city in Sicily, about
444 years before the Chriftian sera. He followed the
Pythagorean philofophy, and admitted the metempfy-
chofis. He conftantly appeared with a crown of gold
on his head; to maintain, by this outward pomp, the
reputation he had acquired of being a very extraordi¬
nary man. Yet Ariftotle fays, that he was a great lover
of liberty, extremely averfe to ftate and command,
and that he even refufed a kingdom that was offered
him. His principal work was a Treatife in verfe on
the Nature and Principles of Things. Ariftotle, Lu¬
cretius, and all the ancients, make the moft magnifi¬
cent elogiums on his poetry and eloquence. His death
is varioufly reported: but the common opinion is, that
he leaped into mount iEtna, that he might leave behind
him an opinion that he was a god.
EMPEROR, a title of honour among the ancient
Romans, conferred on a general that had been viftori-
ous; and now made to fignify a fovereign prince, or fu-
preme ruler of an empire.
The title of emperor adds nothing to the rights of
fovereignty ; it only gives pre-eminence above other
fovereigns. The emperors, however, pretend, that the
imperial dignity is more eminent than the regal. It is
difputed whether emperors have the power ofdifpofing
of the regal title. However this may be, they have
fometimes taken upon them to ereft kingdoms : thus
it is that Bohemia, Pruffia, and Poland, are faid to have
been railed to that dignity. In the eaft, the title of
emperor is more frequent than with us; thus the fo¬
vereign princes of China, Mogul, &c. are called em¬
perors. In the weft, the title has been a long time
reftrained to the emperors of Germany. The firft
who bore it was Charlemagne, who was crowned by
Pope Leo III. iu 800. And it is to be obferved, that
there
E M P [ 2723 ] EMU
t Empetram there was not a foot of land or territory annexed to
t !l_ the emperor’s title.
j Empire. jn tjje year j^23, the Czar of Mufcovy aflumed the
: * title of emperor of all the Ruffias. The kings of
France were alfo called emperors, when they reigned
with their fons, whom they affocfatcd in the crown :
thus Hugh Capet was called emperor, and his fon
Robert king. The kings of England were anciently
ftyled emperors, as appears from a charter of king
Edgar.
The emperor of Germany is a limited monarch in
regard to the empire, though he is an ablolute fove-
reign in molt of his hereditary dominions. The late
emperors of the Auftrian family, having hereditary
dominions, enumerated all of them in their title,
Charles VI. was ftyled emperor of the Romans, ah
ways auguft, king of Bohemia and Hungary, arch¬
duke of Auftria, &c.; but the prefent emprefs inhe¬
riting thofe countries, her confort enjoys only the title
of emperor of the Romans, duke of Lorrain and Tuf-
cany. The emperor creates dukes, marquifles, and
other, noblemen ; and he appoints moft of the officers,
civif and military, in the empire : he is ele&ed by the
nine ele£tors; and he fummons the general diet of the
empire.
EMPETRUM, BERRY-BEARING HeATH, 3 genus
of the triandria order, belonging to the dicecia elafs of
plants. There are two fpecies ; one of which, viz. the
jiigrum, which bears the crow-crake berries, is a na¬
tive of Britain. It grows wild on boggy heaths and
mountains. Children fometimes eat the berries; but,
when taken in too great quantity, they are apt to oc-
eafion a head-ach. Groufe feed upon them. When
boiled with alum, they afford a dark purple dye.
Goats are not fond of it. Cows, Iheep, and horfes
refufe it.
EMPHASIS, in rhetoric, a particular ft refs of
the voice and aftion, laid on fuch parts or words of the
oration as the orator wants to enforce upon his au¬
dience. See Declamation ; Oratory, Part IV.;
and Reading, n° iv. v.
EMPHYSEMA, in furgery, a windy tumour, ge¬
nerally occafioned by a frafture of the ribs, and form¬
ed by the air infinuating itfelf, by a fmall wound, be¬
tween the Ikin and mufcles, into the fnbftance of the
cellular or adipofe membrane, fpreading itfelf after¬
wards up to the neck, head, belly, and other parts,
much after the manner in which butchers blow up their
veal.
EMPIRE, imperium, in political geography, a
large extent of land, under the jurifditlion or govern¬
ment of an emperor. See Emperor.
The moft ancient empire we read of, is that of the
Affyrians, which was fubverted through the effeminacy
of Sardanapalus ; the Perfian empire was deftroyed
through the bad conduct of Darius Codomannus ; the
Grecian empire, by its being difmembered among the
captains of Alexander the Great; and the Roman em¬
pire, through the ill management of the laft emperors
of Rome.
Antiquaries diftinguiffi between the medals of the
upper, and lower or has, empire.—The curious only
value thofe of the upper empire, which commences
with Caefar, or Auguftus, and ends in the year of
Chrift 260.
The lower empire comprehends near 1200 years, Empiric
reckoning as low as the dtftru&ion of Conftantinople „ H
• 0 .i.i r ,, ,.n. .n r Emunc-
in 1453. they uiually diitinguilh two ages, or pe- tory<
riods, of the lower empire : the firft beginning where  ——
the upper ends, viz. with Aurelian, and ending with
Anaitalius, including 200 years; the fecond begin¬
ning with Anaftalius, and ending with the Palaeologi,
which includes 1000 years.
Empire, or The e?/ipire, ufed abfolutely,. and with¬
out any addition, fignihes the empire of Germany ;
called alfo, in juridical affs and laws, The holy Roman
empire. Authors are at a lofs under what form of go¬
vernment to range the empire ; fome will have it a mo¬
narchical ftate, by reafon all the members thereof are
forced to afk the inveftiture of their ftates of the em¬
peror, and to take an oath of fidelity to him. Others
will have it an ariftocratic ftate, by reafon the emperor
cannot determine any thing without the concurrence
of the princes : and, laftly, others will have the em¬
pire to be a monarcho-ariftocratic ftate.
EMPIRIC, an appellation given to thofe phyfi-
cians who conduA themfelves wholly by their own ex¬
perience, without ftudying phyfic in a regular way.
Some even ufe the term, in a Hill worfe fenfe, for a
quack who prefciibes at random, without being at all
acquainted with the principles of the art.
EMPRESS, the fpoufe of an emperor, or a woman
who governs an empire. See Emperor.
EMPROSTHOTONOS, a fpecies of convulfion,
wherein the head bends forward.
EMPYJEMA, in medicine, a diforder wherein pu¬
rulent matter is contained in the thorax orbreaft, after
an inflammation and fnppuration of the lungs and pleu¬
ra. See [Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
EMPYREUM, a term ufed by divines for the
higheft heaven, where the bleffed enjoy the beatific vi-
fion.
EMPYREUMA, in chemiftry, fignifies a very dif-
agreeable fmell produced from burnt oils. It is of¬
ten perceived in diftillations of animal as well as vege¬
table fubftances when theyare expofed to a quick fire.
EMPYREUMATIC oils. See Chemistry,
n° 492.
EMRODS. See Hemorrhoids.
EMULATION, a noble jealonfy, between pel-fens'
of virtue, or learning, contending for the fuperiority
therein.-—The word comes originally from the Gi ek,
uptxxoe, difpute, contejl; whence the Latin amulus, and
thence our emulation.
Plato obferves of emulation, that it is the daughter
■of envy. If fo, there is a deal of difference between
the mother and the offspring : the one is a virtue, and
the other a vice. Emulation, admires great actions,
and drives to imitate them ; envy refufes them the
praifes that are their due : emulation is generous, and
only thinks of furpaffing a rival; envy is low, and only
feeks to leffen him.
EMULGENT, or renal. Arteries, thofe which
fupply the kidneys with blood; being fometimes {ingle,
fometimes double, on each fide.
EMULSION, a foft liquid remedy, of a colour and
confiftence refembling milk *. ^cc
EMUNCTORY, in anatomy, a general term for ^ armacTv
all thoie parts which ierve to carry otr the excrementi-
tious parts of the blood and other humours of the bo¬
dy-
ENA [ 2724 ] ENA
SJnatlage dy. Such more efpecially are the kidneys, bladder,
11 and moft of the glands.
Enamel- ENALLAGE, in grammar, is when one word is
   fubftituted for another of the fame part of fpeech : A
fubftantive for an adjedtive, as exercitus viftor, for vic¬
tor tofu t ; fcelus, for fcelejius : A primitive for a deriva¬
tive, as Dardana ar??ia for Dardania ; An adtive for
a pafllve, as nox humida cxlo prxcipitat, for precipita-
tur, &c.
ENAMEL, in general, is a vitrified matter betwixt
the parts of which is difperfed fome unvitrified matter:
hence enamel ought to have all the properties of glafs
except tranfparency.
Enamels have for their bafis a pure cryilal glafs or
frit, ground up with a fine calx of lead and tin pre¬
pared for the purpofe, with the addition ufually of
white fait of tartar. Thefe ingredients baked toge¬
ther are the matter of all enamels, which are made by
adding colours of this or that kind in powder to this
matter, and fnelting or incorporating them together in
a furnace.
For white enamel, Neri (De Arte Vitriar.) di¬
rects only manganefe to be added to the matter which
conftitutes the bafis. For azure, zaffer mixed with
•calx of brafs. For green, calx of brafs with fcales of
iron, or with crocus martis. For black, zaffer with
maiiganefe or with crocus martis ; or manganefe with
tartar. For red, manganefe, or calx of copper and
red tartar. For purple, manganefe with calx of
brafs. For yellow, tartar and manganefe. And for
violet-coloured enamel, manganefe with thrice-calci¬
ned brafs.
In making thefe enamels, the following general cau¬
tions are neceffary to be obferved. 1. That the pots
mult be glazed with white glafs, and mull be fuch as
will bear the fire. 2. That the matter of enamels muft
be very rficely mixed with the colours. 3. When the
enamel is good, and the colour well incorporated, it
muit be taken from the fire with a pair of tongs. 4. The
general way of making the coloured enamel is this:
Powder, fift, and grind, all the colours very nicely,
and firft mix them with one another, and then with the
common matter of enamels : then fet them in pots in a
furnace; and when they are well mixed and incorpo¬
rated, call them into water ; and when dry, fet them
in a furnace again to melt; and when melted, take a
proof of it. If too deep-coloured, add more of the
common matter of enamels ; and if too pale, add more
of the colours.
Enamels are ufed either in counterfeiting or imita¬
ting precious Hones, in painting in enamel; or by en-
amellers, jewellers, and goldfmiths, in gold, filver,
and other metals. The two firft kinds are ufuallypre-
pared by the workmen themfelves, who are employed
in thefe arts. That ufed by jewellers, &c. is brought
to us chiefly from Venice or Holland, in little cakes of
different fizes, commonly about four inches diameter,
having the mark of the maker (truck upon it with a
puncheon. It pays the pound 1 s. 7-^0 d- on impor¬
tation, and draws back 1 s. 5T7^d. at the rate of 43.
per pound.
ENAMELLING, the art of laying enamel upon
metals, as gold, filver, copper, &c. and of melting it
at the fire, or of making divers curious works in it at
9 lamp. It fignifies alfo to paint in enamel.
The method of painting in Enamel. This is per* Enamel-
formed on plates of gold or filver, and moft common- hng-
ly of copper, enamelled with the white enamel; where- "
on they paint with colours which are melted in the fire,
where they take a brightnefs and luftre like that of
glafs. This painting is the moft prized of all for its
peculiar brightnefs and vivacity, which is very perma¬
nent, the force of its colours not being effaced or ful-
lied with time as in other painting, and continuing al¬
ways as frefti as when it came out of the workmens
hands. It is ufual in miniature; it being the more
, difficult the larger it is, by reafon of certain accidents
it is liable to in the operation. Enamelling fhould only
be prattifed on plates of gold, the other metals being
lefs pure: copper, for inftance,, fcales with the appli¬
cation, and yields fumes; and filver turns the yellow
white. Nor muft the plate be made flat ; for in fuch
cafe, the enamel cracks ; to avoid which, they ufually
forge them a little round or oval, and not too thick.
The plate being well and evenly forged, they ufually
begin the operation by laying on a couch of white en¬
amel (as we obferved above) on both fides, which pre¬
vents the metal from fwelling and bliftering ; and this
firft layer ferves for the ground of all the other colours.
The plate being thus prepared, they begin at firft by
drawing out exaftly the fubjefl to be painted with red
vitriol, mixed with oil of fpike, marking all parts of
the defign very lightly with a fmall pencil. After this,
the colours (which are to be before ground.with watey
in a mortar of agate extremely fine, and mixed with
oil of fpike fomewhat thick) are to be laid on, obfer-
ving the mixtures and colours that agree to the diffe¬
rent parts of the fubjedt; for which it is neceflary to
underftand painting in miniature. But here the work¬
man muft be very cautious of the good or bad qualities
of the oil of fpike he employs to mix his colours with,
for it is very fubjedt to adulterations. See Oil.
Great care muftlikewife betaken, that the leaft dull
imaginable come not to your colours while you are-ei¬
ther painting or grinding them ; for the leaft fpeck,
when it is worked up with it, and when the work comes
to be put into the reverberatory to be red hot, will
leave a hole, and fo deface the work.
When the colours are all laid, the painting muft be
gently dried over a flow fire to evaporate the oil, and
the colours afterwards melted to incorporate them with
the enamel, making the plate red-hot in a fire like what
the enamellers ufe. Afterwards that part of the paint¬
ing muft be paHed over again which the fire hath any
thing effaced, ftrengthening the fhades and colours,
and committing it again to the fire, obferving the fame
method as before, which is to be repeated til} the work
be finifhed.
Method of ULm k.yi'c.-Li.xKG ly the Latup. Moft enamel¬
led works are wrought at the fire of a lamp, in which,
inftead of oil, they put melted horfe-greafe, which
they call caballine oil. The lamp, which is of copper,
or white iron, confifts of two pieces; in one of which
is a kind of oval plate, fix inches long, and two high,
in which they put the oil and the cotton. The other
part, called the box, in which the lamp is inclofed,
ferves only to receive the oil which boils over by the
force of the fire. This lamp, or, where feveral artifts
work together, two or three more lamps are placed on
a table of proper height. Under the table, about the
middle
Enamel
II *
Enesnia.
E N C [ 2745 ] E N C
middle of its height. Is a double pair of organ-bellows,
which one of the workmen moves up and down with
_ his foot to quicken the flame of the lamps, which are
by this means excited to an incredible degree of vehe¬
mence. Grooves made with a gauge in the upper part of
the table, and covered with parchment, convey the wind
of the bellows to a pipe of glafs before each lamp; and
that the enamellers may not be incommoded with the
heat of the lamp, every pipe is covered at fix inches di-
fiance with a little tin plate, fixed into the table by a
wooden handle. When the works do not require a
long blaft, they only ufe a glafs pipe, into which they
blow with their mouth.
It is incredible to what a degree of finenefs and de¬
licacy the threads of enamel may be drawn at the
lamp. Thofe which are ufed in making falfe tufts of
feathers are fo fine, that they may be wound on the
reel like fillj or thread. The fidlitious jets of all co¬
lours, ufed in embroideries, are alfo made of enamel;
and that with fo much art, that every fmall piece hath
its hole to pafs the thread through wherewith it is
fewed. Thefe holes are made by blowing them into
long pieces ; which they afterwards cut with a proper
tool.
It is feldom that the Venetian or Dutch enamels are
ufed alone: they commonly melt them in an iron-ladle,
with an equal part glafs or cryftal; and when the two
matters are in perfeft fufion, they draw it out into
threads of different fizes, according to the nature of
the work. They take it out of the ladle while liquid,
with two pieces of broken tobacco-pipes, which they
extend from each other at arm’s-length. If the thread
is required ftill longer, then another workman holds
one end, and continues to draw it out, while the firft
holds the enamel to the flame. Thofe threads, when
cold, are cut into what lengths the workman thinks
fit, but commonly from 10 to 12 inches; and as they
are all round, if they are required to be flat, they muft
be drawn through a pair of pincers while yet hot.
They have alfo another iron inftrument in form of
pincers, to draw out the enamel by the lamp when it
is to be worked and difpofed in figures. Daftly, they
have glafs-tubes of various fizes, ferving to blow the
enamel into various figures, and preferve the neceflary
vacancies therein ; as alfo to fpare the fluff, and form
the contours. When the enarr.eller is at work, he fits
before his lamp with his foot on the ftep that moves on
the bellows; and holding in his left hand the work to
be enamelled, or thebrafsor iron-wires the figures are
to be formed on, he dire&s with his right the enamel
. thread, which he holds to the flame with a management
and patience equally furprifing. There are few things
they cannot make or reprefent with enamel ; and fome
figures are as well finifhed, as if done by the moft fkil-
ful carvers.
ENARTHROSIS, in anatomy, a fpecies of Diar-
throsis.
ENCAENIA, the name of three feveral feafts cele¬
brated by the Jews in memory of the dedication, or
rather purification, of the temple, by Judas Maccabas-
Vol. IV.
us, Solomon, and Zorobabel.—This term is likewife Encamp-
ufed in church-hiftory for the dedication of Chriftian m'nt
churches. Encauftlc.
ENCAMPMENT, the pitching of a Camp. —    
ENCANTHIS, in furgery, a tubercle arifing either
from the caruncula lachrymalis, or from the adjacent
red (kin ; fometimes fo large, as to obftruft not only
the pundla lacrymalia, but alfo part of the fight or
pupil itfelf. See Surgerv.
ENCAUSTIC and Encaustum, the fame with
enamelling and enamel. See Enamelling and E-
NAMEL.
Encaustic Painting, a method of painting made
ufe of by the ancients, in which wax was employed to
give a glofs to their colours, and to preferve them from
the injuries of the air, and which feems greatly fuperior
to the method of painting with oil, becaufe the wax
never changes its colour, but the oil always does, and
thus oil paintings never fail to become difcoloured, and
lofe their beauty through age.
The art of encauftic painting was long loft. It ia
but lately revived; and the only authentic account we
have of the method of performing it is given in a let¬
ter from Mr Jofiah Colebrooke to the earl of Macclef-
field prefident of the Royal Society in 1759.
“ The art of painting with burnt wax, (fays he),
has long been loft to the world. The ufe of it to paint¬
ers, in the infancy of the art of painting, was of the
utmoft confequence. Drying oil being unknown, they
had nothing to preferve their colours entire from the
injury of damps, and the heat of the fun: a varnilh of
fome fort was therefore neceffary; but they being un¬
acquainted with diftilled fpirits, could not, as we now
do, difiblve gums to make a tranfparent coat for their
piftures: this invention therefore of burnt wax fupplied
that defedl to them; and with this manner of painting,
the chambers and other rooms in their houfes were fur-
niftied: this Pliny calls encaujiuvt, and we encaujlic
painting.
“ The following experiments which I have the ho¬
nour to lay before your Lordlhip and the Society,
were occalioned by the extrafl of a letter from the
abbe Mazeas, tranflated by Dr Parfons, and publiftied
in thefecond part of the XLIXth volume of thePhilo-
fophical Tranfactions, n° loo. concerning the ancient
method of painting with burnt wax, revived by count
Caylus.
“ The count’s method was,
“ Firji, To rub the cloth or board defigned for the
picture fimply over with bees-wax.
“ Secondly, To lay on the colours mixed with com¬
mon water; but as the colours will not adhere to the
wax, the whole picture was firft rubbed over with (a)
Spanifli chalk, and then the colours are ufed.
“ Thirdly, When the picture is dry, it is put near
the fire, whereby the wax melts, and abforbs all the
colours.
“ Exp. I. A piece of oak board was rubbed over
with bees wax, firft againft the grain of the wood, and
then with the grain, to fill up all the pores that re-
15 U mained
(a) Spanilh chalk is called by Dr Parfons, in a note, Spanijl) ’white. This is a better kind of whitening than the
common, and was the only white that had the name of Spanijh annexed to it, that I could procure, tho’ I inquired
for it at moft if not all the colour-lhops in town.
My friend Mr daCofta fhewed me a piece of Spanilh chalk in his colleftion, which feemedmorelikea Cimolia (to¬
bacco pipe clay), and was the reafon of my ufing that in one of the experiments.
E N C [ 2726 ] E N C
Encaiiflic. mained after it had been planed, and afterwards was
*■ tubbed over with as much dry Spanilh white as could
be made to flick on it. This, on being painted (the co¬
lours mixed with water only), fo clogged the pencil,
and mixed fo unequally with the ground, that it was
impoffible to make even an outline, but what was fo
much thicker in one part than another, that it wbuld
not bear fo much as the name of-painting; neither
had it any appearance of a pi&ure. However, to pur-
fue the experiment, this was put at a diftance from the
fire, on the hearth, and the wax melted by flow de¬
grees: but the Spanifh white, (though laid as fmooth
as fo foft a body would admit, before the colour was
laid on), yet on melting the wax into it, was not fuf-
ficient to hide the grain of the wood, nor fliew the co¬
lours by a proper whitenefs of the ground; the wax,
in rubbing on the board, was unavoidably thicker in
fome parts than in others, and the Spanifh white the
fame: on this I fufpedled there mufl be fome miftake
in the Spanifh white, and made the inquiry mentioned
in the note.
“ To obviate the inequality of the ground in the
firft experiment;
“ Exp. 2. A piece of old wainfcot (oak board) -J
of an inch thick, which, having been part of an old
drawer, was not likely to fhrink on being brought near
the fire : this was fmoothed with a iifh-fkin, made quite
warm before the fire; and then, with a brufh dipped
in white wax, melted in an earthen pipkin, fmeared all
over, and applied to the fire again, that the wax might
be equally thick on all parts of the board, a ground
was laid (on the waxed board), with levigated chalk
mixed with gum water, {viz. gum Arabic diflblved in
water): when it was dry, I painted it with a kind of
landfcape; and purfuing the method laid down by count
Caylus, brought it gradually to the fire. I fixed the
picture on a fire-fcreen, which would preferve the heat,
and communicate it to the back part of the board. This
was placed firft at the diflance of three feet from the
fire, and brought forwards by flow degrees, till it came
within one foot of the fire, which made the wax fwell
and bloat up the pi&ure; but as the chalk did not ab-
forb the wax, the pifture fell from the board and left
it quite bare.
“ Exp. 3. I mixed three parts white wax, and one
part white refin, hoping the tenacity of the refin might
preferve the pi&ure. This was laid on a board heated,
with a brufh, as in the former; and the ground was
chalk, prepared as before. This was placed horizon¬
tally on an iron box, charged with an hot heater, fhift-
ing it from time to time, that the wax and refin might
penetrate the chalk ; and hoping from this pofition,
that the ground, bloated by melting the wax, would
fubfide into its proper place ; but this, like the other,
came from the board, and would not at all adhere.
<4 Exp. 4. Prepared chalk four drams, white wax,
white refin, of each a dram, burnt alabafter half a
dram, were all powdered together and fifted, mixed
with fpirit.of molofies inftead of w t, and put for a
ground on a board fmeared with w and refin, as in
Exp. 3. This was alfo placed hor itally on a box-
iron, as the former: the pidlure biiftered, and was
cracked all over; and though removed from the box-
iron to an oven moderately heated (in the fame hori¬
zontal pofition), it would not fubfide, nor become#Encauftie.;
fmooth. When it was cold, I took an iron fpatula
made warm, and moved it gently over the furface of
the pifture, as if I were to fpread a plafter, (This
thought occurred, from the board being prepared with
wax and refin, and the ground having the fame mate-
riols in its compolition, the force of the fpatula might
make them unite.) Thr^ fucceeded fo well, as to re¬
duce the furface to a tolerable degree of fmoothnefs;
but as the ground was broke off in many places, I re¬
paired it with flake white, mixed up with the yolk of
an egg and milk, and repainted it with molofies fpirit
(inftead of water), and then put it into an oven with
a moderate degree of heat. In this I found the colours
fixed, but darker than when it was at firft painted; and
it would bear being walhed with water, not rubbed
with a wet cloth.
“ Exp. 5. A board (that had been ufed in a for¬
mer experiment) was fmeared with wax and refin, of
each equal parts; was wetted with molofles fpirit, to
make whitening (or Spanilh white) mixed with gum-
water adhere. This, when dry, was fcraped with a
knife, to make it equally thick in all places. It was
put into a warm oven, to make the varnifh incorporate
partly with the whitening before it was painted ; and it
had only a fmall degree of heat: tyater only was ufed
to mix the colours. This was again put into an oven
with a greater degree of heat; but it flaked off from
the board: whether it might be owing to the board’s
having had a fecond coat of varnifti (the firft having
been fcraped and melted off), and that the un&uous
part* of the wax had fo entered its pores, that it would
not retain a fecond vanifti, I cannot tell.
“ Exp. 6. Having mifcarried in thefe trials, I took
a new board, planed fmooth, but not poliftied either
with a filh-fkin or rufties: I warmed it, and fmeared it
with wax only; then took cimoiia (tobacco-pipe clay)
divefted of its fand, by being diffolved in water and
poured off, leaving the coarfe heavy parts behind. Af¬
ter this was dried and powdered, I mixed it with a
fmall quantity of the yolk of an egg and cow’s milk,
and made a ground with this on the waxed board: this
I was induced to try, by knowing that the yolk of an
egg will diffolve almoft all unftuous fubftances, and
make them incorporate with water; and I apprehended,
that a ground, thus prepared, would adhere fo much
the more firmly to the board than the former had done,
as to prevent its flaking off. The milk, I thought,
might anfwer two purpofes; firft, by uniting the ground
with the wax; and fecondly, by anfwering the end of
fize, or gum-water, and prevent the colours from fink¬
ing too deep into the ground, or running one into an¬
other. When the ground was near dry, I fmoothed
it with a pallet-knife, and wafhed with milk and egg
where I had occafion to make it fmooth and even:
when dry I painted it, mixing the colours with com¬
mon water; this, on being placed horizontally in an
oven, only warm enough to melt the wax, flaked from
the board; but held fo much better together than any
of the former, that I pafted part of it on paper.
“ Exp. 7. (b) Flake white mixed with egg and
milk, crumbled to pieces in the oven, put on the waxed
board, as in the laft experiment.
The bad fuccefs which had attended all the former
expe-
(b) Flake white is the pureft fort of white-lead.
E N C
Jineauft'e. experiments, led to confider of what ufe the wax was
' in this kind of painting: and it occurred to me, that
it was only as a varniih to preferve the colours from fa¬
ding.
“ In order to try this:
“ Exp. 8. I took what the brick-layers call fine
fluffs or putty (c): to this I added a fmall quantity of
burnt alabaiter, to make it dry: this it foon did in the
open air ; but before I put on any colours, I dried it
gently by the fire, left the colours ihould run. When
it was painted, I warmed it gradually by the fire (to
prevent the ground from cracking), till it was very hot.
I then took white wax three parts, white refin one
part, melted them in an earthen pipkin, and with a
brufh fpread them all over the painted board, and kept
it clofe to the fire in a perpendicular fituation, that
what wax and refin the plafter would not abforb might
drop off. When it was cold, I found the colours were
not altered, either from the heat of the fire, or palling
the brulh over them. I then rubbed it with a foft li¬
nen cloth, and thereby procured a kind of glofs, which
I afterwards increafed by rubbing it with an hard
brulb; which was fo far from fcratching or leaving any
marks on the pidture, that it became more fmooth and
polilhed by it.
“ After I had made all the foregoing experiments, in'
converfation with my honoured and learned friend Dr
Kidby, a fellow of this fociety, I faid I had been try¬
ing to find out what the encauftic painting of the an¬
cients was. Upon which he told me, that there was a
paffage in VitrOvius de firchiteftura, relative to that
kind of painting; and was fo good as to tranferibe it
for me from the 7th book, chap. 9. Da minii tempe-
ratura. Vitruvius’s words are: At Ji quit fubtilior
fiuerit, <b voluerit expolitioncm miniaoeam fuum colorem
retinere, cum paries expolitus <b aridus fuerit, tunc ce-
ram Punicam liquefattam igni, paulo oleo temperatam,
feta inducat, deinde pqftea carbonibus in ferreo vafe com-
pqfitis, earn ceram apprime cum pariete, calefaciendo fu-
dore cogat, fiatque ut peraquetor, deinde cum candela
linteifque puris fubigat, uti ftgna marmorea nuda cu-
rantur. Hac autem xauo-if Greece dicitur. Jta obflans
cerce Punicee lorica non patitur, nec lmix fplendorem, nec
folis radios lambendo eripere ex his politionibus colorem.
Which I thus tranfiate : “ But if any one is more
wary, and would have the polifhing [painting] with
vermilion hold its colour, when the wall is painted and
dry, let him take Carthaginian [Barbary] wax, melt¬
ed with a little oil, and rub it on the wall with an hair-
pencil ; and afterwards let him put live coals into an
iron veffel [chaffing-dilh], and hold it clofe to the wax,
when the wall, by being heated, begins to fweat; then
let it be made fmooth : afterwards let him rub it with
a (d) candle and (r) clean linen rags, in the fame
manner as they do the naked marble ftatues. This the
Greeks call xavo-i?. The coat of Carthaginian wax
(thus put on) is fo ftrong, that it neither fuffers the
E N C
moon by night, nor the fun-beams by day, to deftroy Eucauftlc.
the colour.”
Being fatisfied, from this paffage in Vitruvius, that
the manner of ufihg wax in Exp. 8. was right, I was
now to find if the wax-varnilh, thus burnt into theyfic-
ture, would bear walhing. But here I was a little dif-
appointed : for, rubbing one corner with a wet linen
cloth, fome of the colour came off; but waffling it
with a foft hair-pencil dipped in water, and letting it
dry without wiping, the colour flood very well.
A board painted, as in Exp. 8. was hung in the
moft fmoaky part of a chimney for a day, and expofed
to the open air in a very foggy night. In the morning
the board was feemingly wet through, and the water
ran off the pifture. This was fuffered to dry without
wiping; and the pi&ure had not fuffered at all from
the fmoke or the dew, either in the ground or the co¬
lours : but when dry, by rubbing it, firft with a foft
cloth, and afterwards with abrulh, it recovered its for¬
mer glofs.
Sufpe&ing that fome tallow might have been mix¬
ed with the white wax I had ufed, which might caufe
the colours to come off on being rubbed with a wet
cloth, I took yellow wax which had been melted from
the honeycomb in a private family, and confequently
not at all adulterated : to three parts of this I added
one part refin, and melted them together.
Exp. 9. Spanilh white, mixed with filh-glue, was
put for a ground on a board, and painted with water¬
colours only. The board was made warm ; and then
the wax and refin were put on with a bruffi, and kept
clofe to the fire till the pifture had imbibed all the
varnifh, and looked dry. When it was cold, I rub¬
bed it firft with a linen cloth, and then poliftied it with
an hard brufti.
In thefe experiments I found great difficulties with
regard to colours. Many water-colours being made
from the juices of plants, have fome degree of an acid
in them ; and thefe, when painted on an alkaline
ground, as chalk, whitening, cimolia, and plafter, are
totally changed in their colours, and from green be¬
come brown ; which contributes much to make the
experiments tedious. I would therefore advife the ufe
of mineral or metallic colours for this fort of-painting,
as moft likely to preferve their colour: for although I
neutralized Spanifti white, by fermenting it with vi¬
negar, and afterwards wafhed it very well with water,
it did not fucceed to my wifti.
“ Thefe experiments, and this paffage from Vitru¬
vius, will in fome meafure explain the obfeurity of
part of that paffage in Pliny which Dr Parfons, in his
learned comment on the encauftic painting with wax,
feems to defpair of.
“ Ceris pingere, was one fpecies of encauftic paint-
ing. Evxauroi', inuflum, may be tranflated, “ forced in
by the means of fire, burnt in:” for whatever is forced
iii by the help of fire can be rendered into Latin by no
15 U 2 other
[ 2727 1
(c) Putty is lime flaked, and, while warm, diflblved in water, and ftrained through a five.
(d) The account of the method of polifliing [painting] walls coloured with vermilion, gave mt great fatisfa&ion,
as it proved the method I had taken in experiment 8. (which I had tried before I faw or knew of this paflage in Vitru¬
vius) was right. The ufe of the candle, as I apprehend, was to melt the wax on the walls where by accident the bruffi
had put on too much, or afford wax where the bruffi had not put on enough, or had left any part bare.
(e) The rubbing the wall with a linen cloth, while warm, will do very well, where there is only one colour to be
preferred; but where there are many, as in a landfcape, it will be apt to take off fome, or render the colouring ra¬
ther faint; which I found by wiping the wax off from a painting while it was hot.
E N C
Encauftic, other figmficant word, that I know of, but inujlum.
Uncephali. jf ;s a]lowe(j mej an(j I think I have the authori-
”■ ty of Vitrivius (a writer in the Auguftan age) for it,
who feems to have wrote from his own knowledge, and
not like Pliny, who copied from others much more
than he knew himfelf,'the difficulty with regard to
this kind of painting is folved, and the encauftic with
burnt wax recovered to the public.
“ What he means by the next kind he mentions,
in el ore cejlro id eji viriculo, I will not attempt to ex¬
plain at prefent.
“ The fhip-painting is more eafily accounted for:
the praftice being, in part, continued to this time;
and is what is corruptly called breaming^ for brenning
or burning.
“ This is done by reeds fet on fire, and held under
the fide of a fhip till it is quite hot; then refin, tallow,
tar, and brimftone, melted together, and put on with
an hair brufh while the planks remain hot, make fuch
a kind of paint as Pliny defcribes : which, he fays, nec
foie, nec fale, ventifque corrumpitur. As they were ig¬
norant of the ufe of oil painting, they mixed that co¬
lour with the wax, &c. which they intended for each
particular part of the fhip, and put it on in the manner
above defcribed.
“ In the pictures painted for thefe experiments, and
now laid before your lordfhip and the fociety, I hope
neither the defign of the landfcape, nor the execution
of it, will be fo much taken into confideration as the
varnifh (which was the thing wanted in this inquiry):
and I think that will evince, that the encauftic paint¬
ing with burnt wax is fully reftored by thefe experi¬
ments ; and tho’ not a new invention, yet having been
loft for fo many ages, and now applied further, and to
other purpofes, than it was by Vitruvius (who confined
it to vermilion only), may alfo amount to a new difco-
very, the ufe of which may be a means of preferving
many curious drawings to ( f) pofterity : for this kind of
painting may be on paper, cloth, or any other fub-
ftance that will admit a ground to be laid on it. The
procefs is very fimple, and is not attended with the dif-
agreeable fmell unavoidable in oil-painting, nor with
fome inconveniences infeparable from that art; and as
there is no fubftance we know, more durable than wax,
it hath the greateft probability of being lafting.”
ENCEINTE, in fortification, is the wall or ram¬
part which furrounds a place, fometimes compofed of
baftions or curtains, either faced or lined with brick or
ftone, or only made of earth. The enceinte is fome¬
times only flanked by round or fquare towers, which
is called a Roman nuall.
ENCEPHALI, in medicine, worms generated in
the head, where they caufe fo great a pain as fome¬
times to occafion diftradtion.
The encephali are very rare; but there are fome dif-
eafes wherein they fwarm, from whence we are told
peftilential fevers have wholly arifen. Upon the dif-
feftion of one who died of this fever, a little, fliort,
red worm was found in the head, which malmfey wine,
wherein horfe-radilh had been boiled, could only de-
ftroy. This medicine was afterwards tried on the fick,
moft of whom it cured.
END
The like worms have alfo been taken out by tre* Enchanter
panning, and the patient cured. Thofe worms that H.
generate in the nofe, ears, and teeth, are alfo called en- 11 xv*’
cephali.
ENCHANTER, a perfon fuppofed to praftife en¬
chantment or fafcination. See Fascination, Witch¬
craft, &c.
Enchanter’s Nigbtfloade, in botany. See Cir-
CJEA.
ENCHASING, Inchasing, or Chafing, the art
of enriching and beautifying gold, filver, and other
metal-work, by fome defign or figures reprefented
thereon in low relievo.
Enchafing is praftifed only on hollow thin works,
as watch-cafes, cane-heads, tweezer-cafes, or the
like. It is performed by punching or driving out
the metal, to form a figure, from withinfide, fo as
to Hand out prominent from the plane or furface of
the metal. In order to this, they provide a number
of fine fteel blocks or puncheons of divers fixes ; and
the defign being drawn on the furface of the me¬
tal, they apply the infide upon the heads or tops of
thefe blocks, direftly under the lines or parts of the
figures ; then, with a fine hammer, ftriking on the
metal, fuftained by the block, the metal yields, and
the block makes an indenture or cavity on the in¬
fide, correfponding to which there is a prominence
on the outfide, which is to ftand for that part of the
figure.
Thus the workman proceeds to chafe and finifh all
the parts by the fucceffive application of the block and
hammer to the feveral parts of the defign. And it is
wonderful to confider with what beauty and juftnefs,
by this fimple piece of mechanifm, the artifts in this
kind will reprefent foliages, grotefques, animals, hi-
ftories, &c.
ENCLITICA, in grammar, particles which are fo
clofelyunited with other words, as to feem part of them,
as in virumque, &c.—There are three enclitic particles
in Latin, viz. que, ne, ve.
ENCRATITES, in church-hiftory, heretics who
appeared towards the end of the fecond century : they
were called Encratites, or Continentes, becaufe they
gloried in abftaining from marriage and the ufe of
wine and animal-food.
ENCURECK, in natural hiftory, a venomous in-
fett found in Perfia, and faid to be a kind of ta¬
rantula. According to Olearius as quoted by Mr
Boyle, it neither ftings nor bites; but lets fall its ve¬
nom like a drop of water, which caufes infufferable
pain in the part for a time, and afterwards fo profound
a fleep, that nothing can awake the patient except
crulhing one of the creatures on the part affefted. It
is neverthelefs faid, that the ftieep ''at thefe infefts
without damage.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA, the fame with CxcloPiE-
DIA.
ENDEMIC, or endemical, Diseases, thofe to;
which the inhabitants of particular countries are fub-
jeft more than others, on account of the air, water*
fituation, and manner of living.
ENDIVE, in botany. See Cichorium.
END-
[ 2728 ]
(f) A bird drawn by Mr Edwards upon paper, prepared with a ground of whitening and fifli-glue, firft painted,
and then the wax burnt in, has been fince ftiewn to the Royal Society. This picture rolls up as eafily as common
paper without cracking the varnifh. At alfo two landfcapes painted in the fame manner on wood.
Endlefs
II
Engine.
ENG [ 2729 ] ENG
ENDLESS, fomething without an end : thus au¬
thors mention endlefs rolls, the endlefs fcrew, &c.
ENDORSE, in heraldry, an ordinary, containing
the eighth part of a pale, which Leigh fays is only
ufed when a pale is between two of them.
ENDORSED, in heraldry, is faid of things borne
back to back, more ufually called adossk.
ENDOWMENT, in law, denotes the fettling a
dower on a woman : though fometimes it is ufed, fi¬
guratively, for fettling a provifion upon a parfon, on
the building of a church ; or the fevering a fufficient
portion of tithes for a vicar, when the benefice is ap¬
propriated.
ENDYMION, the 12th king of Elis. Being ex¬
pelled his kingdom, he retired into Caria to mount Lat¬
inos, where he ftudied the heavenly bodies, but chiefly
the moon ; which gave rife to the fable of the poets,
that he was beloved by the moon, who vifited him every
night as he lay afleep upon the top of that hill.
ENEMY, in law, an alien or foreigner, who pub¬
licly invades the kingdom.
ENERGUMENS, in church-hiftory, perfons fup-
pofed to be pofleffed by the devil, concerning whom
there were many regulations among the primitive
Chriftians. They were denied baptifm, and the eu-
charift ; at leaft, this was the practice of fome churches:
and though they were under the care of exorcifts, yet
it was thought a becoming aft of charity, to let them
have the public prayers of the church, at which they
were permitted to be prefent. See Exorcism.
ENERGY, a term of Greek origin, fignifying the
power, virtue, or efficacy of a thing. It is alfo ufed,
figuratively, to denote emphafis of fpeech.
ENFANS perdus, the fame with forlorn-hope.
Forlorn.
ENFILADE, in the art of war, is ufed in fpeak-
ing of trenches, or other places, which may be feour-
ed by the enemy’s fhot along their whole length. In
condufting the approaches at a fiege, care muft be ta¬
ken that the trenches be not enfiladed from any work
of the place. See Trenches.
ENFRANCHISEMENT, in law, the incorpo¬
rating a perfon into any fociety or body politic.
ENGASTRIMYTHI, in Pagan theology, the Py-
thians, or priefteffes of Apollo, who delivered oracles
from within, without any aftion of the mouth or lips.
The ancient philofophers, &c. are divided upon the
fubjeft of the engaftrimythi. Hippocrates mentions
it as a difeafe. Others will have it a kind of divina¬
tion. Others attribute it to the operation or poffef-
fion of an evil fpirit. And others to art and mecha-
nifm. M. Scottus maintains that the engaftrimythi of
the ancients were poets, who, when the priefts could
not fpeak, fupplied the defeft by explaining in verfe
what Apollo diftated in the cavity of the baton on the
facred tripod.
ENGENDERING, a term fometimes ufed for the
aft of producing or forming any thing ; thus meteors
are faid to be engendered in the middle region of the
atmofphere, and worms in the belly.
ENGINE, mechanics, is a compound machine,
made of one or more mechanical powers, as levers,
pullies, fcrews, &c. in order to raife, caft, or fuftain
any weight, or produce any effeft which could not be
eafily effefted otherwife. The word is formed of the
French engin, from the Latin ingenium u witby Engine
reafon of the ingenuity required in the contrivance of ^
engines to augment the effeft of moving powers. -- s
Engine for extinguijlring Fires. See Hydrosta¬
tics, n° 33.
P/Y<?-Engine, one contrived for driving piles. See
Engine.
iS/etfw-ENGiNE, a machine to raife water by fire, or
rather by the force of water turned into fteam. See
Steam Engine.
Engine for dividing Mathematical Injlruments. See
Ramsden’s Engine.
ENGINEER, in the military art, an able expert
man, who, by a perfeft knowledge in mathematics,
delineates upon paper, or marks upon the ground, all
forts of forts, and other works proper for offence and
defence. He fliould underftand the art of fortifica¬
tion, fo as to be able, not only to difcover the defefts
of a place, but to find a remedy proper for them ; as
alfo how to make an attack upon, as well as to defend,
the place. Engineers are extremely neceflary for thefe
purpofes : wherefore it is requifite, that, befides being
ingenious, they fhould be brave in proportion. When
at a fiege the engineers have narrowly furveyed the
place, they are to make their report to the general,
by acquainting him which part they judge the weakeft,
and where approaches may be made with moft fuccefs.
Their bufinefs is alfo to delineate the lines of circumval-
lation and contravallation, taking all the advantages of
the ground; to mark out the trenches, places of arms,
batteries, and lodgments, taking care that none of their
works be flanked or difcovered from the place. After
making a faithful report to the general of what is a-do-
ing, the engineers are to demand a fufficient number
of workmen ancTutenfils, and whatever elfe is neceflary.
ENGLAND, the fouthern divifion of the ifland of
Great Britain. Including Wales, it is of a triangular
form, and lies between the 50th and 55th degrees of north
latitude, extending about 400 miles in length from
fouth to north, and in fome places it is 300 miles in
breadth. It is bounded by Scotland on the north; by
the Englilh Channel on the fouth, dividing it from
France; by the German Sea on the call; and on the
weft by St George’s, or the Irifli, Channel. t
At what time the ifland of Britain was peopled is Whence
uncertain; nor do we know whether the fouthern or peopled,
northern parts were firft inhabited. We have no ac¬
counts that can be depended upon before the arrival of
Julius Casfar, and it is certain he found the fouthern
parts full of people of a very warlike difpofition. Thefe
people, according to Caefar, were a colony of the
Gauls ; and this opinion is embraced by moft of the
ancient as well as modern writers. It is chiefly founded
on the agreement obferved by the Romans between the
two nations in their cuftoms, manners, language, reli¬
gion, government, way of fighting, &c. The more
northern inhabitants, according to Tacitus, came from
Germany. This he infers from the make of their
limbs ; but Caefar fimply calls them Aborigines. 2
England, including the principality of Wales, when Inhabited
firft invaded by the Romans, was divided into 17 petty by 17 dif-
ftates. 1. The Danmonii, called alfo Dunmonii and Ila*
Donmoniiy inhabiting the counties of Cornwal and
Devonfhire. 2. The Durotriges, who inhabited the
track now called Dorfetjhire. 3. The Belgae pofleffed
Somer-
ENG [ 2730 1 ENG
England. Somerfetfhlre, Wikftiire, and Hampdilre. 4. The
~~ ~7 Attreljatii, or inhabitants of Berkfhire. 5. The Reg-
ni, vvhofe country bordered on that of the Attrebatii,
and comprehended Surry, Sufiex, and part of the fea-
coaft of Hampfhire. 6. The Cantii, inhabiting the
county now called Ke?it. 7. The Dobuni are placed
by Ptolemy on the north fide of the Thames, near its
head, in the counties of Gloucefterfhire and Oxford-
fhire. 8. The Cattieuchlani, Calyenchlani, Cattidu-
dani, or Cathioludani, inhabited Buckinghamfhire,
Bedfordfhire, and Hertfordshire. 9. The Trinoban-
tes, who poffefled the countries of Efiex and Middle-
fex. 10. The -Iceni, whofe country comprehended
Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, and Huntingdonshire.
Thefe are by Ptolemy called ‘Simenii and by others
Tigeni. Camden is of opinion, that they were the
fame whom Csefar calls Cemmagni. i t. The Cori-
tani, whofe country comprehended Northamptonfhire,
Leiceflerfliire, Rutlahdfhire, Lincolnfhire, Notting-
hamfhire, and Derbyfhire. 12. The Cornavii pof-
feffed Warwickshire, Worcefterfhire, Staffordfhire,
Shropshire, and CheShire. 13. The Silures inhabited
the Counties of Radnorshire, Brecknockshire, Gla¬
morganshire, with Herefordshire and Monmouthfhire.
14. The Demetse inhabited part of CarmardhinShire,
Pembrokeshire, and Cardiganshire. 1 5. The country
of the Ordovices comprehended Montgomeryshire,
Merionethshire, Caernarvonshire, Denbighshire, and
Flintshire. 16. The Brigantes poffeSfed the countries
of Yorkshire, the bishopric of Durham, Lancashire,
Wefimoreland, and Cumberland. 17. The county of
Northumberland was held by the Ottadini, Ottadeni,
or Ottalini. Their country, according td fom<Vh£acb-’
cd from the Tine to the river Forth; though the moSl
common opinion is, that it reached onfy to the Tweed.
The above-mentioned names of thefe nations are
plainly Roman, but the etyrmology of them is not ea¬
sily afcertained. Some attempt to derive them from
word’s in the Old British language ; but as this fubjeft
at b'eft muft be very obfcure and uncertain, we Shall
not enter into it.
Julius Cs- Before the time of Julius Csefar, the Romans had
far under- fcarcely any knowledge of Britain ; but that conqueror
takes an ex- having fubdued moft of the Gallic nations on the op-
toisltain” P0^lte t^le channel, began to think of extending
his conquefts by the reduftion of Britain. The mo¬
tive for this expedition, afcribed to him by Suetonius,
was a defire of enriching himfelf by the British pearls,
which were then very much efteemed. The pretence,
however, which he made ufe of in order to juftify his
invafion, was, that the Britons had fent aSMance to the
Gauls during hi§ wars with them.
Ccefar undertook his SirSl expedition againft Britain
when the fummer was already far fpent, and therefore
he did not expedl to SiniSh the conqueft of the country
that campaign. He thought, however, that it would
be a considerable advantage to view the ifland, and
learn fomething of the manners and cuftoms of the
natives; after which he could more eafily take fuch
meafures as would enfure a permanent conqueft on
his return. Having marched all his forces into the
country of the Morini, now the province of Picardy,
from whence was the Shorteft paSfage into Britain ; he
ordered at the fame time all the veffels that lay in the
neighbouring ports, and a fleet which he had built the
year before for an expedition againft the Morini, to England.
attend him. The Britons, alarmed at his preparations,  —■*
fent ambaSTadors with offers of fubmiSfion ; but Caefar,
though he received them with great kindnefs, did not
abandon his intended fcheme of an in/afion. He wait¬
ed till the arrival of C. Volufenus, whom he had fent out
with a Single galley to make difcoveries on the coaft of
Britain. Volufenus did not think proper to land ; but,
having made what obfervations he could on the coaSt,
returned after five days abfence, and Caefar immediate¬
ly fet fail for Britain. His force confiiled of two le¬
gions embarked on board 80 tranfports; and he ap¬
pointed 1 8 more which lay wind-bound about eight
miles off, to convey over the cavalry ; but thefe laft o*-
ders were too Slowly executed, which occafioned fome
difficulty in his landing. 4
The Britons at this time, according to Csefar and Manners,
other Roman historians, were very numerous, and had
their country well Slocked with cattle. Their houfes Britons,
refembled thofe of the Gauls; and they ufed copper or
ii;on plates weighed by a certain Standard inltead of
money. Their towns were a confuted parcel of huts
placed at a fmall distance from one another, generally
in the middle of a wood, to which all the avenues were
Slightly guarded with ramparts of earth or with trees. .
All the nations were in a State of the moft wretched
barbarifm, even when compared with the barbarous
Gaulk on the continent. The ufe of clothes was fcarce
known in the ifland. Only the inhabitants of the
fouthern coaft covered their nakednefs with the Skins of
wild beafts ; and this rather to avoid giving offence to
the Strangers who came to trade with them, than out of
any principle of decency. It was a general cultom
among the Britons to paint their bodies with the juice
of woad ; but whether this was defigned as ornament,
or for any other purpofe, is not known. They Shaved
their beards, all except their upper lip, and wore long
hair. They alfo had their wives in common, a cu¬
stom which made them deteftable to all other nations.
The arms of the Britons were a fword, a Short lance,
and a Shield. Breaft-plates and helmets they looked
upon rather to be incumbrances, and therefore made
no ufe of them. They ufually fought in chariots, fome
of which were armed with fcythes at the wheels; they
were fierce and cruel, and exceedingly blood-thirSty.
When driven to diftrefs, they could fubfift themfelves
even on the bark and roots of trees; and Dio Caffius
tells us, that they had ready, on all occafions, a cer¬
tain kind of food, of which, if they took but the quan¬
tity of a bean, they were not troubled with hunger or
thirft for a confiderable time after.—The fouthern na¬
tions, however, were fomewhat more civilized; and the
Cantii, or inhabitants of Kent, more fo than any of the
reft.
All the British nations at this time were very brave
and refolute, owing to the continual diffenfions among
themfelves. They proved therefore very formidable
enemies to the Romans; but the fame diffenfioris which
had taught them the art of war, alfo prevented them 5
from uniting in the defence of their country. As foon They op-
as they perceived Casfar’s fleet approikming, a number p°fe C*-
of cavalry and chariots were difpatched to oppofe his farslan<F.
landing, while a confiderable body of infantry hastened in^‘
after. What chiefly embarraffed the Romans in their
attempt to land, was the largenefs of their Ships,
which
ENG [ 2731 ] . E
confiderable depth of water. The ted, and a great many
N G
England, which required
* foldiers therefore were obliged to leap into the fea
while loaded with their armour; and at the fame time
to encounter the enemy, who were quite difengaged,
as they either-flood on dry ground, or waded but
a little way into the water. Csefar perceiving this dif-
advantage, ordered his galleys'to advance, with their
broad fides towards the (hore, in order to drive the
Britons from the water-fide with their flings and ar¬
rows. On this the Britons^ furprifed at the galleys, a
fort of (hipping they had never before feen, began to
give ground. The fight, however, continued forfome
time, greatly to the difadvantage of the Romans; till
^ _ ones built, he arrived off England,
the coaft of Britain with a fleet of 600 (hips and 28
galleys. The Britons made no oppofition to his land¬
ing ; but Caefar, getting intelligence that an army was
affembled at no great dittance, marched in queft of
them. He found them encamped on the banks of a
river, fuppofed to be the Stour, about 12 miles diftant
from the place where he had landed. They attempted
to oppofe his paffage ; but being bri(kly attacked by
the Roman cavalry, they were obliged to retire into a j,
wood, all the avenues of which were blocked up by Defeats the
trees cut down for that purpofe. This fortification, Brit©nt.
however, proved infufficient to proteft them. The
at laft Caefar, obferving the diftrefs of his men, eaufed feventh legion,' having caft themfelves into a teftudo,
feveral boats to be manned, and fent them to the aflift- and thrown up a mount againft their works, drove
ance of thofe who were molt expofed to the enemy’s them from their afylum; but as the day was far fpent,
a (fault. The Romans then foon got the better of the a purfuit was not thought advifeable.
undifciplined barbarians, however brave, and made Next morning Csefar, with the greateft part of his
good their landing ; but they were unable to purfue army, which he divided into three bodies, marched
the enemy for want of cavalry, which had not yet ar- out in queft of the enemy. But when he was already
1 6 _ . r n come in fight of their rear, he was overtaken by mef-
! defeated* 1 he Bntons were fo Q’^artened with this bad fuc- fengers, who informed him, that his fleet was greatly
l and fue for8’ that thef ,mm«hately fent ambaffadors to fue for damaged by a violent ftorm which had happened the
U Dcace : which was arantcH. nn rnnHitinn of thV»ir 'TH.:   __  i . .1 rr r • r
peace
I' Their
treachery.
peace; which was granted, on condition of their de- preceding night. This put an end to the purfuit for
live ring a certain number of hoftages for their fidelity, that time ; but Ctefar having employed all the carpen-
Part of thefethey brought immediately; and promifed ters he had with him, and fent for others from Gaul,
to return in a few days with the reft, who, they faid, in order to repair the damage, refolved to prevent mif-
hved at fome diftance. But, in the mean time, the fortunes of this kind for the future. He therefore drew
18 tranfports which carried Ca:far’s cavalry, being all his (hips afhore, and inclofed them within the for-
dnven back by a violent ftorm, and the fleet which tifications of his camp. This arduous undertaking em-
lay in the road being greatly damaged by the fame, ployed his whole army for to days, after which he again
the Britons thought proper to break their engage- fet out in queft of the enemy.
ments. Having therefore privately affembled their The Britons had made the beft ufe they could of the
forces, they fell unexpefledly on the feventh legion refpite afforded them by the ftorm. They were headed
while at a diftance from the reft and bufied in fora- by Caffibelaunus king of the Trinobantes. He had
ging. C as far being apprifed of their danger, ha- formerly made war upon his neighbours; and having
ftened to their affiftance- with two cohorts, and at rendered himfelf terrible to them, was looked upon to
laft repulfed the enemy.—This, however, proved only be the moft proper perfon for leadino- them on againft
a temporary deliverance; for the Britons, thinking the common enemy; and as feveraT dates had now
it would be poffible for them to cut off all the Romans joined their forces, the Britifh army was very numerous,
at once, difpatched meffengers to inform feveral of the Their cavalry and chariots attacked the Roman army
neighbouring nations of the weaknefs of the enemy’s while on their march; but were repulfed with lofs, and
forces, and the happy opportunity that offered itfelf of driven into the woods. The Romans purfued them
deftroyingall thefe invaders at one blow. — On this, they too eagerly, and thus loft fome of their own men •
drew together a great body of horfe and foot, which which encouraged the Britons to make another fierce
boldly advanced to the Roman mtrenchments. But attack : but in this alfo they were finally unfuccefsful,
Caefar came out to meet them; and the undifciplined and were obliged to retire, though their lofs feems not
Jontons being by no means able to cope with the Ro- to have been great.
mans, were put to flight with great (laughter. Having Next day the Britons fuddenly attacked the Roman
burnt ieveraJ towns and villages, the vigors returned legions as they were foraging ; but meeting with a vi-
to their camp, where they were foon followed by new gorous refiftance, they foon betook themfelves to flight,
deputies trom the Bntons. Csefar being in want of The Romans purfued them'fo clofely, that having nei-
horfe, and a fra.a left another ftorm fhould deftroy the ther time to rally nor get down from their chariots, ac-
remamder of his fleet, granted the Britons a peace, on cording tocuftom, great numbers of them were cut in
condition^ ol their fending him double the number of pieces: and this overthrow had fuch an effea upon the
hoftages into Gaul which they had before promifed. auxiliaries of Caffibelaunus, that all of them abandon-
Gaul amC night he ^ fa‘ ’ and ^ arrIVed ^ in ed him ;-n°r d.‘d the ErItor?s ever aftcrwardti engage
t, *. r „ Cxfar with united forces. Ctefar, purfuing his vidory, Csfar crof-
1 he Britons no fooner perceived the Romans gone, marched towards the Thames, with a defign to crofs f« the
Zn: 38 *7 n’ br0ke, th,rouSh the.ir engage- ^at river, and enter the territories of the Trinobantes. Thai««.
ns. Of all the dates who had promifed to fend The river was fordable only at one place, and that not
nonages, only two performed their promifes; and without great difficulty ; but when he came to it, he
is neglect fo provoked. Casfar, that he determined found the enemy’s forces drawn up in a confiderable
rear fol,ow’ng.Wlth a ffr greater force, body on the oppofite bank, which was fortified with
Having, therefore, caufed his old veffels to be refit- (harp flakes. They had likewife driven many flakes
of
England.
Gives the
Britons fre¬
quent over¬
throws.
x]
He leaves
the ifland
altogether.
EN G
of the fame kind into the bottom of the river, the
' tops of which were covered with water. Thefe flakes
are vifible to this day at a place called Walton in Sur¬
ry. They are made of oak; and though they have been
fo long in the water, are as hard as Brazil, and as black,
as jet; and have fometimes been pulled out in order to
make knife-handles of them.
Caefar was not at all difmayed at thefe difficulties,
which he had intelligence of by prifoners and defert-
ers. He ordered the cavalry to enter firft, and the
foot to follow. His orders were obeyed, and the fol-
diers advanced with fuch refolution ; that though the
infantry were up to the chin in water, the enemy, un¬
able to fuftain their afiault, abandoned the bank and
fled. After this defeat Caffibelaunus himfelf defpair-
ed of fuccefs, and therefore difmifled all his forces ex¬
cept about 4000 chariots, with which he obferved the
motions of the Romans, harraffing them by cutting
off ftraggling parties, &c. This, however, was not
fufficient to keep up the fpirits of his countrymen. On
the contrary, they depofed him from the kingdom, and
chofe Mandubratius, whofe father had been murdered
by Caffibelaunus, who thereupon ufurped the kingdom.
The young prince had fled to Caefar, who gave him
C 2732 ]
ENG
Dio Caffius tells us, that the Britons utterly defeated England. i|
the Roman infantry, but were at laft put in diforder by —"
their cavalry. Horace and Tibullus, in many parts of
their works, fpeak of the Britons as a people not yet
conquered. Tacitus fays, that Caefar rather fliewed
the Romans the way to Britain, than put them in pof-
feffion of it; and Lucan tells us plainly, that Caefar
turned his back to the Britons and fled. This laft,
however, confidering the confummate military genius
of Casfar, is by no means probable. That he left
Britain during the winter, was, in all probability, to
prevent infurredtions among the Gauls, which might
very readily have happened ; and that he did not re¬
turn to finifli his conqueft can be no wonder, feeing his
ambition would certainly be more gratified by being
called emperor of Rome, than conqueror of Britain.
The departure of Julius Csefar, which happened a-
bout 53 years before Chrift, left the Britons without
any fear of a foreign enemy. We are not, therefore, to
imagine, that they would regard their promifes of pay¬
ing tribute ; nor was it probably demanded for a good
number of years afterwards. Auguftus, however, when
he had got himfelf fully eftabliflied on the throne, had
twice a defign of invading Britain and forcing thein-
protedlion; and the Trinobantes now offered to fubmit habitants to pay the tribute promifed to Julius Casfar.
to the conqueror, provided he would give them Man¬
dubratius for their king.
Caefar readily complied with the requeft of the Tri¬
nobantes upon their fending him 40 hoftages : and the
fubmiffion of the Trinobantes was foon followed by
that of other ftates and tribes ; for each of the 17 na¬
tions already mentioned were compofed of feveral diffe¬
rent tribes, of which no particular account can be gi¬
ven.—-Caefar next marched to Verulamium, or Canter¬
bury, which was Caffibelaunus’s capital, and which he
ftill kept poffeffion of; but, tho’the place was ftrong-
ly fortified both by nature and art, the Britons were
unable to bear the affault of the Romans, and there¬
fore foon fled out at one of the avenues. Many were
taken as they attempted to make their efcape, and ma¬
ny more cut in pieces.
After this lofs, Caffibelaunus, as his laft refource,
found means to draw into confederacy with him four
kings of the Cantii. But, though Casfar gives them
the title of kings, it is probable that they were only
petty princes, tributary to the king of that nation.
Their names were Cingetorix, Corvilius, Taximagu-
lus, and Segonax. Thefe, having raifed what forces
they could, attacked the camp where the fhips were
laid up: but the Romans having made a fally, repul-
fed them with great flaughter, and then returned to
their trenches without any lofs; after which, Caffibe¬
launus thought proper to fubmit to the conqueror. As
the fummer was already far fpent, Caefar hearkened to
his propofals. A peace was concluded on the follow¬
ing terms, viz. that the Britons ftiould pay an annual
tribute to the Romans, that Caffibelaunus fhould leave
Mandubratius in peaceable poffeffion of his dominions,
that he Ihould not moleft the Trinobantes, and that he
ffiould deliver a certain number of hoftages. Thefe
terms being agreed to, Caefar fet fail with his whole
fleet from Britain, to which he never returned.
Such is the account given by Caefar himfelf of his
two expeditions into Britain; but other authors have
fpoken very doubtfully of his vi&ories in this ifland.
Both times, however, he was prevented by revolts in
different provinces in the empire, fo that the Britons
ftill continued to enjoy their liberty. They thought
proper, however, to court the favour of the Romans as
much as they could by pretended fubmiffions; but, in
the reign of Claudius, the Romans fet about reducing
the Britons to fubjedtion in good earneft. The occa- why the
fion of this war is related by Dio Caffius as follows, war with
“ Cunobelinus, the third in fucceffion from Caffibe- Romans
launus, being dead, his two fons, Togodumnus and w?s rene',
Caradtacus, fucceeded to the throne ; but whether they e
reigned jointly or feparately, is not known. In their
reign one Bericus, of whom we alfo know very little,
being driven out of the ifland for attempting to raife a
fedition, fled with fome of his partifans to Rome, and
perfuaded Claudius to make war on his countrymen.
The Britons, on the other hand, refented the behavi¬
our of Claudius in receiving thefe vagabonds, and
therefore prohibited all intercourfe with the Romans.
A much fmaller offence than this would have been fuf¬
ficient at any time to provoke that haughty nation to C
declare war. An army was therefore immediately or¬
dered into Britain, under the command of Plautius prse-
tor in Gaul. The foldiers at firft refufed to embark,
from a fuperftitious notion, that they were going to be
fent without the compafs of the world; and this mu¬
tiny being related to the Britons, they did not make
the neceffary preparations for their own defence. The
Roman foldiers were foon brought to a fenfe of their
duty; 'and fet out from three different ports, in order
to land in three different places of Britain at once.
Being driven back by contrary winds, their fears began
to return; but they refumed their courage on the ap¬
pearance of a meteor ftiooting from the eaft, which
they imagined was fent from heaven to direft their
eourfe. They landed without oppofition; and the
Britons, not having drawn together a fufficient army,
kept in fmall bodies behind their marfhes, and in woods,
in order to fpin out the war till winter; which they
imagined Plautius would, like Casfar, fpend in Gaul.
The
Claudius
Britain.
ENG [ 2733 ] .ENG
The Roman general marched firft In queft of the
two kings Togodumnus and Caraftacus; both of whom
he found out, and defeated one after another. He then
reduced part of the Dobuni, at that time fubjeft to the
Cattieuchlani; and, leaving a garrifon to keep them
in awe, he advanced to a river where the Britons lay
carelefsly encamped, fuppofing that the Romans could
not pafs it without a bridge. But the Germans in the
Roman army had been accuftpmed to fwim acrofs the
ftrongeft currents in their heavy armour. They there¬
fore paffed the river firft ; and having, according to
their orders, fallen only upon the enemy’s horfes which
drew their chariots, thefe formidable machines were
rendered entirely ufelefs; and the Briton? were put to
flight as foon as another part of the forces could pafs
the river.
The Britons were not disheartened with this defeat,
but engaged the Romans next day with great bravery.
Vi&ory continued long doubtful; but at length the
Romans prevailed, and the Britons were forced to be¬
take themfelves to flight. This battle is thought to
have been fought on the banks of the Severn. From
thence the Britons fled to the mouth of the Thames.
They were clofely purfued by the Romans; but the
latter being unacquainted with the flats and (hallows
of the river, were often in great danger. The Ger¬
mans, however, crofled the river by fwimming as be¬
fore, and the reft on a bridge fomewhat higher ; fo
that the Britons were in a fhort time furroundedon all
lides, and great numbers of them cut in pieces. Many
of the Romans, alfo, purfuing the fugitives with too
great eagernefs, were loft in the marlhes.— In one of
thefe battles Togodumnus was killed; but the Britons
were fo far from being difheartened by his death, that
they (hewed more eagernefs than ever to oppofe the
Romans, in order to revenge it. Plautius, therefore,
did not think proper to penetrate farther into the
country, but contented himfelf with putting garrifons
in the places he had already conquered. He then
wrote to the emperor himfelf; who no fooner received
an account of his fuccefs, than he fet out for Britain ;
where, having landed after a fhort voyage, he joined
Plautius on the banks of the Thames.
Soon after the arrival of Claudius, the Roman army
pafled the Thames, attacked the Britifh army, and to¬
tally defeated it. The confequence of this was the
taking of Cunobelinus’s capital, and the fubmifiion of
feveral of the neighbouring ftates. The emperor,
however, did not make a long flay in the ifland, but left
Plautius to purfue his conquefts. This he did with
fuch fuccefs, that, on his return to Rome, he was met
without the gates by the emperor himfelf, who, aChis
folemn entry, gave him the- right hand.—The Bri¬
tons feem to have made a very obftinate refiftance
to the Roman arms about this time. Vefpafian, who
was afterwards emperor, is faid to have fought 30
battles with them. The exploits of Titus his fon are
alfo much celebrated by the Roman hiftorians.
In the ninth year of Claudius, P. Oftorius Scapula
was fent into Britain. By far the greater part of the
17 nations formerly mentioned were at this time un¬
conquered. Some of thefe had broken into the Ro¬
man territories; but Oftorius falling unexpectedly upon
them, put great numbers to the fword, and difperfed
the reft. To prevent them for the future from making
Vol. IV,
inroads into the territories of the Romans or their al- Snglam!.
lies, he built feveral forts on the Severn, the Avon,
and the Nen, reducing the country fouth of thefe ri¬
vers to a Roman province. This fo highly offended
the Iceni, that, being joined by the neighbouring na¬
tions, they raifed a confiderable army, and encamped
in an advantageous fituation, in order to prevent the
Romans from penetrating farther into the ifland. O-
ftorius, however, foon advanced againft them. The
Romans, as ufual, got the vidlory, and the enemy were
purfued with great (laughter. The Roman general
then, having quelled an infurre&ion among the Bri- 1(J
gantes, led his army againft the Silures. They were Caraftacus
headed by their king Cara&acus, a moft renowned defeated ani
warrior. He (hewed his military talents by choofing a J,aken P'1'
very advantageous place for engaging the enemy. Ta- oner*
citus tells us, “ it was on the ridge of an exceeding fteep
mountain ; and, where the (ides of it were inclining
and acceffible, he reared walls of ftone for a rampart.
At the foot of the mountain flowed a river dangerous
to be forded, and an army of men guarded his en¬
trenchments.” This hill is thought to be one called
Caer-Caradoc in Shropfhire, fituated near the conflux
of the rivers Colun and Teme, and where the remains
of ancient entrenchments are (till vifible.—On the ap¬
proach of the enemy, Cara&acus drew up his troops in
order of battle, animating them with the following
fpeech, according to Tacitus. “ That from this day,
and this battle, they muft date their liberty refcued,
or their flavery for ever eftablifhed. Tie then invoked
the (hades of thofe heroes who had expelled Caefar the
diftator; thofe brave men by whofe valour they ftill
enjoyed freedom from Roman tribute and taxes, and
by which their wives and children were as yet pre-
ferved from proftitution.” The whole army then took
a folemn oath either to conquer or die, and prepared
for the charge with the moft terrible (houts. Oftorius
was fomewhat difmayed when he confidered the un¬
common fiercenefs of the enemy, and the other diffi¬
culties which he had to encounter. He led on his
men, however, to the charge; and the Romans were
attended with their ufual good fortune. The Britons
were put to flight. Vaft numbers fell on the field of
battle and in the purfuit, and many more were taken
prifoners. Among the latter were the wife, the daugh¬
ter, and the brothers, of Cara&acus. The unfortunate
prince himfelf fled to Cartifmundua queen of the Bri-
gantes, by whom he was delivered up to the Roman
general, who fent him in chains to Rome. Caratftacus
bore his misfortunes with magnanimity; and when he
c,ame before the emperor, addreffed him in the follow- ,7
ing terms. “ If my moderation in profperity, O-His fpeech
Claudius! had been as confpicuous as my birth and to the Ro“
fortune, I (hould now have entered this city as a friend,-^an emPe'
and not as a prifoner; nor would you have difdained
the friendrtiip of a prince defcended from fuch illuftri-
ous anceftors, and governing fo many nations. My
prefent condition, I own, is to you honourable, to me
humiliating. I was lately poffeffed of fubjefts, horfes,
arms, and riches. Can you be furprifed that I endea¬
voured to preferve them ? If you Romans have a de¬
fire to arrive at univerfal monarchy, muft all nations,
to gratify you, tamely fubmit to fervitude? If I had
fubmitted without a ftruggle, how much would it have
diminiftied the luftre of my fall, and of your viftory ?
15 X And
England,
»8
General re¬
volt of the
Britons.
*9
They de-
ftroyjo.ooo
Romans,
ENG [ 2734 ] ENG
And now, if you refolve to put me to death, my dory
' will foon be buried in oblivion; but if you think pro¬
per to preferve my life, I lhall remain a lading monu¬
ment of your clemency.”—This fpeech had fuch an
effeA upon Claudius, that he immediately pardoned
Cara&acus and his whole family, and commanded them
to be fet at liberty.
The Silures, notwithftanding this terrible blow, con¬
tinued the war with great vigour, and gained conli-
derable advantages over the Romans; which fo much
affedfed Oltorius, that he died of grief. He was fuc-
ceeded by A. Didius, who reftrained the incurfions of
the Silures, but was not able to reflore Cartifmundua
queen of the Brigantes, who had been depofed by her
fubjects. Didius wasfucceeded by Veranius, and he by
Suetonius Paulinus, who reduced theifland of Angle¬
sey, as related under that article. But while Faulinus
was employed in the conquett of this ifland, he was
alarmed by the news of an almolt univerfal revolt a-
mong thofe nations which had fubmitted to the Ro¬
mans. The Britons, tho* conquered, had ftill a de¬
fire of returning to their former ftate of independence ;
and the Roman yoke became every day more unfup-
portable to them through the infolence and oppreffions
of the Roman foldiers. The Britons had been long
difcontented, and were already in a very proper difpo-
fition for a revolt, when an event happened which kin¬
dled thefe difcontents into an open flame. Prafuta-
gus, king of the Iceni, a prince renowned for opu¬
lence and grandeur, had, by his laft will, left the Ro¬
man emperor joint-heir with his two daughters, in
hopes of obtaining his favour and prote&ion by fo
great an obligation. But the event turned out very
different. No fooner was he dead, than his houfes and
poflefiions were all plundered by the Roman foldiers.
The queen Boadicea remonflrated againft this injufticej
but, inftead of obtaining any redrefs, fhe herfelf was
publicly whipped, her daughters raviftied, and all the
relations of the late king reduced to flavery. The whole
country alfo was plundered, and all the chiefs of the
Iceni deprived of their pofleffions.
Boadicea was a woman of too haughty a fpirittame-
ly to bear fuch indignities. She therefore perfuaded
the Iceni to take up arms, which they very readily
did. Then, being joined by the Trinobantes, and fome
other nations, they poured like a torrent on the Ro¬
man colonies. Every thing wasdeftroyed with fire and
fword. The ninth legion, which had been left for the
defence of the country under Petilius Cerealis was de¬
feated, the infantry totally cut in pieces, and the
commander himfelf with the cavalry efcaped with the
utmoft difficulty. Suetonius, alarmed at this news,
mediately left Anglefey, and marched with the great-
eft expedition to London. The inhabitants were o-
verjoyed at his arrival, and ufed their utmoft endea¬
vours to detain him for their defence. But he refufed
to ftay, and in a fliort time left the place, notwithftand-
ing the intreaties of the inhabitants. The whole city
1 lamented his departure ; and they had reafon. Sueto¬
nius was fcarce gone, when Boadicea with her Britons
entered, and put all they found in it to the fword.
None were taken prifoners, nor was any fex or age
fpared, and many were tortured in the moft cruel man¬
ner. Seventy thoufand perfons are faid to have perilhed
on this occafion at London and other Roman colonies.
The Britons, now elated with fuccefs, affetnbled England,
from all quarters in great numbers, fo that Boadicea’s ——
army foon amounted to 230,000 men. They defpifed are
the Romans; and became fo confident of viftory, that utterly <ie»
they brought their wives and children along with them ftated,
in waggons to be fpe&ators of the deftruAion of their e-
nemies. The event was what might naturally have been
judged from fuch ill-judged confidence. The Britons
were overthrown with moft terrible flaughter, no fewer
than 80,000 being killed in the battle and purfuit; while
the Romans had not above 400 killed, and not many
more wounded. Boadicea, not able to furvive fo great
a calamity, put an end to her life by poifon.
By this overthrow the Britons who had once been
fubdued were thoroughly prevented from railing any
more infurreAions, and even thofe who had not yet
fubmitted to the Roman yoke feemed to be intimida¬
ted from making incurfions into their dominions. No¬
thing remarkable therefore happened in Britain for
fome time. In the time of Vefpafian, Petilius Cerea¬
lis being appointed governor of Britain, attacked the
Brigantes, defeated them in feveral battles, and redu¬
ced great part of their country. He was fucceeded by
Julius Frontinus; who not only maintained the conquefts
of his predecdfor, but reduced entirely the warlike na¬
tion of the Silures. Frontinus was fucceeded by the
celebrated Cneius Julius Agricola, who completed the
conqueft of all the Southern Britons. XI
Juft before the arrival of Agricola, the Ordovices Britain con-
had cut in pieces a band of horfe Rationed on their quered by ;
confines, after which the whole nation had taken arms. * Snco a'
The fummer was pretty far fpent, and the Roman ar¬
my was quite feparated and difperfed, the foldiers ha¬
ving aflured themfelves of reft for the remaining part of
the year. Agricola, however, was no fooner landed,
than, having drawn together his legions, he marched
againft the enemy without delay. The Britons kept
upon the ridges of the mountains; but Agricola led
them in perfon up the afcents. The Romans were
vidtorious, and fuch a terrible flaughter was made of
the Britons that almoft all the whole nation of Ordo-
viceswas cut off. Without giving the enemy time to
recover from the terror which this overthrow had oc-
cafioned, Agricola refolved upon the immediate reduc¬
tion of Anglefey, which had been loft by the revolt of
Boadicea. Being deftitute of (hips, he detached a
chofen body of auxiliaries who knew the fords, and
were accuftomed to manage their arms and horfes in
the water. The Britons who had expedled a fleet and
tranfports, were fo terrified by the appearance of the
Roman forces on their ifland, that they immediately
fubmitted, and Anglefey was once more reftoredtothe
Romans.
With the conqueft of Anglefey, ended the firft cam¬
paign of Agricola; and he employed the winter in re¬
conciling the Britons to the Roman yoke. In this he
met with fuch fuccefs, through his wife and equitable
conduA, that the Britons, barbarous as they were, be¬
gan to prefer a life of fecurity and peace, to that inde¬
pendency which they had formerly enjoyed, and which
contimially expofed them to the tumults and calamities
of war. The fucceeding campaigns of Agricola were
attended with equal fuccefs; he not only fubdued the
17 nations inhabiting England, but carried the Roman
arms almoft to the extremity of Scotland. He alfo
caufed
England.
* See A-
! f See An¬
toninus's
WalJ.
42
Expedition
«d Severus
! Into Bri-
rn-
ENG [ 2735 ] ENG
c*ufed his fleet to fail round the ifland, and difcovered
the Orcades, or Orkney iflands, which had before been
unknown to the reit of the world. His expedition took
him up about fix years, and was completed in the year
of Cbrift 84.
Had this commander been continued in Britain, it is
probable that both Scotland and England would have
been permanently fubdued ; but he was recalled by
Domitian in the year 85, and we are then almoll to¬
tally in the dark about the Britifh affairs till the reign
of the emperor Adrian. During this interval the Ca¬
ledonians had taken arms, and not only refufed fubjec-
tion to the Roman power themfelves, but ravaged the
territories of the Britons who continued faithful to
them. Adrian, for what reafon is not well known,
abandoned to them the whole track lying between
the Tyne and the Forth. At the fame time, in
order to reftrain them from making incurfions in¬
to the Roman territories, he built a wall 80 miles
in length from the river Eden in Cumberland to the
Tyne in Northumberland *. He was fucceeded by
Antoninus Pius, in whofe reign the Brigantes revolt¬
ed ; and the Caledonians, having in feveral places bro¬
ken down the wall built by Adrian, began anew to ra¬
vage the Roman territories- Againft them the em¬
peror fent Lollius Urbicus, who reduced the Bri¬
gantes ; and having defeated the northern nations,
confined them within narrower bounds, by a new
wall f, extending probably between the Friths of
Forth and Clyde. From the time of Antoninus to
that of Severus, the Roman dominions in Britain con¬
tinued to be much infefted by the inroads of the nor¬
thern nations. That emperor divided Britain into
two governments, the fouthern and northern ; but the
governor of the northern divifion was fo harrafled
by continual incurfions of the Caledonians, that he
was at length obliged to purchafea peace with money.
The Caledonians kept the treaty for 15 years; after
which, breaking into the Roman territories anew, they
committed terrible ravages. Virius Lupus the gover¬
nor, not being in a condition to withftand them, ac¬
quainted the emperor with his diftrefs, intreating him
to fend powerful and fpeedy fupplies. Upon this Se¬
verus refolved to put an end to the perpetual incurfions
of the enemy by making a complete conqueft of their
country; for which purpofe he fet out for Britain, to-
ether with his two fons Caracalla and Geta, at the
ead of a numerous army. The Caledonians no fooner
heard of his arrival, than they fent ambafladors offer¬
ing to conclude a peace upon honourable terms. But
thefe the emperor detained till he was ready to take
the field, and then difmifled them without granting
their reqneft.
As foon as the feafon was fit for a&ion, Severus
marched into the territories of the Caledonians, where
he put all to fire and fword. He advanced even to the
moft northerly parts of the ifland; and though no
battle was fought in this expedition, yet through the
continual ambufcades of the enemy, and the inhofpi-
table nature of the country, he is faid to have loft
50,000 men. At laft the Caledonians were obliged to
fue for peace; which was granted them on condition
of their yielding part of their country, and delivering
up their arms. After this the emperor returned to
York, leaving his fon Caracalla to command the army,
and finifh the new wall which had been begun between
the friths of Forth and Clyde. But, the emperor be¬
ing taken ill at York, the Caledonians no fooner heard
of his indifpofition, than they again took up arms.
This provoked Severus to fuch a degree, that he com¬
manded his fon Caracalla to enter their country anew
with the whole army, and to put all he met to the
fword without diftinftion of fex or age. Before thefe
orders, however, could be put in execution, his two
fons, having concluded a fhameful peace with the Ca¬
ledonians, returned to Rome.
A long chafm now takes place in the hiftory of the
Roman dominions in Britain. In the beginning of
Dioclefian’s reign, Caraufius a native of Gaul, palling
over into Britain, took upon him the title of emperor,
and was acknowledged by all the troops quartered
here. He was, however, killed in a battle with one
of Conftantius’s officers, after he had enjoyed the fove-
reignty for fix or feven years. Conftantine the Great
began his reign in this ifland; and returned foon after
he had left it, probably with a defign to put a flop to
the daily incurfions of the Caledonians, He altered the
divifion of that part of Britain fubjeft to the Romans.
Severus had divided it only into two provinces; but
Conftantine increafed the number to three ; viz. Bri¬
tannia Prima, Britannia Secunda, and Maxima Casfa-
rienfis; and this laft was afterwards divided into two,
viz. Maxima Caefarienfis and Flavia Caefarienfis. The
removal of the imperial feat from Rome to Conftan-
tinople, which happened in the reign of Conftantine,
gave the northern nations an opportunity of making
frequent incurfions into the Roman provinces; the
emperor having carried with him, firft into Gaul, and
then into the Eaft, not only moft of the Roman troops,
but likewife the flower of the Britifh youth.
About the latter end of the reign of Conftantius fon to
Conftantine the Great, the government of the province
of Britain and other Weftern parts of the empire, was
committed to Julian, afterwards called the apojiate.
While he was in his winter-quarters at Paris, he was
informed that the Scots and Pidts, about this time firft
diftinguifhed by thefe names, had broken into the Ro¬
man territories and committed every where dreadful
ravages. Againft them Julian difpatched a body of
troops under the command of Lupicinius. He em¬
barked from Bologne in the depth of winter, but was
no fooner arrived at London than he was recalled; the
enemy having probably found means to appeafe Ju¬
lian by their fubmiflions. To the reign of Valen-
tinian I. thefe nations ftill continued to infeft the Ro¬
man territories in Britain, and had now reduced the
country to a moft deplorable condition by their conti¬
nual ravages. Valentinian fent againft them Theodo-
fius, father to the emperor of that name. That gene¬
ral having divided his forces into feveral bodies, advan¬
ced againft the enemy who were roving up and down
thecountry. The Scots and Pidls were obliged to yield to
the fuperior valour and difcipline of the Romans. Great
numbers were cut in pieces, they were forced to aban¬
don all the booty and prifoners they had taken, and
to retire beyond the friths of Forth and Clyde. Theodo-
fius then entered London in triumph, and reftored that
city to its former fplendour, which had fuffered great¬
ly by the former incurfions of the northern Britons. To
reftrain them from breaking anew into the provinces,
15 X 2 Theo-
England-
ENG [ 2736 ] E N p
England. Theodofius built feveral forts or caflles between the
two friths j and having thus recovered all the country
between Adrian’s wall and the friths of Forth and
Clyde, he formed of it a fifth province which he called
Valentta..
Though Britain was now reduced to a ftate of tem¬
porary tranquillity, yet as the Roman empire was daily
declining, it is not to be fuppofed that fufficient care
could be taken to fecure fuch a diftant province. In the
reign of the emperor Honorius, the provincial Britons
found themfelves annoyed not only by the Scots and
Pi&s, but alfo by the depredations of the Saxons who
began to commit ravages on the fea-coails. By the care,
however, of Stilicho, prime minitler to Honorius, mat¬
ters were once more fettled, and a particular officer was
Appointed to guard the coaft againlt the attempts of the
Saxons, with the title of Conies limitis Saxcnici. But,
not long after, the empire being over-run by barba¬
rians, mod of the Roman troops quartered in Britain
j j were recalled, and the country left quite open to the at-
The Bri- tacks of the Scots and Pi&s. Upon this the provincials
tons choofe expe6ting no more affiftande from Honorius, refolved
of dveir”01^to ^et llP an cmPeror their own. Accordingly they
own. inverted with the imperial dignity one Mark, an officer
of great credit among them. Him they murdered
in a few days, and placed on the throne one Gratian
a native of Britain. After a reign of four months,
Gratian underwent the fate of his predeceflbr; and was
fucceeded by Conjlantine, a common foldier, who was
chofen nierely for the fake of his name. He feems, how¬
ever, to have been a man of fome knowledge and ex¬
perience in war. He drove the Scots and Pifts be¬
yond the limits of the Roman territories; but being
elated with this fuccefs, he would now be fatisfied with
nothing lefs than the conqueft of the whole Roman
empire. He therefore parted over into Gaul; and took
with him not only the few Roman forces that had been
left, but fuch of the provincial Britons as were rtioft ac-
cuftomed to arms. That unhappy people, being now
left entirely defencelefs, were harrafled in the moft cruel
manner by their enemies ; who broke into the coun¬
try, and deftroyed all with fire and fword. In this
roiferable fituatitm they continued from the year 407,
when the ufurper Conllantine parted over into Gaul,
till the year 410. Having during the laft three years
frequently implored affiftance from Rome without re¬
ceiving any, they now refolved to withdraw their alle¬
giance from an empire which was no longer able to
protect them. Honorius himfelf applauded their con-
du&; and advifed them by letters to provide for their
own fafety, which was in tffe& an implicit refignation
of the fovereignty of the ifland.
Theprovincial Britons now regained their liberty; but
they had loft the martial fpirit which had at firft rendered
them fo. formidable to the Romans. They feem, how¬
ever, to have met with fome fuccefs in their firft enter-
prifes ; for Zofimus tells us, that they delivered their
cities from the infults of an haughty enemy. But,
a4 being at laft overpowered, they were again obliged to
Implore the have recourfe to the Roman emperor, to whom they
alfiftance of promifed a moft perfeft fubmiffion, provided they were
the Ro- delivered from the hands of their mercilefs and impla-
mans. cable enemies. Honorius, touched with compaffioo,
fent a legion to their relief. The Roman forces landed
in Britain unexpectedly; and having deftroyed great
numbers of the Scots and Pifts, they drove them be- England. |||
yond the Friths of Forth and Dunbritton. After
this they advifed the natives to build a wall on the
ifthmus from fea to fea, and to reaflume their courage,
and defend themfelves from their enemies by their own
valour. The Romans then quitted the country; being
obliged to return, in order to repulfe thofe barbarians
who had broken into the empire from all quarters.
The Britons immediately fet about building the wall,
as they had been defired, with great alacrity. But, as
it was conftrutted only of turf, the Scots and Pids
foon broke it down in feveral places; and, pouring in up¬
on the defencelefs and effeminate provincials, committed ij | j
more cruel ravages than ever. At laft, after very many Send am- j |
and grievous calamities, the latter fent ambaffadors once ^
more t<J Rome. Thefe appeared with their garments t0 RomCi 5
rent, and duft on their heads; and at laft prevailed on
the emperor, by their earneft intreaties, to fend another
legion to their relief. The troops arrived in Britain
before the enemy had the leaft knowledge of their
having fet fail. They were therefore quite unprepared
for an attack, and roving up and down the country in
the uttnoft diforder. The Romans made a terrible
havock among them, and drove the remainder into
their own country. As Honorius had fent them not
with any ambitious view of retaining the ifland in fub-
jettion, but merely out of compaffion to the unhappy
provincials, the Romans told them, they had now no
farther affiftance to expedf from them. They informed
them, that the legion muft immediately return to the
continent, to proteft the empire from the barbarians,
who had extended their ravages almoft to every part
of it; and therefore, that they muft now take their laft
farewel of Britain, and totally abandon the ifland.
After this declaration, Gallio, the commander of the
Roman troops, exhorted the provincials to defend them¬
felves, by fighting bravely for their country, wives, and
children, and what ought to be dearer than life itfelf,
their liberty; telling them, at the fame time, that their
enemies were no ftronger than themfelves, provided
they would but lay afide their fears, and exert their
ancient courage and refolution. That they might the
better withftand the attacks of the enemy, he advifed
them to build a wall not of turf, but of ftone; offering
to affift them with his foldiers, and to direft them
himfelf in the execution. Upon this the Britons
immediately fell to work; and with the affiftance of
the Romans, finflhed it in a Ihort time, though it was
no lefs than eight feet thick, and twelve feet in height.
It is thought to have been built on the fame place
where Severns’s wall formerly flood. Towers were
alfo built at convenient diftances on the eaft coaft,
to prevent the defeents of the Saxons and other bar¬
barians that came from Germany. Gallio employ¬
ed the reft of his time in teaching the provincials
the art of war. He left them patterns of the Roman (,rita^ ^
weapons, which he alfo taught them to make; andnaijy aj,an„vi.
after many encouraging exhortations, he took his laft dimed by ;
farewel of Britain, to which the Romans never return- the Ro-
ed. There is a great difagreement among chronolo- n’ans-
gers as to the year in which the Romans finally aban¬
doned Britain; fome placing it in 422 ; others in 423,
or 426; and fome in 431, 435, or 437.
The final departure of the Romans was no fooner
known to the Scots and Pi&s, than they poured in
upon
ENG
England, upon the provincial Britons from all quarters, like him-
*- ~ gry wolves breaking into a flieep-fold. When the Scots
approached the new-built wall, they found it completely
finifhed, and guarded by great numbers of armed men.
But fo little had the provincial Britons profited by
the military inftruftions of the Romans, that, inftead
of placing proper guards and centinels, and relieving
one another by turns, their whole number had ftaid
feveral days and nights upon the ramparts without in-
25 termiffion. Being therefore quite benumbed and wea-
Britons mi- ried out, they were able to make but very little refilt-
jferably bar- ance. Many were pulled down with hooks from the
rae*Scots battlements, and dalhed in pieces. The reft were
and Pitfs. driven from their ftations with Ihowers of darts and
arrows. They betook themfelves to flight; but that
could not fave them. The Scots and Piifts purfued
them clofe, made a dreadful havock among the fugi¬
tives, and took pofleffion of the frontier towns, which
they found deferted by the inhabitants. As they now
met with no mote oppofition, they over-ran the whole
country, putting every thing to fire andfword. Their
ravages foon occafioned a famine; and this was fol¬
lowed by a kind of civil war. The provincials, unable to
fupport themfelves, were obliged to plunder each other
of the little the common enemy had left them. The
whole country at laft became fo incapable of fupport-
ing thofe who were left in it, that many fled into the
woods, in order to fubflft themfelves there by hunting.
Implore the In this extremity of diftrefs, they had once more re-
affiftance ofcourfe to the Romans; and wrote in the moft mourn-
inan^0* ful ftyle that can poflibly be imagined to Aetius, who
was then conful the third time. Their letter they di¬
rected thus: “ The groans of the Britons to the con¬
ful Aetius.” The contents of this letter were anfwer-
able to the direction. “ The barbarians, (fay they,)
drive us to the fea; the fea drives us back to the bar¬
barians ; between which we have only the. choice of
two deaths, either to be fvvallowed up by the waves, or
to be cruelly maflacred by the enemy.”
To this letter the Roman general gave no fatisfac-
tory anfwer, and the provincials were thereupon reduced
to defpair. Great numbers of them fled over to Ar¬
morica, where they fettled along with others who had
formerly gone over with an ufurper called Maximus;
while others fubmitted to the Scots and PiCls. Some,
however, more refolute than the reft, had once more
a8 recourfe to arms. They fallied out in parties from the
They at laft woods and caves where they had been obliged to hide
repulfe themfelves, and, falling unexpectedly on the enemy,
their ene- cut great numbers of them in pieces, and obliged the
reft to retire. Having thus obtained fome refpite,
they began again to cultivate their lands ; which, ha¬
ving lain fallow for a long time, now produced all
forts of corn in the greateft plenty. This plenty, ac¬
cording to the hiftorian Gildas, occafioned the moft
confummate wickednefs and corruption of manners
among all ranks of men. The clergy, fays he, who
fhould have reclaimed the laity by their example,
proved the ringleaders in every vice; being addicted to
drunkennefs, contention, envy, &c.—It is poffible, how¬
ever, that this defcription might be exaggerated by
Gildas, who was himfelf a monk. But, however this
was, the Britons had not long enjoyed peace, when
they were alarmed by a report, that the Scots and
PiCts were about to return with a far greater force than
ENG
before, utterly to extirpate the name of their fouthern England,
neighbours, and feize upon the country for themfelves. ’
This report threw them into a terrible confternation ; ^re aga|n
and, to add to the reft of their misfortunes, they were threatened
now vifited by a dreadful plague, which raged with with an in-
fuch violence, that the living were fcarce fufficient to vafion.
bury the dead. The contagion no fooner ceafed, than
they found their country invaded by the Scots and
Pifts, who deftroyed every thing with fire and fword;
fo that the provincials were foon reduced to the fame
miferable ftate they had formerly been in.
At this time the chief, if not the only, king of the
fouthern divifion of Britain, was one Vortigern. He
is faid to have been a cruel, debauched tyrant, regard-
lefs of the public welfare, and totally incapable of pro¬
moting it. Being now roufed from his infenfibility,
however, by a fenfe of his own danger, he fummoned
a council of the chief men of the nation, in order to
deliberate about the proper means for delivering the
country from thofe calamities under which it groaned.
In this council the moft pernicious meafure was adop- 30
ted that could polfibly have been refolved on ; namely, They re-
to invite to their aflittance the Saxons, a people famous folve to cal!
for their piracies and cruelty, and juftly dreaded by in theSax*
the Britons themfelves*. This fatal expedient be-* g'e
ing agreed upon, ambafladors were immediately dif- oni.
patched into Germany with advantageous propofals
to the Saxons in cafe they would come over to their
affiftance.
The Britilh ambafladors foon arrived in Germany,
and, according to Witichind, a Saxon biftorian of the
ninth century, made the following fpeech before an af-
fembly of the Saxons.—“ Illuftrious Saxons, the fame
of your victories having reached our ears, the diftrefs-
ed Britons, harrafled by the continual inroads of a
neighbouring enemy, fend us to implore your aflift-
ance. We have a fertile and fpacious country, which
we are commanded to fubmit to you. We have hi¬
therto lived under the prote&ion of the Roman em¬
pire ; but our ancient mailers having abandoned us,
we know no nation more powerful than you, and bet¬
ter able to protedl us. We therefore recur to your va¬
lour. Forfake us not in our dill refs, and we fhall rea¬
dily fubmit to what terms you yourielves (hall think fit
to preferibe to us.”—If this abjeift and fhameful fpeech
was really made, it mull give us a very ftrange idea of
the national fpirit of the provincial Britons at that time.
It is, however, probable that the whole is a fidlionde-
figned only to excufe the perfidious treatment which
thefe Britons afterwards received from the Saxons. The
moft refpedlable even of the Saxon hiftorians make no
mention of fuch a fpeech : and it is certain, that when
the Saxons themfelves wanted to quarrel with the Bri¬
tons, . they never infilled upon the promife made
by the Britilh an&afladorG; which they moft certain¬
ly would have done, had any fuch promife ever been
made.
The Britilh ambafladors were very favourably recei¬
ved by the Saxons. The latter embraced their propo-
fal with joy; and the rather, becatife their foothfayers
foretold that they Ihould plunder their Britilh allies for
150 years, and reign over them for twice that time.
Three long Ihips, in the Saxon language called
were therefore fitted out, under the conduft of Hen-
gift and Horla. Thefe were two brothers much cele¬
brated:
[ 2737 1
ENG [ 2738 ] ENG
England, forated both for their valour and nobility. They were
fons of Witigifil faid to be great-grandfon to the
Saxon god Woden ; a circumftance which added much
to their authority. Having embarked about 1600
men on board their three veffels, the two brothers ar-
3* rived in the ifle of Thanet, in the year 449 or 450.
The Saxons 'j’hey were received by the inhabitants with the great-
Britain and demonftrations of joy : the ille in which they had
defeat the landed was immediately appointed for their habitation ;
Scots and and a league was concluded, in virtue of which the
Pifts. Saxons were to defend the provincial Britons againft
all foreign enemies ; and the provincials were to allow
the Saxons pay and maintenance, befides the place al¬
lotted them for their abode. Soon after their arrival,
king Vortigern led them againft the northern nations
who had lately broke into the kingdom, and advanced
a-s far as Stanford in the county of Lincolnfliire. Here
a battle was fought, in which the Scots and Pi<fts
were utterly defeated, and obliged to relinquilh their
booty.
Vortigern was fo highly pleafed with the behaviour
of his new allieSj that he beftowed large poffeffions in
the country they had newly delivered, upon the two
commanders Hengift and Horfa. It is faid, that, even
at this time, Hengift was taken with the wealth and
fertility of the country; and at the fame time obfer-
ving the inhabitants to be quite enervated with luxury,
began to entertain hopes of conquering part of it.
He therefore, with Vortigern’s confent, invited over
fome more of his countrymen; giving them notice at
the fame time of the fruitfulnefs of the country, the ef¬
feminacy of the inhabitants, and how eafily a conqueft
3? might be effe&ed.
Newfup- The Saxons readily complied with the invitation ;
plies of Sax- , . •' r . , . /r 1
©ns arrive. an°> ,n 452> as many more arrived in 17 veiiels, as,
with thofe already in Britain, made up an army of
5000 men. Along with thefe, according to Nennius,
came over Rowena the daughter of Hengift. Vorti¬
gern fell in love with this lady; and in order to obtain
her in marriage, divorced his lawful wife. Hengift
pretended to be averfe to the match ; but Vortigern
obtained his confent by inveft‘,.<g him with the fo-
vereignty of Kent. The Saxon hiftorians, indeed,
make no mention of Rowena ; but rather infinuate,
that their countrymen made themfelves mafters of Kent
by force of arms. It feems moft probable, however,
that Vortigern had as yet continued in friendfhip with
the Saxons, and even put more confidence in them
than in his own fubjefts. For, not long after the ar¬
rival of this firft reinforcement, Hengift obtained leave
to fend for a fecond, in order, as was pretended, to
defend the king from the attempts of his rebellious fub-
je&s, as well as of the Scots and Pi&s. Thefe em¬
barked in 40 (hips, under the command of Oft' and
Ebufa, the fon and nephew, or, according to fome,
the brother and nephew of Hengift. They landed at
the Orkney iflands; and having ravaged them, as veil
as all the northern coafts of Scotland, they conquered
feveral places beyond the Frith, and at laft obtained
leave to fettle in Northumberland.
The pretence made for this fettlement was, that the
Saxons under Ofta and Ebufa might defend the nor¬
thern frontiers of the kingdom, as thofe under Hen¬
gift and Horfa did the fouthern parts. Many more
■Saxons were, under various pretences, invited over;
till at laft the countries from which they came were in England. '
a manner depopulated. And now their numbers be-, ;
ing greatly increafed, the Saxons began to quarrel with ,3
the natives. They demanded larger allowances of corn, They rjuar*1;
and other provifions; threatening to lay wafte the w‘t*1 ^
whole country if their demands were not complied with. r ons*
The Britons, inftead of complying with thefe demands,
defired them to return home, fince their numbers ex¬
ceeded what they were able to maintain. Upon this,
the Saxons concluded a peace with the Scots and Pifts;
and, turning their arms againft the unhappy provin¬
cials, over-ran the whole country. The Saxons com¬
mitted every where the greateft cruelties. All build¬
ings, whether public or private, they levelled with the
ground. The cities were pillaged and burnt; and the
people maflacred without diftinftion of fex or age, and
that in fuch numbers, that the living fcarce fufficed to
bury the dead. Some of thofe who efcaprd the gene¬
ral flaughter, took refuge among inacceffible rocks and
mountains ; but there great numbers perilhed with
hunger, or were forced to furrender themfelves as
flaves to their enemies. Some crofted the fea and fet¬
tled either i i Holland, or in Armorica, now the pro¬
vince of Brittany in France.
Vortigern, we are told by Nennius, was fo far from
being reclaimed by thefe calamities, that he added in-
ceft to h’s other crimes, and married his own daugh¬
ter. At laft, his own fubjefts, provoked at his enor¬
mous wickednefs, and the partiality he (hewed to the
Saxons, depofed him, and raifed his fon Vortimer to 34
the throne. "He was a young man of great valour. They are
and willingly undertook the defence of his diftrefled „
country. He firft fell upon the Saxons with what out j,y Vor-
troops he could aflemble, and drove them into the ifle timer,
of Thanet. Here they were befieged, till, being rein¬
forced by frefti fupplies from Germany, they opened
themfelves a way through the Britifh troops. Vort'
mer, however, was not yet diftieartened. He enga¬
ged the Saxons on the banks of the Derwent in Kent.,
where he obtained a complete viftory, md cut in pie¬
ces great numbers of the enemy. Another battle was
fought at Aylesford in Kent. Some aferibe the vic¬
tory at this time to the Saxons, and fome to the Bri¬
tons. It is certain, however, that Horfa the brother
of Hengift was killed in this engagement. He is faid
to have been buried at a place in the neighbourhood,
which from him obtained the name of Horjhd.—A
third battle was fought, in which the viftory was un¬
certain, as is alfo the place where it happened. The
fourth battle, however, according to Nennius, proved
decifive in favour of the Britons. Vortimer engaged
his enemies, according to fome, at Folkftone, accord¬
ing to others, at a place called Stonar, in the ifle of
Thanet. The Saxons were defeated with great flaugh-
ter, and driven back to their (hips. So complete is
this viftory faid to have been, that the Saxons quitted
the ifland, without making any attempt upon it for five
years afterwards. Thefe battles, however, reft entire¬
ly upon the credit of Nennius, and the hiftorians who
have followed him. They are taken notice of neither
by Gildas nor Bede. The former only acquaints us,
that the Saxons retired. This, by moft hiftorians, is
underftood of their returning home; tho’ it is poffble
he might mean no more, than that, after they had laid
wafte the country, they retired into the territories
allotted
ENG [ 2739 ] ENG
ISngland. allotted them by Vortigern, in Kent and Northum-
berland.
Vortimer is faid to have died after a reign of fix
years. On his death-bed, he defired his fervants to
bury him near the place where the Saxons ufed to
land ; being perfuaded, that the virtue of his bones
would effectually prevent them from ever touching the
Britifh fhore. This command, however, was neglec¬
ted ; and Vortirner was buried at Lincoln, according
to fome, or London, according to others.—Hengiit
35 was no fooner informed of his death, than he invaded
They re- Britain anew with a numerous body of Saxons. He
turn and was 0pp0fed by Vortigern, who had been reftored to
Britons'and t^ie t'lrone after the death of his fon Vortimer. Seve-
creAa king- ral battles were fought on this occafion ; but at laft the
dom in provincials being overthrown at a place called Crecan-
Kent. furd, with the lofs of 4000 men, were obliged to aban¬
don Kent to their enemies, and retire to London, This
happened about the year 458 or 459, and from this
time moff hiltorians date the ereftion of the tirft Saxon
kingdom in Britain, viz. that of Kent. Hengift af-
fumed the title of king, and chofe Efle his fon for his
colleague.
The Britons under Vortigern ftill continued the war.
Hengift finding himfelf unable to gain a decifive ad¬
vantage over them in the field, had recourfe to treach-
3(S cry. He pretended to be defirous of concluding a
Treachery peace with the Britifh monarch, and of renewing his
of the Sax- ancient friendfhip with him; and therefore required an
ons. interview. To this Vortigern readily confented, and
accepted of an entertainment prepared for him by Htn-
gift. The king was attended by 300 nobility all un¬
armed, but the Saxons had concealed daggers below
their garments. The Britifti nobility were all treach-
eroufly maffacred in the height of their mirth; Vorti¬
gern himfelf was taken and put in fetters; nor could
his liberty be procured, but by ceding to the Saxons
thofe provinces now called EJfex, Sujfex, and Middlefex.
Thus the Saxons got fuch a footing in Britain that
they ’ould never afterwards be expelled. Vortigern,
after being fet at liberty, is faid to have retired to a
vaft wildernefs near the fall of the Wye in Radnorlhire,
where he was fome time after confumed by lightning,
together with a city called Kaer Gourtigern which he
had built in that place.
On the retreat of Vortigern, the command of the
Britifh forces devolved upon Aurelius Ambrofius, or,
as Gildas calls him, Ambrofius Aurelianus. He was a
Roman, and perhaps the laft that remained in the ‘fland.
He is faid to have gained feveral vi&ories over the
Saxons. Notwithftanding this, however, they ftill con-
3. tmued to gain ground; and in the year 491, the foun-
ScrondSax- dation of a fecond Saxon kingdom was laid in Britain.
dem'n^* ^’s at nrft comprehended only the county of Suffex,
but foon after extended over moft of the counties lying
fouth of the Humber. It was called the kingdom of
the South Saxons.
The German nations being now informed of the
good fuccefs which had attended the Saxons in Bri¬
tain, new adventurers daily flocked over to {hare the
good fortune of the others. They were chiefly com-
poied of three nations, the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes.
AU of thefe pafied under the common appellation fome-
' mes of .SVcttW,.fometimes of Angles. They fpoke the
fame language, and agreed very much in their euftoms
and inftitutions, fo that all of them were naturally led England,
to combine againft the natives. The moft active of “
thele adventurers was Cerdic a Saxon, faid to be the
tenth in defeent from Woden. He landed with his fon
Cenric, and as many men as he could convey in five
{hips, at Yarmouth in Norfolk. The provincials imme¬
diately attacked him with great vigour; but afterafhort
engagement, they were totally defeated. Many other
battles were fought, the event of which was always fa¬
vourable to the Saxons, fo that the Britons were-for- .
ced to abandon their fea-coafts to them.
10497, Porta, another Saxon, with his two hwsBleda
and Magi a, arrived at Pcrtfmouth, fo called, as fome
imagine, from this chieftain. The provincials, under
the command of a young prince a native of the coun¬
try, attempted to oppofe the landing of the Saxons:
but his army was defeated with great {laughter, and
he himltlf killed in the engagement; after which Porta
made himfelf mafter of all the neighbouring country.
The progrefs of Cerdic, however, alarmed the Britons 8
more than that of all the other Saxon princes. About Nazaleod
the year 508, therefore, ftyled, by Henry of king ■ f Brl-
Huntingdon, the greatejl of all the Britijh kings, affem-tain
bled almoft the whole ftrength of the provincial Britons ^ au“ 1
in order to drive him out of the ifland. Cerdic on the
other hand took care to {Lengthen himfelf by procu¬
ring afliftance from all the Saxons already in the ifland.
He then advanced againft the Britons, commanding
the right wing himfelf, and his fon Cenric the left.
As the two armies drew near each other, Nazaleod
perceived the enemy’s right wing to be much {Long¬
er than the left. He therefore attacked it with the
flower of his army ; and after an obilinate refiftance,
obliged Cerdic to fave himfelf by flight. Being too
eager in the purfuit, however, Cenric fell upon his
rear, and the battle was renewed with great vigour.
The Britifti army was at laft entirely defeated; and
5000 men, among whom was Nazaleod himfelf, were
left dead on the fpot.
Who fucceeded Nazaleod in the kingdom of Britain,
is not known. The WeHh annals leave an interreg¬
num of about fix years; after which they place the be¬
ginning of the reign of Arthur, the moft renowned -whefher
Britifh prince mentioned in hiftory. The biftory of fUch a per¬
king Arthur is fo much obfeured by fables, and many fon as king
abfurd, romantic, and ridiculous ftories, that fome have Arthur ever
fuppofed that no fuch perfon ever exifted. On thisfub-exi c ‘
jeft Milton gives the following reafons againft the tx-
iftence of king Arthur: 1. He is not mentioned by
Gildas, or any Britifh hiftorian except Nennius, who
is allowed on all hands to have been a very cre¬
dulous writer, and to have publifhed a great many
fables. 2. Tho’ William of Malmefbury and Henry
of Huntingdon have both related his exploits, yet the
latter took all he wrote from Nennius; and the former,
either from the fame fabulous writer, or fome Monkifli
legends in the abbey of Glaftenbury ; for both thefe
writers flourifhed feveral centuries after king Arthur.
3. In the pretended hiftory-of Geoffroy of Monmouth-,
fuch contradiftions occur concerning this monarch’s
victories in France, Scotland, Ireland, Norway, Italyj
&c. as muft caufe us to look upon him as an hero al¬
together fabulous and romantic.
In anfwer to this it has been faid, 1. That his not
being mentioned by Gildas cannot feem ftrange to-us*
feeing
England.
40 ,
His ex-
Five other
Saxon king-
ted.
ENG
[
2740
feeing it was not that author’s defign to write an exaA
hiftory of his country, but only to give a (hort account
of the caufes of its ruin by the Scots, Pifts, and Saxons.
He had alfo a particular fyftem to fupport, namely,
ENG
Nottingham, Derby, Shroplhire, Chefhire, and part England.®
of Hertfordfhire.
That the ruin of the Britons was owing to the judg-
‘ '    ' fs. He
ments of God upon them for their wickednefs.
lies therefore under a great temptation to conceal the
fucceifes of the Britons, and to relate only their mif-
fortunes. 2. Though Nennius was a credulous writer,
The provincial Britons were now confined within very -p^e Sriion]
narrow bounds. However, before they entirely gave up dcfeat
the belt part of their country to their enemies, they once Saxons, bi
more refolved to try the event of 3 battle. At this alc obliged
time they were affifted by the Angles, who were jea- ^“'sreinl
lous of the overgrown power of the Weft Saxons.
The battle was fought in Wiltfhire, at Woden's Beartb,
it is unreafonable to think that the whole hiftory of a place near the ditch called Wanfdike, or Wodenfdike;
king Arthur was an invention of his. It is more pro- which runs through the middle of the county. The
sing Arthur was an invention ot his. it is more pro'
•bable that he copied it from other more ancient au¬
thors, or took it from the common tradition of his
countrymen. That the Saxon annals make no men¬
tion of this king is not to be wondered at, feeing it is
natural to think that they would wi(h to conceal the
many defeats he gave their nation. 3. The moft con¬
vincing proof of the exiftence of king Arthur is, that
his tomb was difcovered at Glaftenbury in Somerfet-
fhire, and his coffin dug up, in the reign of Henry II.
with the following infcription upon it in Gothic cha-
ra&ers : “ Hie jacet fepultus inelytus rex Arturius in
infula Avalonia.” We are told that on his body were
plainly to be feen the marks of jo wounds, only one of
which feemed to be mortal.
This renowned prince is faid to have defeated the
Saxons under Cerdic.in 12 pitched battles. The laft
of thefe was fought on Badon-hill, fuppofed to be
Banfdoivn near Bath; in which the Saxons received
fuch a terrible overthrow, that for many years they
gave the Britons no further moleftation. As new fup-
plies of Saxons, however, were continually flocking
over, a third and fourth kingdom of them were foon
formed. The third kingdom comprehended the coun¬
ties of Devon, Dorfet, Somerfet, Wiltfhire, Hamp-
fhire, and Berkfliire ; to which was afterwards added
Cornwal. This was called the kingdom of the Weji
Saxons, The other kingdom, which was called the
' kingdom of the Eaf Saxons, comprehended Efiex, Mid-
dlefex, and part of Hertfordfhire.
In the year 542, happened the death of the great
through the middle of the county. The
battle was very obftinate and bloody; but at laft the
Saxons were entirely defeated, and almoft their whole
army cut off. The victory, however, proved of little
fervice to the Britons: for, being greatly inferior in
number to the Saxons, and harraffed by them on the
-one fide, and by the Scots and Pidts ootbe other, they
were daily more and mole confined ; and at laft obliged
to take refugeamong the craggy and mountainous places
in the weft of the ifland, where, their enemies cou)d
not purfue them. At firft they poffeffed all the coun>
try beyond the rivers Dee and Severn, which anciently
divided Cambria, or Wales, from England; the towns
.which ftand. on the eaftern banks of thefe rivers having
moftly been built in order to reftrain the incurfions of
the Welih, But the Englilh, having paffed the Se¬
vern, by degrees feized on the country lying between
that river and the Wye. Nay, in former times, fome
parts of Flintftiire and Denbighfhire were fubjedt to
the kings of Mercia: for Uffa, the moft powerful king
of that country, caufed a deep ditch to be drawn, and
an high wall built, as a barrier between his dominions
and the territories of the Welfti, from the mouth of the
Dee, a little above Flint-caftle, to the mouth of the
Wye. This ditch is ftill to be feen in feveral places;
and is called by the'Wellh Claudh Uffa, or the Ditch
of Uffa. The inhabitants of the towns on the call fide
of this ditch are called by the fame people Guyry Mers ;
that is, the men of Mercia. ^
Thus, after a violent conteft of near 150 years, the Account of | i<
Saxons entirely fubdued the Britons whom they had the heptar- '-
king Arthur, faid to have been killed in battle with a come to defend, and had eredled feven independent chV’-
treacherous kinfman of his own. Five years after¬
wards, was ere&ed the,Saxon kingdom of Northum¬
berland. It extended, however, much farther than the
prefent bounds of that county ; for it comprehended
all Yorkftrire, Lancaihire, Durham, Cumberland, Weft-
moreland, and Northumberland, with part of Scotland,
as far as the Frith of Forth.---Between thefe Saxon
kings, frequent contentions now arofe; by which
means the Britons enjoyed an uninterrupted tranquil¬
lity for at leaft 44 years.—-This interval, however, ac¬
cording to Gildas, they employed only in corrupting
their manners more and more, till at laft they were
roufed from their fecurity by the fetting up of a fixth
Saxon kingdom, called the kingdom of the Eaf Angles.
It was founded in 575, and comprehended the coun¬
ties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgefhire, and the Ifle
of Ely. The Saxons once more attacked the Britons,
and overthrew them in many battles. The war was
continued for ten years ; after which, another Saxon
kingdom called Mercia was fet up. It comprehended
17 counties; viz. Glocefter, Hereford, Worcefter,
Warwick, Leicefter, Rutland, Northampton, Lincoln,
Huntington, Bedford, Buckingham, Oxford, Stafford,
kingdoms in England, now commonly denominated the
Saxon Heptarchy. By thefe conquerors the country
was now reduced to a degree, of barbarity almoft as
great as it had been in when firft invaded by the Romans.
The provincial Britons, during their fubjetftion to that
people, had made confiderable advances in civilization.
They had built 28 confiderahle cities, befides a num¬
ber of villages and country-feats; but now thefe were
all levelled with the ground, the native inhabitants who
remained in England were reduced to the moft abjedt
flavery, and every art and fcience totally extinguifhed
among them.
Before thefe fierce conquerors could be civilized in
any degree,, it was neceffary that all the feven king¬
doms mould be reduced under one head ; for as long
as they' remained independent, their continual wars
with each other ftill kept them in the fame ftate of
barbarity and ignorance.
The hiftory of thefe feven,kingdoms:affords no event
that tan be in the leaft intferefting. It confifts only of
a detail of their quarrels for the fovereignty. This
was at laft obtained by Egbert king of the Weft
Saxons, or Weffex, in 827. Before this time, Chri*
ftianity
ENG
ngland, ftianity had been introduced into aimoft all the king-
doms of the heptarchy ; and however much corrupted
it might be by coming through the impure channel of
the church of Rome, and mifunderftood thro’the igno¬
rance of thoCe who received it, it had confiderably foft-
!ened the barbarous manners of the Saxons. It had alfo
opened a communication between Britain and the more
polite parts of Europe, fo that there was now fome hope
of the introduction of arts and fciences into this country.
I Another cffeCt was, that, by the ridiculous notions of
preferving inviolable chaftity even between married
people, the royal families of mod of the kingdoms
were totally extinCt; and the people, being in a date of
anarchy, were ready to fubmit to the fird who affumed
any authority over them.
All thefe things contributed to the fuccefs of Eg-
I bert in uniting the heptarchy Under his own dominion.
He was of the royal family of Weflex ; and a nearer
heir than Brithric, who had been raifed to the king¬
dom in 784. As Egbert was a prince of great ac-
complifhments, Brithric, knowing that he had a better
title to the crown than himfelf, began to look upon
him with a very jealous eye. Young Egbert, feniible
of his danger, privately withdrew to France; where he
was well received by Charlemagne, the reigning mo¬
narch. The French were reckoned at this period the
mod valiant and polite people in Europe; fo that this
eitile proved of great fervice to Egbert.
He continued at the court of France till he was re¬
called by the nobility to take poffeffion of the king¬
dom of Weflex. This recall was occafioned by the
following accident. Brithric the king of Weflex had
married Eadburga, natural daughter of Offa king of
- Mercia; a woman infamous for cruelty and incontinence.
Having great influence over her hufband, fhe often
perfuaded him to deflroy fuch of the nobility as were
obnoxious to her; and where this expedient failed, {he
herfelf had not fcrupled to become their executioner.
She had mixed a cup of poifon for a young nobleman,
who had acquired a great (hare of her hulband’s friend-
fliip : but, unfortunately, the king drank of the fatal
potion along with his favourite, and foon after expired.
By this, and other crimes, Eadburga became fo odious
to the people, that flie was forced to fly into France,
whence Egbert was at the fame time recalled, as above-
mentioned.
Egbert afcended the throne of Weflex in the year
799. He was the foie defcendent of thofe conquerors
whofirft invaded Britain, and who derived their pedigree
from the god Woden. But, though this circumftance
might have given him great advantages in attempting
to fubdue the neighbouring kingdoms, Egbert for
fome time gave them no difturbance; but turned his
arms againfl the Britons, who had retired into Corn¬
wall, whom he defeated in feveral battles. He was
recalled from his conquefts in that country, by hearing
that Bernulf king of Mercia had invaded his domi¬
nions. Egbert quickly led his army againft the inva¬
ders, whom he totally defeated at Ellendun in Wilt-
fliire. He then entered their kingdom on the fide of
Oxfordfhire with an army, and at the fame time fent
his eldeft fon Ethelwolf with another into Kent. The
. young prince expelled Baldred the tributary king of
Kent, and foon made himfelf mafler of the country.
The kingdom of Eficx was conquered with equal eafe;
Von. IV.
ENG
and the Eaft Angles, who had been reduced under fub- England.
jeftion by the Mercians, joyfully put themfelves under
the prote&ion of Egbert. Bernulf himfelf marched
againfl; them, but was defeated and killed; and Lude-
can his fucceflbr met with the fame fate two years after.
Thefe misfortunes greatly facilitated the reduction
of Mercia. Egbert foon penetrated into the very heart
of the Mercian territories, and gained an eafy vi&ory
over a difpirited and divided people ; but in order to
engage them to fubmit with the lefs reluftance, he al¬
lowed Wiglef, their countryman, to retain the title of
king, whilfl he himfelf exercifed the real power of a
fovereign. Northumberland was at prefent in a ftate
of anarchy ; and this tempted Egbert to carry his vic¬
torious arms into that kingdom alfo. The inhabi¬
tants, being defirous of living under a fettled form of
government, readily fubmitted, and owned him for
their fovereign. To them, however, he likewife al¬
lowed the power of ele&ing a king; who paid him a
tribute, and was dependent on him. 44
Egbert became foie mafler of England about the Egbert the
year 827. A favourite opportunity was now offered of
to the Anglo-Saxons of becoming a civilized people, aa
as they were at peace among themfelves, and feemed
free from any danger of a foreign invafion. But this
flattering profpedt was foon overcaft. Five years after
Egbert had eftabliflied his new monarchy, the Danes
landed in the ifle of Shepey, plundered it, and then
made their efcape with fafety. Encouraged by this 4J
fuccefs, next year they landed from a fleet of 35 (hips. Danifli in*
They were encountered by Egbert at Charmouth in va 101U
Dorfetftiire. The battle was obftinate and bloody.
Great numbers of the Danes were killed, but the reft
made good their retreat to their (hips. They next en¬
tered into an alliance with the Britons of Cornwall; and
landing two years after in that country, they made an
irruption into Devonfhire. Egbert met them at Hen-
efdown, and totally defeated them; but before he
ad time to form any regular plan for the defence of
the kingdom, he died, and .left the government to his
fon Ethelwolf. 4<;
The new king was weak and fuperftitious. He be- Ethelwolf.
gan with dividing the kingdom, which had fo lately
been united, with his fon Athelftan. To the young
prince he gave the counties of Eflex, Kent, and Suflex.
But though this divifion might have been produ&ive
of bad confcquences at another time, the fear of the
Danes kept every thing quiet for the prefent. Thefe
barbarians had fome how or other conceived fuch hopes
of enriching themfelves by the plunder of England,
that they fcarce ever failed of paying it an annual vifit.
The Englilh hiftorians tell us, that they met with
many fevere rcpulfes and defeats; but on the whole it
appears, that they had gained ground. For in 851 a
body of them took up their winter-quarters in Eng¬
land. Next year they received a ftrong reinforcement
of their countrymen in 350 veflels ; and advancing from
the ifle of Thanet, where they had ftationed them¬
felves, they burnt the cities of London and Canter¬
bury. Having next put to flight Brichtric the gover¬
nor of Mercia, they marched into the heart of Sur¬
rey, laying watte the whole country thro’ which they
pafled.
Ethelwolf, though naturally little fitted for mili¬
tary enterprifes, was now obliged to take the field.
xj Y He
[ 2741 1
ENG [ 2742 ] ENG
England. He marched agalnft the Danes at the head of the
Weft Saxons, and gained an indecifive and bloody
vi&ory over his enemies. The Danes ftiil maintained
their fettlement in the ifle of Thanet. They were at¬
tacked by Ealher and Huda, governors of Kent and
Surrey ; both of whom they defeated and killed. Af¬
terwards they removed to the ifle of Shepey, where
they took up their winter-quarters,, with a defign to
extend their ravages the next year.
The deplorable ftate of the kingdom did not hinder
Ethelwolf from making a pilgrimage to Rome, whi¬
ther he carried his fourth and favourite fon Alfred,
then only fix years of age. He pafled a twelvemonth
in that city; made prefents to the principal ecclefiaftics
there; and made a grant of 300 mancufes (a filver
coin about the weight of our half-crown) annually to
the fee of Rome. One third of this was to fupport
the lamps of St Peter’s, another thofe of St Paul’s,
and the third was for the Pope himfelf. In his return
to England, Ethelwolf married Judith, daughter of the
emperor Charles the Bald ; but when he landed, he
found himfelf deprived of his kingdom by his fon E-
thelbald. That prince affumed the government of A-
thelftan’s dominions, who was lately dead ; and, with
many of Ethelwolf’s nobles, formed a defign of ex¬
cluding him from the throne altogether, on account of
his weaknefles and fuperftitions. Ethdwolf, how¬
ever, delivered the people from the calamities of a ci¬
vil war, by dividing the kingdom with his fon. He
gave to Ethelbald the government of the weftern, and
referred to himfelf that of the eaftern part of the king¬
dom. Immediately after this, he fummoned the ftates
of the whole kingdom, and conferred on the clergy a
perpetual donation of tythes, for which they had long
contended, and which had been the fubjed of their
fermons for feveral centuries.
This conceflion was deemed fo meritorious by the
Englifli, that they now thought themfelves fure of the
favour of heaven; and therefore negle&ed to ufe the na¬
tural means for their fafety which they might have
done. They even agreed, that, notwithftanding the
defperate fituation of affairs at prefent, the revenues of
the church fhould be exempted from all burdens, tho’
impofed for the immediate fecurity and defence of the
nation. Etbelwolf died two years after he had made
the above-mentioned grant, and left the kingdom to
his two eldeft fons Ethelbald and Ethelbert. Both
thefe princes died in a few years, and left the king¬
dom to Ethered their brother, in the year 866.
theml '^ie w^°^e courfe Ethered’s reign was difturbed
by the irruptions of the Danes. The king defended
himfelf agaioft them with great bravery, being fecond-
ed in all his military enterprizes by his younger bro¬
ther Alfred, who afterwards afeended the throne. In
this reign,, the Danes iirft landed among the Eaft
Angles. That people treacheroufly entered into an
alliance with the common enemy; and furniftied them
with horfes, which enabled them to make an irruption
into Northumberland. There they feized upon the
city of York. Ofbricht and iElla, two Northumbrian
princes who attempted to refeue the city, were defeated
and killed. Encouraged.by this fuccefs, the Danes pene¬
trated into the kingdom of Mercia, took up their winter-
quarters at Nottingham, and thus threatened the king¬
dom with a final fubjettion. From this poft, however.
they were diflodged by Ethered and Alfred, who for- EnglamJ
ced them to retire into Northumberland. Their reft-
lefs and favage difpofition, however, did not fuffer
them to continue long in one place. They broke into
Eaft Anglia ; defeated and took prifoner Edmund the v
tributary king of that country, whom they afterwards
murdered; and committed every where the moft bar¬
barous ravages. In 871, they advanced to Reading;
from whence they infefted the neighbouring country
by their incurfions. The Mercians, defirous of reco¬
vering their independency, refufed to join Ethered with
thtir forces; fo that he was obliged to march againft
the Danes, attended only by the Weft Saxons, who
were his hereditary fubje£ls. Several a&ions enfued,
in which the Danes are faid to.have been unfuccefsful;
but being continually reinforced from their own coun¬
try, they became every day more and more formidable
to the Englifh. During the confufion and diftrefs in
which the nation was now neceffarily involved, king
Ethered died of a wound he had received in an adlion
with the Danes ; and left to his brother Alfred the
kingdom almoft totally fubdued by a foreign power. ^ j
Alfred, who may properly be called the founder of Alfred the
the Englifli monarchy, afeended the throne in the year Great.
871, being then only 22 years of age. His great vir¬
tues and fliining talents faved his country from ruin,
which feemed almoft unavoidable. His exploits againft
the Danes, his dangers and diftreffes, are related under
the article Alfred. Having fettled the nation in a
much better manner than could have been expetfted, he
died in 901, leaving the kingdom to his fecond fon
Edward the Elder. ^
The beginning of this monarch’s reign was difturbed Edward ths
by thofe inteftine commotions from which the wife and elder,
politic Alfred had taken fo much pains to free the na¬
tion. Ethelwald, fon to king Ethelbert, Alfred’s elder
brother, claimed a right to the throne. Having armed
his partifans, he took poffeflion of Winburne, where
he feemed determined to hold out to the laft extremity.
On the approach of Edward, however, with a power¬
ful army, he firft fled into Normandy, and afterwards
into Northumberland. He hoped to find the North¬
umbrians ready to join him, as moft of them were
Danes, lately fubdued by Alfred, and very impatient
of peace. The event did not difappoint his expecta¬
tions. The Northumbrians declared for him; and E- -
thelwald having thus > onneCted himfelf with the Da-
nifti tribes, went beyond fea, whence he returned with
a great body of thefe banditti. On his return, he was
joined by the Danes of Eaft Anglia and Mercia. E-
thelwald, at the head of the rebels, made an irruption
into the counties of Gloucefter, Oxford, and Wilts;
and having ravaged the country, retired with hi*
booty before the king could approach him. Edward,
however, took care to revenge himfelf, by conducting
his forces .into Eaft Anglia, and ravaging it in like
manner. He then gave orders to retire ; but the Kent-
ifh men, greedy of more plunder, ftaid behind, and
took up their quarters at Bury. Here they were af-
faulted by the Danes; but the Kentiftimen made fuch
an obftinate defence, that though their enemies gained
the victory, it was bought by the lofs of their braveft
men, and, among the reft, of the. ufurper Ethelwald
himfelf..
The king,, now freed from the attempts of fo dan¬
gerous
ENG [ 2743 ] ENG
England, gerous a rival, concluded an advantageous peace with
• the Eaft Angles. He next fet about reducing the
Northumbrians; and for this purpofe equipped a fleet,
hoping that thus they would be induced to remain at
home to defend their own country, without attempting
to invade his territories. He was difappointed in his
expeftations. The Northumbrians were more eager
to plunder their neighbours than to fecure themfelves.
Imagining that the whole of Edward’s forces were em¬
barked on board his fleet, they entered his territories
with all the troops they could raife. The king, how*
ever, was better prepared for them than they had ex¬
pended. He attacked them on their return at Tetenhall
in the county of Stafford, put them to flight, recovered
all the booty, and purfued them with great flaughter
into their own country.
The reft of Edward’s reign was a fcene of continued
and fuccefsful adion againft the Northumbrians, Eaft
Angles, the Danes of Mercia, and thofe which came
from their native country in order to invade England.
He put his kingdom in a good pofture of defence, by
fortifying the towns of Chefter, Eddefbury, Warwic,
Cherbury, Buckingham, Towcefter, Maldon, Hun¬
tingdon, and Colchefter. He vanquifhed Thurketijl
a Danifh chieftain, and obliged him to retire with his
followers into France. He fubdued the Eaft Angli-
ans, Northumbrians, and feveral tribes of the Britons;
and even obliged the Scots, to make fubmiffiors. He
died in 925, and was fucceeded by Athelftan his na-
jo tural fon.
; Athelftan. This prince, notwithftanding his illegitimate birth,
afcended the throne without much oppofition, as the
legitimate children of Edward were too young to rule
a nation fo much liable both to foreign invafions and
domeftic troubles as England at prefent was. One Al¬
fred, however, a nobleman of confiderable power, en¬
tered into a confpiracy againft him. It is faid, that this
nobleman was feized upon ftrong fufpicions, but without
any certain proof. He offered to fwear to his innocence
before the pope; and in thofe ages it was fuppofed that
none could take a falfe oath in prefence of fueh a fa-
cred perfon, without being vifited by an immediate
judgment from God. Alfred was accordingly con-
dudled to Rome, and took the oath required of him
before Pope John. The words were no fooner pro¬
nounced, than he fell into convulfions, of which he
expired in three days. The king, fully convinced of
his guilt, confifcated his eftate, and made a prefent of
it to the monaftery of Malmelbury.
This accident proved the means of eftabliftiing the
authority of Athelftan in England. But, finding the
Northumbrians bore the Englifh yoke with impati¬
ence, "he gave Sithric, a Daniflr nobleman, the title of
king of Northumberland; and in order to fecure his
friendlhip, gave him his own fifterEdithain marriage.
This was produftive of bad confequences. Sithric
died the year after his marriage with Editha ; upon
which Anlaf and Godfrid, Sithric’s fons by a for¬
mer marriage, affumed the fovereignty without wait¬
ing for Athelftan’s confent. They were, however,
foon obliged to yield to the fuperior power of that mo¬
narch. The former fled to Ireland; and the latter to
Scotland, where he was protefted by Conftantjne king
of that country. The Scottifh monarch was conti¬
nually importuned by Athelftan te-deKverup his gueft,
and even threatened with an invafion in cafe he did not England,
comply. Conftantine, detefting this treachery, ad- 1
vifed Godfrid to make his efcape. He did fo, turned
pirate, and died foon after. Athelftan, however, re¬
lenting this conduft of Conftantine, invaded his king¬
dom, and reduced him, it is faid, fo low, that he was
obliged to make the moft humble fubmiflions. This,
however, is denied by all the Scottifti hiftorians.
Conflantine, after the departure of Athelftan, entered
into a confederacy with Anlaf, who fubfifted by his
piracies, and with fome of the Welfti princes who were $r
alarmed at the increafeof Athelftan’s power. All thefe Defeats his
confederates made an irruption into England at once ;ene^ues•
but Athelftan meeting them at Brumfbury in Nor¬
thumberland, gave them a total overthrow. Anlaf
and Conftantine made their efcape with difficulty, lea¬
ving the greateft part of their men dead on the field of
battle. After this period, Athelftan enjoyed his
crown in tranquillity. He died in 041, after a reign
of 16 years. He paffeda remarkable law, for the en¬
couragement of commerce ; viz. that a merchant, who
had made three long fea-voyages on his own account,
ftiould be admitted to the rank of a thane or gentle¬
man. 5l
Athelftan was fucceeded by his brother Edmund. Edmund,
On his acceffion, he found the kingdom difturbed by
the reftlefs Northumbrians, who watched for every op¬
portunity of rifing in rebellion. They were, however,
foon reduced; and Edmund took care to enfure the
peace of the kingdom, by removing the Danes from
the towns of Mercia where they had been allowed to
fettle, becaufe it was found that they took every op¬
portunity to introduce foreign Danes into the kingdom.
He alfo conquered Cumberland from the Britons. This
county, however, he beftowed upon Malcolm king of
Scotland, upon condition that he (hould do homage for
it, and proteft the north of England from all future
incurfions of the Danes.
Edmund was unfortunately murdered in Glocefter, Murdered
by one Leolf a notorious robber. This man had been hy Leolf.
formerly fentenced to banifliment; yet had the bold-
nefs to enter the hall where the king himfelf dined, and
to fit at table with his attendants. Edmund imme¬
diately ordered him to leave the room. The villain
refufed to obey; upon which the king leaped upon
him, and feized him by the hair. Leolf then drew
a dagger, and gave the king a wound, of which he
inftantly died, A. D. 946, being the fixth year of his
reign. ’ ' ,
As the children of Edmund were too young at the ^
time of his deceafe, his brother Edred fucceeded to the Edred.
throne. The beginning of his reign, as well as thofe
of his predeceffors, was difturbed by the rebellions and
incurfions of the Northumbrian Danes, who looked
upon the fucceffion of every new king to be a favour¬
able opportunity for fhaking off the Englifti yoke. On
the appearance of Edred with an army, however, they
immediately fubmitted ; but before the king withdrew
his forces, he laid wafte their territories as a punifli-
ment for their offence. He was no fooner gone, than
they rofe in rebellion a fecond time. They were again Subdues the
fubdued; and the king took effeftual precautions a-Northnm-
gainft their future revolts, by placing Engliih garri- hri*ns,
fons in.all their towns, and appointing an Englifti go¬
vernor .to watch their motions, and fupprefs their in-
JJ Y 2 furrec-
ENG [ 2744 ] ENG
England, furre&ions on the fisift appearance.—In the reign of
‘ ^ Edred, celibacy of the clergy began to be preach-
Celibacyofed up under the patronage of St Dunftan. This
the clergy man had obtained fuch an afcendant over Edred, who
introduced. was natura]]y fuperftitibus, that he not only direfted
him in affairs of confcience, but in the moft impor¬
tant matters of ftate. He was placed at the head of
the treafury ; and being thus pofTeffed of great power
at court, he was enabled to accomplifh the moft ar¬
duous undertakings. He profefied himfelf a partifan
of the rigid monaftic rules; and having introduced ce¬
libacy among the monks of Glaftenbury and Abing¬
don, he endeavoured to render it univerfal among the
clergy throughout the kingdom. The monks in a
fhort time generally embraced the pretended reforma¬
tion ; after which they inveighed bitterly againft the
vices and luxury of the age. When other topics of
defamation were wanting, the marriages of ele'rgy-
men became a fure objedf of invedtive. Their wives
received the appellation of concubines, or fome other
more opprobrious name. The fecular clergy, on the
other hand, who were numerous and rich, defended
themfelves with vigour, and endeavoured to retaliate
upon their adverfaries. The people were thrown into
the moft violent ferments ; but the monks, being pa-
tronifed by king Edred, gained ground greatly upon
their opponents. Their progrefs, however, was fome-
what retarded by the king’s death, which happened in
955, after a reign of nine years. He left children; but
as they were infants, his nephew Edwy, fon to Ed-
mund, was placed on the throne.
Edwy. The new king was not above 16 or 17 years of age
at the time of his acceffion. His reign is only re¬
markable for the tragical ftory of his queen Elgiva.
She was a princefs of the royal blood, with whom
Edwy was deeply enamoured. She was his fecond or
third coufin, and therefore within the degrees of affinity
prohibited by the canon law. Edwy, however, heark¬
ening only to the diftates of his paffion, married her,
contrary to the advice of the more dignified ecclefiaftics.
The monks on this occafion were particularly violent;
and therefore Edwy determined not to fecond their
ambitious proje&s. He foon found reafon to repent his
having provoked fuch dangerous enemies. On his co¬
ronation day, while his nobility were indulging them¬
felves in riotous mirth in a great hall where they had
affembled, Edwy withdrew to another apartment to
enjoy the company of his beloved queen and her mo¬
ther. Dunftan guefied the reafon of his abfence. With
unparalleled impudence, he burft into the queen’s apart¬
ment ; and upbraiding Edwy with his lafcivioufnefs, as
he termed it, pufhed him back to the hall where the
nobles were affembled. The king determined to re-
fent fuch a daring infult. He required from Dunftan
an account of his admiuiftration of the treafury during
the late reign. The monk, probably unable to give
a juft account, refufed to give any; upon which Edwy
accufed him of malverfation in his office, and banifhed
him the kingdom.
This proved the worft ftep that could poffibly have
been taken. Dunftan was no fooner gone, than the
whole nation was in an uproar about his fandfity and
the king’s impiety. Thefe clamours, as they had been
begun by the clergy, fo they were kept up and in-
creafed by them, till atlaft they proceeded to the moft
outrageous violence. Archbifhop Odo fent a party of Englsntf, i|
foldiers to the palace. They feized the queen, and j9 ” ;|
burned her face with a red-hot iron, in order to de- Tragical 1
ftroy her beauty by which file had enticed her huiband; death of the «
alter which they carried her by force into Ireland, <lueen>
there to remain in perpetual exile. The king, finding
it in vain to refill, was obliged to confent to a divorce
from her, which was pronounced by Archbilhop Odo.
A cataftrophe ttill more difmal awaited Elgiva. She
had been cured of her wounds, and had even found
means to efface the fears with which her perfecutors
had hoped to deftroy her beauty. She then came to
England, with a defign to return to the king, whom
fhe ftill confidered as her hulband. Unfortunately,
however, file was intercepted by a party of foldiers
fent for that purpofe by the primate. Nothing but
her moft cruel death could now fatisfy that wretch and
his accomplices. She was hamftringed at Gloucefter,
and expired in a few days.
The minds of the Englilh were at this time fo much
funk in fuperftition, that the monftrous inhumanity
above-mentioned was called a judgment from God
upon Edwy and his fpoufe for their diffolute life, i. e.
their love to each other. They even proceeded to re¬
bellion againft their fovereign; and having raifed to the
throne Edgar, the younger brother of Edwy, at that
time only 13 years of age, they foon put him in pof-
feffion of Mercia, Northumberland, and Eaft Anglia.
Edwy being thus confined to the fouthern counties,
Dunftan returned, and took upon him the government
of Edgar and his party; but the death of Edwy foon
removed all difficulties, and gave Edgar peaceable pof-
feffion of the government. $9 i
The reign of Edgar proved one of the moft fortu- Edgar,
nate mentioned in the ancient Englifh hiftory. He
took the moft efte€lual methods both for preventing
tumults at home, and invafions from abroad. He
quartered a body of difeiplined troops in the north, in
order to repel the incurfions of the Scots, and to keep
the Northumbrians in awe. He built a powerful na¬
vy ; and that he might keep the feamen in the praftice
of their duty, as well as prefent a formidable arma¬
ment to his enemies, he commanded the fleet, from
time to time, to make the circuit of his dominions.
The greatnefs of king Edgar, which is very much
celebrated by the Englifti hiftorians, was owing to the
harmony which reigned between him and his fubje&s;
and the reafon of this good agreement was, that the
king fided with Dunftan and the monks, who had ac¬
quired a great afcendant over the people. He enabled
them to accomplifh their favourite fcheme of difpoffef-
fing the fecular canons of all the monafteries; and he con-
fulted them not only in ecclefiaftical, but alfo in civil,
affairs.—On thefe accounts, he is celebrated by the
monkifh writers with the higheft praifes; though it is
plain, from fome of his actions, that he was a man who
could be bound neither by the ties of religion nor hu¬
manity. He broke into a convent, and carried off by go
force, andravifhed, a nun called His fpiritual His licentMrt
inftrudlor, Dunftan, for this offence, obliged the king, om amourto
not to feparate from his miftrefs, but to abftain from
wearing his crown for feven years!
Edgar, however, was not to be fatisfied with one
miftrefs. He happened once to lodge at the houfe of
a nobleman wh® had a v£ry beautiful daughter. Ed¬
gar*.
ENG i; 2745 ] ENG
England, gar, enflamed with defire at the fight of the young la-
dy, without ceremony aiked her mother to allow her to
pafs a night with him. She promifed compliance;
but fecretly ordered a waiting-maid, named Eljieda, to
fteal into the king’s bed when the company were gone,
and to retire before day-break. Edgar, however, de¬
tained her by force, till day-light difcovered the de¬
ceit. His love was now transferred to the waiting-
maid; who became his favourite miftrefs, and main¬
tained a great afcendant over him till his marriage with
(Si Elfrida.
His mar- The circumftances of this marriage were dill more
Elinda'1 hRgu^af ar|d criminal than thofe abovementioned. El¬
frida was daughter and heirefs to Olgar earl of De-
vonlhire. She was a perfon of fuch exquilite beauty,
that her fame was fpread all over England, though (he
had never been at court. Edgar’s curiofity was ex¬
cited by the accounts he had heard of her, and there¬
fore formed a defign of marrying her. He communi¬
cated his intention to earl Athelwold his favourite ; and
ordered him, on fome pretence or other, to vifit the
earl of Devonfhire, and bring him a certain account
concerning Elfrida. Athelwold went as he was de-
fired ; but fell fo deeply in love with the lady himfelf,
that he refolved to facrifice his fidelity to his pafiion.
He returned to Edgar, and told him, that Elfrida’s
charms were by no means extraordinary, and would
have been totally overlooked in a woman of inferior
ftation. After iome time, however, turning the con-
verfation again upon Elfrida, he told the king that he
thought her parentage and fortune made her a very
advantageous match ; and therefore, if the king gave
his confent, he would make propofals to the earl of
Devonfhire on his own behalf. Edgar confented, and
Athelwold was married to Elfrida—After his mar¬
riage, he ufed his utmoft endeavours to keep his wife
from court, that Edgar might have no opportunity of
obferving her beauty. The king, however, was foon
informed of the truth ; and told Athelwold that he in¬
tended to pay him a vifit in his'caflle, ‘andb^-made ac¬
quainted with his new-married wife. The earl could
make no obje&ions; only he defired a few hours to pre¬
pare for the vifit. He then confefied the whole to El-
ffida, and begged of her to appear before the king as
much to the difadvantage as poflible. Inftead of this,
fhe drefled herfelf to the greateft advantage. Edgar
immediately conceived a violent pafiion for her; and,
in order to gratify it, feduced Athelwold into a wood
under pretence of hunting, where he dabbed him with
his own hand, and afterwards married his widow.
The reign of Edgar is remarkable among hifiorians-
for the encouragement he gave to foreigners to refide
at his court and throughout the kingdom. Thefe
foreigners, it is faid, corrupted the former fimple man¬
ners of the nation. Of this fimplicity, however, there
feems to be no great reafon to boad p feeing it could
not preferve them from treachery and cruelty, the
greated of all vices: fo that their acquaintance with
foreigners was certainly an advantage to the people, as
it tended to enlarge their views, and cure them of.
5hofe ^liberal prejudices and rudic manners to which
Wolves ex- iflanders are often fubjeft.—Another remarkable inci-
tirpated dent, is the extirpation of wolves from England. The
from Eng- king took great pleafure in hunting and dedroying
land. thefe animals himfelf. At lad he found that they had.
all taken (belter in the mountains a^d foreds of Wales. ErgUnd;
Upon this he changed the tribute impofed upon the ’
Weldi princes by Atheldan, into an annual tribute of
300 wolves beads ; and this produced fuch diligence
in hunting them, that the animal has never fince ap¬
peared in England.
Edgar died in 957, after a reign of 16 years. He Edward the-
left a fon named Edward, whom he had by his fird Martyr,
wife the daughter of earl Ordmer;. and another, named
Ethelred, by Elfrida. The mental qualifications of
this lady were by no means anfwerable to the beauty
of her perfon.. She was ambitious, haughty, treache¬
rous, and cruel. The principal nobility, therefore,,
were greatly averfe from the fuccefiion of her fon Ethel-
red, which would unavoidably throw too much power
into the hands of his mother, as he himfelf was only
feven years of age. Edward, afterwards furnamed the
Martyr, was therefore pitched upon; and was certainly
the mod proper perfon, as he was 15 years of age, and.
might foon be able to take the government into his
own hands. Elfrida oppofed his advancement with all
her might: but Dundan overcame every obdacle, by
anointing and crowning the young prince at "King-
don; upon which the whole kingdom fubmitted with¬
out farther oppofition.
The only remarkable occurrence in this reign was
the complete vidtory gained by the monks over the fe-
cular clergy, who were now totally expelled from the
convents. Tho’ this had been pretty nearly accom-
plidied by Edgar, the fecular clergy dill had partifans
in England who made confiderable oppofition ; but ^
thefe were all filenced by the following miracles. In Miracles of
one fynod, Dundan, finding the majority of votes a- St Dundan.
gaind him, rofe up, and declared that he had that in-
dant received from heaven a revelation in favour of the
monks. The whole aflembly was fo much overawed
by this intelligence, that they proceeded no farther in
their deliberations. In another fynod, a voice iffued
from the crucifix, acquainting the members, that the
edablidiment of the monks was founded on the will of
heaven, and could not be oppofed without impiety.
But the third miracle was dill more alarming. In an¬
other fynod the floor of the hall funk, and great num¬
bers of the members were killed or bruifed by their
fall. It was remarked that Dundan had that day pre¬
vented the king from attending the fynod, and that the
beam on which his own chair dood was the only one
which did not fink. Thefe circumdances, indead of
making him fufpe&ed as the author of the miracle,,
were regarded as proofs of the interpofition of Provi¬
dence in his favour.
Edward lived four years after he was raifed to the
throne, in perfeA innocence and fimplicity. Being in¬
capable of any treacherous intention himfelf, he fuf-
petled none in others. Though his depmother had op¬
pofed his fucceffion, he had always behaved towards
her with the greated refpeft; and expreffed on all oc-
cafions the mod tender affeftion for his brother Ethel-
red. Being one day hunting in the neighbourhood of
the cadle where Elfrida refided, he paid her a vifit un¬
attended by any of his retinue. After mounting his
horfe with a defign to return, he defired fome liquor (Jj
to be brought him. But while he was holding the cup The king-
to his head, a fervant of Elfrida dabbed him behind..murdered..
The king, finding himfelf wounded, clapped fpurs to
his
ENG [ 2746 1 ENG
England, his horfe ; but foon becoming faint by the lofs of
" ~ blood, he fell from the faddle, and hia foot being en¬
tangled in the ftirrup, he was dragged along till he ex¬
pired. His body was found and privately interred at
Wereham by his fervants. The Englifh had fuch com¬
panion for this amiable prince, that they beftowed on
him the appellation of Martyr, and even fancied that
miracles were wrought at his tomb. Elfrida built mo-
nafteries, and fubmitted to many penances, in order to
atone for her guilt; but, even in that barbarous age*
Sit (he could never regain the good opinion of the public.
dSthelred. After the murder of Edward, his brother Ethelred
fucceeded to the throne without oppofition. As he
was a minor when he was raifed to the throne, and,
even when he came to man’s eftate, never difcovered
any vigour or capacity of defending the kingdom a-
gainlt invaders, the Danes began to renew their incur-
iions. Before they durft attempt any thing of impor¬
tance, however, they firlt made a fmall incurfion by
way of trial. In the year 981, they landed in South¬
ampton from feven vefiels ; and having ravaged the
country, they retired with impunity, carrying a great
6^ booty along with them. In 987, they made a frmilar
England attempt on the weft coaft, and were attended with the
rulned^bnd ^ucce^s- Finding that matters were now in a fa-
rfheDanes. vourable fituation for their enterprifes, they landed in
Effex under the command of two chieftains; and, ha¬
ving defeated and killed Brithnot duke of that county,
laid wafte all the neighbouring provinces. In this ex¬
tremity, Etbelred, furnamed, on account of his prepo-
fterous conduct, the Unready, bribed the enemy with
X-. 10,000 to depart the kingdom. This advice was gi¬
ven by Siricius archbilhop of Canterbury, and fome of
the degenerate nobility ; and was attended with the
fuccefs that might have been expe&ed. The Danes
appeared next year off the eaftern coaft. But, in the
mean time, the Englilh had determined to affemble at
London a fleet capable of repulfing the enemy. This
failed of fuccefs through the treachery of Alfric duke
of Mercia. Having been formerly banifhed the king¬
dom, and found great difficulty in getting himfeif re-
ttored to his former dignity, he trufted thenceforth,
not to his fervices or the affedtions of'his countrymen,
but to the influence he had over his vaflals, and to the
public calamities. Thefe laft he determined always to
promote as far as he could; becaufe in every revolu¬
tion his affiftance would be neceflary, and confequently
he muft receive a continual acceffion of power. The
Englilh had formed a plan for furrounding and de-
ftroying the Danilh fleet in the harbour; but Alfric
not only gave the enemy notice of this defign, but alfo
deferted with his fquadron the night before the en¬
gagement. The Englilh by this means proved unfuc-
cefsful, and Ethelred in revenge, took Alfgar, Alfric’s
fon, and ordered his eyes to be put out. This piece of
cruelty could be produftive of no good effeft. Alfric
had become fo powerful, that, notwithftanding his
treachery, it was found impoffible to deprive him of the
government of Mercia.
In 993, the Danes under the command of Sweyn
their king, and the Norwegians conduced by Olave
king of that country, failed up the Humber, and de-
ftroyed all around them. A powerful army was af-
fembled to oppofe thefe invaders; but thro’ the treach¬
ery of the three leaders, all men of Danilh extra&ion.
the Englilh were totally defeated. Encouraged by England,
this fuccefs, the Danes entered the Thames in 94 vef-
fels, and laid fiege to London. The inhabitants, how¬
ever, made fuch a brave defence, that the befiegers were
finally obliged to give over the attempt. Out of re¬
venge for this difappointment, they laid wafte Eflex,
Suflex, and Hamplhire. In thefe counties they pro¬
cured horfes; by which means they were enabled to
penetrate into the more inland parts, and threatened
the kingdom with total fubje&ion. Ethelred and his
nobles had now recourfe to their former expedient.
They fent ambafladors to the two northern kings, to
whom they promifed fubliftence and tribute, provided
they would, for the prefent, put an end to their ra¬
vages, and foon after depart the kingdom. They a-
greed to the terms, and peaceably took up their quar¬
ters at Southampton. - Olave even paid a vilit to E-
thelred, and received the rite of confirmation from the .
Englilh bilhops. The king alfo made him many va¬
luable prefents; and Olave promifed never more to in-
feft the Englilh territories, which promife it is faid he
afterwards religioufly obferved.
After the departure of Olave with his Norwegians,
Sweyn, though lefs fcrupulous than the king of Nor¬
way, was obliged to leave the kingdom alfo. But this
lhameful compofition procured only a ffiort relief to the
nation. The Danes foon after appeared in the Severn ;
and having ravaged Wales as well as Cornwall and De¬
von, they failed round, and, entering the mouth of the
Tamar, completed, the ruin of thefe two counties.
Then, returning to the Briftol channel, and penetra¬
ting into the country by the Avon, they over-ran all
that country, and carried fire and fword even into
DoiTetlhire. In 998, they changed the feat of war;
and, after ravaging the ifle of Wight, they entered the
Thames and Medway, where they laid fiege to R.o-
chefter, and defeated the Kentilh men in a great
battle. After this vi&ory, the whole province of Kent
was made a fcene of daughter and devaftation. The ex¬
tremity orthefe miferies forced the Englilh into coun-
fels for common defence both by fea and land: but the
weaknefs of the king, the divifions among the nobili¬
ty, the treachery of fome, the cowardice of others,
the want of concert in all, fruftrated every endeavour;
and their fleets and armies either came too late to at¬
tack the enemy, or were repulfed with dilhonour. The
Englilh, therefore, devoid both of prudence and una¬
nimity in council, had recourfe to the expedient which
by experience they had found to be ineffedtual. They
offered the Danes a large fum if they would conclude
a peace and depart the kingdom. Thefe ravagers con¬
tinually rofe in their demands ; and now required the
payment of L. 24,000, which the Englilh fubmitted
to give. The departure of the Danes procured them
a temporary relief; which they enjoyed as if it was to
be perpetual, without making any effeftual prepara¬
tions for giving them a more vigoroas reception upc n
their next return.
Befides the receiving this fum, the Danes were at
prefent engaged by another motive to depart from
England. They were invited over by their country¬
men in Normandy, who at this time were hard preffei
by Robert king of France, and who found it difficult
to defend their fettlements againft him. It is probable
alfo, that Ethelred, obferving the clofe connexion of
ENG
England, all the Danes with one another, however they might
ei be divided in government or fituation, was deli-
Marriage of r0us of procuring an alliance with that formidable
with^thf People* b’or this purpofe, being at prefent a wi-
pvincefs of dower, he made his addrefles to Emma, fifter to Ri-
Normandy. chard II. duke of: Normandy. He icon fueceeded
in his negociations ; the princefs came over to Eng¬
land, and was married to the king in the year 1001.
Though the Danes had been for a long time efta-
blilhed in England, and though the fimilarity of their
language with the Saxon had invited them to an ear¬
ly coalition with, the natives they had as yet found
fo little example of civilized manners among the Eng-
li(h, that they retained all their ancient ferocity, and
valued themfelves only on their national charafter of mi¬
litary bravery. The Englilh princes had been fowell
acquainted with their fuperiority in this refpeft, that
Athelltan and Edgar had been accuftomed to keep in
pay large bodies.of Danilh troops, who were quarter¬
ed about the country, and committed many violences
upon the inhabitants. Thefe mercenaries had attain¬
ed to fuch an height in luxury, according to the old
Englifh writers, that they combed their hair once a-
day, bathed themfelves once a-week, changed their
clothes frequently; and by all thefe arts of effeminacy,
as well as by their military chara&er, had rendered
themfelves fo agreeable to the fair fex, that they de¬
bauched the wives and daughters of the Englilh, and
had dilhonoured many families. But what moll pro¬
voked the inhabitants was, that, inftead of defending
them againft invaders, they were always ready to be¬
tray them to the foreign Danes, and to affociate them¬
felves with every draggling party which came from
69 that nation.
Danes maf- The animofities between the native Englilh and the
acre ’ Danes who inhabited among them, had. from thefe
caufes rifen to a great height; wdien Ethelred, from a
policy commonly adopted by weak princes, took the
cruel refolution of maffacring : the Danes throughout
the kingdom. On the 13th of November 1002, fecret
orders were difpatched to commence the execution e-
very where on the fame day; and the feflival of St
Brice, which fell on a Sunday, the day on which the
Danes ufually bathed themfelves, was chofen for this
purpofe. Thefe cruel orders were executed with the
utmoft exadtnefs. No diftinftion was made betwixt the
innocent and the guilty ; neither fex nor age w’as fpa-
red; nor were the cruel executioners fatisfied without
the tortures, as well as death, of the unhappy vic¬
tims. Even Gunilda, filter to the king of Denmark,
who had married earl Paling, and had embraced Chri-
flianity, was, by the advice of Edric earl of Wilts,, fei?
zed and condemned to death by Ethelred, after fee¬
ing her hulband aud children butchered before her
face. This unhappy princefs foretold, in the agonies
of defpair, that her murder would foon be avenged by
the total ruin of the Englilh nation (a).
ENG
The prophecy of Gunilda was exaftly fulfil- England,
led. In 1003, Sweyn and his Danes, who wanted ^
only a pretence to renew their invafions, appeared offNewinva-
tlie wellern coaft, and threatened revenge for the g°n ^
flaughter of their countrymen. The Englilh took we^n"
meafures for repulfing the enemy: but thefe w'ere de¬
feated through the treachery lirft of Alfric; and then
of Edric, a liill greater traitor, who had married the
king’s daughter, and fucceeded Alfric in the com¬
mand of the Britilh armies. The Danes therefore ra¬
vaged the whole country. Agriculture was neglec¬
ted, a famine enfued, and the kingdom was reduced
to the utmoft degree of mifery. At laft the infamous
expedient of buying a peace wfas recurred to ; and the
departure of the Danes was purchafed, in 1007, at the
expence of L. 30,000.
The Englilh endeavoured to employ this interval in
making preparations againft the return of the Danes,,
which they had reafon foon to expedl. A law was
made, ordering the proprietors of eight hides of land
to provide themfelves of a horfeman and a complete fuit
of armour ; and thofe of 31 o hides to equip a fhip for the
defence of the kingdom. By this means a formidable ar¬
mament was raifod. There were 243,600 hides in Eng¬
land; confequently the Ihips equipped mull be 785. The
cavalry was 30,450 men. All hopes of fuccefs from
this equipment, however, were difappointed by the
factions, animqfities, and diffenfions of the nobility.
Edric had caufed his brother Brightric to advance an
accufation of treafon againft Wolfnoth governor of
Suffex, the father of the famous earl Godwin ; and
that nobleman, knowing the power and malice of his
enemy, confulted his own fafety by deferting with 20
Ihips to the Danes. Brightric purfued him with a
fleet of 80 fail; but his Ihips being lhattered in a
tempeft, and ftranded. on the coaft, he was fuddenly at¬
tacked by Wolfnoth, and all his veffels were burnt or
other wife deftroyed. The treachery of Edric fruftra-
ted every plan of future defence ; and the whole navy
was at laft fcattered into the feveral harbours.
By thefe fatal mifcarriages, the enemy had leifure
to over run the whole kingdom. They had now got
fuch a footing, indeed, that they could hardly have
been expelled though the nation had been ever fo
unanimous. But fo far did mutual diffidence and dif-
fention prevail, that the governors of one province re-
fufed to march to the affiftance of another ; and were
at laft terrified from affembling their forces for the de¬
fence of their own. At laft the ufual expedient was
tried. A peace was bought with L. 48,0.00;. but this
did not procure even the ufual temporary relief. The
Danes, knowing that they werenow mafters-of thekingr
dom, took the money, and continued their devaftations.
They levied a new contribution ofL. 8000 on the coun¬
ty of Kent alone ; murdered the arohbifhop of Canter¬
bury, who had refufed to countenance this exaflion ;
and the Englifh nobility fubmitted every where to the
Danifh
(a) On the fubjeft of this maffacre, Mr Hume has the following obfervations: “ Almoft all the ancient hiftorians
fpeak of this maffacre of the Danes as if it had been univerfal, and as if every Individual, of that nation throughout Eng¬
land had been put to death. But the Danes'were almoft the foie inhabitants in the kingdoms of Northumberland
and Eaft Anglia, and were very numerous in Mercia. This reprefenration of the matter was abfolutely impoflible.^
Great rdiftance muft have been made, and violent wars enfued; which was not the cafe. This account given by
Wallingford, though he Hands Angle, muft be admitted:as the only true .one. We are told that the name of lurdaner
lard Dane, for an idle lazy fellow who lives at other peoples expence, came from the condudt of the Danes who were,
put to death. But the Englilh princes had been entirely mafters for feveral generations; and only fupported a mili¬
tary corps of that nation. It feems probable, therefore, that thefe Danes only were put to death.”
t 2747 1
ENG [ 2748 ] ENG
‘England. Danllli monarch, {wearing allegiance to him, and gi-
""ving hoftages for their good behaviour. At laft, E-
Ethd'ed thelred himfelf, dreading equally the violence of the
flies to Nor-enemy and the treachery of his own fubjetts, fled into
mandy. Normandy, whither he had already fent queen Emma
and her two fons Alfred and Edward. The duke recei¬
ved his unhappy guefts, with a generofity which does
honour to his memory.
The flight of king Ethelred happened in the end of
•the year 1013. He had not been above fix weeks in
Normandy, when he heard of the death of Sweyn,
which happened at Gainfborough before he had time
to eftablifh himfelf in his new dominions. At the
fame time he received an invitation from the prelates
and nobility to refume the kingdom ; expreffing alfo
their hopes, that, being now better taught by expe¬
rience, he would avoid thofe errors which had been fo
fatal to himfelf and his people. But the mifconduft
71 of Ethelred was incurable ; and, on his refuming the
'Returns, government, he behaved in the very fame'manner that
he had done before. His fon-in-law Edric, notwith-
as^i as e ^an(]j[1g his repeated treafons, retained fuch influence
at court, that he inllilled into the king jealoufies of
Sigcfert and Morcar, two of the chief nobles of Mer¬
cia. Edric enticed them into his houfe, where he
murdered them ; while Ethelred partook of the infamy
of this a&ion, by confifeating their eftates, and confi¬
ning the widow of Sigefert in a convent. She was a
woman of Angular beauty and merit; and in a viftt
which was paid her, during her confinetnent, by
prince Edmund the king’s elded fon, fhe infpired him
with fo violent an affeftion, that he releafed her from
the convent, and foon after married her without his
father’s eonfent.
In the mean time, Canute, the fon and fucceffor of
Sweyn, proved an enemy no lefs terrible to the Englifh
than his father had been. He ravaged the eaflern
coafl with mercilefs fury; and put afhore all the Englifh
hofiages at Sandwich, after having cut off their hands
and nofes. He was at lad obliged, by the neceffity of
his affairs, to return to Denmark. In a fhort time,
however, he returned, and continued his depredations
along the fouthern coafi. He then broke into the
counties of Dorfet, Wilts, and Somerfet; where an
army was afiembled againd him under the command of
prince Edmund and duke Edric. The latter dill con¬
tinued his perfidious machinations; and after endea¬
vouring in vain to get the prince into his power, found
means to diflipate the army, and then deferted to Ca¬
nute with 40 vefiels.
Edmund was not difheartened by this treachery. He
again affembled his forces, and was in a condition to
give the enemy battle. Ethelred, however, had now
fuch frequent experience of the treachery of his fub-
jedls, that he had lod all confidence in them. He re¬
mained in London, pretending ficknefs, but in reality
from an apprehenfion than they intended to buy their
peace by delivering him into the hands of his enemies.
The army called aloud for their fovereign to march at
their head againft the Danes; and on his refufal to
take the field, they were fo difcouraged, that all the
preparations which had been made became ineffe&ual
for the defence of the kingdom. Edmund, deprived
of all regular refources for the maintenance of the fid¬
dlers, was obliged to commit fimilar ravages to thofe
praftifed by the Danes; and after making fome fruit- England. :
lefs expeditions into the north, which had fubmitted "(;
entirely to Canute’s power, he returned to London,
where he found every thing in confufion by the death
of the king. 7j
Ethelred died in 1016, after an unhappy reign ofEdnnmd
35 years; and was fucceeded by his eldeit fan Ed-,l;onfitle
mund, furnamed Ironjide on account of his great k'ingjorn *
flrength and valour. He pofleffed abilities fufficient wjth tjie \
to have faved his country from ruin, had he come Danes. j
fooner to the throne; but it was now too late. He
bravely oppofed the Danes, however, notwithfianding
every difadvantage ; till at lalt the nobility of both
nations obliged their kings to come to a compromife,
and divide the kingdom between them by treaty. Ca¬
nute referved to himfelf Mercia, Eafl Anglia, and
Northumberland, which he had entirely fubdued. The ^
fouthern parts were left to Edmund. This prince fur-
vived the treaty only about a month ; being murdered
at Oxford by two of his chamberlains, accomplices of
Edric. . 74 j
After the death of Edmund, nothing was left for Canute. 1
the Englifh but fubmiffion to Canute. The leaft fcru-
pulous of mankind, however, dare not at all times
Openly commit injuftice. Canute, therefore, before he
feized the dominions of Edwin and Edward, the two
fons of Edmund, fuborned fome of the nobility to de-
pofe, that, in the lafl: treaty with Edmund, it had been
verbally agreed, that, in cafe of Edmund’s death, Ca¬
nute fhould either be fuccefibr to his dominions, or tu¬
tor to his children; for hiftorians differ wuth regard to
this particular. This evidence, fupported by the great
power of Canute, was fpfficient to get him ele&ed king
of England. Immediately after his acceffion to the
throne, he fent the two fons of Edmund to the court
of Sweden, on pretence of being there educated ; but
charged the king to put them to death as foon as they
arrived. The Swedifh monarch did not comply with
this requeft; but fent them to Solomon king of Hun¬
gary, to be educated in his court. The elder, Edwin,
was afterwards married to Solomon’s fifter : but, he
dying without iffue, that prince gave his fifter-in-law,
Agatha, daughter of the emperor Henry II. in mar¬
riage to Edward, the younger brother ; and fhe bore
him Edgar Atheling; Margaret, afterwards queen of
Scotland; and Chriitina, who retired into a convent.
Canute was obliged at firff to make great conceffions
to the nobility: but he afterwards put to death many of
thofe in whom he could not put confidence; and, among
the reft, the traitor Edric himfelf, who was publicly
executed, and his body thrown into the Thames. In
order to prevent any danger from the Normans, who 7; {
had threatened him with an invafion, he married Emma Marries j |
the widow of Ethelred, and who now came over from • F
Normandy ; pfomifing that he would leave the chil- * ; *
dren he fhould have by that marriage, heirs to the i
crown after his deceafe. The Englifh were at firft dif-
pleafed with Emma for marrying the mortal enemy of ,,
her former hufband; but at the fame time were glad to |
find at court a fovereign to whom they were accuftom-
ed, and who had already formed connexions with
them: and thus Canute, befides fecuring by his mar¬
riage the alliance with Normandy, gradually acqui¬
red by the fame means the confidence of his own
people.
The
ENG [ 2749 ] ENG
Englirrt. The mofl; remarkable tranfaftio'n in this prince’s
   reign, befides thofe mentioned under the article Ca¬
nute, is his expedition to Scotland againft Malcolm
king of that country, whom he forced to do homage
for the county of Cumberland, which the Scots at that
time pofiefled. After this enterprife, Canute pafled
four years in peace, and died at Shaftfbury ; leaving
three fons, Sweyn, Harold, and Hardicanute. Sweyn,
whom he had by his firft marriage with Alfwen, daugh¬
ter of the earl of Hamplhire, was crowned in Norway:
Hardicanute, whom Emma had born, was in pofleffion
of Denmark ; and Harold, who was of the fame mar-
B Wage with Sweyn, was at that time in England.
Harold. Harold fucceeded to the crown of England; though
it had been ftipulated that Emma’s fon, Hardicanute,
fhould be heir to that kingdom. This advantage Ha¬
rold obtained by being on the fpot, and getting pof-
felfion of his father’s treafures, while Hardicanute was
at a diftance. As Hardicanute, however, was fup-
ported by earl Godvein, a civil war was likely to en-
fue, when a compromife was made ; by which it was
agreed, that Harold fhould enjoy London, and all the
provinces north of the Thames, while the pofl'efiion of
the fouth (hould remain to Hardicanute: and till that
prfnce fhoald appear and take poflefiion of his domi¬
nions, Emma fixed her refidence at Winchefter, and
ruled her Ton’s part. Harold reigned four years; du-
ring which time, the only memorable action he per-
His trcach- formed was a moft infamous piece of treachery.—Al-
ery and fre(i an(J Edward, the two fons of Emma by Ethelred,
cruelty. a v;f)t t0 their mother in England. But, in the
mean time, earl Godwin being gained over by Harold,
a plan was laid for the deftruftion of the two princes.
Alfred was accordingly invited to London by Harold,
with many profeffions of friendfhip; but when he had
reached Guildford, he was fet upon by Godwin’s vaf-
fals: about 600 of his train wefe murdered in the mofl:
■cruel manner; he himfelf was taken prifoner, his eyes
were put out, and he was conduced to the monaftery of
Ely, where he died foon after. Edward and Emma>
apprifed of the fate which awaited them, fled beyond
fea, the former into Normandy, the latter into Flan¬
ders; while Harold took poffeffion of all his brother’s
dominions without oppofition.—He died in April
1039.
Hardicanute fucceeded his brother Harold without
oppofition. His government was extremely violent
and tyrannical. However, it was but of Ihort dura¬
tion. He died, in 1041, of a debauch at the mar¬
riage of a Danilh lord. After his death, a favourable
opportunity was offered to the Englifh for fhaking off
the Danifh yoke. Sweyn, king of Norway, the eldeft
fon of Canute, was abfent; and as the two laft kings
had died without iflue, there appeared none of that
race whom the Danes could fupport as fuccefibr to the
throne. For this reafon, the eyes of the nation were
naturally drawn towards prince Edward, who happen¬
ed to be at court when the king died. There were
fome reafons, however, to fear, that Edward’s fuccef-
fion would be oppofed by earl Godwin, who was by far
the moft powerful nobleman in the kingdom. A de¬
clared animofity fubfifted between Edward and God¬
win, on account of the hand whtfch the latter had in
the murder of his brother Alfred ; and this was thought
to be an offence of fo grievous a nature, that Edward
Vol. IV.
could never forgive it. But here their common friends
interpofed; and reprefenting the neceffity of their good
correfpondence, obliged them to lay afide their animo-
fities, and to concur in reftoring liberty to their native
country. Godwin only ftipulated that Edward, as a
pledge of his fincere reconciliation, fhould promife to
marry his daughter Editha. This propofal was agreed
to; Edward was crowned king of England, and married Edward the
Editha as he had promifed. The marriage, however,
proved rather a fource of difeord than otherwife be¬
tween the king and Godwin. Editha, though a very
amiable woman, could never obtain the confidence and
affeftion of her hufband. It is even faid, that, during
the whole courfe of her life, he abftained from all ma¬
trimonial converfe with her; and this ridiculous beha¬
viour was highly celebrated by the monkifh writers of
the age, and contributed to the king’s acquiring the
title of Saint and Confeffor.
Though the negledt of his daughter could not fail
to awaken Godwin’s former enmity againft king Ed¬
ward, it was neceffary to choofe a more popular ground
before he could vent his complaints againft the king ?£)
in a public manner. Fie therefore chofe for his theme Variance-of
the influence which the Normans had on the affairs oF111® king
government; and a declared oppofition took place be- Godwin,
tween him and thefe favourites. In a fhort time, this
animofity openly broke out with great violence. Eu-
flace count of Bologne having paid a vifit to the king,
palfed by Dover on his return. One of his train be¬
ing refufed accefs to a lodging which had been ap¬
pointed for him, attempted to make his way by force,
and wounded the mafter of the houfe in the conteft.
The townfmen revenged this infult by the death of the
ftranger ; the count and his train took arms, and mur¬
dered the townfman in his own houfe. A tumult en-
fued; near 20 perfons were killed on each fide ; and
Euftace, being overpowered with numbers, was at laft
obliged to fly. He complained to the king; who gave
orders to earl Godwin, in wbofe government Dover lay,
to punifh the inhabitants. But this nobleman refufed
te obey the command, and endeavoured to throw the
whole blame on count Euftace and his followers. The
king was difpleafed; apd threatened to make him feel
the utmoft effe&s of his refentment, in cafe he finally
refufed to comply. Upon this, Godwin afferobled a
powerful army, on pretence of repreffing fome difor-
ders on the frontiers of Wales ; but, inftead of this,
marched diredlly to Glocefter, where the king at that
time was without any military force, as fufpefting no
danger.
Edward perceiving his danger, applied to Siward
duke of Northumberland, and Leofric duke of Mercia,
two very powerful noblemen. They haftened to him
with fuch followers as they could affemble, iffuing or¬
ders at the fame time for all the forces under their re-
fpe&ive governments to march without delay to the
defence of the king. Godwin., in the mean time, fuf-
fered himfelf to be deceived by negociations, till the
king’s army became fo powerful, that he was not able 8c>
to cope with it. “He was therefore obliged to fly with Godwin
his family to Flanders. Here he was protefted by flies to,Flan-
Baldwin earl of that country, together with his three d€rs’
fons Gurth, Sweyn, and Tofti; the laft of whom had
married Baldwin’s daughter. Harold and Leofwin,
two other fons of Godwin., took (belter in Ireland.
15 Z After
England.
81
Returns,
conciled
with the
king.
8i
His fon Ha¬
rold afpires
to the
crown.
ENG [ a 750 ]1 ENG
After the flight of chrl Godwin, he was proceeded
' againrt as a traitor by king Edward. His eltates,
and thofe of his fons, were confifcated; his govern¬
ments given to others1; qncen Editha was confined in
a monaftery ; and the great power of this family,
which had become formidable to the crown itfelf, feem-
ed to be totally overthrown. Godwin, however, foCm
ftfilnd means to retrieve his affairs. Having hwed:
fottir (hips/ and manned , them with His followers, he
attempted to make a defcent at Sandwich-. The king, -
informed of his preparations, equipped a fleet which
Godwin could not refift, and he therefore retreated Into
the Flemilh harbours. On'his departure, the Engliih
difttiiffed theirarmametit. This Godwin had expefted,
and therefore ke‘pt himfclf in readinefs for the favour¬
able' opportunity. He imrtlOdiately" put to fed, and
failed to theTfle of Wight, where he was joined by
Harold with a fquadron which he had collefted in Ire¬
land. Being thuS mafter of the fea, Godwin entered
the harbours on thefOuthern coafV; feized all the (hips;
and being joined by great numbers of his former vaf-
fals/ he failed up the Thames, and appeared before
London.
Lhe approach of fuch a formidable enemy threw
every thing into confuflon. The king alone feemed
refolute to defend himfelf to the 1 aft extremity; but
the interpofition of many of the nobility, together with
thefubniiffions of God win himfelf, at lail produced an
accommodation. It was ftipulated, thatGodwin (hould
give hoftages for his good behaviour, and that all the
foreigners Ihonld be baniftied the kingdom; after
which, Edward, fenfible that he had not power fuf-
ficient to detain the earl Vhoftages in England, font
them over to his kinfmao the young duke of Nor¬
mandy.
Soon after this reconciliation, Godwin died as he
was fitting at table with the king. He was fuccced-
ed in the government of Weffex, Shfiex, Kent, and
Eflex, and in the office of ftew'ard of the houfehold, a
place of great power, by his fon Harold. The fon
was nolefs ambitious than the father had been ; and as
he was a man of much greater abilities, he became a
more dangerous enemy to Edward than even Godwin
had been. Edward knew no better expedient to pre¬
vent the increafe of Harold’s powder, than by giving
him a rival. This was Algar fon of Leofric duke of
Mercia, whom he invefted with the government of Eaft
Anglia, which had formerly belonged to Harold. The
la'tter; however, after feme broils, finally got the bet¬
ter of his rival, and banilhed him the kingdom: Al¬
gar returned foon after with an army of Norwegians,
with whom he invaded Eaft: Anglia; but his death in a
flibrt time freed Harold from all further apprehenfious
from that quarter. His power was ftill further iricreafed
in a fhbrt time after by the acctflibirof bis brother Tofti
to the government of Northumberlabd ; and Edward
now declining.iti years, and apprehenfive-that Harold
would attempt to ufurp the crown after his death, re-
folved to appoint a fucceflbr. He therefore fent a de¬
putation into Hungary, to invite over his nephew,
Edward, fon to his elder brother, who was the' only
remaining heir of the Sakon line. That pfince accord¬
ingly came over with his children, Edgar Atheling,
Margaret, and Chriftina ; but died a few days after
his arrival. His death threw the king into greater per¬
plexity than ever. Being refolved to exclude Harold if
pofiible, he fecretly daft his eye on his kinfman William
duke of Normandy; a perfon of whofe power, charac-
ter’. anc^ cap3cityj he had juftly a very high opinion.
This adviee had formerly been given him by Robert
archbfthop of Canterbury, who was himfelf a Norman,
and had been bani(bed along with the reft upon the re¬
turn of earl Godwin. But Edward finding that the
Englifh would more eafily acquiefce in the reftoration
of the Saxon line, had in the mean time invited his
brother’s defcendants from Hungary as already men¬
tioned. The death of his nephew, and the inexpe¬
rience and unpromifing qualities of young Edgar, made:
him refume his former intention's in favour of the duke
of Normandy, though his averfion to hazardous en-
terprifes engaged him to poftpone the execution, and
even to keep his purpofe concealed from all his mini-
fters.
Harold in the mean time incrfeafed his popularity
by all pofiible means, in order to prepare his way for
being advanced to the throne after the death of Ed¬
ward, which now feemed to be fa ft apprbachino-. He
had no fufpicion of the duke of Normandy as a rival;
but as he knew that a fon and grandfon of the earl
Godwin were in the hands of that prince as hoftages,
he feared that they'might be made ufe of as checks
upon his ambition, in cafe he attempted afterwards
to afcend the throne. He therefore prevailed upon
Edward to releafe thefe hoftages unconditionally; and
having obtained his confent, he fet out for Norman¬
dy himfelf, attended by a numerous retinue. He was
driven by a temped on the territory of Guy count of
Ponthieu, who detained him prifoneY,' and demanded
an exorbitant fum for his ranfom. Harold found means
to acquaint William with his fituation. The duke of
Normandy, defirous of gaining Harold over to his
party, commanded Guy to reftore his prifoner to his
liberty. Upon this Harold was immediately put into
the hands of the Norman ambafiador, who condii&fed
him to Rouen. William received him with great demon-
ftrations of refpedl and friendfhip; but foon took an op¬
portunity of acquainting him with his pretCnfions to
the crown of England, and alked his afiiftance in the
execution of his fcheme. Harold was furprifed with this
declaration of the duke; but, being entirely in his power,
he feigned a compliance with his defires, and promifed to
feCpnd to the utmoft of his ability the will of king Ed¬
ward. William, to fecure him as much as polfible to
his intereft, p .rmifed him his daughter in marriage,
and required him to take an oath that he'would fulfil
his promifes. Hargld readily complied; but to make
the oath more binding, William privately conveyed
under the altar where the oath was takbn, reliques
of fome of the mod revered martyrs; and when
Harold had taken the oath, he (hewed him the" relics,
and adrhonifhed him to obferve religioufly fuch a fo-
lemn engagement.
Harold was no' fooner at liberty; than he found
himfelf matter of cafuiftry fufficfenE to excufe1 the
breaking of his oath which had be£n extorted from
him, and which, if kept, might be attended with
the fubjeftion of his country to a fdrtrgh power.
He continued to praftife every art to increafe his'
popularity; and about this time, two accidents en¬
abled him to add much to that chafa&er which he
had
England,
ENG [ 2751 ] ENG
England, had already fo well eftablHhed. The Wellh had for garded as obligatory: that he never had any commiffion England-
fome time made incurlions into the Englilh territories, either from the late king or the dates of England, who ”
and had lately become fo troublefome, that Harold nlone could difpofe of the crown, to make any tender
thought he could not do a more acceptable piece of of the fuceeffion to the duke of Normandy ; and if he,
fervice to the public, than undertake an expedition a- a private perfon, had afiumed fo much authority, and
gainll thefe invaders. Having therefore prepared fome
light-armed foot to purfue the natives into their fort-
reffes, fome cavalry to fecure the open country, and
a fquadronof (hips to attack the fea-coarts, he employ¬
ed all thefe forces againft the enemy at once; and thus
had even voluntarily fworn to fupport the duke’s pre-
tenfions, the oath was unlawful, and it was his duty to
take the firft opportuoity of breaking it: that he had
obtairved the crown by the unanimous fufirages of the
people; and Jhould fhew,himfelf totally unworthy of
reduced them to fuch diltrefs, that they were obliged their favour, did he not ftrenuoufly maintain thofe li-
topurchafe, peace by fending their prince’s head to Ha- berties with which they fmd entruited him: and that
rohl, and fubmitting to the government of two Wellh the duke, if he made any attempt by force of arms,
noblemen appointed by Edward. fhould experience the power of an united nation, con-
The other incident was np lefs honourable to Ha- dudfed by a prince, who, fenfible of the obligations im-
rold. Tolti his brother had been created duke of pofed on him by Ins royal dignity, was determined,
Northumberland ; but, being of a violent tyrannical that the farpe moment fhould put a period, to his life
temper, had treated the inhabitants with fuch cruel¬
ty, that they rofe in rebellion againft him, and drove
him from his government. Morcar and Edw'in, two
brothers, grandfons of the great duke Leofric, join¬
ed in the infurredfion ; and the former being elec¬
ted duke, advanced with an army to oppofe Harold,
who had been commiffioned by the king to reduce and
punifh the Northumbrians. Before the armies enga¬
ged, hforcar endeavoured to juftify his condudf, and
reprefented to Harold, that Tpfti had behaved in fuch
1 manner that no ope, not even a brother, could de¬
and to his .government.
This anfwer was according to William’s expedi¬
tions, and therefore he had already made preparations
for invading England. He was encouraged and afiift-
ed in this enterprife by Howel count of Brittany, Bald¬
win earl of Flanders, the emperor Henry IV. and pope
Alexander II. The latter declared Harold a perjured
ufurper; denounced excommunication againft him and
his adherents ; and the more to encourage William in
his^nterprife, fent him a cojofecrated hanner, and a ring
with one of St Peter’s hairs in it. Thus he was en-
fend him without participating of the infamy of his abled to aflemble a fleet of 3000 vefiels, on board of
conduit: that the Northumbrians were willing to fub-
mit to the iking, but required a governor that would
pay fome attention to their privileges ; and they truft-
ed that Harold would not defend in another that vio¬
lent conduit from which his own government had al-
which yvere embarked .60,000 men, chofen from among
thofe numerous fupplies which were fent him from all
quarters. Many eminent perfonages were enlifted un¬
der his banners. The moft celebrated were Euftace
count of Boulogne, Aimeri de Thoparg, Hugh d’E¬
ways kept at fo great a diftance. This fpeech was itaples, William d’Evreux, Geoffroy de Rotrou, Ro-
accompanied by fuch a detail of well-fupported faits,
that Harold abandoned his brother’s caufe; anft return¬
ing to Edward, perfuaded him to pardon the Nor¬
thumbrians, and confirm Morpar in his government.
He even married the filter of that nobleman ; and by
his intereft procured Edwin the younger brother to be
chofen governor of Mercia. Tofti, in a rage, depart¬
ed the kingdom, and took (belter in Flanders with
Baldwin his father-in-law; while William of Norman¬
dy faw that now he had nothing to expeft from Harold,
83 who plainly intended to fecure the crown for himfelf.
Harold fee- Edward died in 1067, and was fucceeded by Ha-
ceeds Ed¬
ward the
Conl'clfor.
ger de Beaumont, William de Warenne, Roger de
Montgomeri, Hugh de Grantmefnil, Charles Martel,
and Geoffroy Gifford.
In order to embarrafs the affairs of Harold the more
effedtually, William alfo excited Tofti, in epneert with
Halfager king of Norway, to infeft.the Englifh coafts.
Thefe two having collefted a .fleet of 350 (hips, failed up
the Humber,.and difembarked their troops, who began
to commit great depredations. They were oppofed by
Morcar earl or duke (b) of Northumberland, and Ed-
win earl of Mercia, who, were defeated. Harold, ,pn Defeats the
the news of this invafion, affembled a conljderable army, Danes.
rold with as little pppofition as though he had been engaged the enemy at Standford, and after a bloody
the lawful heir. The very day after Edward’s death,
he was anointed and crowned by the archbifhop of
battle entirely defeated them,
killed in the aftion, and a’
Tofti and Halfager
the fleet fall into, the
York. The whole nation feemed joyfully to fwear alle- hands of the vittors ; but Harold generoufly allowed
giance to him. But he did not long enjoy the crown)
to obtain which he had taken fo much pains, and
which he feemed to have fuch capacity for wearing.
His brother Tofti, provoked at his fuccefs, ftirred up
againft him every enemy he could have any influence
with. The duke of Normandy alfo was enraged to
the laft degree at the perfidy of Harold; but before he
commenced hoftilities, he fent an embaffy to England,
upbraiding the king with his breach of faith, and fum-
moning him to refign the kingdom immediately. Ha¬
rold replied, that the oath, with which he was re¬
proached, had been extorted by the well-grounded
fear of violence, and for that reafon could never be re-
Olave the fon of Halfager to depart with 20 veffels.
The king of England had fcarce tinie to rejoice on
account of his victory, when news were brought him
that the Normans were landed in §.uffex. Harold’s
viAory had confiderably weakened his army. He loft
many of his brayeft officers and foldiers in the a&ion ;
and he difgufted the reft, by refufing to diftribute ,t}ie
Danifti fpoils ampng them. He haftened, hqwever,
by quipk marches, to repel this new invader; but
though he yvas ,reinforced,at London and .other places
with frefh troops, he found himfelf weakened by the
defertion of his old foldiers, who, from fatigue, an4 dif*
content, fecretly withdrew frpm their colours. Gurth>
1 j Z 2 ; tit?
(b) Anciently thefe two titles were fynonimous.
ENG [ 2752 ] ENG
England, the brother of Harold, a man of great eondu& as well nobility as he put the Itaft confidence in,
dy.
* See Ha-
fihgs.
as bravery, became apprehenfive of the evenly and en¬
treated the king to avoid a general engagement for
fome time, or at leaft not to hazard his perfon. But
though this advice was in itfelf evidently proper, and
enforced by all the arguments which Gurth could fug-
8j geft> Harold continued deaf to every thing that could
I? defeated be faid. Accordingly, on the 14th of Oftober i ob^,
£n<wMr<i t^le two arm'es engaged near Haftings a town of Suf-
of Norman- ^ex‘ •^L^€r a mo^ obftinate and bloody battle *, the
Englifh were entirely defeated, Harold and his two
brothers killed, and William left mafter of the king¬
dom of England.
Nothing could exceed the terror of the Englilh up¬
on the news of the defeat and death of Harold. As
foon as William paffed the Thames at Wallingford,
Stigand, th^ primate, made fubmiffions to him in the
name of the clergy ; and before he came within fight
of London, all the chief nobility, and even Edgar A-
theling himfelf, who; being the rightful heir’to' the
8<s throne, had jyft before been declared king, came and
William the fubmitted to the conqueror. William very readily ac-
^ 1 cepted of the crown upon the terms that were offered
him ; which were, that Hedhduld govern according to
the eftablifhed ctiftoms of the Country. He could in¬
deed have made What terms he pleafed ; but, though
really a conqueror, he chofe rather to be thought an
elefted king. For this reafon he was crowned at Weft-
minfter by the archbifhop of York, and took the oath
adminiftered to the former kings of England; namely,
that he would protect and defend the church, obferve
the laws of the realm, and govern the kingdom with
87 impartiality.
TheEnglilh The Englilh hiftorians complain of the moft grie-
g—ufly vous oppreffion by William and his Normans. Whe-
0fpre e ' -ther by his condudt the conqueror vvillingly gave the
Englilh opportunities of rebelling againft him, in or¬
der to have a pretence for opprefling them afterwards,
is not eafy to fay; but it is certain that the beginning
of his reign cannot jultly be blamed.. The firft difguft
againft his government was excited among the clergy.
William could not avoid the rewarding of thofe nume¬
rous adventurers who had ac.compatiied^him in his ex¬
pedition. He firft divided the lands of the Englilh
barons who had oppofed him among his Norman ba¬
rons ; but as thefe were found irifufficient, he quarter¬
ed the reft on the rich abbeys, of which there were
many in the kingdom, until fome other opportunity of
providing for them offered Itfelf.
Though this laft ftep was highly Vefented by the
clergy, it gave very little offence to the laity. The
whole nation, however, Was foon after difgufted, by
feeing, all th,e real power of the kingdom placed in the
hands of the Normans. He difarmed the city of Lon-
Having taken all thefe methods to enfure the tran¬
quillity of his new kingdom, William fet fail for Nor¬
mandy in March 1067; but his abfence produced the
moft fatal confequences. Difcontents and murmurings
were multiplied every where; fecret confpiracies were
entered into againft the government; hoftilities were
commenced in many places; and every thing feemed
to threaten a fpeedy revolution. William of Poi&iers,
a Norman hittorian, throws the blame entirely on the
Englilh. He cajlls them a fickle and mutinous race,
wh'.le he celebrates with the higheft encomiums the
juftice and lenity of Odo’s and Fitz-Olborne’s admini-
ftration. On the other hand, the Englilh hiftorians
tell us, that thefe governors took all opportunities of
opprefiing the people, either with a view to provoke
them to rebellion, or,' in cafe they tamely fubmitted to
their impofitions, to grow rich by plundering'’ them.
Be this as it will, however, a fecret confpiracy was
formed among the Englilh for a general maffacre of
the Normans, like what had formerly been made of the
Danes. This was profecuted with fa much animofity,
that'the vaffals of the earl of Coxo put him to death
becaufe he refufed to head them in the enterprife. The
confpirators had already taken the refolution, and fix¬
ed the day for their intended maffacre, which was to
be on AIh-We 1 IneIday, during the time of divine fer-
vice, when all the Normans would be unarmed as pe¬
nitents, according to the difcipline of the times. But
the prefence of William difconcerted all their fchemee.
Having got intelligence of their bloody purpofe, he
haftened over -to England. Such of the confpirators
as had been moire open in t heir rebellion , con faked their
fafety by flight; and this ferved to confirm the proofs
of an accufation againft thofe who remained. From
this time the king not only loft all confidence in his
Ehglilh fubjects, but regarded them as inveterate and
irreconcileable enemies. He had already raifed fuch a
number of fortreffes in the country, that he no lon^
ger dreaded the tumultuous or tranfient efforts of a
difeontented multitude. He determined therefore to
treat them as a conquered nation. The firft inftance
of this treatment was his revival of the tax of Dane-
gelt, which had been impofed by the Danilh con¬
querors, and was very odious to the people. This
produced great difcontents, and even infurreftions.
The inhabitants of Exeter and Cornwal revoked; but
were foon reduced, and obliged to implore the mercy
of the conqueror. A more dangerous rebellion hap¬
pened in the north; but this was alfo foon quafhed,
and the Englifh became fenfible that their deltruftion
was intended. Their eafy fubmifiion after the battle
of Haftings had infpired the Nortnans with Contempt;
their commotions afterwards had rendered theYn ob-
don, and other places which appeared moft warlike and jefts of hatred; and they were now deprived of every
populous, and quartered Norman foldiers wherever he
dreaded an infurreftion. This was indeed afking as a
conqueror,, and not as an elected king; but the event
ffiewed the neceffity of fuch precautions. The king ha¬
ving thus feeured, as he imagined, England from any
danger of a revolt, determined to pay a vifit to his
Norman dominions. He appointed his brother Odo,
bilhop of Bayeavix, and William Fitz-Ofborne, regents
in his abfence; and to fecurc himfelf yet farther, he
refolved to carry along with him fuch of the Englilh
expedient which could make them either regarded o
beloved by their fovereigri. Many fled into foreign
countries; and among the reft Edgar Atheling himfelf,
who made his efcape to Scotland, and carried thither
hid two fifters Margaret and Chriftina. They were well
received by Malcolm, who foon after married Marga¬
ret the elder filler, and alfo received great numbers of
other exiles with the utmoft kindnefs.
The Englifh, though unable to make any refiftance
openly, did not fail to gratify their refeniment againft
tht
England.
ENG [ 2753 ] ENG
England, the Normans in a private manner. Seldom a day paf-
led, but the bodies of aflaffinated Normans were found
in the woods and high-ways, without any poffibility of
bringing the perpetrators to jullice. Thus, at length,
the conquerors themfelves began again to wifh for
tranquillity and feciy;ity; and feveral of them, though
entrulled with great commands, defired to be difmif-
fed the fervice. In order to prevent thefe defertions,
which William highly relented, he was obliged to
allure others to ftay by the largenefs of his bounties.
The coni’equences were, frelh exaftions from the
Englilh, and new infurredlions on their part againll
their cruel mafters. The Norman power, however,
was too well founded to be now removed, and every
attempt of the Englilh to regain their liberty ferved
only to rivet their chains the more firmly. The county
of Northumberland, which had been molt adtive in thefe
infurredtions, now fuffered moll feverely. The whole
of it was laid wafte, the houfes were burned, the in-
ftruments of agriculture deitroyed, and the inhabitants
forced to feek new places of abode. On this occafion
it is faid that above z 00,000 perfons perilhed either by
the fword or famine; and the country is fuppofed even
to this day, to retain the marks of its ancient depo¬
pulation. The eftates of all the Englilh gentry were
next eonfifcated, and bellowed on the Normans. By
this means all the ancient and l%onourable families were
reduced to beggary; and theEnglilh found themfelves
totally excluded from every road that led either to ho¬
nour or preferment.
By proceeding in this manner, William at lall broke
gg the fpirit of the Englilh nation, and received no far-
piflenfions ther trouble from them. In 1076, however, he found
in William’s t}iat the latter part of his life was likely to be unhap-
1 py through dilfenfions in his own family. He had four
fons, Robert, Richard, William, and Henry, befides
feveral daughters. Robert, his eldetl fon, furnamed
Curthofe, from the Ihortnefs of his legs, was a prince
who'inherited all the bravery and ambition of his fa¬
mily. He had formerly been promifed by his father
the government of the province of Maine in France,
and was alfo declared fuccefibr to the dukedom of Nor¬
mandy. He demanded from his father the fulfilment
of thefe promifes; but William gave him a flat denial,
obferving, that “ it was not his cullom to throw olf
his clothes till he went to bed.” Robert declared his
refentment; and openly exprefled his jealoufy of his
two brothers William and Henry, (for Richard was
killed, in hunting, by a flag.) An open rupture was
foon commenced. The two young princes one day
took it into their heads to throw water on their elder
brother as he pafled through the fcourt after leaving
their apartment. Robert conftrued this frolic into a
Iludied indignity ; and having thefe jealoufies ftill far¬
ther inflamed by one of his favourites, he drew his
fword, and ran up ftairs with an intent to take re¬
venge. The whole caftle was quickly filled with tu¬
mult, and it was not without fome difficulty that the
king himfelf was able to appeafe it. But he could not
allay the animofity which from that moment prevail¬
ed in his family. Robert, attended by feveral of his
confederates, withdrew to Rouen that very night, ho¬
ping to furprife the caftle; but his defign was defeat¬
ed by the governor. The popular charaAer of the
prince, however, engaged all the young nobility of
Normandy, as well as of Anjou and Britany, to e-
fpoufe his quarrel; even his mother is fuppofed to have
fupported him in his rebellion by fecret remittances.
The unnatural conteft continued for feveral years; and
William was at laft obliged to have recourfe to Eng¬
land for fupport againft his own fon. Accordingly,
he drew an army of Englifnmen together; he led them
over to Normandy, where he foon compelled Robert
and his adherents to quit the field, and was quickly re-
inttated in all his dominions. Robert then took fliel-
ter in the caftle of Gerberoy, which the king of France
had provided for him, where he was (hortly after be-
fieged by his father. As the garrifon was ftrong, and
confcious of their treafon, they made a gallant defence;
and many fldrmifties-and duels were fought under its
walls. In one of thefe the king and his fon happen¬
ed to meet ; but being both concealed by their hel¬
mets, they attacked each other with mutual fury. The
young prince wounded his father in the arm, and threw
him from his horfe. The next blow would probably
have put an end to his life, had he not called for af-
fiftance. Robert inftantly recolle&ed his father’s voice,
leaped from his horfe, and raifed him from the ground.
He proftrated himfelf in his prefence, alked pardon for
his offences, and promifed for the future a llridl ad¬
herence to bis duty. The king was not fo eafily ap-
peafed; and perhaps his refentment was heightened
by the difgrace of being overcome. He therefore gave
his maledi&ion to his fon; and returned to his own
camp on Robert’s horfe, which he had affifted him to
mount. After fome recolleftion, however, he was
reconciled to Robert, and carried him with him into
England.
William returned in 1081; and being now freed from
his enemies both at home and abroad, began to have
more leifure to attend to his own domeftic affairs. For
this purpofe the Doomsday-Z?^ was compofed by his
order, of which an account is given under that article.
He referred a very ample revenue for the crown ; and
in the general diftribution of land among his follow¬
ers, kept poflefiion of now fewer than 1400 manors in
different parts of the country. No king of England
was ever fo opulent; none was able to fupport the
fplendor and magnificence of a court to fuch a degree;
none had fo many places of trull and profit to bellow;
and confequently none ever had fuch implicit obedience
paid to his commands. He delighted greatly in hunt¬
ing ; and to indulge himfelf in this with the greater
freedom, he depopulated the county of Hampfhire
for 30 miles, turning out the inhabitanfs, deftroying
all tbe villages, and making the wretched outcafts no
compenfation for fuch an injury. In the time of the
Saxon kings, all noblemen without dill inAion had a right
to hunt in the royal fore ft s; but William appropriated
all thefe to himfelf, and publifhed very fevere laws to
prohibit his fubje&s from encroaching on this part of
his prerogative. The killing of a boar,, a deer, or
-even an hare, was punilhed with the lofs of the de¬
linquent’s eyes ; at the time when the killing.of'a:man
might be atoned for by paying a moderate fine or com-
pofition.
As the king’s wealth and power were fo great, it
may reafonably be fuppofed, that the riches of his mi-
nillers were in proportion. Odo, bilhop of Bayeux,
William’s brother, was become fo rich, that he refoh
ved
England,
ENG [ 2754 ] ENG
t-j'S111011- ved to purchafe the papacy. For this purpofe, taking
the opportunity of the king’s abfence, he equipped a
veflel in the Ifle of Wight, on board of which he fent
immenfe treafures, and prepared for his embarkation.
He was detained, however, by contrary winds ; and,
in the mean time, William, being informed of his de-
figns, refolved to prevent the exportation of fo much
wealth from his dominions. Returning therefore from
Normandy, where he was at that time, he came to
England the very inlfant his brother was Uepping on
board. He immediately ordered him to be made
prifoner: but his attendants, refpetting the bifliop’s
ecclefiaftical charadler, fcrupled to execute his com¬
mands ; fo that the king was obliged to feize him
with his own hand. Odo appealed to the Pope: but
the king replied, that he did not feize him as bilhop
of Bayeux, but as earl of Kent; and, in that capacity,
he expe&ed, and would have, an account of his admi-
nillration. He was therefore fent prifoner to Nor¬
mandy; and, notwith(landing all the remonftrances and
threats of pope Gregory, was detained in cuftody du-
gj, ring the remainder of William’s reign.
Death of Soon after this, William felt a fevere blow in the
the queen, death of Matilda his queen ; and, almoft at the fame
time,. received information of a general infurredtion in
Maine, the nobility ofwhich had always been averfe from
his government. Upon his arrival on the continent, he
found that the infurgents had been fecretly aflifted and
■excited by the king of France, who took all opportu¬
nities of leffening the Norman power, by creating dif-
fenfions among the nobles. His difpleafure on this
account was very much increafed, by notice he re¬
ceived of fume railleries thrown out againit him by
the French monarch. It feems that William, who
was become corpulent, had been detained in bed fome
time by ficknefs; and Philip was heard to fay, that
he only lay in of a big belly. This fo provoked the
Englifh monarch, that he fent him word, he would
foon be up, and would, at his churching, prefent fuch
a number of tapers as would fet the kingdom of France
in a flame.
To perform this promife, he levied a powerful army;
and, entering the Ifle of France, deftroyed every thing
with fire and fword. He took the town of Mante, and
reduced it to a flies. But a period was foon put to the
go conquefts and to the life of this great warrior by an
And of the accident. His horfe, happening to put his fore-feet
on fome hot allies, plunged fo violently, that the rider
was thrown forward, and bruifed his belly on the pom¬
mel of the faddle. Being now in a bad habit of body,
as well as fomewhat advanced in years, he began to be
apprehenfive of the confequences, and ordered himfelf
to be carried in a litter to the monaftery of St Ger-
vaife. Finding his illnefs increafe, and being fenfible
of the approach of death, he difeovered at lalt the va¬
nity of all human grandeur; and was (truck with re-
morfe for thofe many cruelties and violences of which
he had been guilty. He endeavoured to make com-
penfation by prefents to churches and monalleries, and
gave orders for the liberation of feveral Englifli noble¬
men. He was even prevailed upon, though not with¬
out reludtance, to releafe his brother Odo, againft
whom he was very much incenfed. He left Norman¬
dy and Maine to his elded fon Robert. He wrote to
Eanfranc the primate of England, deilring him to
crown William king of England. To Henry he be- •England.i;
queathed nothing but the pofleflions of his mother r“*'*
Matilda; but foretold, that one day he would furpafs
both his brothers in power and opulence. He expired
on the 9th of September 1087, in the 63d year of his
age, in the 21A of his reign over England, and 54th
of that over Normandy. j
William, furnamed Rufus from his red hair, was in william |
Normandy at the time of his father’s illnefs. He no Rufus,
fooner received the letter for Lanfranc, than, leaving
his father in the agonies of death, he fet out for Eng¬
land; where he arrived before intelligence of the de-
ceafe of the Conqueror had reached that kingdom.
Being fenfible that his brother Robert, as being the
elded Ion, had a preferable title to himfelf, he ufed the
utmod difpatch in getting himfelf firmly tdablilhed an
the throne. The Englifh were fo effedfually fubdued,
that they made no oppofition; but the Norman barons
were attached to Robert. This prince was brave,
open, fincere, and generous; and even bis predominant
fault of indolence was not difagreeable to thofe haughty
barons, who affefted an almod total independence of
their'fovereign. The king, on the other hand, was
violent, haughty, and tyrannical. A powerful con-
fpiracy was therefore carried on againd William; and
Odo, bifhop of Bayeux, undertook to conduft it. Ma¬
ny of the mod powerful nobility were concerned; and
as the confpirators expedled to be in a fhort time fup-
ported by powerful fuccours from Normandy, they re¬
tired to their cadles, and put themfelves in an offenfive
podure.
William, fenfible of his danger, engaged the Englifh
on his fide, by promifing fome mitigation of their hard-
fhips, and liberty to hunt in the royal foreds. Robert,
in the mean time, through his natural indolence, ne¬
glected to give his allies proper affidance. The con¬
fpirators were obliged to fubmit. Some of them were
pardoned; but mod of them confifcated, and their
edates bedowed on the barons who had continued
faithful to the king. ^
William, freed from this danger, thought no more Proves a ;
of his promifes to the Englifh. He proved a greater tyrant,
tyrant than his father; and, after the death of Lan¬
franc, who had been bis preceptor, and kept him with¬
in fome bounds, he gave full fcope to his violent and
rapacious difpofition. Not content with oppreffingthe
laity, he invaded the privileges of the church; which,
in thofe days, were held mod facred. He feized the
temporalities of all the vacant bifhoprics and abbeys,
and openly put to fale thofe fees and abbeys which he
thought proper to difpofe of. 93 •
Thefe proceedings occafioned great murmurs among Attempts
the ecclefiadics, which were quickly fpread through the ‘f10 co,i* •,
nation, but the terror of William's authority preferved jq0er*)n°n(iy.jt,|
the public tranquillity. In 1090, the king thought
himfelf drong enough to attempt the conqueft of Nor¬
mandy, which at that time was in the greated confu-
fion through the indolent and negligent adminidration
of Robert. Several of the barons had revolted, and
thefe revolts were encouraged by the king of France.
Robert alfo imagined he had reafon to fear the intrigues
of his other brother Henry, whom for 3000 marks he
had put in pofleflion of Cotentin, pear a third part of the
duchy of Nornyandy. He therefore threw him into
prifon; but finding himfelf threatened with an inva-
E N G
j England, fiort' from the king of England, he gave Henry his li-
berty, and even made ufe of his affiftance in fuppref-
fing the infurreftions of his rebellious fubjedts. Wil¬
liam, however, was no fooner landed in Normandy, than
the nobility on both fides interpofed, and a treaty of
peace was concluded. In this treaty Henry finding his
interefts entirely neglefted, retired to St Michael’s
Mount, a ftrong fortrefs on the coaft of Normandy,
and infefted the neighbourhood with his incurlions.
He was befieged by his two brothers, and obliged to
capitulate in a fhort time; after which, being deprived
of all his dominions, he wandered about for fome time
with very few attendants; and often in great poverty.
The peace with Robert was of no long duration. In
the interval fome hoftilities with Scotland fucceeded,
and thefe terminated in the death of Malcolm king of
that country; after which new broils enfired with Nor¬
mandy. The rapacious temper of William prompted him
to encroach upon his brother’s territories, and the fame
rapacity prompted him to ufe a very extraordinary expe¬
dient in order to accomplith hisdefigns. Having gone
over to Normandy to fnpport bis partifans, he ordered an
army of20,ooomen to be raifed in England, and conduc¬
ed to the fea-coaft as if they were to be immediately em¬
barked: but when they came there, inftead of embark¬
ing, they were forced to pay the king ten (hillings a
man ; after which they were difmifled to their feveral
counties. With this money William engaged the king
of France to depart from the prot6&ion of Robert;
ahd alfo bribed many of the Norman barons to revolt.
He was:c_^led from Normandy, however, by an irrup¬
tion of the WeHh; and having repulfed them, he was
prevented from attempting other enterprifes by a con-
94 fpiracy of his barons.
iPurchafes In 1096, however, the fuperftitioh of Robert put
for 10^ t^ie °f England in pofieffion of thofe dominions
imsrks.’000 which he had not been able to conquer by force'of
arms. The crufades were now commenced, and Ro¬
bert was defirOus of undertaking an expedition into the
Holy Land. As money for this purpofe was wanting,
he mortgaged his dominions to his brother for 10,000
merks. The king raifed the money by violent extor¬
tions on his fubjcds; forcing even the convents to melt
their plate, in order* to furnifh the quota demanded of
them. He was then put in poffeflion of Normandy and
Maine; and Robert with a magnificent train fet out
for the Holy Land.
After the death of Lanfranc, the king had retained
in his own hands the revenues of Canterbury, as he
had done thofe of many other bifhoprics; but falling
into a dangerous illnefs, he was feized with remorfe;
and'the clergy reprefented to him that he was in dan¬
ger of eternal perdition if he did not make atonement
for thofe impieties and facrileges of which he had been'
guilty. He therefore inftantly refolved to fupply the
vacancy of Canterbury: he font for Anfelm, a Pied-
montefe by birth, abbot of Bee in Normapdy, who
was much celebrated for his piety and devotion. The
abbot refufed the dignity with great earneftnefs; fell
on his knees, wept, and entreated the king to change
his purpofe; and when he found him obftinate in for¬
cing the paftoral ftaff upon him, he kept his fill fo hard
clenched, that it required the utmoft violence of the
byftanders to open it, and force him to receive, that
enfign of his fpiritual dignity. William foon after rb-
E N G
covered his health, and with it his violence and rapa- England,
city. As he now fpared the church no more than be¬
fore, a quarrel with Anfelm foon enfued; and this was H;s quarrei
the more dangerous to the king, on account of the with the "
great character f6r piety which the primate had acqui- primate,
red by his zeal againft abufes of all kinds, particular¬
ly thofe of drefs and ornament.
At this time there was a mode which prevailed not
only in England, but throughout Europe, both among
men and women, of giving an enormous length totheir^
fhoes, drawing the toe to a {harp point, and affixing
to it the figure of a bird’s bill, or fome fuch ornament,
which was turned upwards, and which was often fu-
ftained by gold or filver chains tied to the knee. The
ecclefiaftics took exception at this ornament, which
they faid was an attempt to bely the feripture, where
it is affirmed, that no man can add a cubit to his fta-
ture; and they not only declaimed againfl: it with ve¬
hemence, but affembled fome fynods, in which the fa-
fhion was abfolutely condemned. Such, however, are
the contradi&ions in human nature, that all the in¬
fluence of the clergy, which at that time was fufficient
to fend vaft multitudes of people into Afia to butcher
one another, was not able to prevail againft thofe longr
pointed fhoes. The fafhion, contrary to what hath
happened to almoft; all others, maintained its ground
for feveral centuries ; and even Anfelm found his en¬
deavours againft it ineffeftual. He was more fuccefs-
ful in decrying the 16ng hair and cuided locks then
worn by the courtiers. He refufed the afhes on Afh-
Wednefday to fuch as were fo accoutred ; and his au¬
thority and eloquence had fuch influence, that the
young men univerfally abandoned that ornament, and
appeared in the cropt hair recommended to them by the
fermons of the primate. For this reformation Anfelm
is highly celebrated by his hiftorian Eadmer, who was
alfo his companion and fecretary.
When William’s profanenefs returned with his health,
he was engaged in almoft perpetual contefts with this
auftere prelate *. Thefe were pretty well fettled, * See
when the king, who had undertaken an expedition into^,M'
Wales, required Anfelm to furnifh him with a certain
number of foldiers. The primate regarded this as an in-
vafion of the rights of the church ; and therefore, tho’
he durft not refufe compliance, fent the men fo mifer-
ably afccoutred, that the king was exceedingly difplea-
fed, and threatened him with a profecution, Anfelm
demanded Veftitution of' all his revenues which the
king had feized, and appealed to the Pope. The quar¬
rel, however, ran fo high that the primate found it p<j
dangerods to remain in England. He defined and ob- Who leaves
tained the king’s permiffion to retire beyond fea. His1*’® kin£*
terifporalities were confifcated immediately on his de- om‘
patture ; but'pope Urban received him as a martyr in
the caufe of religion, and even threatened the king
with fentence of excommunication. William, however,
proceeded in his proje<Ss of ambition and violence,
without regarding the threats of the Pope; who he
knew was at that time too much engaged with the cru¬
fades, to mind any'other bufinefs. Though his ac-
quifition of Maine and Normandy had brought him in¬
to perpetual contefts with the haughty and turbulent
barons who inhabited thofe countries, and raifed end-
lefs tumults and infurre&ions; yet William feenried ftill
intent on extending his dominions either by purchafe or
COUf-
[ 2755 1
ENG [ 2756 ] ENG
-England, conqueft. William earl of Poi&iers and duke of Gui-
enne had refolved upon an expedition to the holy land;
and, for this purpofe, had put himfelf at the head of a
vaft multitude, confiding, according to fome hiftorians,
of 60,000 horfe, and a much greater number of foot.
Like Robert of Normandy, he offered to mortgage
his dominions for money fufficient to conduct this mul¬
titude into Afia. The king accepted his offer; and
had prepared a fleet and army to take poffefiion of
thefe dominions, when an unfortunate accident put an
end to his proje&s and his life. He was engaged in
hunting, the foie amufement, and indeed the principal
occupation, of princes in thofe rude times. Walter
Tyrrel, a French gentleman remarkable for his fkill
in archery, attended him in this recreation, of which
Death of the new foreft was the feene. William had difmount-
the king, ed after a chace; and Tyrrel, impatient to fhew his
dexterity, let fly an arrow at a flag which fuddenly
flarted before him. The arrow glanced from a tree,
and ftruck the king to the heart. He inftanlly fell
down dead; and Tyrrel, terrified at the accident,
clapt fpurs to his horfe, haftened to the fea-fhore, and
embarked for France, where he joined the crufade that
was fetting out from that country. This happened on
the 2d .of Auguft 1100, after the king had reigned
13 years, and lived about 40. His body was found in
the woods by the country-people, and buried without
ceremony at Winchefter.
After -the death of William, the crown of right de¬
volved to Robert his eldeft. brother; for William had
no legitimate children. But what Robert had formerly
loft by his indolence, he was again deprived of by his
abfence at the holy war. Prince Henry was in the
98 foreft with William Rufus at the time the latter was
Prince Hen- killed. He no fooner heard the important news, than
the^rown ^urr'e<^ to Winchefter, and fecured the royal trea-
fure. William de Breteuil, keeper of the treafure,
arrived almoft the fame inftant, and oppofed his pre-
tenfions; telling him, that the treafure belonged to his
elder brother, who was now his fovereign, and for whom
he was determined to keep it. But Henry, drawing
his fword, threatened him with inftant death if he dared
to difobey him; and others of the late king’s retinue,
who came every moment to Winchefter, joining the
prince’s party, he was obliged to defift. Henry loft
no time in fully accompliftiing his purpofe. In lefs than
three days he got himfelf crowned king of England,
by Maurice bifhop of London. Prefent poflefiion fup-
plied every deficiency of title; and no one dared to ap-
99 pear in defence of the abfent prince.
His charter The beginning of king Henry’s reig$ promifed to
in favour of favourable to the Englilh liberty; owing chiefly to
tiepeope. £ear 0p f,rot},eri Tq conciliate the affec¬
tions of his fubjeds, he paffed a charter calculated to
remove many of the grievous oppreffions which had
been complained of during the reigns of his father and
brother. Fie promifed, that, at the death of any ab¬
bot or biftiop, he never would feize the revenues of the
fee or abbey during the vacancy, but would leave the
whole to be reaped by the fucccffor; and that he would
never let to farm any ecclefiaftical benefice, or difpofe
of it for money. To the laity he promifed, that, up¬
on the death of any earl, baron, or military tenant, his
heir Ihould be admitted to the poffeflion of his eftate,
on paying a juft and lawful relief; without being ex-
pofed to thofe enormous exadions which had been England, i |
formerly required. He remitted the wardftiip of mi- ; *■
nors; and allowed guardians to be appointed, who
fhould be anfwerable for the truft. He promifed not
to difpofe of any heirefs in marriage but by advice of
all the barons; and if any baron intended to give his
daughter, After, niece, or kinfwoman, in marriage, it
ihould only be neceflary for him to confult the king,
who promifed to take no money for his confent, nor
ever to refufe permifiion, unlefs the perfon to whom it
was propofed to marry her ihould happen to be his
enemy. He granted his barons and military tenants
the power 0/ bequeathing by will their money or per-
fonal eftates; and if they negle6ted to make a will, he
promifed that their heirs ihould fucceed to them. He
renounced the right of impofing moneyage, and of le¬
vying taxes at pleafure, on the farms which the barons
kept in their own hands. He made fome general pro-
feflions of moderating fines; he offered a pardon for all
offences; and remitted all debts due to the crown.
He alfo required, that the vaflals of the barons ftould
enjoy the fame privileges which he granted to his own
barons; and he promifed a general confirmation and
obfervance of the laws of king Edward *. To give *See Feudal h
greater authenticity to thefe concefiions, a copy of the Syftem.
charter was lodged in fome abbey of each county.
King Henry, farther to increafe his popularity, de¬
graded and committed to prifon Ralph Flambard bi¬
ftiop of Durham, who had been the chief inftrument of
oppreflion under his brother. He fent for Anfelm
who was then at Lyons, inviting him to return and IOO ]
take poffeflion of his dignities. Anfelm returned; but Quarrels
when Henry propofed to him to do the fame homage with the 'i
to him which he had done to his brother, the king met P«mate-
with an abfolute refufal. During his exile, Anfelm
had aflifted at the council of Bari; where, befides fixing
the controverfy between the Greek and Latin churches
concerning the proceffion of the Holy Ghoft, the right
of ele&ion to church-preferments was declared to be¬
long to the clergy alone, and fpiritual cenfures were
denounced againft all eeclefiaftics who did homage to
laymen for their fees or benefices, and on all laymen
who exacted it. The rite of homagef by the feudal fSeeFeodal l
cuftoms was, that the vaffal fhould throw himfelf on Tenure.
his knees, put his joined hands between thofe of his
fuperior, and fhould in that pofture fwear fealty to
him. But the council declared it execrable, that pure
hands, which could create God, and offer him up for
the falvation of mankind, fhould be put, after this hu¬
miliating manner, between profane hands, which, be¬
fides being inured to rapine and bloodfhed, were em¬
ployed day and night in impure purpofes and obfeene
conta&s. To this decree therefore Anfelm appealed;
and declared, that fo far from doing homage for his
fpiritual dignity, he would not even communicate with
any ecclefiaftic who paid that fubmiflion, or who ac¬
cepted of inveftitures from laymen. Henry durft not
infill; and therefore defired that the controverfy might
be fufpended, and that meffengers might be fent to
Rome to accommodate matters with the Pope, and to
obtain his confirmation of the laws and cuftoms of
England.
Henry now took another ftep which feemed capable
of confirming his claims to the crown without any dan¬
ger of a rival. The Englifh remembered with regret
their
ENG f 2757 ] ENG
FrgWtl their Saxon monarchs, when they compared the liberty
| "they enjoyed under them with the tyranny of the Nor¬
mans. Some defeendante of that favourite line ftill
remained 5 and among the reft, Matilda, the niece of
Edgar Atheling. Upon her the king fixed his eyes as
a proper confort, by whofe means the breach between
the Saxons and Normans might be cemented. A diffi¬
culty, however, occurred, becaufe fhe had been educa¬
ted in a nunnery. The affair was examined by An-
felm in a council of prelates and nobles fummoned at
Lambeth. Matilda there proved, that fhe had put on
the veil, not with a defign of entering into a religious
life, but merely in imitation of a cuftom familiar to
the Englifh ladies, who protected their chaftity from
the brutal violence of the Normans by taking fhelter
under that habit, which amidft the horrid licentioufnefs
of the times was yet generally revered. The council,
fenfible that even a princefs had otherwife no fecurity
ioi for her honour, admitted this reafon as valid. They
He marries pronounced that Matilda was ftill free to marry; and
Matilda. her nuptials with Henry were celebrated by Anfelm
with great folemnity and pomp.
While Henry was thus rendering himfelf popular at
i tni home, his brother Robert, who had loitered away a
] Crown of twelvemonth in Italy, where he married Sibylla daugh-
England ter of the count of Converfana, arrived in England,
Robert1^ I,OI» in or^er to Pllt *n ^ate an<^ ineffedhial
claim to the crown. His fame, however, on account of
the exploits he had performed in Paleftine, was fo great,
that even yet he was joined by many noblemen of the
firft rank, and the whole nation feemed prepofTeffed in his
favour. But Henry, having paid his court to Anfelm, by
his means retained the army in his interefts, and march¬
ed with them to Portfmouth, where Robert had landed
his forces a few days before. The armies lay for fome
time in fight of each other; when an accommodation
was effefted through the mediation of Anfelm and
other great men. By this treaty it was agreed, that
Robert fhould refign his pretenfions to England, and
receive in lieu of them an annual penfion of 3000 marks;
that if either of the princes died without iffue, the o-
ther ftiould fucceed to his dominions; that the adhe¬
rents of each ffiould be pardoned, and reftored to all
their pofieffions either in Normandy or England ; and
that neither Robert nor Henry fhould thenceforth en¬
courage, receive, or protect, the enemies of each other.
The two princes feparated with mutual marks of
friendfhip; but next year, Henry, under various pre¬
tences confifcated the eftates of almoft all the noble¬
men who had favoured his brother’s pretenfions. Ro¬
bert, enraged at /the fate of his friends, ventured to
come to England in order to remonftrate with his bro¬
ther in perfon. But he met with fuch a bad reception,
that, apprehending his liberty to be in danger, he was
I *93 t0 ma^e e^caPe ky refigning his penfion.
II Normandy This infringement of the treaty was followed the
(invadedby enfuing year by an invafion of Normandy, at the de-
Henry. fire 0f Robert’s own fubjefts, whom he was totally in-
| • See capable of governing *. The event of this war was
| tnanAj. the defeat and captivity of Robert, who was hence¬
forth deprived not only of all his dominions, but of his
perfonal liberty. He lived 28 years a prifoner, and died
in the caftle of Cardiff in Glamorganfhire. It is even
faid by fome, that he was deprived of his fight by a red-
hot copper-bafon applied -to his eyes, and that king
Vol. IV.
Henry appealed his confcience by founding the mona* England,
fiery of Reading.
The conqueft of Normandy was completed in 1006 ;
and next year the controverfy between the king and
primate, concerning the inveflitures of clergymen and
their doing homage to princes, was refumed. The king
was very fenlible that it was not his intereft to quarrel
with fuch a powerful body as the clergy were at that
time; and on the other hand he fully underltood the
neceffity of guarding the prerogatives of the crown 104
from their encroachments. While, therefore, he avoid-
ed an open rupture with Anfelm, he obftinately refu- pr\mjtc*
fed to give up the privileges which had been enjoyed 1
by his predecefibrs. On the firft arrival of Anfelm, the
king had avoided the difpute in the manner already
mentioned. A meflenger was difpatched to Rome, in
order to compromife matters with the Pope. The mef-
fenger returned with an abfolute refufal of the king’s
demands. One of the reafons given by the pope on
this occafion, was expreffed in the following wordsi
“ It is monftrous that a fon fhould pretend to beget
his father, or a man to create his God: priefts are call¬
ed gods in feripture, as being the vicars of God: and
will you, by your abominable pretenfions to grant them
their inveftiture, affume the right of creating them ?’*
Henry was not yet convinced; but as he was deter¬
mined to avoid, or at lead to delay, the coming to any
dangerous extremity with the church, he perfuaded
Anfelm, that by farther negociation he fhould be able
to compound matters with the Pope. Meffengers were
therefore difpatched to Rome a fecond time from the
king; and alfo from Anfeim, who wanted to be fully
affured of the pope’s intentions. They returned with
letters wrote in the moft arrogant and pofitive manner,
both to the king and primate. The king fupprefled
the letter fent to himfelf; and perfuaded the three bi-
fhops, by whom it was fent, to aftert, upon their epif-
copal faith, that the pope had affured them of his pri¬
vate good intentions towards king Henry, and of his
refolution not to refent any future exertion of his pre¬
rogative in granting inveftitures; though he himfelf
fcrupled to give this affurance under his hand, left o-
ther princes fhould copy the example and aflume a like
privilege. Anfelm’s two meffengers, who were monks,
affirmed that it was impoffible this ftory could have
any foundation: but their word was not deemed equi¬
valent to that of three bifhops; and the king, as if he
had finally gained his caufe, proceeded to fill the fees
of Hereford and Salifbury, and to inveft the new bi¬
fhops in the ufual manner. Anfelm, however, gave no
credit to the ^ffertions of the king’s meffengers 5 and
therefore refufed not only to confecrate them, but even
to communicate with them; and the bifhops them-
felves, finding they were become univerfally odious,
returned the enfigns of their fpiritual dignity.
The quarrel continued between the king and pri¬
mate, till the latter, fenfible of his dangerous fituation,
defired leave to make a journey to Rome, in order to
lay the cafe before the pope. This permiffion was
eafily obtained; but no fooner was the primate gone,
than Henry confifcated all his revenues, and fent ano¬
ther meffenger to negotiate with the pope. The new
meffenger told his holinefs, that his mailer would foon¬
er part with his crown than the right of granting in¬
veftitures. “ And I, (replied the pope), would ra-
16 A ther
England.
Tos
Prince Wil'
liamdro wn-
ed.
ENG [ 2758 ] ENG
ther lofe my head than allow him to retain it.” This
quarrel now became very dangerous to the king; as he
was threatened by the pope with excommunication,
which would have been attended with terrible confe-
quences. At laft, however, a compromiie was made in
the following manner. Before bilhops took poffeffion
of their dignities, they had formerly been accuHomed to
pafs through two ceremonials: They received, from the
hands of the fovereign, a ring and crofier as the fym-
bols of their office, and this was called their invejii-
ture : they alfo made thofe fubmiffions to the prince,
which were required of the vaffals by the rites of the
feudal law, and which received the name of homage.
The pope, therefore, was for the prefent contented with
Henry’s refigning his right of granting inveftitures,
by which the fpiritual dignity was fuppofed to be con¬
ferred; and he allowed the bifhops to do homage for
their temporal properties and privileges. After this, the
pope allowed Anfelm to communicate with the pre¬
lates who had already received invellitures from the
crown; and he only required of them fome fubmiffions
for their pall conduft. He alfp granted to Anfelm a
plenary power of remedying every diforder, which he
laid might arife from the barbaroufnefs of the coun¬
try. About the fame time, the marriage of priefts was
prohibited; and even laymen were not allowed to marry
within the feventh degree of affinity. By this contri¬
vance the pope augmented the profits which he reaped
from granting difpenfations, and likewife thofe from
divorces. For, as the art of writing was then rare,
and parilh-regifters were not regularly kept, it was not
eafy to afcertain the degrees of affinity even among
people of rank; and any man who had money to pay
for it, might obtain a divorce, on pretence that his
wife was more nearly related to him than was permit¬
ted by the canons. A decree was alfo publifhed, pro¬
hibiting the clergy to wear long hair; and the king,
though he would not refign his prerogatives to the
church, very willingly cut his hair in the form which
was required of him, obliging all the courtiers at the
fame time to follow his example.
From the time of this compromife, which happened
in iioy, to the year 1120, nothing remarkable hap¬
pened except fome flight commotions in Normandy:
but this year, prince William, the king’s only fon, was
. unfortunately drowned off the coaft of Normandy; and
■ Henry was fo much affe&ed, that he is faid never af¬
terwards to have fmiled, or recovered his wonted cheer-
fulnefs. It is very doubtful, however, whether the
death of this prince was not an advantage to the Bri-
tifh nation, fince he was often heard to exprefs the ut-
molt hatred to the natives; infomuch that he had
threatened, that,, when he came to the throne, he would
make them draw the plough, and would turn them in¬
to beafts of burden. Thefe prepofleffions he inherited
from his father; who, though he was wont, when it
might ferve his purpofes, to value himfelf on his birth
as a native of England, (hewed, in the courfe of his
government, an extreme prejudice againft; that people.
All hopes of preferment to eccleflaftical as well as civil
dignities were denied to the Englifh during this whole
reign; and any foreigner, however ignorant or worth-
lefs, was fure to have the preference in every compe¬
tition. The charter formerly mentioned, which the
king granted at the beginning of his reign, was no
more thought of; and the whole fell fo much into ne* England.'
gleft arid oblivion, that in the following century, when ——
the barons, who had heard an obfcure tradition of it,
defired to make it the model of the great charter which
they exadted from king John, they could only find one
copy of it in the whole kingdom; while the grievances,
propofed to be redreffed by it, continued ftill in their
full extent.
As Henry had now no legitimate children except
Matilda, whom in in o, he had betrothed, though only
eight years of age, to the emperor of Germany, he
was induced to marry a fecond time in hopes of ha¬
ving fons. He made his addrdTes accordingly to A-
delais the daughter of Godfrey duke of Lovaine, and
niece to popdvCalixtus; a young princefs of an amiable
perfon. But Adelais brought him no children: and
in 1135, the king died in Normandy, from eating too Death of
plentifully of lampreys; having lived 67 years, and King Heu*ft
reigned 35. x1’
eigned 35. _ _
By the will of king Henry, his daughter Matilda
became heirefs of all his dominions. She had been
married, after her firft huflaand’s death, to Geoffrey
Plantagenet eldeft fon of the count of Anjou, by whom
(he had a fon named Henry; but as Geoffrey had gi¬
ven umbrage to the king of England in feveral in-
ftances, no notice was taken of him in the will. The
nobility had already fwarn fealty to her; and the fore-
moft to (hew this mark of fubmiffion to the king’s will
had been Stephen, Ton of the count of Blois (who had
married Adela the daughter of William the Conqueror.)
He had been married to Matilda daughter and heirefs
of Euttace count of Boulogne; who brought him,
befides that feudal fovereignty of France, a valt pro¬
perty in England, which in the dUbibution of lands
had been conferred by the conqueror on the family
of Boulogne. By this marriage Stephen acquired a
new connexion with the royal family of England: for
Mary, his wife’s mother, was filler to David the prefent
king of Scotland, and to Matilda the firft wife of Hen¬
ry and mother of the emprefs. The king alfo, ima¬
gining that by the aggrandizement of Stephen he
ftrengthened the intereft of his own family, Jtad enrich¬
ed him with many poffeffions ; but, inftead of this, it
appeared by the event that he had only put it more and
more in his power to ufurp the throne. roy
No fooner was Henry dead, than Stephen haftened Stephen 1
from Normandy into England. The citizens of Dover and fi'rps tht
Canterbury, apprized of his purrpofe, (hut their gates t^r0Ke•
againft him; but when he arrived at London, fome of
the lower clafs of people, inftigated by his emiffaries,
immediately proclaimed him king. The archbiftiop of
Canterbury refufed to give him the royal unction; but
this difficulty was got over by Stephen’s brother the
bifliop of Winchefter. Hugh Bigod, fteward of the
houfehold, made oath before the primate, that the late
king, on his death-bed, had difcovered a diffatisfa&ion
with his daughter Matilda, and had exprefi’ed his in¬
tention of leaving the count of Boulogne heir to all his
dominions; and the bifliop, either believing, or pretend¬
ing to believe, this teftimony, gave Stephen the royal
un£lion. Very few of the nobility attended his coro¬
nation ; but none oppofed his ufurpation, however un¬
juft or flagrant.
Stephen, in order to eftablifh himfelf on the throne
as firmly as poffible, pafled a charter, in which he
_ . n^ade
ENG [ 2759 ] ENG
Ei'gUnd. made'liberal promifes to all ranks of men. To the
” clergy he promifed, that he would fpeedily fill all the
vacant benefices, and never would levy any of the rents
during the vacancy. To the nobility he gave liberty
to hunt in their own forells; and to the people he pro-
mifed to remit the tax of danegelt, and to reftore the
laws of Edward the Confeflbr. He feized the king’s
treafure at Winchefter, amounting to 100,000 pounds;
with part of which money he hired mercenary foldiers
from the continent; and with another part procured a
bull from the Pope, confirming his title to the Englifh
throne.
Matilda, in the mean time, endeavoured to recover
her juft rights of which Stephen had deprived her; but
for fome time (he met with no fuccefs either in Eng¬
land or Normandy. Her. hufband Geoffrey himfelf
was obliged to conclude a pehce with Stephen, on con¬
dition of the king’s paying him during that time an an¬
nual penfion of 5000 pounds. .
Robert earl of Glocefter was the firfl who (hook the
power of Stephen. Pie was natural fon to the late
king; a man of great honour and ability, and was
very much attached to the interefts of Matilda. When
Stephen ufurped the throne, he offered to do him ho¬
mage, and take the oath of fealty ; but with an ex-
prefs condition, that the king fhould maintain all his
ftipulations, and never invade any of Robert’s rights or
dignities. With this condition Stephen was obliged
to comply, on occoun.t of the great power of that no¬
bleman, tho’ he knew that it was meant only to afford
him a favourable opportunity of revolting when occa-
fion ferved. The clergy imitated Robert’s example;
and annexed to their oath of allegiance the following
condition, namely, that they were only bound as long
jo8 as the king defended the ecclefiaftical liberties, and
Diftrafted fupported the difcipliue of the church. The barons,
ftateof the in return for their fubmiffion, exafted terms.of ftill
kingdom, more pernicious tendency. Many of them required to
have the right of fortifying their caftles, and putting
themfelves in a pofture of defence ; and with this exor¬
bitant demand the king was forced to comply. All
England was immediately filled with thefe fortref-
fes; which the noblemen garrifoned either with their
vaffals, or with licentious foldiers, who flocked to
them from all quarters.. The whole kingdom now be¬
came a fcene of rapine and devaftation. Wars were
carried on by the nobles in every quarter; the barons
even affumed the right of coining money, and of ex-
ercifing, without appeal, every ail of jurifdidtion ; and
the inferior gentry, as well as the people, finding no
defence from the laws, during this total diflblution of
fovereign authority, were obliged, for their immediate
fafety, to pay court to fome neighbouring chieftain,
and to purchafe his prote&iop,,both by fubmitting to
his exa&ions, and by affilling him in his rapine upon
others.
In 1137, the earl of Glocefter having projedled an
infurreftion, retired beyond fea, fent the king a defi¬
ance, and folemnly renounced his allegiance. The next
year David king of Scotland appeared with an army in
defence of his niece’s title; and, penetrating into
Yorkfhire, committed the greateft devaftations. He
was defeated, however, with great flaughter, at North¬
allerton, by fome of the northern barons, who had rai¬
led a powerful army ; and this fuccefs fo much overaw¬
ed the malecontents in England, that Stephen’s power England,
might have received fome (lability, had he not unfor*
tunately engaged himfclf in a conteft with the clergy.
He had already feen the mifchief arifing from the liber¬
ty he had granted of fortifying fo many caftles in diffe¬
rent parts of the kingdom. He therefore determined
to abridge this liberty as much as poffible ; and for that
purpofe he began with the caftles erefted by the cler¬
gy, who feemed to have lefs right to thefe military fe-
curities than the barons. Taking advantage there¬
fore of a fray which had arifen at court between the re¬
tinue of the biftfop of Salifbury and the earl of Brit¬
tany, he feized the bifhops both of Salifbury and Lin¬
coln, threw them into prifon, and obliged them to
deliver up the caftles which they had lately eredtedi
This produced fuch a violent commotion, that the op¬
portunity feemed favourable to the pretenfions of Ma- ,oS
tilda. On the zzd of September 1139, (he landed in Matilda
England with Robert earl of Glocefter, attended only lands *n
by 140 knights; but her partizans daily increafed, En£lan<**
and (he was foon in a condition to face Stephen with
equal forces,in the field. Numberlefs encounters hap¬
pened, the detail of which could afford very little en¬
tertainment to the readep War was fpread through
every quarter ; and the turbulent barons having, in a
great meafure, fhaken off all reftraint of government,
and now obtained the fanftion of fighting in the caufe
of their country, redoubled their oppreflions, tyrannies,
and devaftations. The caftles of the nobility became
receptacles of licenfed robbers; who, fallying forth day
and night, fpoiled the open country, plundered the
villages, and even cities. They tortured the captives
to make them reveal their treafures ; fold their perfons
to flavery; and fet fire to the houfes, after they had pil¬
laged them of every thing valuable. In confequence of
this deftrudtion, the land was left untilled; the inftru-
ments of hufbandry were abandoned; and a grievous
faming reduced the nation to the moft deplorable ftate
that can be imagined.
After a multitude of indecifive confli&s, a battle
ehfued which feemed likely to enfure the public peace l6g
for fome time. Stephen had marched his forces to re- Stephen de-
lieve the city of Lincoln ; the earl of Glocefter led a fL'ated at;d
body of troops to aflift thofe of Matilda’s party, who pri*
were befieging that place. The two armies engaged
on the 2d. of February within fight of the city, and a
defperate battle enfued. At lait Stephen’s army was
defeated. He himfelf was for fome time left without
attendants; and fought on foot in the midft of his ene¬
mies, afiaulted by multitudes, and refilling all their
efforts with aftonifhing intrepidity. Being hemmed in
on every fide, he forced a way for fome time with his
battle-ax; but that breaking, he drew his fword, and
with it furioufly affailed his antagonifts for fome time
longer. But at length the fword alfo flying in pieces,
he was obliged to furrender himfelf a prifoner. He was
condudled to Glocefter ; and tho’ at firft treated with
refpecl, he was in a (hort time, Upon fome fufpicions,
thrown into irons. Tio
About a month after, Matilda was crowned at Win- Matilda
chefter with great folemnity ; but foon (hewed herfelf 1 wned.
totally incapable of governing fuch a turbulent nation.
She determined to reprefs the power of the nobles, who
had now left only the fhadow of authority to their fo¬
vereign. But, being deftitute of policy or prudence
16 A 2 fuffi-
ENG [ 2760 ] ENG
England, fufficfent to accomplilh fo difficult an undertaking, a
confpiracy was foon formed againft her, and thebiihop
ofWinchefter detached a party of his friends and vaf-
fals to block up the city of London where the queen
refided. • At the fame time meafures were taken to in-
ftigate the Londoners to a revolt, and to feize the
queen’s perfon. Matilda, having timely notice of this
confpiracy, fled to Winchefter. Here flie was foon
after befieged by the bilhop: but, the town being di-
ftrefied by famine, flie with difficulty made herefcape;
while her brother the earl of Glocefter, endeavouring
to follow, was taken prifoner, and exchanged for
jir Stephen.
Stephen re- Matilda was now obliged to take flie!ter in Oxford,
ftored. while Stephen reafeended the throne. The civil war
broke out with redoubled fury. Many battles were
fought, and both parties were involved in many di-
ftrefles. Matilda efcaped from Oxford at a time when
the fields were covered with fnow, by being drefled all
in white, with four knights her attendants drtfied in
the fame colour. Another time Stephen was furprifed
by the earl of Glocefter at Wilton, and made his e-
fcape with the utmoft difficulty. At laft Matilda was
obliged to quit the kingdom ; and the death of the earl
of Glocefter foon after feemed to give a fatal blow to
her interefts. In 1153, however, prince Henry, Ma¬
tilda’s fon by her fecond hufband Geoffrey, came
over to England, in order once more to difpute Ste¬
phen’s pretenfions to the crown. After fome fuccefs
on his firft landing, he was oppofed by Stephen with
a powerful army, and matters feemed likely to come
to the decifion of a general engagement. But while
the two armies continued within a quarter of a mile of
each other, a treaty was fet on foot by the interpofition
of William earl of Arundel, for terminating the difpute
kt an amicable manner. The death of Eultace, Ste¬
phen’s fon, whom he had defigned for the throne, which
happened during the courfe of the treaty, facilitated
its conclufion. It was agreed, that Stephen ftiould
reign during his life, and that juftice ftiould be admi-
niftered in his name; that Henry, on Stephen’s death,
fhould fucceed to the kingdom ; and that William,
Stephen’s fon, ftiould inherit Boulogne and his pa¬
trimonial eftate. This treaty filled all Europe with
joy ; and after the barons bad fworn to it, Henry left
tn England, and Stephen returned to the peaceable enjoy-
His death, ment of his throne. His reign, however, was but
of fhort continuance; his death happening on the 25th
of O&ober 1154.
Henry was on the continent befieging acaftle of one
of the mutinous barons, when news was brought him
of Stephen’s death. But, as he was fenfible of the
goodnefs of his title, he did not abandon his enterprize
till the place was reduced. He then fet out on his
H3 journey, and was received in England with the utmoft
Henry 11. joy. The firft atfts of his reign feemed to promife an
happy and profperous adminiftration. He inftantly
difmiffed the mercenary foldiers who had committed
the greateft diforders throughout the nation. He or¬
dered all the caftles which had been ere&ed fince the
death of Henry I. to be demoliftied, except a few
which he retained in his own hands for the prote&ion
of the kingdom. The adulterated coin which had been
ftruek during the reign of Stephen was cried down,
and new money ftruck of the right value and ftandard.
He refumed many of thofe benefactions which had been England,
made to churches and monafteries in the former reigns.
He gave charters to feveral towns, by which the citi¬
zens claimed their freedom and privileges independent
of any fuperior but himfelf. Thefe charters were the
ground-work of the Englifti liberty ; for thus a new
order, namely, the more opulent of the people, began
to claim a fhare in the adminiftration, as well as the no¬
bility and clergy. Thus the feudal government was at
firft impaired ; and liberty began to be more equally
diffufed throughout the nation.
Henry II. on his acceflion to the Britifti throne,
found himfelf poffeffed of very extenfive dominions on
the continent. In the right of his father, he poffeffed
Anjou, Touraine, and Maine; in that of his mother,
Normandy ; in that of his wife, Guienne, Poi&ou,
Xaintogne, Auvergne, Perigord, Angouonois, and
the Limoufin. Soon after, he annexed Brittany to
his other ftates, by marrying his fon, who was yet
a child, to the heirefs of Brittany, who was a child
alfo, and was already in poffeffion of the fuperiority
over that province. Thefe territories eompofed above
a third of the French monarchy, and were by far the
moil opulent part of it; fo that Henry, though vaf-
fal to the king of France, was greatly fuperior to him
in power: and when England was added to all thefe,
the French king had great reafon to apprehend fome
difafter to himlelf and family. The king of England,
however, refided at too great a diftance to be able to
employ this formidable power with fuccefs againft the
French monarch. He foon became a kind of ftranger
in his continental dominions ; and bis fubjefts there
confidered their allegiance as more naturally due to
their fuperior lord, who lived in their neighbourhood,
and who was acknowledged to be the fupreme head of
their nation. Their immediate lord was often at too - i
great a diftanee to prated them; and a commotion in
any part of Henry’s extenfive dominions gave great
advantages againft him. The wife and vigorous ad¬
miniftration of Henry, however, counterbalanced in a
great meafure thefe difadvantages; and he maintained
a furprifing tranquillity throughout his extenfive do¬
minions during the greateft part of his reign.
Henry found no great difficulty in circumfcribing
the power of the barons ; but when he attempted to do
the fame thing with the clergy, he met with the moft
violent oppofition. That body had carried their inde¬
pendence on the civil power fo far, that now they
feemed to aim at nothing lefs than a liberty to commit
all manner of crimes with impunity. During the
reign of Stephen, they had extorted an immunity from
all but ecclefiaftical penalties*; and that grant they *e^tee0f?S^
were refolved to maintain for the future. It may ea- 'clergy. ]
fily be fuppofed, that a law which thus fereened their 114
wickednefs, contributed to increafe it; and we accord- Monftrons;
ingly find upon record, not lefs than too murders
committed by men in holy orders, in the fliort period tiecer£y,i
fince the king’s acceffion, not one of which was pu-
niftted even with degradation; while the bifliops them-
felves feemed to glory in this horrid indulgence. The
king did not make any attempts againft them during
the life of Theobald archbifhop of Canterbury, who
was a man of a mild charafter, and befides had great
merit, beeaufe, during the former reign, he had refil¬
led to put the crown on the head of Euftace, Stephen’s
fon.
ENG [ 2761 ] ENG
3 England, fon. He died in 1162; and the king, after his death,
* advanced to the fee of Canterbury Thomas a Becket,
his chancellor, on whofe compliance he thought he
might entirely depend.
Contents ^ new arcf1^i^°P was firft man of Englifli
of the king pedigree, who, fince the Norman conqueft, had rifen
with Tho-to any confiderable ftation. Before his inftalment in
mas a Bee- fee Qf Canterbury, Becket had been exceedingly
‘ et" complaifant, good-humoured, and agreeable to his
matter; and had alfo been accnftomed to live very
freely. But no fooner was he invefted with this high
dignity, than he totally altered his condudi, and put
on all thofe airs of affefted and oftentatious humility
which could recommend him to the fuperttitious and
ignorant multitude in that age. The firil ftep taken
by this hypocrite after his advancement, was to refign
the office of chancellor. This he did without con-
fulting the king: the reafon he gave was, that hence¬
forth he muft detach himfelf from fecular affairs, and
be folely employed in the duties of his facred funftion;
but in reality, that he might break off all connexion
with Henry. As he knew that the king intended to
abridge the ecclefiaftical power, he thought the beft
method would be to become himfelf the aggreffor.
He therefore fummoned the earl of Clare to furrender
the barony of Tunbridge; which, ever fince the Con-
queft, had remained in the family of that nobleman ;
but which, as it had formerly belonged to the fee of
1 f Canterbury, the primate pretended that his predecef-
fbrs were prohibited by the canons from alienating.—
William de Eynsford, a military tenant of the crown,
was patron of a living which belonged to a manor that
held of the archbifhop of Canterbury; and Becket,
without regard to William’s right, prefented, on a new
and illegal pretence, one Laurence to that living, who
was violently expelled by Eynsford. Upon this,
Eynsford was excommunicated. He complained to
the king, that he, who held in capite of the crown,
fhould, contrary to the practice eftablifhed by the Con¬
queror, and maintained ever fince by his fucceffors, be
fubjefted to that terrible fentence, without the previ¬
ous confent of the fovereign. Henry, by a meffenger,
commanded Becket to abfolve Eynsford. The haughty
primate anfwered, that it belonged not to the king to
inform him whom he fhould abfolve, and whom ex¬
communicate ; but,, after all, he was obliged to com¬
ply with the king's orders, though with the worft
grace imaginable.
As Henry perceived that the crown was now in dan¬
ger, through the fuperftition of the people, of falling
totally under the power of the clergy, he refolved to
exert himfdf to the utmoft againfl their fcandalous
ufurpations. Among their other inventions to obtain
money, they had now inculcated the neceffity of pe¬
nance as an atonement for fin; and having again in¬
troduced the pra&ice of paying them large Aims as an
equivalent for thefe penances, the fins of the people had
thus become a revenue to the priefts; and the king
computed, that, by this invention alone, they levied
tnore money from his fubjefts than what flowed by all
the funds and taxes into the royal exchequer. To eafe
the people of fo heavy.and arbitrary an fmpofition, the
king required,, that a. civil officer of his appointment
fhould be prefent in all ecclefiaftical courts, and fhould
for the future give his confcnt to every compofition
made for fpiritual offences.—About this time alfo the England,
king had an opportunity of proceeding againft the ‘
clergy on another footing. A clerk in Worcefter-
fhire, having debauched a gentleman’s daughter, mur¬
dered her father. The king required that the clerk
fhould be delivered up to the magiftrate. Becket
pleaded the privileges of the church; confined the cri¬
minal in the bifhop’s prifon, left he (hould be feized by
the king’s officers ; and maintained that no greater
punifhment could be infli&ed on him than degradation^
The king then required, that, immediately after he
was degraded, he (hould be tried by the civil powers ;
but the primate afferted, that it was iniquitous to try
a man twice upon the fame accufation, and for the fame
crime. Upon this, Henry fummoned an afiembly of
all the prelates in England; and put to them this de-
cifive queftion, Whether or not they were willing to
fubmit to the ancient laws and cuftoms of the king¬
dom? The bifhops unanimoufly replied, that they
were willing, faving their own order. The king was
provoked to the laft degree at this equivocal anfwer-
He left the affembly with evident marks of difpleafure;
and required the primate inftantly to furrender the
cattles of Eye and Berkham. The other prelates
were terrified; but Becket continued inflexible : how¬
ever, he was at laft prevailed upon, by the interpofi-
tion of Philip the pope’s legate and almoner, to retraft
the faving claufe, and promife without any referve to
obferve the ancient cuftoms.
The king was not now to be fatisfied with general
promifes from the clergy. He was determined that
the ancient laws and cuftoms fhould be defined, as well
as the privileges of the clergy. He therefore fum¬
moned another great council of the clergy and nobility
at Clarendon,, to whom he fubmitted this important
affair. A number of regulations was there drawn up,
which were afterwards well known by the title of the
Conjlitutions of Clarendon. By thefe it was enafted, .
that clergymen accufed of any crime fhould be tried in
the civil courts; that laymen fhould not be tried in
fpiritual courts, except by legal and reputable witnef-
fes; that the king fhould ultimately judge in ecclefi-
aftical and fpiritual appeals; that the archbifhops and
bifhops fhould be regarded as barons, and obliged to
contribute to the public expences like other perfons of
their rank; that the goods forfeited to the king, fhould
not be protefted in churches or church-yards by the
clergy ; and that the fons of villeins- fhould not take
orders without the cenfent of their lord. Thefe, with
fome others of lefs confequence, to the number of 16,,
were fubferibed by all the bifhops prefent, and even
by Becket himfelf; who, at firft, fhewed fome reluc¬
tance.
Nothing now remained but to get the conftitutions
ratified by the pope; but in this the king was difap-
pointed. The pope reje&ed them with the utmoft in¬
dignation ; and, out of 16, admitted only fix, which
he thought were not important enough to deferve cen-
fure.—Becket was now mortified to the higheft de¬
gree. He retraced his confent to the conftitutions,
redoubled his aufterities, and even refufed to execute
any part of his facerdotal fun&ion till he had obtained,
abfolution from his hplinefs. Henry, confidering thefe
humilities as infults offered to himfelf, defired the pope
to fend him a legate. He did fo ; but annexed a clanfe
to
Wf ' 4P
ENG [ 2762 ] ENG
Sngldnd. to his commiffion, by which he was prohibited from
ailing againd the archbifhop of Canterbury. The
king fent back the commiflion to the pope ; and being
now exafperated beyond all patience, commenced fu¬
rious profecutioris againll Becket. He firft fued him
for fome lands belonging to his primacy; and Becket
being detained by ficknefs from coming into court, his
non-attendance was conftrued into direfpedt. The
primate afterwards defended his caufe in perfon ; but
all his goods and chattels were confifcated, and the
bifhop of Winchefter was obliged to pronounce the
fentence; Another fuit was commenced againft him
for 300 pounds, which he had levied on the honours
of Eye and Berkham, and the primate agreed to give
fecurities for the payment of the fum. The next
day a third fuit was commenced againft him for
1000 marks, which the king had lent him upon fome
former occafion : and, immediately upon the back of
thefe, a ftill greater demand was made; namely, that
Becketi fhould give'an account of the money he had
received and expended during the time he was chan¬
cellor. The money was computed at no lefs than
40,000 marks; and the primate, unable either to give
an account, or find fecurities, took the following ex¬
traordinary method of evading the king’s defigns. He
arrayed hitnfelf in his epifcopal veftments; and, with
the crofs in his hand, went forward to the palace.
Having entered the royal apartments, he fat down,
holding up the crofs as his banner and protedlion.
The king, who fat in an inner apartment, ordered by
proclamation all the prelates and nobility to attend
him ; to whom he loudly complained of Becket’s in-
folence. The whole council joined in condemning this
inftance of his unaccountable pride ; and determined
to expoftulate with him about his inconfiftency con¬
cerning the conftitutions of Clarendon. But all their
meflages, threats, and arguments, were to no purpofe.
Becket put himfelf, in the moft folemn manner, under
the protedtion of the fupreme pontiff, and appealed to
116 him againft any penalty which his iniquitous judges
Becket flics might think proper to inflidl. Then, leaving the
itine'rn C°n" Pa'ace» ^ie a^ecl lhe king’s immediate permiflion to
quit Northampton ; but being refufed, he fecretly
withdrew in difguife, and at laft found means to crofs
over to the continent.
Becket was received with the greateft marks of
efteem, firft by the king of France, (who hated Henry
on account of his great power), and then by the pope,
whofe caufe he had fo ftrenuoufly defended in Eng¬
land. Henry at the fame time fent ambaffadors to the
pope, who were treated with coolnefs and contempt,
while Becket was honoured with the greateft marks of
diftin&ion. Thefe favours bellowed upon an exile
and a perjured traitor, (for fuch had been Becket’s
fentence of condemnation in England), irritated the
king to fuch a degree, that he refolved to throw off at
once all dependence upon the pope. He accordingly
iffued out orders to his jufticiaries; inhibiting, under
fevere penalties, all appeals to the pope or the arch-
bilhop; and forbidding any of them to receive man¬
dates from them, or to apply to their authority. Fie
declared it treafonable to bring over from either of them
any interdiA upon the kingdom. This he made pu-
nilhable in fecular clergymen by the lofs of their li¬
vings, and by caftration; in regulars, by the amputa¬
tion of their feet 5 and in laymen, by death. On the England,
other hand, the pope and the archbilhop did not fail to ^
iffue forth their fulminations in fuch a manner as to
lhake the very foundation of the king’s authority.
Becket excommunicated by name all the king’s chief
minifters who had been concerned in fequeftrating the
revenues of his fee, and all who obeyed or favoured the
conftitutions of Clarendon. He even threatened to
excommunicate the king if he did not fpeedily re¬
pent; and had not the pope himfelf been threatened
every day with the machinations of an antipope, whofe
pretenfions he was afraid the king of England might
fupport, the fentence of excommunication would cer¬
tainly have been denounced.
At firft, Henry paid little regard to thefe fulmina¬
tions; but afterwards, when he found that his autho¬
rity over his fubje&s began to decline on that account,
and that his rivals on the continent were endeavouring
to dilturb the tranquillity of his dominions, he began
fincerely to defire a reconciliation. This the pope and
Becket alfo became defirous of, becaufe they faw that
their utmoft endeavours were infulficient to draw Hen¬
ry’s fubje£ts into a revolt againft him. The treaty of
accommodation, however, was often broke off, through
the extreme jealoufy of each of the parties; but at
length, by the mediation of the pope’s legate, all dif¬
ferences were adjufted, and Becket was reinftated in the
fee of Canterbury.
On the recovery of his dignity, the primate behaved. Is rdtored^
with all his ufual arrogance. Inftead of retiring and behaves!
quietly to his diocefe when he landed in England, he jn
made a progrefs through Kent with all the fplendor in
and magnificence of a fovereign pontiff. As he ap¬
proached Southwark, the clergy, the laity, and all
ranks qf people, came forth to meet him, and celebra¬
ted his triumphal entry with hymns of joy. Being
thus confident of the fupport of the people, he refolved
to make his enemies feel the fevereft effe&s of his ven¬
geance. He fufpended the archbilhop of York, who
had crowned Henry’s eldeft fon in his abfence. He
excommunicated the bilhops of London and Salilbury,
with fome of the principal nobility and prelates who
had affifted at the coronation. One man-he excom¬
municated for having fpoken againft him, and another
for having cut off the tail of one of his horfes. The
excommunicated and degraded prelates immediately
made their complaints to the king; and he having
dropped fome paffionate expreffions intimating a defire
to have Becket’s life taken away, the fuppofed will of the
king was inftantly accomplilhed; nor could the king’s
exprefs orders to the contrary arrive time enough to
hinder the execution of this fatal purpofe *. *
The king was thrown into the utmoft confternation
on hearing of Becket’s murder. He knew that the Grief of th<
primate’s death would accomplilh what his moft vio- king for hii
lent oppofition during his life could never have done,
and therefore he gave himfelf up to forrow. For three
days he even refufed all nourilhment; till at laft his
courtiers were obliged to break in upon his folitude,
and induce him to acquiefce in an event which could
not poffibly be recalled. The pope was with fome
difficulty made fenfible of the king’s innocence; but
refufed to grant him a pardon, except on condition
that he ffiould make every future fubmiffion and per¬
form every injunftion the holy fee thought proper to
demand.
ENG [27
England, demand. When things were thus adjufted, the aflaf-
fins who had murdered Becket were allowed to retire
in fafety to the enjoyment of their former dignities;
and the king, with a view to divert the minds of the
people to a different obje&, undertook an expedition
land6 Ire' *nto ^re^anc^> and totally reduced that illandf.
The king was fcarce freed from the war with Ire-
Diffenfions ^an^’ anc^ t^ie dangerous controverfy which he had en-
in Henry’s gage<^ *n w«th the church of Rome, when he found
family. himfelf involved in the moft unnatural contefts with his
children, to whom he had always behaved in the moft
tender and affe&ionate manner. He had ordered
Henry his eldeft fon to be anointed king ; and had
deftined him for his fucceffor in the kingdom of Eng¬
land, the duchy of Normandy, and the counties of
Anjou, Maine, and Touraine ; territories which lay
contiguous, and which might thus eafily lend their
affiftance to one another. Richard his fecond fon
was invefted in the duchy of Guienne and county of
Poi&ou : Geoffrey, his third fon, inherited, in right
of his wife, the duchyttof Brittany : and the new con-
queft of Ireland was deftined for the appendage of
John his fourth fon, for whom he had negociated a
marriage with Adelais the only daughter of Humbert
count of Savoy and Maurienne; and with whom he
was to receive as a dowry, very conliderable demefnes
in Piedmont, Savoy, Breffe, and Dauphiny. This
greatnefs of Henry’s family alarmed the king of
France ; and he therefore excited young prince Henry
to demand of his father, either the immediate refigna-
tion of the crown of England, or the duchy of Nor¬
mandy. The king refufed to comply with fuch an ex¬
travagant demand ; upon which the prince made his e-
fcape to Paris, where he was prote&ed by the French
king. This happened in 1173 ; and the fame year,
queen Eleanor, finding that fhe was now grown very
difagreeable to the king, communicated her dilcontent
to her two younger children Geoffrey and Richard,
whom fhe engaged alfo to demand the territories af-
Queen E- figned them, and then fly to the court of France. The
kanor con- queen herfelf was meditating an efcape to the fame
fined. court, and had put on man’s apparel foe that purpofe,
when fhe was feized and confined by Henry’s order.
The licentious barons in the mean time wifhed for a
change of government; hoping to have liberty, under
young and unexperienced princes, to commit thofe ra¬
pines and violences which they could not do with fafety
when governed by fuch a prudent and vigilant king as
Henry. In the midft of this univerfal defedtion, however,
the Englifh monarch ftill retained his ufual intrepidity,
and prepared with as much vigour as pofiible for the
conteft. As he could depend on the fidelity of very
few of his nobility, he was obliged to enlift in his fer-
vice a number of defperate ruffians called Brabengons,
and fometimes Routiers or Cottgreaux, though for what
reafon is not mentioned in hiftory. Thefe banditti
were very numerous during the times of the feudal go¬
vernment, when many private wars were carried on
between the nobles ; and 20,000 of thefe, with a few
forces furnifhed by his faithful barons, compofed the
whole of Henry’s army on this occafion.
With this, force the king of England totally over¬
threw the fchemes of his enemies on the continent;;
but being very defirous of putting an end to theVar,
he this very year (1.173) agreed to a conference with
63 ] ENG
the king of France. At this interview, Henry offer- England;
ed his children the moft advantageous terms. He in-
fifted only on retaining the fovereign authority in all
his dominions. To Henry he offered half the revenues
of the crown of England, with feme places of furety
in that kingdom; or if he chofe rather to refide in Nor¬
mandy, half the revenues of that duchy, with all thofe
of Anjou. He made a like offer to Richard in Guien¬
ne ; he promifed to refign all Brittany to Geoffrey ;
and if thefe conceffions were not deemed fnfficient, he
agreed to add to them whatever the Pope’s legates, who
were prefent, ftiould require of him. The conference,
however, was broke off by the violence of the earl of
Leicefter; who not only reproached Henry in the moft
indecent manner, but even put his hand to his fword,
as if he intended to attempt feme violence againft
him.
In the mean time, the moft of the Englifh nobility uni¬
ted in oppofition againft their fovereign ; and an irrup¬
tion at this time by the king of Scotland affifted their
rebellious fchemes. The earl of Leicefterfoon after in¬
vaded Suffolk at the head of a body of Flemings; but they
were repulfed with great {laughter, and the earl himfelf
was taken prifoner. Soon after, William king of Scot¬
land, who had been repulfed, and agreed to a ceffation
of arms, broke the truce, and invaded England with an
army of 80,000 men, committing the moft terrible de-
vaftations. Henry in the mean time, to reconcile him¬
felf thoroughly to the church, performed the penances
at the tomb of Thomas a Becket, which he had for¬
merly promifed to do. As foon as he came within
fight of the church of Canterbury, he alighted from
his horfe, walked barefoot towards the town, and pro-
ftrated himfelf before the ffirine of the faint. He re¬
mained a whole day in prayer and fatting, watched the
holy relics all night, made a grant of 50 pounds a-year
to the convent for a conftant fupply of tapers to illu¬
minate the ftirine; and not fatisfied with thefe fub-
miffions, he affembled a chapter of monks, difrobed
himfelf before them, put a fcourge into each of their
hands, and prefented his bare (boulders to their Ilr
ftrokes. Next day he received abfolution ; and, de- King of
partino- for London, had the agreeable news of the de- Scotland
feat and captivity of William king of Scotland, which
happened on the very day of his abfolution. piifoner..
This vidtory proved decifive in Henry’s favour. The
Englifti barons who had revolted, or were preparing
for a revolt, inftantly delivered up their caftles to the
vi&or, and the kingdom was in a few weeks reftored
to.perfe<ft tranquillity. Prince Henry, who was ready
to embark with a great army to join the Englifh rebels,
abandoned all thoughts of the enterprize. boon after,
a treaty was concluded with the king of France ; in
which Henry granted his children much lefs advanta¬
geous terms than he had offered, them before. The
principal were fome penfidns for their fupport, caftles
for their relidence, and an indemnity to all their ad ¬
herents. The greateft fufferer by this war was Wil- llv
liam king of Scotland. He was compelled to fign a Owns him--
treaty, by which he obliged himfelf to do homage to feifHenry’s
Henry for the kingdom of Scotland. It was agreed,
that his barons and bifhops (hould do the fame; and
that the fortreffes of Edinburgh, Stirling, Berwick,
Roxburgh, and Jedburgh, (hould be delivered into
the hands of the conqueror, till the articles were perr
formed-
ENG [ 2764 ] ENG
, . This treaty was executed moft punctually
and rigoroufly on the 10th of Auguft 1175. The king,
barons, and prelates of Scotland, did homage to Hen¬
ry in the cathedral of York ; the greateft humiliation
123.(r to which the Scottifh nation had ever been fubje&ed.
fions 'in"" Henry was now freed from all troubles either at
Henry’s fa-^lome or ahroad, for five years; during which time he
rnily. made feveral falutary laws for the good of his king¬
dom. But, in 1180, the ambitious fpirits of his chil-
•dren involved him in frefit calamities. Richard, who
bad been inverted by his father with the fovereignty of
Ouienne, refufed to do homage to his elder brother,
as king Henry had required him to do. Young Henry
and Geoffrey, uniting their arms, invaded their bro¬
ther’s dominions ; and while the king was endeavour¬
ing to compofe their differences, he found himfelf con-'
fpired again ft by them all. The confpiracy, however,
was defeated by the death of prince Henry in 1183.
He had retired to Martel, a caftle near Turenne, where
he was feized with a fever; and perceiving the ap¬
proaches of death he was at laft llruck with remorfe
for his undirtifol behaviour towards his father. He
fent a meffcnger to the king, who was not far diftant;
expreffed his contrition for his faults ; and intreated
the favour of a vifit, that he might at leaft die with the
fatisfa&ion of having received his forgivenefs. The
king, who had fo often experienced his fon’s ingrati¬
tude and violence, apprehended that his fieknefs was
entirely a feint, and dared not truft himfelf in the
prince’s hands. But foon after, receiving certain in¬
telligence of his death, and proofs of his fincere re¬
pentance, the good old king was affe&ed with the
deepeft forrow. He thrice fainted away; he accufed
his own hard-heartedhefs in refufing the dying requett
of his fon ; and he lamented that he had deprived the
prince of the laft opportunity of making atonement for
his offences.
Prince Henry, who died in the 28th year of his age,
left no pollerity. His brother Richard fucceeded to
his dominions, and foon difcovered as turbulent a fpirit
as that which had aftuated his brother. He refufed
to give up Guienne, which Henry had defigned for his
fourth fon John; and even made preparations for car¬
rying on war againfli: his father, and brother Geoffrey.
Henry fent for Eleanor his queen, the heirefs of Gui¬
enne; to whom Richard, either dreading an infurre&ion
in her favour, or out of a fenfe of duty, willingly yielded
up the territory, and retired peaceably to his father’s
court. This breach, however, was no fooner made up,
than Geoffrey, demanded Anjou to be added to his do¬
minions in Brittany. This the king refufed; upon which
he fled to the court of France, and prepared to levy an
armyagainft his father. Henry, however, was freed from
the danger which threatened him from that quarter,
by his fon’s death, who was killed in a tournament at
Paris. The lofs of this prince gave few, except the
king himfelf, any uneafinefs; for he was univerfally
hated, and went among the people by the name of the
Child of Perdition. The widow of Geoffrey, foon af¬
ter his deceafe, was delivered of a fon, who received the
name oi Arthur, and was inverted in the duchy of Bri-
tany, under the guardianfhip of his grandfather, who,
as duke of Normandy, was alfo fuperior lord of that
territory. Philip, as lord paramount, difputed for fome
time his title to this wardfhip; but was obliged to
yield to the inclinations of the Bretons, who preferred England. ■
the government of Henry. Some other caufes infla-   
tned the diffenfion between thefe two monarchs, and
Philip once mdVe feduced Richard from his duty. He
infifted that his marriage with Adelais, Philip’s fifter,
fliould be immediately completed, and threatened to
enforce his pretenfions with a formidable army. This
occafioned another conference between Gifors and Trie,
the ufual place of meeting, under a vaft elm that is laid
to have (haded more than an acre. In the midft of
this conference the archbifhop of Tyre appeared before
the affembly in the moft miferable habit, and begged
afliftance againft the Infidels, who, under Saladin, had
almoft totally expelled the Chriltians from Afia. His
intelligence appeared fo very difmal, that the kings of
France and England laid afide their animofity. Both
of them immediately took the crofs; but Richard, who
had long wiftied to have all the glory of fuch an expe¬
dition to himfelf, could not bear to have even his father
for a partner in his vi&ories. He therefore entered into
a confederacy with the king of France; fo that Henry
found himfelf at laft obliged to give up all thoughts of
the crufade, in order to defend himfelf againft this un¬
natural combination. The event of the war proved
-very unfortunate for Henry, who loft feveral towns, and
narrowly efcaped falling into the hands of the enemy
himfelf. At laft a treaty was concluded at the inter-
ceffion of the duke of Burgundy, the count of Flan¬
ders, and the archbifhop of Rheims; but upon terms
very humiliating to the king of England. It was a-
greed, that Richard fhould marry the princefs Adelais,
and be crowned king of England during the lifetime
of his father; that Henry fhould pay 20,000 marks to
the king of France, as a compenfation for the charges
of the war; that his own barons fhould engage to
make him obferve this treaty, and, in cafe of viola¬
ting it, to join Philip and Richard againft him; and
that all his vaffals who had efpoufed the caufe of Richard
fhould receive an indemnity for their offence. Thefe
terms, mortifying as they were, Henry bore with
patience; but when, upon receiving a lift of the ba- 114 j
rons that were to be pardoned, he found his own fon His ex- !
John, who was his favourite, among them, he could trcIn?
no longer fupport his grief. He broke out into the an eat * ’
moft lamentable expreffions of defpair; curfed the day
in which he received his miferable being; and beftow-
ed on his ungrateful children a malediftion which he
could never afterwards be prevailed upon to retraft.
Soon after, he fell into a lingering fever occafioned by
his grief; and of this he died on the 6th of July 1189,
in the 58th year of his age and 35th of his reign. His
natural fon Geoffrey, who alone had behaved dutifully
towards him, attended his corpfe to the nunnery of
Fontevrault, where it lay in ftate in the abbey-church.
Next day Richard, who came to vifit the dead body of
his father, was ftruck with horror at the fight. At his
approach, the blood was feen to gufh out at the mouth
and noftrils of the corpfe ; and this accident was, by
the fuperftition of the times, interpreted as the moit
dreadful rebuke. Richard could not endure the fight.
He exclaimed that he was his father’s murderer; and
and expreffed a ftrong, though too late, fenfe of his
undutiful conduft. 11S
Richard fucceeded to the throne without oppofi- Richard 1,1
tion, immediately after his father’s death; and, on his
ac-
ENG
[
England, acceffion, fet his mother Eleanor (who had been a-
l? gain confined) at liberty. A romantic defire for
flrange adventures, and an immoderate zeal for the
external rites of religion, were the ruling pafiions
of the times. By the firft of thefe Richard was
inflamed to the higheft: degree, and therefore be¬
haved as if the whole defign of his government bad
been to attempt the recovery of the Holy Land from
the Infidels. The fuperftition of the people fliowed it-
< felf in a moft violent and tragical manner on the very
Maffacre of day of the king’s coronation. The Jews were the ob-
the Jews. jefts Gf univerfal hatred, fo that Richard had iflued
out orders forbidding any of them from appearing at
his coronation. But fome of them bringing him large
prefents from their nation, prefumed, notwithftanding
thefe orders, to approach the hall in which the king
dined. Being difcovered, they were expofed to the
infults and injuries of the byftanders; in confequence of
which they fled, and were purfued by the people. A
report was fpread, that the king had given orders to
maflacre all the Jews. This fuppofed command was
executed in the moft cruel manner. Multitudes were
flaughtered in the city of London, and this example
was followed in moft of the cities in England. Five
hundred Jews had retired into York caftle for fafety :
but finding themfelves unable to defend the place, they
murdered their wives and children; threw the dead bo¬
dies over the wall againft their enemies who attempted
to fcale it; and then, fetting fire to the houfes, pe-
riihed in the flames. The gentry in the neighbour¬
hood, who were all indebted to the Jews, ran to the
cathedral where their bonds were kept, and made a
I47 folemn bonefire of them before the altar.
SUchaifl’s Richard immediately began to take meafures for his
ttrepara- expedition into Paleftine. His father had left him
ttions for his xoo,ooo merks; and this fum he augmented by all ex-
io'paleftine. Pedients he could think of, however pernicious to the
public, or dangerous to the royal authority. He fet
up to fale the revenues and manors of the crown, and
feveral offices of the greateft truft and power. Liber¬
ties, charters, caftles, were given to the beft bidders.
His friends warned him of the danger attending this
venality ; but he told them he would fell the city of
London itfelf, if he could find a purchafer. Nume¬
rous exaftions were alfo praflifed upon all ranks and
Rations; menaces, promifes, and expoftulations, were
ufed to fright the timid, and allure the avaricious. A
zealous preacher of thofe times was emboldened to re-
monftrate againft the king’s condudl; and advifedhim
to part with his three daughters, which were pride, a-
varice, and fenfuality. To this Richard readily re¬
plied, You counfel right, my friend ; and I have al¬
ready provided hulbands for them all. I will difpofe of
my pride to the templars; my avarice to the monks;
and as for my fenfuality, the clergy lhall fhare that a-
mong them.” At length the king having got toge¬
ther a fufficient fupply for his undertaking, and
even fold his fuperiofity over Scotland for a mode¬
rate fum, fet' out for the Holy Land ; whither he
was impelled by repeated meflages from the king of
France, who was ready to embark in the fame enter-
prife.
An account of Richard’s exploits in this expedition
is given under the articles Egypt, Sicily, Cyprus,
&c.—Having at laft concluded a truce with Saladin,
Vol. IV.
,6s ] ENG
he fet out on his return for England. Fie was, how- England,
ever, at a lofs how to proceed. He durft not return
by the way he came, as this would put him in the
power of the king of France, between whom and the
king of England an irreconcileable enmity had taken
place. No way therefore was left, but by going more to
the north ; for which reafon he took flapping for Italy,
but was wrecked near Aquileia. From thence he tra¬
velled towards Ragufa, and refolved to make his way ia8
through Germany in the habit of a pilgrim. But his Taken pri-
expences and liberalities having betrayed him not-foner on his
withftanding this difguife, he was arrefted by LeoppldJ'elurn-
duke of Auftria, who commanded him to be loaded*
with ftiackles. This prince had ferved under Richard
at the fiege of Acres, (the ancient Ptolemais) where ;,
having received fome difguft, he took this bafe me¬
thod of revenging himfelf. Henry VI. emperor of
Germany, was then equally an enemy to Richard on
account of his having married Berengaria the daughter
ofTancred king of Sicily. He therefore required the
royal captive to be delivered up to him, and ftipulated
a large fum of money to the duke as a reward for his
fervice.
The kingdom of England in the mean time was in
great confuiion. Richard had left it under the direc¬
tion of Hugh biftiop of Durham, and Longchamp bi-
fhop of Ely. The tempers of thefe prelates being
very different, an animofity between them foon take
place. Longchamp at laft arrefted his colleague, and
obliged him to refign his power in order to obtain his
liberty. The king, by many letters, commanded
Longchamp to replace his coadjutor, but to no pur-
pofe. When the fituation of the king became uncer¬
tain, Longchamp tyrannized to fuch a degree, that
John the king’s brother thought proper to oppofe
him. He then left the kingdom; and upon this the
archbilhop of Rouen was made judiciary in his room.
The king of France being informed of thefe diffen-
fions, drove to increafe them as much as poffible; and
had even almoft prevailed upon John to throw off his
allegiance, by promifing to put him in poffeffion of all
Richard’s continental dominions. ,25
When the Englifti firft received the news of Ri- Treachery
chard’s captivity, a general indignation was excited tIie
through the whole nation. The greateft, and a^rn°ftt^g^S ^r°*
the only traitor in th£ kingdom, was the king’s own
brother John. On the very firft invitation from the
court of France, he went abroad ; and held a conful-
tation with Philip, the object of which was the perpe¬
tual ruin and captivity of his unhappy brother. He
promifed to deliver into Philip’s hands a great part of
Normandy; and, in return, he received the invefti-
ture of all Richard’s tranfmarine dominions: it is.even
faid, that he did homage to the French king for the
crown of England.
In confequence of this treaty, Philip invaded Nor¬
mandy, and made confiderable progrefs in the conqueft
of it. He was, however, at laft repulfed by the earl of
Leicefter, who was now returned from the Holy Land;
and a truce was concluded on condition of paying the
French king 20,000 merks, and putting four caftlts
into his hands by way of fecurity for the payment.—
John, who had come over to England, met with ftill lefs
fuccefs in his enterprifes. He was only able to make
himfelf mafter of the caftles of Windfor and Walling-
16 B ford j
ENG [ 2766 ]
ENG
England, ford ; but when he came to London, and demanded the
kingdom as heir to his brother, of whofe death he pre¬
tended to have received certain intelligence, he was re-
jefked by all the barons, and meaCures were taken to
oppofe and fubdue him. The defence of the kingdom
was fo well provided for, that John, after fome fruit-
lefs efforts, was obliged to conclude a truce with his op¬
ponents; and, before the expiration of it, he thought
proper to retire to France, where he openly acknow¬
ledged his alliance with Philip.
All the efforts of Richard’s enemies proved ineffec¬
tual to detain him in captivity. He was brought be¬
fore the diet of the empire at Worms, where the em¬
peror Henry brought againft him a charge of many
crimes and mifdemeanors : but to this the king replied
with fo much fpirit and eloquence, that the German
princes exclaimed loudly againft the conduct of the
emperor ; the Pope threatened him with excommuni¬
cation ; and Henry, who had hearkened to the propo-
fals of the king of France and prince John, found that
it would be impoffible for him to execute his and their
bafe purpofes, and detain the king of England any
longer in captivity. He therefore concluded a treaty
with him for his ranfom; and agreed to reftore him to
his liberty for 150,000 merks, about L. 300,000 of
our money, of which 100,000 merks were to be paid
immediately, and 67 hoftages delivered for the re-
T30 mainder.
Richard re- The money for the king’s ranfom was moft cheer-
captivh™"1 ra’fed ^7 the Englifh. The churches and mona-
y" fteries melted down their plate to the amount of
30,006 merks; the bifhops, abbots, and monks, paid
a fourth part of their yearly rent; the parochial clergy
contributed a tenth part of their tythes; and the requi-
fite fum being thus collefted, queen Eleanor and Wal¬
ter archbifhop of Rouen fet out with it for Germa¬
ny, paid the money to the emperor and duke of Au-
Itria at Mentz, delivered them hoftages for the re¬
mainder, and freed Richard from his captivity. His
efcape was very critical. Henry had been detefted in the
affaffination of the bifhopof Liege, and in an attempt
of the like nature on the duke of Louvaine ; and find¬
ing himfelf extremely obnoxious to the German princes
on account of thefe odious praftices, he had determi¬
ned to feek fupport from an alliance with the French
king, and to detain Richard in perpetual captivity,
notwithftanding the fum he had already received for
his ranfom. He therefore gave orders that Richard
fhould be purfued and arrefted ; but the king making
all imaginable hafte, had already embarked at the
mouth of the Schelde, and was out of fight of land
when the emperor’s melfengers reached Antwerp. The
king of France no fooner heard of Richard’s delive¬
rance, than he wrote to John his confederate in thefe
terms: “ Take care of yourfelf: the devil is broke
r3I loofe.”
Returns to The king of England returned from captivity on
England, the 2oth of March 1194, and was received with the
utmoft joy by his fubje&s. He had been but one day
landed, when his treacherous brother John came to
make his fubmiffion. At the interceffion of queen E-
leanor he was received into favour. “ I forgive him,
(faid the king), and hope I fhall as eafily forget his
offences as he will my pardon.” Richard was impa-
lient to revenge himfelf on the king of France, and
therefore inftantly made war upon him. But though England,
both kings were inflamed with the moft violent refent- ”*
ment againft each other, they found it impolfible to
engage their powerful barons heartily in their caufe.
The war, therefore, produced no remarkable event;
and, in H95, was concluded by a truce for five years.
On fome flight occafion it was ready to break out a-
new, when the pope’s legate interpofed, and a treaty
was about to be concluded. King Richard in the
mean time was wounded by an arrow at the fiege of
Chains, a caftle of Limpges. The wound was not in
itfelf dangerous; but being unfkilfully treated, a mor-
tification enfued, and the king expired on the 6th of His death. :
April 1199, in the 10th year of his reign and 43d of
his age. By his will he left the kingdom to his bro¬
ther John, but diftributed a fourth part of his treafure
among his fervants. |
John fucceeded to the crown of England without John fuc- f
oppofition, but foon found his affairs embarraffed on ceeds to the
the continent. The king of France, who, during the crown- |
life of king Richard, had always fupported the pre-
tenfions of John, now gave a like fupport to the claims
of prince Arthur the fon of Geoffrey, who, though
only 12 years of age, promifed to be deferving of the
kingdom. But in this matter the king of France (hew¬
ed fo much regard to his own intereft, that Conftantia
the mother of the young prince, thinking that her
ally defigned to keep for himfelf the provinces which
he pretended to conquer for Arthur, fubmitted herfelf
and her fon to John, who detained them in Mans; and
thus became undifputed mafter of the whole Britifh
empire. ,34
The new king was weak, tyrannical, cruel, and His bad
treacherous. In Ihort, he feemed to be endowed with tlual‘ties*
almoft every bad quality that can fall to the (hare of
man. His conduift, therefore, foon rendered him u-
niverfally odious. Imagining himfelf now fecure on
the fide of France, he indulged his paffion for Ifabella
the daughter and heirefs of the count of Angouleme,
with whom he was much enamoured. His queen, the
heirefs of the family of Glocefler, was ftill alive; and
Ifabella was married to the count de la Marche, tho’,
by reafon of her youth, the marriage had,not been con-
fummated. John perfuaded the count de Angouleme
to carry off his daughter from her hulband ; at the
fame time that he procured, under fome pretence or
other, a divorce from the queen. Thus he incurred
the difpleafure of the pope, and alfo of the count de
la Marche, and a powerful confederacy was formed a-
gainft him.
As John had neither courage nor policy fufficient to
keep his barons in awe, he took a method for that
purpofe equally bafe and cruel. This was by hiring
a fet of ruffians, whom he called his champioru, to fight
duels with them, in cafes where they required to clear
themfelves from any charge by fighting a duel, ac¬
cording to the cuftom of thofe times. Thus he propo-
fed to get rid of his refraftory barons; but they, de-
fpifing opponents who were fo far below their rank,
refufed to fight with them, and a dangerous combina¬
tion was formed among the barons againft him. jjj j
The murder of prince Arthur rendered John ft ill MurdershitJ
more generally detefted. The young prince with his nephew. I
mother had fled to the court of France, where they were
received with the greateft kindnefs, and found their in-
terefts
ENG
jlarul. terefts more vi'goroully fupported than before. Their
enterprifes were attended with .confiderable fuccefs,
when Arthur himfelf had the misfortune to be taken
prifoner. All the other captives w'ere fent to England;
but the prince was ihut up in the caftle of Falaife, and
from that time was never heard of. It was nniverfally
believed that John had murdered him with Ms own hand;
and this inflamed the general refentment againlt him
to fuch a degree, that he foon after lolt all his French
[ 2767 ]
ENG
fwore by God's teeth, (his ufual oath), that if the king¬
dom was put under an interdidl, he would bani/h tie
whole body of the clergy, and confifcate all their pof-
fefiions. The pope at laft, finding he might do it
with fafety, iffued forth this terrible fentence fo much
dreaded by the whole nation. A itop was immedi¬
ately put to divine fervice, and the adminifiration pf
all the facraments except baptifm. The church-doors
were (hut, and the images of the faints laid on the
provinces. In 1205, the duchy of Normandy itfelf ground. The dead were refufed Chriltian burial; and
s alfo conquered by Philip, and John was forced to
fly with difgrace to England.
The king was refolved to wreak his vengeance upon
the barons, who, he pretended, had deferted his ftand-
ard in Normandy. For this reafon, he levied large
fums on their eftates; in order, as he faid, to undertake
an expedition to the continent. This expedition, how¬
ever, he feveral times capricioufly deferred; and once
having ventured out to fea, returned again without ma¬
king the fmalldt attempt. At laft, he landed at Ro¬
chelle, and burnt the city of Angers; but hearing
that the enemy were preparing to oppofe him, he re¬
turned without attempting any thing elfe.
This irrefolute and cowardly behaviour of John made
him contemptible in the eyes of his fubjefts ; but the
Norman princes had fo far extended the prerogatives
of the Englifh crown, that the barons, however difcon-
36 tented, durft not yet attempt to change the form of go-
conteft vernment, John, by entering into a controverfy with the
1 e church, completed his ruin. The clergy, who for fome
time had adted as a community totally independent of
the civil power, had their eleftions of each other gene¬
rally confirmed by the pope, to whom alone they owned
fubjeftion. The eleftion of archbifhops, however, had
been a fubjedt of continual difpute between the fuffragan
bifhops and the Anguftine monks. In the mean time
the archbifhop of Canterbury died; and the Auguftine
monks, in a very private manner, defied Reginald, their
fuperior, in his place. The bifhops exclaimed againft
this eledlion, as a manifeft innovation of their privileges;
and a furious theological conteft was- likely to enfue.
John very imprudently took a fide in this controverfy,
and efpoufed the caufe of the fuffragan bilhops; in con-
fequence of which, John de Grey bilhop of Norwich
was chofen. The caufe was appealed to Rome; and
pope Innocent III. feizing with avidity an opportunity
of extending his power, commanded the monks to
choofe cardinal Stephen Langton, an Englifhman,
then at the court of Rome. The being able to nomi¬
nate an archbiftiop of Canterbury, (a perfon of almoft
equal authority with the king) was an acquifition that
would dfedlually give the court of Rome an unlimited
authority over England. John therefore was refolved
not to fubmit to this impofition; but he had not judg¬
ment fufficient to conduft him. He violently expelled
the monks from their convent, and fcized upon their
revenues. The pope, perceiving from this abfurd con-
dufl, that John was unequal to the talk he had under¬
taken, after fome intreaties, threatened to put the
whole kingdom under an interdifl. The prelates threw
themfelves on their knees before the king, and in the
moft earneft manner intreated him to avoid the refent¬
ment of the holy tribunal, by receiving the primate,
and reftoring the monks to their convent. John, how¬
ever, broke out into the moft violent inveftives. He
were thrown into ditches and on the highways, with¬
out any funeral folemnity. Marriage was celebrated
in the church-yards, and the people prohibited the ufe
of meat as in times of public penance. They were de¬
barred from all pleafure ; even from lhaving their
beards, faluting each other, or paying any regard to
their apparel. The clergy deplored the unhappy Hate
of the nation in the moft lamentable manner ; while
John, in revenge, imprifoned all their concubines; and
treated the adherents of Langton with the utmoft ri¬
gour.
The furious and imprudent efforts of John proved
totally ineffectual. He had fcarce a friend left in the
whole nation; and therefore, in 1209, the pope de¬
nounced a fentence of excommunication againft him¬
felf. This was foon followed by another ftill more
terrible; namely, the abfolving all the fubjeCts of the
king of England from their allegiance, and declaring
every one to be excommunicated who had any com¬
merce with him at his table, council, or even in private
converfation. The king, rendered quite furious by
thefe repeated indignities, wreaked his vengeance on
his unhappy fubje&s, whofe affeCtions he ought rather
to have attempted to conciliate. The pope, therefore,
proceeded to execute the full meafure of his wrath on
this devoted prince, by giving away his kingdom to
Philip of France. He publifhed a crufade all over Eu¬
rope againft king John ; exhorting the nobility, the
knights, and men of every condition, to take up arms
againft him, and enlift under the French banner. Phi¬
lip was not lefs adlive on his part. He fummoned all
the vaffals of the crown to attend him at Rouen ; and
having colledled a fleet of 1700 veffels, was ready, in
1213, to invade England.
The pope had now overftretched his power; and
had the Englilh nation been governed by a prince of
any degree of prudence or refolution, the power of the
clergy would in all probability have been totally bro¬
ken. The people, however fuperftitious and ready to
obey in matters of religion, could not tamely fubmit
to be given away by the pope as flaves from one ma¬
iler to another; and therefore this confideration, added
to the natural antipathy fubfifting between the French
and Englifti, put John, notwithftanding all his offences,
at the head of an army of 60,000 men. But the pope
was too great a politician to fuffer matters to be car¬
ried to extremities. He promifed himfelf many more
advantages from the fubmiflion of John, than from an
alliance with Philip; and therefore came over in’per-
fon, or, according to fome, fent over his legate, to
England, under pretence of conferring with the ba¬
rons, but in reality to hold a conference with John.
He there reprefented to this forlorn prince, the num¬
bers of the enemy, the hatred of his own fubjedls, and
the fecret confederacy there was againft him in Eng-
16 B 2 land.
The king-
laid under
an iaterdift.
138
The king
excommu¬
nicated, and
the king¬
dom given
to Philip of
France.
ENG [ 2768 ] ENG
England, land. He intimated, that there was but one way to
ft cure him from the impending danger; namely, to put
himfelf under the protedtion of the pope, who was a
merciful father, and ftill willing to receive a repenting
fmner. The abjedt and irrefolute fpirit of John fub-
mitted to this laft piece of arrogance, and he took an
oath to obey whatever the pope (hould command. In
confequence of this oath, he took another, the moft ex¬
traordinary mentioned in the records of hidory ; and
which, as it was taken while he commanded an army
of 60,000 men, difcovers a meannefs of fpirit almoit
15!) incredible. The terms impofed by it were exprefled
John’s fub- in the following words. “ I John, by the grace of
miffion to God king of England and lord of Ireland, in order to
the pope. eXpiate my fins, from my own free will, and the advice
of my barons, give to the church of Rome, to pope
Innocent and his fucceffors, the kingdom of England,
and all other prerogatives of my crown. I will here¬
after hold them as the pope’s vaffal, I will be faithful
to God, to the church of Rome, to the pope my mafter,
and his fucceifors legitimately cle&ed. I promile to
pay him a tribute of 1000 merks; to wit, 700 for the
kingdom of England, and 300 for the kingdom of
Ireland.”
This oath was taken by the king before all the peo¬
ple, kneeling, and with his hands held up between
thofe of the legate. Having then agreed to reinftate
Eangton in the primacy, he received the crown which
be had been fuppofed to have forfeited; while the le¬
gate, to add to his fonener infolence, trampled under
his feet the tribute which John had confented to pay.
.r—The king of France was enraged at this behaviour
of the pope; and refolved to execute his projeift of con¬
quering England, in fpite of him and all his cenfures.
His fleet, however, was attacked in their harbours by
the Englilh, who took 300 veffels, and deftroyed about
100 more; while Philip, finding it impofiible to pre¬
vent the reft from falling into the hands of the enemy,
fet fire to them himfelf, and thus was obliged to give
up all hopes of fuccefs.
140 John being thus freed from all danger, continued to
The barons follow the fame cruel and tyrannical meafures which
attempt to had hitherto rendered him odious to hisfubjects. His
reduce the ftandalous fubje&ion to the clergy, now gave the ba-
dveTof the rons an °PPortun‘ty of exerting themfelves, in order to
crown. reduce the enormous prerogatives of the crown. Their
defigns were greatly facilitated by the concurrence of
Eangton the primate, who on all ■ occafions ihewed a
fincere regard for the interefts of the kingdom. At a
fynod of his prelates and clergy, convened in St Paul’s,
on pretence of examining into the lofles of fome bifhops
who had been exiled by John, he privately conferred
with a number of barons, to whom he expatiated upon
the vices and injuftice of their fovereign. He fhewed
them a copy of Henry the firft’s charter; (being the
only one in the kingdom, and which had been buried in
therubbiihof an obfcure monaftery). Langton exhorted
the.barons .to infill on a renewal of it, and this they fo-
lenjnly fwore to perform. The fame agreement was af¬
terwards renewed at a more numerous meeting of ba¬
rons fum'moned by Langton at St Edmondfbury. Here
it was .refolved, that at Chriftmas they would prefer
their common petition in a body ; and in the mean time
they feparated with a defign to put themfelves in a po-
ilure of defence, enlilt men, and. fortify their caftles.
'lii fhf-beginning of January 1215, they repaired to
London, accoutred in their military garb and equi¬
page, and prefented their petition to the king, alleging
that he had promifed to grant a confirmation of the
laws of Edward the Confeffor, at the time he was
abfolved from his excommunication. John refented
their prefumption; and required a promife under their
hands and feals, that they would never demand, or at¬
tempt to extort, fuch privileges for the future. This
they refufed with fuch unanimity and refolution, that
the king defired time to confider of their demands!
He promifed, that, at the feftival of Eafter, he would
give a pofifive anfwer to their petition ; and offered
them the archbilhop of Canterbury, the bilhop of Ely,
and the earl marefchal, as fureties for fulfilling his en-
accepted of his fecurities, and departed
peaceably; but John had no defign of complying with
their defires. He had recourfe to the clergy, whofe
power he had feen and felt in fo many in fiances. He
courted their favour, by granting them, a charter efta-
blifliing all thofe rights of which they were already in
the poffeffion, and which he now pretended to confirm
when he had not the liberty to refufe. To ingratiate
himfelf ftill farther with this body; he took the crofs,
and appealed to the pope againft the ufurpation of the
barons. The pope wrote letters to England, reproach¬
ing the primate and bifhops with favouring thefe dif-
fenfions; and commanded them to promote peace be¬
tween the two parties. He exhorted the barons to
conciliate the king, not with menaces, but'with humble
intreaties; and promifed, upon their obedience, to in-
terpofe his own authority in favour of fuch of their pe¬
titions as he fhould find to be juft. At the fame time
he annulled their affociation, and forbad them to enter
into any confederacy for the future.
The barons paid no regard to the pope’s remon-
ftrances; knowing that the fulminations of the court
of Rome would be of little avail, unlefs they were fe-*
conded by the clergy of England. After waiting till
Eafter, when the king promifed to return them an
anfwer, they met by agreement at Stamford. There
they affembled a force of above 2000 knights, and a
prodigious number of foot. Thence they marched to-
Brackley, about 15 miles from Oxford, the place where
the court then refided. John, hearing of their ap¬
proach, fent the archbifhop of Canterbury, the earl of
Pembroke, and others of his council, to know the par¬
ticulars of their requeft, and what thofe liberties were
which they fo much importuned him to grant. The
barons delivered a fchedule containing the chief articles
of their demands, founded on the charters of Henry and
Edward; but which were in the higheft degree dif-
pftafing to the king. He burft into a furious paflion,
allied the barons why they did not alfo demand his
kingdom, and fwore that he would never comply with
fuch exorbitant demands. The confederates then
chofe Robert Fitzwalter for their general; whom they
dignified with the title of “ Marefchal of the army
of God and of the holy church.” They laid fiege to
Northampton, took Bedford, and were joyfully re¬
ceived into London. They wrote letters to all the
nobility and gentry who had not yet declared in their
favour, threatening • their eftates with devaftation ia
cafe of refufal or delay.
gagements.
The barons
ENG [ 2769 ] ENG
In the mean time the king was left at a pl«pe*ffaflecl
Odiham in Surrey, attended only by feven knights.
He vainly endeavoured to avert the Itorm-by the me¬
diation of his bifliops and minifters. He appealed to
Langton againit the barons, not fufpedting that he
was engaged in the confederacy ; and defned him to
fulminate the church-cenfvires againft thdfe who had
made war upon their lawful prince. Langton'declared
that he would pafs no cenfure where he found no de¬
linquent ; but faid, that much might be done if the
king would difmifs fome foreign auxiliaries which he
had lately brought over. Upon this John difbanded
a great body of Germans and Flemings whom he had
hitherto retained in his fervice, and Langton; refufed
to excommunicate a fingle baron. The king, being
now quite defencelefs, was obliged at lart; to comply
with the demands of his- fubje&s. A conference was
accordingly appointed, and all things were adjulted for
this moll important treaty.
force . T.he king’s commifftoners met the barons at a place
called Runbnede, between Staines andJ Windfor; and
which is yet.held in reverence as the fpot where the
ftandard of freedom was firll eredted in England. Here
the king figned the charter called Magna Charta;
which continues in force to this day, and is Hill re¬
garded as the great bulwark of Britilh liberty. See
Magna Charta.
But tho* John had thus obliged himfeIf, by writing,
to allow liberty to his fubjedts, lie had no mind that they
fhould enjoy.it in reality. The fenfe of his fubjedtion
to his own vaffals funk.deep in his mind. He became
fullen, filent, and referved. He Ihunned the fociety
of his former friends; and retired into the Ifle of Wight;
14l as if to hide his difgrace in folitude; but, in reality, ito
raifes an meditate revenge agaihft the barons. He fent to the
a- continent to enlilt a large body of mercenary troops;
and made complaints to the pope of the infurredtionS
of the barons againft him. The pontiff very warmly
efpoufed his caufe; a bull was fent over, annulling
the whole charter; and at the fame time the foreign
troops arriving, the king once more found himfelf in a
condition to demand his own terms from his fubjedls.
The barons had made no preparations for war, not
fufpedting the introdudlion of a foreign army. The
Itingy therefore, was for fome time undifputed mafter
of the field, and the mod horrid cruelties were com¬
mitted by his army. The barons being totally unable
to raife an army capable of contending with that of
43- John, applied to their old enemy Philip of France, of-
king- fering to acknowledge his eldeft fon Lewis for their
offeredfoveinetgB> on condition of his protedling them.from the
French fur7 of John and his mercenaries. The French king
sfon. accepted their propofal with joy; and twenty-five ho-
ftages which he demanded being fent over, began to
make the moft diligent preparations for this expedi¬
tion, regardlefs of the menaces of the pope, who
threatened him with excommunication, and a&ually
excommunicated his fon Lewis fome time after.
The firft troops who . came to the affiftance of the
barons, were only a body of 7000 men ; but, Toon
after, Lewis with a powerful army landed at • Sand¬
wich. The firft. effeft of this invafion was, that moft
of John’s foreign troops deferted, refufing to ferve
. againft the. heir of their monarchy. Many cp.nfiderable
noblemen alfo deferted hjs caufe, aftd Lewis daily gain¬
ed ground. This prince advanced to London, where England,
the barons and burghers did him homage, and took
the oath of allegiance, after he had fworn to confirm
the liberties and privileges of the people. His impru¬
dence, however, in preferring on all occafions his French
fubjecls to the Englifti, foon excited a jealoufy againft
him, which proved very prejudicial to his caufe. This
jealoufy was greatly increaled by the death-bed con-
teflion of the count de Melun, one of his courtiers, who
declared to thofe about him, that it was Lewis’s de¬
sign to exterminate the Englilh barons as traitors,
and to, beftow their dignities and eftates upon his
French fubjedts, on whofe fidelity he could more fafe-
ly rely. This caufed a conliderable defection among
Lewis’s party; fo that John once more found himfelf
in a condition to make an effort for his crown. He
refolved to penetrate into the heart of the kingdom;
and, for this purpofe, he departed from Lynn, and
took the road towards Lincolnlhire at the head of a
great body of troops. His road lay along the fttore,
which was overflowed at high water ; but the king,
not being apprifed of this, or being ignorant of the
tides of the place, loft all his carriages, treafure, and
baggage by their influx. He himfelf efcaped with the
utmoft difficulty, and arrived at the abbey of Swin-
ftead ; where his grief forthelofs hehadfuftained, and
the diftraffed ftate of his affairs, threw him into a
fever, which foon appeared to be attended with fatal I44
fymptoms. He died at Newark in the year 1216, the Death of
51ft of his age, and 1.8th of his reign. He left two king John*,
legitimate fons: Henry, who fucceeded him on the
throne, and was now about nine years of age; and
Richard, who was about feven. He left alfo three
daughters; Jane, married to Alexander king of Scot¬
land; Eleanor, married to the earl of Pembroke; and
Ifabella, married to the emperor Frederic II.
When John died, the earl of Pembroke was mare-
fchal of England. By this office he was at the head
of the army, and of confequence, in times of fuch tur¬
bulence, at the head of the ftate. He was a noble¬
man of great honour and fidelity, and had continued
faithful to John in hisgreateft reverfes of fortune. He
now determined to fupport the authority of the infant
prince Henry; and therefore carried him immediately
to Gloucefter, where the ceremony of coronation was
performed, in the prefence of Gualo the legate and a
very few noblemen, by the bilhops of Winchefter and I4J
Bath. The young prince was obliged to fwear fealty Henry IF.
to the pope, and renew the homage which his father
had done for the kingdom ; after which the earl of
Pembroke was chofen protestor.
Till the king arrived at the years of maturity, the
tranfadlions of his reign can only be qonfidcred as thfc
confequences of the difpofition of his tutors. Pem¬
broke caufed him grant a new charter of liberties, He grants
confiding of the conceffions extorted from John, with new char-
fome alterations; and the next year it was renewed,ters*
with the addition of fome other articles. Thus thefe
famous charters were brought very nearly to the ftiape
in which they have ever fince flood; and they were,
during many generations, efteemed the moft facred
rampart to , national liberty and independence. As
they fecured the rights of all orders of men, they were
anxioufly defended by all, and became in a manner the
bafis of the Englilh monarchy, and a kind of original
contradl,.
England.
>47
Decline of
prince
Lewis’s
ipaity.
ENG [ 2770 ]
ENG
contraft, which both limited the authority of the king,
and enfured the conditional allegiance of his fubje&s.
Though often violated, they were ftill claimed and re¬
called by the nobility and people ; and as no prece¬
dents were fuppofed valid that infringed them, they
rather acquired, than loft, authority, from the frequent
attempts made againft them, in feveral ages, by regal
and arbitrary power.
Thefe charters were made ufe of by Pembroke as ar¬
guments to draw off the malecontent barons from their
allegiance to Lewis. He reprefented to them, that,
whatever jealoufy they might have entertained againft
the late king, a young prince, the lineal heir of their
ancient monarchs had now fucceeded to the throne,
without fucceeding either to the refentments or prin¬
ciples of his predeceffor: That the defperate expedi¬
ent, which they had employed, of calling in a foreign
potentate, had, happily for them, as well as for the na¬
tion, failed of entire fuccefs; and it was ftill in their
power, !hy a quick return to their duty, to reftore the
independence of the kingdom, and to fecure that li¬
berty for which they lb zealoufly contended: That, as
all paft offences of the barons were now buried in obli¬
vion, they ought, on their part, to forget their com¬
plaints againft their late fovereign ; who, if he had
been any wife blameable in hisconduft, had left to his
fon the falutary warning to avoid his paths, which had
led to fuch fatal extremities : And that, having now
obtained a charter for their liberties, it was their in-
tereft to (hew, by their conduit, that that acquifition
was not incompatible with their allegiance; and that
the rights of the king and people, fo far from being
hoftile and oppofite, might mutually fupport and fu-
ftain each other.
Thefe eonfiderations, enforced by Pembroke’s known
charafter of conftancy and fidelity, had a very great
influence on the barons. Moft of them began to ne-
gociate with him, and many actually returned to their
duty. At the fame time Lewis continued to difguft
thofe of his own party by the preference which he vi-
fibly gave to the French. Though he went over to
France, therefore, and brought frelh fuccours from
thence, he found that his party was greatly weaker
than before, by the defertion of his Englilh confede¬
rates ; and that the death of king John had, contrary
to his expeifations, occafioned the total ruin of his af¬
fairs. In a Ihort time Pembroke was fo much ftrength-
ened by deferters from Lewis’s party, that he ventu¬
red to inveft Mount-Sorel ; though upon the approach
of the count de Perche with the French army, he de-
fifted from that enterprife. The French general im¬
mediately marched to Lincoln; and, being admitted
into the town, laid fiege to the caftle, and foon redu¬
ced it to extremity. Pembroke fummoned his forces
from every quarter, in order to relieve this important
place; and he appeared fo much fuperior to the
French, that they (hut themfelves up within the city,
refolving to take Ihelter there. But the garrifon of the
caftle having received a ftrong reinforcement, made a
vigorous fally upon the befiegers, while the Englilh
army aflaulted them from without. The French army
was totally routed ; the count de Perche with only
two perfons more were killed ; but many of the chief
commanders, and about 400 knights, were made pri-
foners. On the news of this fatal event, Lewis raifed
the fiege of Dover, and retired to London ; where he England,
received intelligence of a new difafter, which put an ’*"*
end to all his hopes. A French fleet, which carried
a ftrong reinforcement, had appeared on the coaft of
Kent; where they were attacked and repulfed with
confiderable lofs, by Philip D’Albiney. He is faid to
have gained the vidlory by the following ftratagem.
Having got the wind of the French, he came down
upon them with violence ; and throwing on their faces
a great quantity of quicklime, which he purpofelycar-
ried on board, they were fo blinded that they were
difabled from defending themfelves. This misfortune
fo difeouraged the barons who yet adhered to Lewis,
that they halted from every quarter to make their fub-
miffion to Pembroke ; and Lewis himfelf, finding his
affairs totally defperate, was glad to make his efcape
from a country where every thing was become hoftile >4?
to him. He therefore concluded a peace with the Pro- tIe le.ave.s
tedlcr; promifed to evacuate the kingdom; and only ^em inS*
ftipulated in return, an indemnity to his adherents, and
a reftitution of their honours and fortunes, together
with the free and equal enjoyment of thofe liberties
which had been granted to the reft of the nation.
When the king grew up, he was found to be very
unfit for the government of fuch a turbulent people as
the Englilh at that time were. Though his temper
was mild and humane, he was alfo very weak, fickle,
and irrefolute. He difgufted the people by the caref-
fes he bellowed on foreigners ; and this dilguft rofe
once to fuch a height, that the barons refufed to af-
femble in the general council of the nation, or parlia¬
ment, at his defire. When commanded to do fo, they
fent a meffage to Henry, defiring him to difmifs his fo¬
reigners ; otherwife they would drive both him and
them out of the kingdom, and put the crown on the
head of one who was more worthy to wear it. The
facility of Henry’s temper alfo induced him to heap
riches upon his foreign favourites in a manner which
he could by no means afford: this often brought him
into very great ftraits; and to relieve himfelf, he
was obliged to have recourfe to many arbitrary mea-
fures, which he would not otherwife have chofen. No¬
thing, however, of very great moment happened till I4S)
the year 1255, when the Pope found means to embark The pope
Henry in a fcheme for the conqueft of Naples, or Si- undertakes,;
cily on this fide the Fare, as it was called ; an enterprize .
which not only brought much dilhonour on the king, g^iy °or ;
but involved him for fome years in very great expence Henry’s j
and trouble. The court of Rome fome time before fon.
had reduced the kingdom of Sicily to the fame ftate
of feudal vaffalage which Ihe pretended to exercife
over England ; but Mainfroy, an ufurper, under pre¬
tence of governing the kingdom for the lawful heir,
had feized the crown, and was refolved to rejedt the
Pope’s authority. As the Pope found that his own
force alone was not fufficient to gain his point, he had
recourfe to Richard the king of England’s brother,
who had been created earl of Cornwall, and had fuch
talents for amaffing money, that he was reckoned the
richeft prince in Chriftendom. To him the Pope of¬
fered the kingdom of Sicily, upon the fingle condition
of his conquering it from the ufurper. Richard was too
wife to accept this offer; upon which the Pope applied
to Henry, and offered him the crown of Sicily for his
fecond fon Edmund. Henry, dazzled by this propo-
fal.
ENG
[
Henry fo-
lemnly re¬
news Mag¬
na Charta.
iji
He breaks
^gage-
Gons a re¬
volution.
fal, without refle&ing on the confequences, or with-
“ out confulting his brother or the parliament, gave' the
Pope unlimited credit to expend whatever turns he
thought neceffary for completing the conqueit of Sici¬
ly. The confequence of this was, that Henry foon
found himfelf involved in a debt of above 100,000
merks; and tho’ greatly mortified at the largenefs of
the fum, he was dill more fo at the little profpeft he
had of fucceeding in his enterprize'; but, fearing-the
Pope’s difpleafure, he was obliged to call a parliament,
in order to procure a fupply.
The barons were greatly offended ; and, inflead of
fupplies, anfwered the king only with expoftulations.
The parliament was therefore diffolved, and a new one
called, but with as little fuccefs as before. Henry was
now reduced to go about among fuch of h is fubjefts as
were firmly attached to him, and beg afiiftance from
them at their own houfes. At length his barons, per¬
ceiving the exigencies to which he was reduced, feemed
willing to afford him aid; and, upon his promifing to
grant them a plenary redrefs of grievances, a very li¬
beral fupply was obtained, for which he renewed their
charter with more than ufual folemnity. All the pre¬
lates and abbots were affembled with burning tapers in
their hands ; the magna charta was read in their pre¬
fence ; and they denounced fentence of excommunica¬
tion upon all who fhould infringe upon its decifions.
They then put out their tapers on the ground, and ex¬
claimed, “ May every foul that proves falfe to this a-
greement fo ftink and corrupt in hell.” The king
fubjoined, “ So help me God, I will inviolably keep
all thefe things, as I am a man, as I am a Chriftian,
as I am a knight, and as I am a king crowned and
anointed.”
No fooner had the king received the fupplies of
which he ftood fo much in need, than he forgot all his
engagements, put his confidence entirely in foreign
counfellors, and evaded or broke thro’ in numberlefs in-
ftances the charters he had given. This conduct render¬
ed him fo obnoxious to the barons, that Simon Mount-
fort earl of Liecefter, a man of a very violent and am¬
bitious temper, determined to attempt an innovation in
the government. He formed a powerful confederacy
againft the king, and the defigns of the confpirators
were effectually put in execution in the year 125-8.
Henry had fummoned a parliament in expectation of
receiving fupplies for his Sicilian p’rojeCt ; when the
barons appeared in the hall, clad in complete armour,
with their fwords by their fides. The king, ftruck
with this unufual appearance, aflced them what was-
their purpofe, and whether they pretended to make
him their prifoner. Roger Bigod, earl Marefchal, an¬
fwered in name of the reft, that he was not their pri¬
foner ; that they even intended to grant him large fup¬
plies, in order to fix his fon on the throne of Sicily ; that
they only expeCted fome return for this expence and
fervice; and that as the king had frequently made fub-
miffions to the parliament, had acknowledged his paft
errors, and had ftill allowed himfelf to be carried in¬
to the fame path, which gave them fuch juft reafon of
complaint, he mull now yield to more ftriCt regular
tions, and confer authority on thofe who were able and
willing to redrefs the public grievances. Henry in-
ftantly affured them of his intentions to grant them all
poffible fatisfaCiion j and for that purpofe fummoned
]
ENG
another parliament at Oxford, to digeft the new plan England,
of government, and to cleft proper perfons who were
to be entrufted with the chief authority. This affem-
bly, afterwards called the mad parliament, went very
expeditioufly to work on the bufinefs of reformation.
Twenty-four barons were appointed, with fupreme au¬
thority, to reform the abufes of the ftate; and Leice-
fter was placed at their head. Their firft ftep was to
order four knights to be chofen out of each county,
who fhould examine into the ftate of their refpeCtive
conftituents, and fhould attend at the enfuing parlia¬
ment to give information of their complaints. They
ordained that three feflions of parliament fhould be re¬
gularly held every year; that a new high fherifffhould
be eleCted annually ; that no wards nor caftles fhould
be entrufted to foreigners, no new forefts made, nor
the revenues of any counties let to farm. Ii:2
Thefe conftitutions were fo juft, that fome of them Bad con-
remain to this day. But the parliament having once ob- du^ °f d1®
tained the fovereign power, took care not to part with ncw rulcrs'
it again. They not only protraCted the time of their
fitting under various pretences; but at laft bad the ef¬
frontery to impofe an oath upon every individual of the
nation, declaring an implicit obedience to all the fta-
tutes executed, or to be yet executed by the barons
who were thus appointed as rulers. They not only a-
bridged the authority of the king, but the efficacy of
parliament alfo; giving up to 12 perfons the whole
parliamentary power between each feffion.—Their
ufurpations were firft oppofed by the knights of the
fhire, whom they themfelves had appointed. Thefe
had for fome time begun to be regularly aflembled in a
feparate houfe, to confider of the-national grievances;
the firft of which, was the condud of the 24 rulers.
They reprefented, that though the king had perform¬
ed all that was required of him, the barons had hither¬
to done nothing on their part that fhewed an equal
regard for the people ; that their own intereft and
power feemed the only aim of all their decrees ; and
they even called upon the king’s eldeft fon prince
Edward to interpofe his authority, and fave the fink¬
ing nation. ,^-j
The prince was at this time about 22 years of age,, Oppofed by
and by his a&ive and refolute conduft had infpired the Prinee
nation with great hopes. He told thofe who made war<1‘
the application to him, that he had fworn to the late
conftitutions; and,, on that account, though they were
contrary to his own private opinions, he was refol-
ved not to infringe them. At the fame time, how¬
ever, he fent a meftage to the barons, requiring them
to bring their undertaking to an end, or otherwife to
exped the moft vigorous refiftance to their ufurpa¬
tions. On this the barons were obliged to publifti a
new code of laws, which, though it contained fcarce
any thing material, yet, it was fuppofed, would for a
while dazzle the eyes of the people, until they could
take meafures to eftablilh their authority upon furer
foundations. In this manner, under various preten¬
ces, they continued their power for three years; while
the whole nation loudly condemned their treachery,
and the Pope himfelf at laft abfolved the king and his
fubjeils from the oath they had taken to obey their in-
jun&ions. Soon after this, a parliament was called,
and the king reinftated in his former authority. The
barons were obliged to fubmit for a time ; but the earl
of
ENG [ 2772 ] ENG
* 54
Who is de¬
feated and
taken pri-
fonerj with
the king
anfitiis bro¬
ther.
England, of Leicefter having joined the Wellh, who at this time
made an irruption into England, the kingdom was re¬
duced to the mod deplorable fituation. The pufillanimi-
ty of the king prevented any proper or judicious method
from being purfued for extricating the people from
their diftreffes ; and at laft a treaty was concluded with
the barons on the mod difadvantageous terms that can
be imagined. They were redored to the fovereignty of
the kingdom, took pofTefiion of all the royal cadles
and fortrefles, and even named the officers of the
king’s houfehold. They fummoned a parliament to
meet at Oxford, in order more fully to fettle the plan
of government; and by this afiembly it was enadted,
that the authority of the 24 barons diould continue not
only during the life of king Henry, but alfo during
that of prince Edward.
Thefe fcandalons conditions would have been eafily
complied with by king Henry, but they were utterly
rejeded by prince Edward, and a civil ivar immedi¬
ately enfued. The prince was at fird fuccefsful; but,
through his impetuofity, occafioned the. lofs of a
great battle, in which his father and uncle were taken
prifoners, arid he himfelf was obliged foon after to fur-
render to the earl of Leiceder. The king was now re¬
duced to the mod deplorable fituation. His partifans
were totally difarmed, while thofe of the earl of Lei¬
ceder dill kept themfelves in an offenfive podure. Lei¬
ceder feized the edates of no fewer than 18 barons;
engroffed to himfelf the ranfom of all the prifoners;
monopolized the fale of wool to foreign markets; and
at lad ordained that all power ffiould be exercifed by
nine perfons, who were to be chofen by three others*
or the majority of them; and thefe three were the earl
of Leiceder himfelf, the earl of Glouceder, and the
bifhop of Chicheder.
The miferable fituation to which the kingdom was
now reduced, proved at lad the means of fettling the
government on a more proper foundation. Leiceder,
in order to fecure himfelf, was obliged to have feeourfe
to an aid, till now, entirely unknown in England,
namely, that of the body of the people. He called a
parliament, where, befides the barons of his own party,
and feveral eccledaftics who were not proper tenants of
the crown, he ordered returns to.be made of two knights
from every Ihire; and alfo deputies from the boroughs,
which had been hitherto confidered as too inconfider-
able to be allowed any fhare in the legiflation. This
parliament was called on the 20th of January 1265 :
and here we find the fird outline of an Ehglidi houfe
of commons; an inditution which has ever fince been
confidered as the bulwark of Britifh liberty.
The new parliament was far from being fo compliant
to Leiceder as he had defired or expefted. Many of the
barons who had hitherto dedfadly adhered to his party,
were difguded with his boundlefs ambition ; and the
people, who found that a change of maders was not a
change from milery to happinefs, began to wilh for the
re-eftabliihment of royal authority.: Leiceder at lad,
to make a merit of what he could not prevent, releafed
prince Edward from his confinement, and had him in¬
troduced at Wedminder-hal), where his freedom was
confirmed by the unanimous voice of the barons. But
though Leiceder had all the popularity of redoring the
prince, he was yet politic enough to keep him guarded
by his emiffaries, who watched all his actions. At lad.
however, he found means to make his cfcape in the fol¬
lowing manner. The duke of Gloceder, being difguded
with Leiceder, retired from court, and went to his
edates on the borders of Wales. His antagonid pur¬
fued him thither; and to give the greater authority to
his arms, carried the king and prince of Wales along
with him. This furnilhed young Edward with the
opportunity he had fo long defired. Being furnifhed
by the earl of Gloceder with an horfe of extraordinary
fwiftnefs, he took leave of his attendants, who were in
faft his guards, but were not able to come up with
him. They purfued him, however, for fome time; but
the appearance of a body of troops belonging to Glo¬
ceder foon put an end to their purfuit.
The prince no fooner recovered his liberty, than the
royalids joined him from all quarters, and an army was
foon procured which Leiceder could not withdand.
This nobleman now found himfelf in a remote quarter
of the kingdom; furrounded by his enemies; and de¬
barred from ajl communication with his friends by the
river Severn, whofe bridges Edward had broken down.
In this extremity, he wrote to his fan to haden to his
affidance from Loiidon, with a confiderable army which
he had under his command. With this view his fon
advanced to Kenilworth ; but here he was fuprifed, and
his army entirely difperfed, by prince Edward. The
young prince, immediately after this vidlofy, advanced
againd Leiceder himfelf; who, ignorant of the fate of
his Ton’s army, had paffed the Severn in boats. He
was by no means able to cope with the royalids; his
men being inferior both in numbers and refolution to
their antagonids. His army was defeated with great
daughter. Leiceder himfelf was dain, though he called
out for quarter, together with his elded Ton Henry,
and about 160 knights and other gentlemen. The old
king had been purpofely placed by the rebels in the
front of the battle, where he was wounded, and in great
danger of being killed; but, crying out, “ I am Henry
of Wincheder your king,” he was faved and put in a
place of fecurity by his fon, who had flown to his af-
iidance. The body of Leiceder being found among
the dead, was barbaroufly mangled by one Roger Mor¬
timer; and then fent to his widow, as a tedimony
of the royal party’s barbarity and fuccefs.
This vi&ory, gained at Evediam, proved decifive in
favour of the royal party. Almod all the cadles, garrf-
foned by the barons, hadened to make their fubmiffions,
and opened their gates to the king. The Ifle of Ax-
holme alone, and that of Ely, truding to the drength
of their fituation, ventured to make refiftance; - but
w'ere at lad reduced, as well as the cadle of Dover, by
the valour and adivity of prince Edward. Adam de
Gourdon, a courageous baron,.maintained himfelf fome
time in the foreds of Hampfliire, committing depre¬
dations in the neighbourhood; and obliged the prince
to lead a body of troops into that country againtt him.
Edward attacked the camp of the rebels; and being
tranfported by the ardour of adion, leaped over the
trench with a few followers, and encountered Gourdon
himfelf in Angle combat. The vidory was long dif-
puted between thefe two valiant combatants; but end¬
ed at lad in the prince’s favour, who wounded his an¬
tagonid, threw him from his horfe, and took him pri-
foner. He not only granted him his life ; but intro¬
duced him that very night to the queen at Guildford,
, pro-
England.'
ward reco¬
vers his li-
berty*
1ST
Earl of Lei¬
cefter de- .j|
featcd and']
killed. I
ENG [ 2773 J ENG
< England, procured his pardon, and was ever after faithfully fer-
I *“ ved by him.
In 1271, prince Edward, having fettled the affairs of
the kingdom, undertook an expedition to the Holy
Land, where he fignalized himfelf by many afts of va¬
lour. The king’s health declined vifibly after the de-
i jjg parture of his fon ; and at laft, worn out with cares and
j Death of the infirmities of age, he expired at St Edmondfbury
Henry HI. on the 16th of November 1272, in the 64th year of
his age and the 56th of his reign.
Prince Edward had reached Sicily in his return from
the Holy Land, when he received an account of his
father’s death ; at which he expreffed much concern.
As he knew that England was at that time in a ftate
of perfect tranquillity, he was in no hafte to return,
,j9 but fpent near a year in France before he made his ap-
I Edward I. pearance in England. He was received by his fub-
jefts with the utmoft joy, and crowned at Weftmin-
tter by Robert archbifhop of Canterbury on the i$th
of Auguft 1274. He immediately applied himfelf to
the correfting of thofe diforders which the civil com¬
motions, and weak adminiitration of his father, had in¬
troduced. A fyllem of drift juftice, bordering on fe-
verity, was introduced and kept up through the whole
of this reign. The Jews were the only part of his
fubjefts whom Edward oppreffed. Many arbitrary
taxes were levied upon them; 280 of them were hang¬
ed at once for adulterating the coin, the goods of the
reft were confifcated, and all of them banilhed the
kingdom.
In 1276, the king undertook an expedition againft
f ,fi0 Lewellyn prince of Wales, who had refufed to do ho-
Conquers mage for his crown. The conqueft of that country
Wales. Was not fully accomplilhed till the year 1283; after
which the principality of Wales was annexed to the
crown of England, and thenceforth gave a title to the
* See Wales, king’s eldeft fon*.—In 1286, the fettlement of Wales
appeared fo complete, that the king went abroad in
order to make peace between Alfonfo king of Arra-
gop, and Philip le Bel king of France, who had a dif¬
ference about the kingdom of Sicily. He fucceeded
in his negociations; but, flaying abroad three years,
he found that many diforders had been introduced in his
abfence. Many inftances of robbery and violence had
broke out in all parts of England ; but the corruption
of the judges, by which the fountains of juftice were
poifoned, was of ftill more dangerous confequence.
Edward, in order to remedy this prevailing abufe, fum-
moned a parliament, and brought the judges to a trial;
where all of them except two, who were clergymen,
were convifted of this flagrant iniquity, were fined, and
depofed from their office. The amount of the fines
levied upon them is of itfelf a fufficient proof of their
guilt, being above 100,000 marks; an immenfe fum in
thofe days, fufficient to defray the expences of a war
betwixt two great nations. The king afterwards made
all the new judges fwear that they would take no bribes;
but the depofing and fining the old ones was the more
?' 1C1 effeftual remedy.
Attempts In 1291, king Edward began to meditate the con-
the con- quell of Scotland, which employed him during the reft
Scotland. life 5 hut which, though that kingdom was by
him reduced to the greateft diftrefs, he was never
•See Sect- able to accomplifh*. At the fame time, he was en-
Und. gaged in expenfive contcfts with France; and thefe
Vol. IV.
multiplied wars and preparations for war, by obliging England,
him to have frequent recourfe to parliamentary fup- ~
plies, became the remote caufes of great and important New m0_
changes in the government. The parliament was mo-^is thepar-
delled into the form which has continued ever fince. /lament.
As a great part of the property of the kingdom, by
the introduftion of commerce and improvements in
agriculture, was transferred from the barons to the lower
clafs of people, fo their confent was thought ^eceflary
for raifing the fupplies. For this reafon, the king if-
fued writs to the fheriffs, enjoining them to fend td
parliament, along with two knights of the (hire, two
deputies from each borough within their county; and
thefe provided with fufficient powers from their con-
ftituents to grant fuch demands as they (hould think
reafonable for the fafety of the ftate. The charges of
thefe deputies were to be borne by the boroughs which
fent them; and fo far were they from confidering this
deputation as an honour, that nothing could be more
difpleafing to any borough than to be thus obliged to
fend a deputy, or to any individual than to be thus
chofen. The authority of thefe commoners, however*
increafed through time. Their union gave them,
weight; and it became cuftomary among them, in re¬
turn for the fupplies which they granted, to prefer pe*
titions to the crown for the redrefs of thofe grievances
under which the nation was fuppofed to labour. The
more the king’s neceffities increafed, the more he found
it nectffary to give them an early redrefs; till, from
requefting, the commons proceeded to requiring; and
having all the property of the nation, they by degrees
began alfo to be pofieffed of the power. jtfj
Edward I. died of a dyfentery at Garlifle on the Dies, andis
7th of July 1307, as he was leading a great army into fucceeded
Scotland, againft the inhabitants of which he had^E war
vowed the mod dreadful vengeance. He was fucceed¬
ed by his fon Edward II. whom he had charged with
his dying breath to profecute the war againft Scotland;
and never to defift till he had finally fubdued the king¬
dom. But the new king was of a very different dif-
pofition from his father. The Scots gradually reco¬
vered their power; and in 1314 gave the Englifh fuch
a terrible defeat at Bannockburn, that for many years
no fuperiority of numbers could encourage them to
look the Scots in the face. See Scotland.
The reign of Edward II. affords no particulars of ^
great moment. Being a prince of a weak underftand- Difconten;ts
ing, though endued with no remarkable bad qualities, of his fub-
his reign was one continued feries of quarrels with his je&s-
turbulent fubjefts. His favourites were the mdft gene¬
ral caufes of difeontent. The firft of thefe was one Piers
Gavalton, the fon of a Gafcon knight of fome diftinc-
tion, who had honourably ferved the late king, and
who, in reward for his fervices, had obtained an efta-
blilhment for his fon in the family of the prince of
Wales.—To be the favourite of any king whatever, is
no doubt in itfelf a fufficient offence to the reft of the
courtiers. Numberlefs faults were therefore found
with Gavafton by the Engliffi barons. When the
king went over to France to efpoufe the princefs Ifa-
bella, to whom he had been long contrafted, Gavaftoa
was left guardian of the realm, with more ample pow¬
ers than had ufually been conferred in fuch a cafe.
But when the queen, who was of an imperious and in¬
triguing fpirit, arrived, Gavafton had the misfortune
16 C to
England.
s«J
Jnfurrec-
tion again ft
him by the
queen.
ENG [ 2774 ]
ENG
_ to fall under her difpleafure alfo, on account of the
afeendancy he had acquired over the king. A confpi-
racy was therefore foon formed againft the favourite;
at the head of which were,, the queen, and the earl of
JLancafter coufin-german to the king, and the moft
opulent and powerful nobleman in England. The
king, unable to refill fuch a combination, was at laft
obliged to banifh Gavafton ; but recalled him fome time
after. This was fufficient to fpread an alarm over the
whole kingdom : a civil war enfued; and the nobility
having got Gavafton into their hands, foon freed
themfelves of any further apprehenfions from him, by
putting him to death.
After the unfortunate defeat at Bannockburn, king
Edward chofe a new favourite named Hugh Le Def-
penfer. He was a young man of a noble Englifh fa¬
mily, fome merit, and very engaging accomplifhments.
His father was a perfon of a much more refpe&able
character than the fon ; but the being admitted to a
fhare of king Edward’s favour was a fufficient crime.
The king imprudently difpofTefled fome lords of their
eftates,, in order to bellow them upon this favourite;
and this was a fufficient pretence for openly attacking
both the father and fon. The earls of Lancafter and
Hereford flew to arms. Sentence was procured from
parliament of perpetual exde againft the two Spenfers,
with a forfeiture of all their ellates. At laft the king took
the field at the head of 30,000 men, and prefled the
earl of Lancafter fo clofely, that he had not time to
colledl his forces together; and, flying from one place
to another, he was at laft Hopped in his way towards
Scotland, and made prifoner. He was immediately
condemned by a court-martial; and executed on an
eminence near Pomfret, with circumftances of the
greateft indignity.
Spenfer now triumphed for fome time over his ene¬
mies; moft of the forfeitures were feized for his ufe,
and he is faid to have been guilty of many a6fs of ra¬
pine and injuftice. But he was foon oppofed by a
more formidable enemy. Queen Ifabella fled to France,
and refufed to return to England till Spenfer was re¬
moved from the royal prefence, and banilhed the king¬
dom. Thus Ihe made herfelf popular in England,
where Spenfer was univerfally dilliked; and Ihe had
the pleafure of enjoying the company of a young noble¬
man named Mortimer, upon whom Ihe had lately pla¬
ced her affeAions. The queen’s court, therefore, be¬
came a fan&uary for all the malcontents who were ba¬
nilhed their own country, or who chofe to come over.
When (he thought matters were ripe for her purpofe,
Ihe fet fail from Dort harbour, accompanied by 3000
armed men. She landed without oppofition, on the
coaft of Suffolk, on the 24th of September 1326; and
file no fooner appeared, than there feemed to be a ge¬
neral revolt in her favour. The unfortunate king found
the fpirit of difloyalty fpread over the whole kingdom.
He had placed fome dependence on the garrifon of Bri-
ftol, which was under the command of the elder Spen¬
fer: but they mutinied againft their governor; and that
unfortunate favourite was delivered up, and condemned
by the tumultirous barons to the moft ignominious
death. He was hanged on a gibbet in his armour; his
body was cut in pieces and thrown to the dogs; and
his head was fent to Winchefter, where it was fet on
a pole, and expofed to the infults of the populace.
Young Spenfer did not long furvive his father. He England, 4
was taken, with fome others who had followed the for-
tunes of the wretched king, in an obfcure convent in
Wales. The queen had not patience to wait the for¬
mality of a trial; but ordered him to be immediately
led forth before the infulting populace, and feemed to
take a favage pleafure in beholding his diftrefs. He
was executed on a gibbet 50 feet high; his head was
fent to London, where it was received by the citizens
with brutal triumph, and fixed on the bridge.
In the mean time the king, who hoped to find re¬
fuge in Wales, was quickly difcovered, and delivered
up to his adverfaries, who infulted him in the groffcft
manner. He was conducted to the capital amidft the
infults and reproaches of the people, and confined in
the tower. A charge was foon exhibited againft him;
in which no other crimes but his incapacity to go¬
vern, his indolence, his love of pleafure, and his being
fwayed by evil counfellors, were objeded againft him.
His depofition, however, was quickly voted by parlia- Edward de¬
ment ; he was affigned a penfion for his fupport; his pofed.
fon Edward, a youth of 14, was chofen to fuccetd him,
and the queen was appointed regent during the mino¬
rity. The depofed monarch did not long furvive the
lofs of his crown. He was at firft configned to the
cuftody of the earl of Lancafter; but this nobleman
ftiewing fome marks of refpe£l and pity, he was taken
out of his hands, and delivered over to the Lords Ber¬
keley, Mautravers, and Gournay, who were entrufted-
alternately, each for a month, with the charge of
guarding him. While he was in Berkeley’s cuftody he
was ftill ufed with fome degree of humanity; but when
the turn of Mautravers and Gournay came, every fpe-
cies of indignity was pra&ifed upon him, as if they
had defigned to accelerate his death by the bitternefs
of his fufferings. It is reported, that one day when.
Edward was to be fhaved, they ordered cold and dirty
water to be brought from a ditch for that purpofe;
and when he defired it to be changed, and was ftill de¬
nied his requeft, he burft into tears, and exclaimed.
That in fpite of their infolence he would be ftiaved
with clean and warm water. As his perfecutors, how¬
ever, faw that his death might not arrive, even under
every crpelty they could pradlife, and were daily afraid
of a revolution in his favour, they determined to rid
themfdves of their fears by deftroying him at once.
Mortimer, therefore, fecretly gave orders to the two
keepers, who were at his devotion, inftantly to difpatch
the king ; and thefe ruffims contrived to make the
manner of his death as cruel and barbarous as poffible.
Taking advantage of Berkeley’s ficknefs, in whofe cu¬
ftody he then w'as, and who was thereby incapacitated
from attending his charge, they came to Berkeley-
caftle, and put themfeJves in poffeffion of the king’s
perfon. They threw him on a bed, and held him down I(f7
with a table which they had placed over him. They Andcrueilf^
then ran a horn pipe up his body, through which they murdered. *
conveyed a red-hot iron ; and thus burnt his bowels
without disfiguring his body. By this infernal con¬
trivance they expelled to have their crime concealed:
but the horrid.fhrieks of the king, which were heard at
a diftance from the caftle, gave a fufpicion of the mur¬
der; and the whole was foon after divulged by the
confeffion of one of the accomplices. Gournay and >
Mautravers were held in deteftation by all mankind;.
ENG [ 2775 ] ENG
England, and when the enfuing revolution deprived their protec-
T" tors of power, they found it neceflary to fly the king¬
dom. Gournay was afterwards feized at Marfeilles,
delivered over to the fenefchal of Guienne, and put on
board a (hip with a view of carrying him over to Eng¬
land ; but he was beheaded at fea, by fecret orders, as
was fuppofed, of fome nobles and prelates in England,
anxious to prevent any difcovery which he might make
of his accomplices. Mautravers concealed himfelf for
fome years in Germany ; but having found means of
rendering fome fervices to Edward III. he ventured to
approach his perfon, threw himfelf on his knees before
158 him, and received a pardon,
lower'fllii the death of Edward II. the government fell
r>e<l by the entirely into the hands of the queen and her paramour
jiiec-n and Mortimer. The parliament, which raifed young Ed-
Sortimer. ward to the throne, had indeed appointed 12 perfons
as his privy-council, to direA the operations of govern¬
ment. Mortimer excluded himfelf, under a fhew of
moderation ; but at the fame time fecretly influenced
all the mtafures that came under their deliberation.
As this influence began very foon to be perceived, and
the queen’s criminal attachment to Mortimer was uni-
verfally known, th?fe governors foon became very ob¬
noxious to the people. The firft ftroke given to Mor¬
timer’s power was during an irruption of the Scots,
when the favourite prevented the young king from at¬
tacking the enemy. Though it is very probable that
the Englifh army would have been deltroyed by ma¬
king an attack on an army fituated infuchan advanta¬
geous poll as the Scots at that time occupied, Mor¬
timer incurred great blame on that account. He was
accufed of having allowed the Scots to make their e-
fcape ; and the general difguft on this account was in-
creafed by his concluding a peace with that kingdom,
wherein the Englilh renounced all title to the fove-
reignty of Scotland for the fum of 30,000 merks. Soon
after Mortimer feized and executed the earl of Kent,
brother to the late king; who, fuppofing Edward II.
to be ft ill alive, had formed a defign of reinftating him
in his kingdom. The execution was fo fudden, that
the young king had not time even to interpofe in his
behalf; and Mortimer foon after feized this nobleman’s
eftate for his own ufe, as he did alfo the immenfe for-,
tunes of the Spenfers.
Edward, finding the power of Mortimer a continual
reftraint upon himfelf, refolved to fhake off an autho¬
rity that was likewife grown odious to the whole na¬
tion. The queen and Mortimer had for fome time
chofen the caftle of Nottingham for their refidence. It
was ftriflly guarded, the gates were locked every night,
and the keys carried to the queen. It was therefore
agreed between the king and fome of the barons, who
fecretly entered into his defigns, to feize upon them in
this fortrefs. Sir William Eland the governor was in¬
duced to admit them through a fubterraneous paffage,
which had been formerly contrived for an outlet, but
was now choked up with rubbifh, and known only to
one or two. Through this paflage the noblemen in the
king’s intereft entered the caftle in the night-time;
and Mortimer, without having it in his power to make
any refiftance, was feized in an apartment adjoining to
that of the queen. The parliament, which was then fit¬
ting, condemned him, without either permitting him to
make his defence, or examining a Angle witnefs againft
him. He was hanged on a gibbet at a place called England.
Elmes, about a mile from London. A ftmilar fentence - -
was palled againft fome of his adherents, particularly x6P
*~<r 1 r , 1 .7 Mortimer
Lrournay and Mautravers, who found an opportunity ext:Cllte(j(
of efcaping as abovementioned. The queen, who was
perhaps the moft culpable of the whole, was fcreened
by the dignity of her ftation. She was, however, de-
pofed from all (hare of power; and confined for life to
the caftle of Riiings, with a penfion of 3000 pounds
a-year. From this confinement (he was never let free,
tho’ the king paid her an annual vifit of ceremony. She
lived 25 years after her depolition.
Edward III. proved the greateft warriour that ever
fat on the Englilh throne. He firft attempted to raife
Edward Baliol to the fovereignty of Scotland; but this
he found impofiible fully to accomplilh. He next in¬
vaded France, where he gained great advantages. In
his abfence the Scots invaded England; but were en¬
tirely defeated at Durham, and their king himfelf taken
prifoner. The Englilh king in the mean time continued
his vi&ories on the continent; in which he was greatly
aflifted by Edward furnamed the Black Prince, the
greateft hero recorded in the Englilh annals. But for
the wars of Edward III. and the exploits of this fa¬
mous prince, fee the articles Scotland and France.
The Black Prince died on the 8th of June 1376, and
the king furvived only about a year. He expired on 179
the 21ft of June 1377, and was fucceeded by his fe- Richard U,
cond fon Richard.
As the new king was only eleven years old when he
afcended the throne, the government was veiled in the
hands of his three uncles the dukes of Lancafter, York,
and Gloucefter. The different difpofitions of thefe no¬
blemen, it was thought, would caufe them check the
defigns of each other. Lancafter was neither popular
nor enterprifing; York was indolent and weak; and
Glocefter turbulent, popular, and ambitious. Dif-
contents firft arofe among the common people. They
had now acquired a lhare of liberty fufficient to infpire
them with a defire for more, and this defire was great¬
ly encreafed by the difcourfes of one John Ball a fedi-
tious preacher. He went about the country, and in¬
culcated on his audience, that mankind were all de¬
rived from one common ftock; and that all of them had
equal right to liberty and the goods of nature, of
which they had been deprived by the ambition of %
few infolent rulers.
Thefe doftrines were greedily fwallowed by the po¬
pulace, who were farther inflamed by a new impofition
of three groats a-head upon every perfon in the king-
dom above 15 years of age. This had been granted
as a fupply by parliament, and was no doubt neceffary
on account of the many expenfive wars in which the
kingdom was engaged; but its apparent injuftice, in
laying no more burden upon the rich than the poor,
excited the utmoft refentment of the people. The
manner, too, of colledting this tax, fobn furnilhed them
with an occafion of revolt. It began in Effex, where a
report was induftrioufly fpread that the peafants were
to be deftroyed, their houfes burned, and their farms t
plundered. A blackfmith, well known by the name Dangerous
of IVat Tyler, was the firft that excited them to arms, in fur region
The tax-gatherers coming to this man’s houfe while Wat Ty-^
he was at work, demanded payment for his daughter.Ier*
This he refufed, alleging that file was under the age
16 C 2 men*
ENG [ 2776 ] ENG
England, mentioned in the aft. One of thefe fellows offered to
produce a very indecent proof to the contrary, and at
the fame time laid hold of the maid. This the father
refenting, immediately knocked out the ruffian’s brains
with his hammer. The byftanders applauded the ac¬
tion ; and exclaimed that it was high time for the peo¬
ple to take vengeance on their tyrants, and to vindi¬
cate their native liberty. The whole country imme¬
diately took arms, and the infurgents foon amounted
to above 100,000 men. They advanced to Blackheath,
where they fent a meffage to the king who had taken
ffielter in the tower, deliring a conference with him.
The king was defirous of complying with their de¬
mands, but was intimidated by their fierce behaviour.
In the mean time they entered the city, burning and
plundering the houfes of fuch as were obnoxious for
their power or riches. Their animofity was particu¬
larly levelled againlt the lawyers, to whom they ffiew-
ed no mercy. The king at lalt, knowing that the
tower was not able to refill: their affaults, went out
among them, and defired to know their demands. To
this they made a very humble remonltrance; requiring
a general pardon, the abolition of flavery, freedom of
commerce in the market-towns, and a fixed rent in-
Head of thofe fervices required by the tenure of vil-
lenage. The king granted all thefe requefts; and
charters were made out by which the grant was rati¬
fied. In the mean time, however, another body of
thefe infurgents had broke into the tower, and mur¬
dered the chancellor, the primate, and the treafurer,
with fome other officers of diftinftion. They then di¬
vided themfelves into bodies, and took up their quar¬
ters in different parts of the city. At the head of one
of thefe was Wat Tyler, who led his men into Smith-
field, where he was met by the king, who invited him
to a conference under pretence of hearing and redref-
fing his grievances. Tyler ordered his companions to
retire till he fhould give them a fignal, and boldly ven¬
tured to begin a conference with the king in the midil
of his retinue. His demands were. That all Haves
fliould be fet free; that all commonages ffiould be open
to the poor as well as to the rich ; and that a general
pardon Ihould be paffed for the late outrages. Whilil
he made thefe demands, he now and then lifted up his
fword in a menacing manner: which infolence fo rai¬
led the indignation of William Walworth lord mayor
tji, of London, that, without confidering the danger to
Heiskilled. which he expofed his majefty, he ftunned Tyler with
a blow of his mace; while one of the king’s knights
riding up, difpatched him with his fword. The mu¬
tineers, feeing their leader fall, prepared themfelves to
take revenge. Their bows were already bent for exe¬
cution ; when Richard, though not yet 16 years of
age, rode up to the rebels, and with admirable prefence
of mind cried out: “ What, my people, will you kill
your king ? Be not concerned for the lofs of your lea¬
der. I myfelf will now be your general. Follow me
into the field, and you lhall have whatever you defire.”
The multitude immediately defifted, and followed the
king into the fields, where he granted them the fame
charters that he had before granted to their compa¬
nions. Thefe charters, however, were foon after re¬
voked, and the common people reduced to the fame
fituation in which they had formerly been.
The courage, addrefs, and prefence of mind, which
'the king had difeovered in quelling fuch a dangerous HngUnJJ
tumult, gave great hopes to the nation : but, in pro- 1 1" "i
portion as Richard advanced in years, thefe hopes were
blafted; and his want of capacity, or at lead of folid
judgment, appeared in every enterprize he attempted.
Weak princes are never without favourites, by whom
they are governed ; and thefe favourites moll certain¬
ly become obnoxious to the reft of the courtiers. Ri¬
chard’s firft favourite was Robert Vere earl of Oxford,
and an affociation againft him was foon formed by the »
reft of the nobility. At the head of it were Mowbray Cabals an<
earl of Nottingham, Fitz Alan earl of Arundel, Per- infolence 1
cy earl of Northumberland, Montacute earl of Salif- tlle no4)les
bury, and Beauchamp earl of Warwick. Vere was
impeached in parliament; and though nothing of mo¬
ment was even alleged againft him, he was condemned
and deprived of his office. They next proceeded to
attack the royal authority itfelf, Under pretence that ;
the king was yet unable to govern the kingdom, tho’
at that time 21 years of age, they appointed a com-
miffion of 14 perfons to whom the fovereignty was to
be transferred for a year. This meafure was driven for¬
ward by the duke of Glocefter, and none but his own
faftion were admitted as members.of the committee.
The king could not without regret perceive himfelf
thus totally deprived of authority. He firft endeavour¬
ed to gain over the parliament to his interefts, by in¬
fluencing the Iheiiffs of each county, who were then
the only returning officers. This meafure failing, he
next applied to the judges. They declared, that the
commiffion which had deprived the king of his autho¬
rity was unlawful, and that thofe who procured or ad-
vifed it were puniftiable with death. Their fentence
was quickly oppofed by declarations from the lords.
The duke of Glocefter armed his partifans; and ap¬
peared at Haringay park near Highgate, at the head
of a body of men fufficient to intimidate the king and
all his adherents. Thefe infurgents, fenlible of their
own power, began by demanding of the king the
names of thofe who had advifed him to his late ralh
meafures. A few days afterwards they appeared arm¬
ed in his prefence, and accufed by name the archbi-
fhop of York, the duke of Ireland, the earl of Suf¬
folk, and Sir Robert Trefilian, one of the judges who
had declared in his favour, together with Sir Nicholas
Bember, as public and dangerous enemies to the ftate.
The duke of Ireland fled into Chefhire, where he at¬
tempted to raife a body of forces; but was quickly ob¬
liged to fly into Flanders, on the arrival of the duke of
Glocefter with a fuperior army. Soon after, the king
was obliged to fummon a parliament, where an accu-
fation was drawn up againft five of hiscounfellors. Of
thefe only Sir Nicholas Bember was prefent ; and he
was quickly found guilty, condemned, and executed,
together with Sir Robert Trefilian, who had been dif¬
eovered and taken during the .interval. Lord Beau¬
champ of Holt was foon after condemned and executed;
and Sir Simon Burley, who had been appointed the
king’s governor, (hared the fame fate, tho’ the queen
continued for three hours on her knees before the duke
of Glocefter, imploring his pardon.
Such unparallelled infolence and barbarity in a fub-
jeft could not go unpuniftied. In 1389, the king, at
an extraordinary council of the nobility affembled after
Eafter, to the aftonifttment of all prefent, defired to
know
ENG
[ 2777 ] E N G
JSngUnd. know his age. Being told that he was turned off two
*'■ ~~ and twenty, he alleged that it was then time ■for him
, I7.J. to govern without help ; and that there was no reafon
akes the why he ihould be deprived of thofe rights which the
>ower into meaneft of his fubjefts enjoyed. The lords anfwered
iis own Jn fome confufion, that he had certainly an undifputed
iands, right to take upon himfelf the government of the king-^
dom. “ Yes, (replied the king,) I have long ■Been
under the government of tutors; and I will now firlt
fhew my right to power by their removal. He then
ordered Thomas Arundel, whom the commiffioners had
lately appointed chancellor, to give up the feals; Which
he next day delivered to William Wickham bifhdp of
Wincheiler. He next removed the duke of Glocefter,
the earl of Warwie, and other lards'of the oppolition,
from the council ; Jand all the great officers of the
houfehold, as well as the judges, were changed.
The king being''thus left at liberty to govern as be¬
thought proper, for fome time behaved in fuch a man¬
ner as to gain the affe&ions of the people. It doth
not appear indeed that he ever gave much caufe of com¬
plaint ; but it was impoffible for any prince in thofe
days to keep himfelf fecure on the throne but by a very
fevere and vigorous adminiftration. The duke of Glo¬
cefter, perceiving that Richard was not of a warlike
difpoiltion, frequently fpoke with contempt of his per-
fon and government, and deliberated concerning the
lawfulnefs of throwing off all allegiance to him. The
king being informed of his conduft by fpies appointed
for that purpofe, at laft formed a refolution of ridding
himfelf of Glocefter and his fa&ion at once. He there¬
fore wdered that nobleman to be immediately arrefted
and fent over to Calais, where there was no danger of
his being refeued by his numerous adherents. The
earls of Arundel and Warwick were feized at the fame
time; and a new parliament, which the king knew
would be perfe&ly obedient to his will, was fummoned
to Weftminfter. Here the commiffion of 14, who had
ufurped on the royal authority, was annulled for ever;
all thofe a&s which had condemned his former mini-
fters were repealed ; and the general pardon which the
king had formerly given when he affirmed the govern¬
ment into his own hands, was revoked. Several of
Glocefter’s party were condemned and executed, and
at laft that nobleman himfelf was called for to take his
trial as well as the reft ; but he had before been pri¬
vately difpatched in prifon.
After the deftru&ion of the duke of Glocefter and
_ 7<S
Duke of
iGlocefter
jnurdered.
the heads of his party, a mifunderftanding arofe among
the noblemen who had joined in the prolecution. The
duke of Hereford appeared in parliament, and accufed
the duke of Norfolk of having fpoken feditious words
againft his majefty in a private converfation. Norfolk
denied the charge, gave Hereford the lie, and offered
to prove his innocence by fingle combat. The chal¬
lenge was accepted ; but on the day appointed for the
tJ7 duel, the king would not fuffer the combatants to en-
Dukes of gage> but commanded both of them to leave the king-
Hereford dom. The duke of Norfolk he baniffied for life, but
!nk lf0r'fh tbec^u^e Hereford only for ten years. The former
*d. an,/ "retired to Venice, where in a Ihort time he died of a
broken heart. Hereford behaved in a refigned and fub-
miffive manner; which fo pleafed the king, that he con-
fented to ffiorten the time of his baniffiment four
years: he alfo granted him ktters patent, enfuring
him of the enjoyment of any inheritance which ihould
fall to him during his abfence; but upon the death of
his father the duke of Lancafter, which happened
fhonly after, Richard revoked thole letters, and kept
the eftate to himfelf.
This laft injury inflamed the refentment of Hereford
to fuch a degree, that he formed a defign of dethro¬
ning the king. He was a great favourite both with the
army and people; he was immenfely rich, and con-
nedled by blood or alliance with all the great families
of the nation. The king, at the feme time, it is feid,
gave himfelf up to an idle, effeminate life ; and his
minifters following his example, the national honour
was loft. The number of malcontents daily increafed,
and only waited for the abfence of the king, in order to
put their fehemes in execution ; and this opportunity
Ibon offered.
The earl of March preemptive heir to the crown,
having been appointed the king’s lieutenant in Ireland,
was flain in a Ikirmilh with the natives of that country ;
which fo incenfed Richard, that, unmindful of his
precarious fituation at home, he went over to Ireland
with a eonfiderable army, in order to revenge his death
in perfon. The duke of Lancafter (for that was the
title which Hereford affumed on the death of his fa¬
ther) hearing of the king’s abfence, inftantly embark¬
ed at Nantz ,; and with a retinue only of 60 perfons in
three fmall veffels, landed at Ravenfpur in Yorkfhire.
The earl of Northumberland, who had long been a
malcontent, together with Henry Percy his fon, who
from his ardent valour was furnamed Hotfpur, imme¬
diately joined him with their forces ; and the people
flocked to him in fuch numbers, that in a few days his
army amounted to 60,goo men.
Richard, in the mean time, continued in perfect fe-
curity in Ireland for fome timd. Contrary winds for
three weeks together prevented his receiving any news
of the rebellion which was begun in his native domi¬
nions. He landed therefore at Milford Haven with¬
out fufpicion, attended by a body of 20,000 men; but
immediately found himfelf oppofed by a power which
he could by no means refill. His army gradually de-
ferted him, till at laft he was obliged to acquaint the
duke, that he would lubmit to whatever terms he
pleafed to preferibe. The duke did not think pro¬
per to enter into any treaty with the king; but car¬
ried him to London, where he was confined clofe
prifoner in the tower, formally depofed by parlia¬
ment, or rather by the duke of Lancafter, and at laft
put to death. The manner of his death is vari-
oufly related. According to fome, eight or nine ruf¬
fians were fent to the caftle of Pomfret, whither the
unhappy prince had been removed, in order to dtfpatch
him. They ruflied unexpectedly intd his apartment;
but Richard, knowing their defign, refolved to fell his
life as dear as poffible. He wrefted a pole-ax from
one of the murderers, with which he killed four of
them; but was at length overpowered and killed.
Others relate that he was ftarved in prifon ; and that
after he was denied all nouriffiment, he prolonged his
life 14 days, by feeding on the flocks of his bed. He
died in the year 1399, in the 34th year of his age, and
23d of his reign.—It was during the reign of Richard
II. that Wickliff, the noted reformer, publifhed his
doftrines in England. See Wickliff.
England.
178
Hereford
forms a
/cheme of
dethroning
the king.
Richard de¬
pofed and
murdered.
After
ENG
England. After fentence of depofition had been pronounced
i8o on Richard by both houfes of parliament, the throne
Duke of being then vacant, the duke of Lancatier ftepped
Lancafter’s forth; and having crofled himfelf on the forehead and
claim to the on the bread, and called on the name of Chrili, gave
crown. fn hiS claim to the throne in the following words,
which we lhall give in the original language. “ In
the name of Fadher, Son, and Holy Ghoft, I Henry
of Lancafter, challenge this rewme of Ynglonde, and
the croun, with all the membres and the appurtenan¬
ces; als I that amdefcendit by right line of the blode,
coming fro the gude king Henry therde, and throge
that right that God of his grace hath fent me, with
help of kyn, and of my frendes to recover it; the
which rewme was in poynt to be ondone by defaut of
governance, and ondoying of the gude laws.”
The right which the duke here claimed by defcent
from Henry III. proceeded on a falfe ftory that Ed¬
mond earl of Lancafter, fon of Henry III. was really
the elder brother of Edward I.; but that, by reafon
of Tome deformity in his perfon, he had been poftponed
in the fucceffion, and Edward the younger brother im-
pofed on the nation in his Head. The prefent duke of
Lancafter inherited from Edmund, by his mother, the
right which he now pretended to the crown; though
the falfehood of the ftory was To generally known,
that he thought proper to mention it only in general
terms.—No oppofition, however, was made to the va¬
lidity of this title in parliament; and thus commenced
the differences between the houfes of York and Lan¬
cafter, which were not terminated but by many bloody
180 and ruinous wars.
Henry IV. The reign of Henry IV. was little elfe than a con¬
tinued feries of infurre&ions. In the very firft parlia¬
ment he called, no fewer than 40 challenges were given
and accepted by different barons; and though Henry
had ability and addrefs enough to prevent thefe duels
from being fought, it was not in his power to prevent
continual infurredlions and combinations againil him¬
felf. The moft formidable one was conducted by the
earl of Northumberland, and commenced A. D. 1402.
The occafion of it was, that Henry denied the earl li¬
berty to ranfom fome Scots prifoners which had been
taken in a Ikirmiftt with that nation. The king was
defirous of detaining them in order to increafe his de¬
mands upon Scotland in making peace ; but, as the
ranfom of prifoners was in that age looked upon as a
right belonging to thofe who had taken them, the
earl thought himfelf grievoufly injured. The in¬
jury appeared ftill the greater, becaufe Northumber-
>8i land confidered the king as indebted to him both for
of^heearT ^'S an<^ crown- ref°lved therefore to dethrone
of North- Henry; and to raife to the throne young Mortimer, who
umberland- was the true heir to the crown, as being the fon of
Roger Mortimer earl of Marche, whom Richard II.
had declared his fucceffor. For this purpofe he en¬
tered into an alliance with the Scots and Welfh, who
were to make an irruption into England at the fame
time that he himfelf was to raife what forces he could
in order to join them. But when all things were pre¬
pared for this infurredion, the earl found himfelf un¬
able to lead on the troops, by a fudden fit of illnefs with
which he was feized at Berwick. On this, young
Piercy (furnamed Hotfpur) took the command; and
inarched towards Shrewfbury, in order to join the
ENG
Welfh. But the king had happily a fmall army with England,
which he intended to have a&ed againft the Scots; ————
and knowing the importance of celerity in civil wars,
inftantly hurried down, that he might give battle to
the rebels. He approached Shrewftmry before ajunc-
tion with the Welfh could be effeded ; and the impa¬
tience of Piercy urged him to an engagement, which
at that time he ought to have declined. The evening
before the battle, he fent a manifefto to Henry; in
which he renounced his allegiance, fet the king at de¬
fiance, and enumerated all the grievances of which he
imagined the nation might juftly complain. He re¬
proached him (and very juftly) with his perjury ; for
Henry, on his firft landing in England, had fworn up¬
on the gofpels, before the earl of Northumberland,
that he had no other intention but to recover poffef-
fion of the duchy of Lancafter, and that he would ever
remain a faithful fubjed to king Richard. He ag¬
gravated his guilt, in firft dethroning and then mur¬
dering that prince; and in ufurping on the title of the
houfe of Mortimer, to whom, both by lineal fuccefiion,
and by declarations of parliament, the throne, then
vacant by Richard’s death, did of right belong. Se¬
veral other heavy charges were brought againft him;
which, at that time, could be produdive of no other
effed than to irritate the king and his adherents to the
utmoft.
The armies on each fide were in number about His fon de-
1 2,000; fo that they were not unmanageable by their feated and
commanders; and as both leaders were men of known at
bravery, an obftinate engagement was expeded. The shrewfbury
battle was fought on the 20th of July 1403; and we
can fcarce find in thofe ages any other in which the
fhock was fo terrible and conftant. At laft Piercy be¬
ing killed by an unknown hand, the vidory was de¬
cided in favour of the royalifts. There are faid to have
fallen on that day near 2300 gentlemen, and 6000
private men, of whom near two thirds were of Pier-
cy’s army.
The earl of Northumberland having recovered from
his ficknefs, and levied an army, was on his march to
join his fon ; but being oppofed by the earl of Weft-
moreland, and hearing of the defeat at Shrewfbury, he
difmiffed his forces, and came with a fmall retinue to
the king at York. He pretended that his foie inten¬
tion was to mediate between the contending parties;
and the king thought proper to accept of his apology,
and grant him a pardon for his offence. The other re¬
bels were treated with equal lenity; and none of them,
except the earl of Worcefter and Sir Richard Vernon,
who were regarded as the chief authors of the infur-
reftion, periihed by the hands of the executioner. This
lenity, however, was not fufficient to keep the king¬
dom quiet; one infurre&ion followed another almoft
during the whole of this reign ; but either through
Henry’s vigilance, or the bad management of the con-
fpirators, they never could unite their forces in fuch a
manner as was neceffary for bringing their projects to
bear- ... . . iSj ■
This reign is remarkable for the firft capital punifh- Archbifliop
ment inflifted on a clergyman of high rank. The arch- of York ex-
bifhop of York having been concerned in an infurrec- e55CUte“*
tion ^gainft the king, and happening to be taken pri-
foner, was beheaded without either indi&ment, trial,
or defence; nor was any difturbance occafioned by
this
[ 2778 ]
ENG [ 2779 ] ENG
England, this fummary execution. But, the moft remarkable
tranfaftion of this reign was, the introduftion of that
Burning of ahfurd and cruel praftice of burning people on account
heretics in their religion. Henry, while a fubjedt, was thought
troduced. to have been very favourable to the doftrines ofWick-
liffe; but when he came to the throne, finding his pof-
feffion of it very infecure, he thought fuperftition a
necelfary implement of his authority, and therefore de¬
termined by all means to pay court to the clergy.
There were hitherto no penal laws againft herefy; not
indeed through the toleration of the court of Rome,
but through the ftupidity of the people, who could not
perceive the abfurdities of the eftabliihed religion. But
when the learning and genius of Wickliffe had once
broken the fetters of prejudice, the ecclefiaftics called
aloud for the punifhment of his difeiples ; and Henry,
who was very little fcrupulous in his conduft, refolved
to gratify them. He engaged parliament to pafs a
law for this purpofe: it was enadted, that when any
heretic, who relapfed, or refufed to abjure his opinions,
was delivered over to the fecular arm by the bilhop or
bis commiffaries, he (hould be committed to the flames
before the whole people. This weapon did not remain
long unemployed in the hands of the clergy. William
Sautre, reftor of St Ofithes in London, had been con¬
demned by the convocation of Canterbury; his fen-
tence was ratified by the houfe of Peers; the king if-
fued his writ for the execution; and the unhappy man
was burnt alive in the year 1401. The doftrines of
Wickliff'e, however, feem to have already gained ground
very confiderably in England. In 1405, the commons,
who had been required to grant fupplies, propofed in
plain terms to the king to feize all the temporalities of
the church, and employ them as a perpetual fund to
-ferve the exigencies of the ftate. They infilled that
the clergy polTefled a third of the lands of the king¬
dom ; that they contributed nothing to the public bur¬
dens ; and that their exorbitant riches tended only to
difqualify them from performing their minifterial func¬
tions with proper zeal and attention. When this ad-
drefs was prefented, the archbilhop of Canterbury, who
then attended the king, obje&ed that the clergy, tho’
they went not in perfon to the wars, fent their vaflals
and tenants in all cafes of neceffity ; while at the fame
time, they themfelves who ftaid at home were employ¬
ed night and day in offering up their prayers for the
happinefs and profperity of the ftate. The fpeakeran-
fwered with a fmile, that he thought the prayers- of .the
, church but a very flender fupply. The archbiftrop, how¬
ever, prevailed in the difpute ; the king difcouraged
the application of the commons ; and the lords rejec¬
ted the bill which the lower houfe had fratqed for de-
fpoiling the church of her .revenues. The1 commons
, were not difcouraged by this repulfe. In 1410; they
returned to the charge with more zeal than before.
They, made a calculation of all the ecclefiaftical reve¬
nues, which, by their account, amounted to 485,000
merks a-year, and included 18,400 ploughs of land.
They propofed to divide this property among 15 new
earls, 1500 knights, 6000 efquires, and 1.00 hofpitals.;
befides 20,000 pounds a-year, which the king might
keep for his own ufe : and they infilled that the cleri¬
cal functions would be better performed than at pre-
fent, by tyjooo parilh-priefts, at the rate of 7 merks
a-piece of yearly ftipend. This application was ac¬
companied with an addrefs for mitigating the llatutes England.
enafted againft the Wickliffites or Lollards, fo that the  
king knew very well from what fource it came. He
gave the commons, however, a fevere reply; and fur¬
ther to fatisfy the church that he was in earneft, or¬
dered a Lollard to be burnt before the diffolution of
parliament.
The king had been for feme time fubjeft to fits,
which continued to increafe, and gradually brought
him to his end. He expired at Weftminller in 1413,
in the 46th year of his age, and the tjth of his reign.
He was fucceeded by his fon Henry V. whofe martial Henry V.
talents and chara&er had at firft occafioned unreafon-
able jealoufies in the mind of his father, fo that he
thought proper to exclude him from all lhare of public
bufinefs. The aftive fpirit of Henry being thus re-
Itrained from its proper exercife, broke out in every
kind of extravagance and difiipation. It is even re¬
ported, that, when heated with liquor, he fcrupled not
to accompany his riotous affociates in attacking the
paffengers on the ftreets and highways, and robbing
them of their goods. No fooner, however, did he
afeend the throne, than he called together his former
companions, acquainted them with his intended refor¬
mation, exhorted them to imitate his example; but
ftri&ly prohibited them, till they had given proofs of
their fincerity in this particular, to appear any more in
his prefence: after which, hedifmiffed them with libe¬
ral prefents. His father’s wife minifters, who had
checked his riots, found that they had, unknown to
themfelves, been paying the higheft court to their fo-
vereign; and were received with all the marks of fa¬
vour and confidence. The chief juftice, who had for¬
merly imprifoned the prince himfelf, and therefore
trembled to approach the royal prefence, met with
praifes infttad of reproaches for his paft condudl, and
was exhorted to perfevere in the fame rigorous and
impartial execution of the laws. The king was not
only anxious to repair his own mifeonduft, but alfo to
make amends for thefe iniquities into which policy or
neceflity of affairs had betrayed his father. He ex-
preffed the deepeft forrow for the fate of the unhappy
king Richard, and even performed his funeral obfe-
quies w’ith pomp and folemnity, and heaped favours
upon all thofe who had (hewn themfelves. attached to
him. He took into favour the young earl of March,
though his competitor for the throne; and gained fo
far on his gentle and unambitious nature,, that he re¬
mained ever after fincerely attached to him. The fa¬
mily of Piercy was reftored to its fortune and honours;
and the;king feemed defirbus to bury all diftindlions in
oblivion. Men of merit were preferred, whatever party
they had been of; all men were unanimous in their
attachmentto Henry:, and the defe&s of his title were
forgot amidft the perfonal regard which was univer-
folly paid him. l8(J
The only party which Henry was not able to over- Enforces
come was the new feel of Lollards, or reformers of re* 'aws a*
ligion. Thefe were now gaining fuch ground in Eng* Sain^ here*
land, that the Romifh clergy were greatly alarmed, and
Henry was determined to execute the laws upon them;
The head of that party at prefent was Sir John Qld-
caftle, Lord Gobham ; a nobleman who had diftinr
guiftied himfelf by his valour and military talents oh
many occafions, and acquired the efteem both of the
late.
ENG
England.
187
France in¬
vaded.
188
Death of
Henry V.
ENG [ 2780 ]
late and prefent king. His high chara&er and zeal for
the new left pointed him out to Arundel archbifhop of
Canterbury as a proper object of ecclefiaftical fury, and
therefore he applied to Henry for permiffion to indiil
him. The king defired him firft to try gentle me¬
thods, and undertook to converfe with lord Cobham
himfelf upon religious fubjefts. He did fo, but could
not prevail, and therefore abandoned Cobham to his
enemies. He was immediately condemned to the
flames: but having found means to make his efcape,
he raifed an infurredtion ; which was foon fuppreffcd,
without any other confiequence than that of bringing
a ftain on the fe& to which he belonged. Cobham
himfelf made his efcape, but four years afterwards
was taken and executed as a traitor. Immediately af¬
ter, the moft fevere laws were enafted againft the Lol¬
lards. It was enadted, that whoever was convidfed of
Lollardy, befides fuflering capital punifhment accord¬
ing to the laws formerly eftablilhed, (hould alfo for¬
feit his lands and goods to the king; and that the
chancellor, treafurer, juftices of the two .benches, Ihe-
riffs, juftices of the peace, and all the chief magi-
ftrates in every city and borough, {hould take an oath
to ufe their utmoft endeavours for the extirpation of
herefy.
Notwithftanding thefe terrible laws, the very parlia¬
ment which enadled theni, namely that of 1414, when
the king demanded a fupply, renewed the offerr for¬
merly prefled upon Henry IV. and intreated the king
to feize all the ecclefiaftical revenues, and convert them
to the ufe of the crown. The clergy were greatly a-
larmed. They could offer the king nothing of equal
value. They agreed, however, to confer on him all
the priories alien, which depended on capital abbeys in
Normandy, and which had been bequeathed to them
when that province was united to England. The
moft effectual method, however, of warding off the
blow at prefent was by perfuading the king to under¬
take a war with France, in order to recover the pro¬
vinces in that kingdom which had formerly belonged
to England. This was agreeable to the dying injunc¬
tion of Henry IV. He advifed his fon never to let the
Englifti remain long in peace, which was apt to breed
inteftine commotions ; but to employ them in foreign
expeditions, by which the prince might acquire ho¬
nour, the nobility in (haring his dangers might at¬
tach themfelves to his perfon, and all the reftlefs fpi-
rits find occupation for their inquietude. The natural
difpofition of Henry fufficiently inclined him to follow
this advice, and the civil diforders of France gave him
the faireft profpedf of fuccefs. Accordingly, in 1415,
the king invaded France at the head of 30,000 men.
The great progrefs he made thefe is related at length
under the article France. He had efpoufed the king’s
daughter, and conquered the greateft part of the king¬
dom. His queen was delivered of a fon named Henry,
whofe birth was celebrated by the greateft rejoicings
both at London and Paris; and the infant prince feemed
to be univerfally regarded as heir to both monarchies.
But Henry’s glory, when it feemed to be approaching
the fummit, was blafted at once by death, and all his
mighty projefts vaniftied. He was feized with a fi-
ftula, a diftemper which at that time the phyficians had
not (kill enough to cure ; and he expired on the 31 ft of
Auguft 1422, in the 34th year of his age, and the
loth of his reign.
Henry VI. fucceeded to the throne before he was
quite a year old, and his reign affords only the moft
difmal accounts of misfortunes and civil wars. His
relations very foon began to difpute about the admi-
niftration during the minority. The duke of Bed¬
ford, one of the moft accomplithed princes of the age,
was appointed by parliament prote&or of England,
defender of the church, and firft counfellor to the
king. His brother, the doke of Glocefter, was fixed
upon to govern in his abfence, while he conduced the
war in France ; and, in order to limit the power of
both brothers, a council was named, tyithout whofe
advice and approbation no meafure could be carried
into execution.
The kingdom of France was now in the moft def-
perate fituation. The Englifti were mafters of almoft
the whole of it. Henry VI. though but an infant, was
folemnly invefted with regal power by legates from Pa¬
ris; fo that Charles VII. of France fucceeded only to
a nominal kingdom. With all thefe great advantages,
however, the Englifti daily loft ground ; and, in the
year 1450, were totally expelled from France*. It
may eafily be imagined, that fuch a train of bad fuccefs
would produce difeontents among the rulers at home.
The duke of Glocefter was envied by many on account
of his.high ftation; Among thefe was Henry Beaufort,
biftiop pf Winchefter, great uncle to the king, and the
legitimate fon ©f John of Gaunt brother to Richard II.
The prelate, to whom the care of the king’s educa¬
tion had been committed, was a man of great capaci¬
ty and experience, but of an intriguing and dangerous
difpofition. He had frequent difputes with the duke
of Glocefter, over whom he gained feveral advantages
oil account of his open temper. The duke of Bed¬
ford employed both his oWn authority and that of par¬
liament tq reconcile them, but in vain ; their mutual
animofities ferved for feveral years to embarrafs go¬
vernment, and to give its enemies every advantage.
The fentiments of the two leaders were particularly di¬
vided with regard to France. The bifliop laid hold of
every profpeft of accommodation with that country;
and the duke of Glocefter was for maintaining the
honour of the Englifti arms, and regaining whatever
had been loft by defeats or delay. Both parties call¬
ed in all the auxiliaries they Could. The bifliop re-
folved to ftrengthen himfelf by procuring a proper
match for Henry, at that time 23 years old ; and then
bringing over the queen to his interefts. According¬
ly, the earl of Suffolk, a nobleman whom he knew
to be ftedfaft in his attachments, was fent over to
France, apparently to fettle the terms of a truce which
had then been begun, but in reality to procure a fuit-
able match for the king.
The biftiop and his friends had caft their eye on
Margaret of Anjou, daughter of Regnier, titular king
of Sicily, Naples, and Jerufalem ; but without either
real power or poflefiions. She was confidered as the
moft accompliftied princefs of the age; both in mind
and perfon; and it was thought would, by her own
abilities, be able to fupply the defers of her hufband,
who appeared weak, timid, and fuperftitious. The
treaty was therefore haftened on by Suffolk, and foon
after ratified in England. The queen came immedi¬
ately into the bilhop’s meafures: Glocefter was depri-
Englamf,
189
Henry YU
F * SeC
199
Married (
Margaret
Anjou.
England.
»9i
Duke of
Gloccftcr
murdered.
ijr
Duke of
York’s title
to tht
crown.
ENG [ 2781 ] ENG
ved of all real power, and every method taken to ren- not be proved, boldly called upon his enemies to (hew England.
■ der him odious to the public. One ftep taken for this an inftance of his guilt. The houfe of commons imme
purpofe was to accufe his duchefs of witchcraft. She diately opened againft him a charge of corruption, ty-
was charged with converfing with one Roger Boling- ranny, and treafon. He was accufed of being the
broke, a prieft and reputed necromancer; and alfo caufe of the lofs of France ; of perfuading the French
with one Mary Gourdemain, who was fat'd to be a witch, king, with an armed force, to invade England; and of
It was afferted that thefe three in conjun&ion had made betraying the fecrets of (late. The popular refentment
an image of the king in wax, which was placed before againft him was fo ftrong, that Henry, in order to fe-
a gentle fire; and as the wax difiblved, the king’s cure him as much as poffible, fentenced him to five years
flrength was expected to wafte; and upon its total dif- banifhment. This was confidered by his enemies as
folution, his life was to be at an end. This accufation an efcape from juftice. The captain of a (hip was
was readily believed in that fuperftitious age. The therefore employed to intercept him in his pafiage to
prifoners were pronounced guilty; the duchefs was France. He was feized near Dover, his head (truck
condemned to do penance and fuffer perpetual impri- off on the fide of a long-boat, and his body thrown
fonment; Bolingbroke the prieft was hanged, and the into the fea.
woman burnt in Smithfield. The complaints againft Henry’s government were jnf^?
The biftiop, called alfo the of Winchefter, heightened by an infurredtion headed by one John'reftion of
■was refolved to carry his refentment againft Glocefter Cade, a native of Ireland. He had been obliged to fly John Cade,
to the utmoft. He procured a parliament to be fum- over into France for his crimes : but, on his return,
moned, not at London, which was too well affedted to feeing the people prepared for violent meafures, he af-
the duke, but at St Edmundfbury, where his adhe- fumed the name of Mortimer; and, at the head of
rents were fufficiently numerous to overawe every op- 20,000 Kentilh men, advanced towards Blackheath.
ponent. As foon as Glocefter appeared, he was accu- The king fent a meflage to demand the caufe of their
fed of treafon and thrown into prifon^ and on the day rifing in arms. Cade in the name of the community
on which he was to make his defence, he was found anfwered, That their only aim was to punifh evil mi-
dead in his bed, though without any figns of violence nifters, and procure a redrefs of grievances forthepeo-
upon his body. pie. On this a body of 15,000 troops were levied,
The death of the duke of Glocefter was univerfally and Henry marched with them in perfon againft Cade,
aferibed to the cardinal of Winchefter, who himfelf who retired on his approach, as if he had been afraid
died fix weeks after, teftifying the utmoft remorfe for of coming to an engagement. He lay in ambufh, how-
the bloody feene he had afted. What (hare the queen ever, in a wood; not doubting but he fiiould be pur-
had in this tranfadlion, is uncertain ; but moft people fued by the king’s whole army: but Henry was con-
believed that without her knowledge the duke’s ene- tent with fending a detachment after the fugitives, and
mies durft not have ventured to take away his life, returning to London himfelf; upon which Cade iffued
The king himfelf (hared in the general ill-will, and he from his ambufeade, and cut the detachment in pieces,
never had the art to remove the fufpicion. His inca- Soon after, the citizens of London opened their gates
pacity alfo began every day to appear more clearly, to the vidlor; and Cade, for fome time, maintained
and a pretender to the throne foon made his appear- great order and regularity among his followers. He
ance. always led them out into the fields in the night-time.
In the year 1450, Richard duke of York began to and publiftied fevereedi&s againft plunder and violence
think of preferring his claims to the crown. All the of any kind. He was not, however, long able to keep
males of the houfe of Mortimer were extinft ; but his people in fubje&ion. He beheaded the treafurer
Anne, the filler of the laft earl of Marche, having e- Lord Say, without any trial; and foon after, his troops
fpoufed the earl of Cambridge, who had been behead- committing fome irregularities, the citizens refolved to
ed for treafon in the reign of Henry V. had tranf- (hut their gates againft him. Cade endeavouring to
mitted her latent, but not yet forgotten claim, to her force his way, a battle enfued, which laded all day, and
fon Richard. This prince, defeended by his mother was ended only by the approach of night. The arch-
from Philippa only daughter of the duke of Clarence, bifhop of Canterbury, and the chancellor, who had ta«
fecond fon of Edward III. ftood plainly in order of ken refuge in the tower, being informed of the fitua-
fucceflion before the king; who derived his defeent tion of affairs, drew up, during the night, an a6l of
from the duke of Lancafter, third fon of that mo- amnefty, which was privately difperfed among the re-
narch. The duke was a man of valour and abilities, bels. This had fuch an effeft, that in the morning
as well as of fome ambition ; and he thought the weak- Cade found himfelf abandoned by his followers ; and
nefs and unpopularity of the prefent reign afforded a retreating to Rochefter, was obliged to fly alone into
favourable opportunity to affert his title. The enfign the wolds. A price being fet on his head by procla-
of Richard was a white rofe, that of Henry a red one ; mation, he was difeovered and (lain by one Alexander
and this gave names to the two factions, who were Eden ; who, in recompence for this fervice, was made
now about to drench the kingdom in blood. governor of Dover caftle.
After the cardinal of Winchefter’s death, the duke of The duke of York was well pleafed to fee thefe in-
Suffolk, who alfo had been concerned in the affaffination furredlions and difeontents, which he refolvefd to en-
of Glocefter, governed every thing with uncontroulable courage to the utmoft of his power. Though he afpi-
fway. His condudl foon excited the jealoufy of the red to the crown, he did not yet think it proper to af-
other nobility, and every odious or unfuccefsful mea- fert his right by force of arms; but he was at laft put
fure was attributed to him. The duke, however, ima- into a fituation favourable to the accomplifhment of his
gining that his crimes were of fuch 3 nature as could wilhes by an unexpedled accident* The king fell into
Vol. IV. 16 D *
ENG [27
England, a lethargic diforder, which Increafed his natural imbe-
cillity to fuch a degree that he could not maintain even
the appearance of royalty any longer. The duke of
York was then appointed lieutenant and proteftor of
the kingdom, with powers to hold parliaments at plea-
fure. Upon this all the adherents of the houfeof Lan-
cafter were immediately dimiffed from court, and fome
of them imprifoned: the duke for fome time continued,
peaceably in the enjoyment of his power; but at length
the king recovering from his lethargic complaint, and
furprifed to find himfelf totally deprived of his autho-
Hifto? of r'ty* W3S Per^ua^e£^ by the queen to depofe the duke
the civil ° York. The latter had inftantly recourfe to arms;
war be- and Henry, though fore againft his will, was obliged
tween Hen- to face him in the field. A battle enfued at St Al-
tlie ban’s; in which the royalifts were defeated, and the
York. duke of Somerfet, the chief partifan of their caufe,
killed in the aftion. The king himfelf was wounded,
and took flicker in a cottage near the field of battle ;
where he was taken prifoner, but was afterwards treat¬
ed with great refpeft and kindnefs by the duke of
York.
Henry, though he was now only a prifoner treated
with the forms of royalty, was neverthelefs pleafed with
his fituation; but his queen, a woman of a bold and
mafculine fpirit, could not bear to have only the ap¬
pearance of authority, while others enjoyed all the real
power. She therefore excited the king once more to
aflert his right by force of arms; and the duke of York
was obliged to retire from court. A negociation for
peace was at firft fet on foot, but the mutual diftrufts
of both parties foon broke it off. The armies met at
Bioreheath on the borders of Staffordfliire, on the 23d
of September 1459; and the Yorkifts at firft gained
fome advantages. But when a more general engage¬
ment was about to enfue, a body of veterans who fer-
ved under the duke of York, defected to the king; and
this fo intimidated the duke’s party, that they fepara-
ted the next day without ftriking a blow. The duke
of York fled to Ireland; and the earl of Warwick, one
of his ableft and beft fupporters, efcaped to Calais, with
the government of which he had been entrufted during
the late proteftorfhip.
The York party, though thus in appearance fuppref-
fed, only waited a favourable opportunity of retrieving
their affairs. Nor was this opportunity long wanting.
Warwick having met with fome fucceffes at fea, land¬
ed in Kent; and being there joined by other barons,
marched up to London amidft the acclamations of the
people. The city immediately opened its gates to
him, and he foon found himfelf in a condition to face
the royal army. An engagement enfued at North¬
ampton on the 10th of July 1460; in which the royal¬
ifts were entirely defeated, and the king again taken
prifoner. The duke of York then openly laid claim
to the crown; and on this occafion the firft inftance of
a fpirit of national liberty is faid to have appeared in
the houfe of lords. The caufe of Henry and the duke
of York was folemnly debated; and the latter, though
a conqueror, did not abfolutely gain his caufe. It
was determined that Henry fhould poffefs the throne
during his life; and that the duke of York fhould be
appointed his fucceffor, to the utter exclufion of the
prince of Wales, who was then a child.
Though the royal party now feemed deftitute of e-
82 ] ENG
very refource, the queen ftill retained her intrepidity. Engkndfj
She fled into Wales, where fhe endeavoured to raife ^
another army. The northern barons, provoked at the
fouthern ones for fettling the government and fuccef-
fion to the crown without their confent, foon furnifli-
ed her with an army of 20,000 men. Another battle
was fought near Wakefield Green, on the 24th of De- Ipi
cember 1460. The Yorkifts were defeated, and the Duke of '
duke himfelf was killed in the adtion. His head was York kill-j
afterwards cut off by the queen’s orders, and fixed on et1,
one of the gates of York, with a paper-crown, in deri-
fion of his pretended title. His fon the earl of Rut¬
land, a youth of 17, was taken prifoner, and killed
in cold blood by lord Clifford, in revenge for his fa¬
ther’s death, who' had fallen in the battle of St Al¬
ban’s.
After this vi&ory, Margaret marched towards Lon¬
don, in order to fet the king at liberty ; but the earl
of Warwick, who now put himfelf at the head of the
Yorkifts, led about the captive king, in order to give
a fandtion to his proceedings. He engaged the queen’s
forces at St Albans; but through the treachery of lord
Lovelace, who deferred during the heat of the engage¬
ment with a confiderable body of forces, Warwick was
defeated, and the king fell once more into the hands of
his own party.
The fubmiffion of the city of London feemed now
to be the only thing wanting to complete the queen’s
fuccefs ; but Warwick had fecured it in his interefts,
and the citizens refufed to open their gates to the
queen. In the mean time, young Edward, eldeft fon
of the late duke of Y0rk, put himfelf at the head of
his father’s party. He was now in the bloom of
youth, remarkable for the beauty of his perfon and his
bravery, and was a great favourite of the people. He
defeated Jafper Tudor earl of Pembroke, at Mortimer’s
crofs in Herefordftiire. The earl himfelf was taken
prifoner, and immediately beheaded by Edward s or¬
ders. After this, he advanced to London ; and being
joined by the remainder of Warwick’s army, he foon
obliged Margaret to retire, entered the city amidft the ^
acclamations of the people, and was crowned king on Edward I?v
the 5th of March 1461.
Notwithftanding all her misfortunes, however, Mar¬
garet ftill continued undaunted. She retired to the north,
where Ihe was foon joined by fuch numbers, that her army
amounted to 60,000 men. She was oppofed by young
Edward and Warwick at the head of 40,000; and
both armies met near Teuton in the county of York,
on the 29th of March 1461. A bloody battle enfued,
in which the queen’s army was totally defeated; and as
Edward, prompted by his natural cruelty, had ordered
no quarter to be given, 40,000 of the Lancaftriana
were flain in the field or in the purfuit. After this dif-
after the queen fled to Scotland with her hufband and
fon ; and notwithftanding all the misfortunes fire had
already met with, refolved once more to enter Eng¬
land at the head of 5000 men granted her by the king
of France. But even here (he was attended by her ufual
bad fortune. Her little fleet was difperfed by a tem¬
ped, and (he herfelf efcaped with the utmoft difficulty
by entering the mouth of the Tweed. Soon after, a de¬
feat, which her few forces fuftained at Hexham, feem¬
ed to render her caufe entirely defperate; and the cruel¬
ties pra&ifed upon all her adherents rendered it very
England.
Rain ft him
War-
E N G [ 2783 ] ENG
dangerous to befriend her.
This laft misfortune feemed to deprive the queen of
every refource. She and her huiband were obliged to
feek for fafety in a feparate flight, without attendants,
and even without the neceflaries of life. The unfortu¬
nate king imagined he could remain concealed in Eng¬
land ; but in this he was deceived. He was taken pri-
foner, carried to the tower of London, and there ig-
nominioufly confined. The queen fled with her fon in¬
to a foreft; where, during the night, die was fet upon
by robbers, who defpoiled her of her rings and jewels,
and treated her with the utmoft indignity. One of
thefe robbers, however, more compaffionate than the
reft, conduced her to the fea-coaft ; whence {he made
her efcape to Flanders, where her father, though very
poor, entertained her as well as he was able. To the
fame courts retired the dukes of Somerfet and Exeter ;
and both of them fulfered the greateft degree of mife-
ry and want. Philip de Comines, the French hiftorian,
fays, that he faw the duke of Exeter following the
duke of Burgundy’s equipage barefooted, and ferving
for his livelihood as a footman.
Edward being now fecurely fixed on the throne, be¬
gan to give a loofe to his favourite paffions, which
were cruelty and an immoderate love of women. War¬
wick, in order to divert him from the laft of thefe, ad-
vifed him to marry, and with his confent went over to
France in order to conclude a match with Bona princefs
of Savoy. Warwick fucceeded in his negotiation ; but
in the mean time king Edward had privately married
Elizabeth Woodville, daughter of Sir Philip Woodville
who had efpoufed the duchefs of Bedford after her
firft hulband’s death. This incident exceedingly dif-
gufted Warwick; and as the king took every occafion
of widening the breach, an open rupture foon took
place.
After fome unfuccefsful attempts in England, War¬
wick, together with the duke of Clarence the king’s
brother, whom he had drawn into his fchemes, left the
kingdom. They embarked for Calais, and feized up¬
on fome Flemilh veflels which they found lying along
that coaft. With thefe they entered one of the ports
of France, and formed an alliance with Margaret the
exiled queen. Lewis king of France prepared a fleet
to recondu& them to England; and feizing a pro¬
per opportunity, they landed at Dartmouth with a
fmall body of troops, while Edward was in the north
fuppreffing an infurreftion which had lately appeared
there. Warwick was attended with aftonifhing fuccefs
on his arrival in England, and in lefs then fix days faw
himfelf at the head of 60,000 men. Edward was now
obliged in his turn to fly the kingdom. Having nar¬
rowly efcaped an attempt made upon his perfon by the
marquis of Montague, he embarked on board a fmall
fleet which lay off Lynn in Norfolk. While at fea he,
was chafed by fome fhips belonging to the Hanfe
towns that were then at war both with France and
England ; but at length, having efcaped all dangers,
Edward landed fafely in Holland, where he met
with but an indifferent reception from the duke of
Burgundy, with whom he had lately entered into an
alliance.
Warwick in the mean time advanced to London, and
©nee more releafed and placed on the throne the mi-
ferable king Henry VI. A parliament was called,
which very folemnly confirmed Henry’s title to the
throne, and Warwick himfelf was dignified by the
people with the title of the king-maker. All the at¬
tainders of the Lancaftrians were reverfed ; and every
one was reftored who had loft; either honours or for¬
tune by his former adherence to Henry’s caufe. AH
the adherents of Edward fled to the continent, or
took fhelter in monafteries, where they were pro-
tefted by the ecclefiaftical privileges. But Edward’s
party was not yet deftroyed. After an abfence of nine
months, being feconded by a fmall body of troops
granted him by the duke of Burgundy, he made a de-
feent at Ravenfpur in Yorkfhire. At firft he met with
an indifferent reception; but his army increafing on his
march, he was foon in a condition to appear before
the capital, which immediately opened its gates.
The unfortunate Henry was thus again plucked
from the throne; and the hopes of Warwick were almoft
totally blafted by the defe&ion of Clarence, Edward’s
brother. Nothing now remained but to come to an
engagement as foon as poflible. Warwick knew his
forces to be inferior to thofe of Edward, but placed
great dependence on his own generalfhip. He there¬
fore advanced to Barnet, within ten miles of London,
where he refolved to wait the coming of Edward. The
latter foon came up with him, and on the 14th of A-
pril 1471, a moll obftinate and bloody battle was
fought. Edward, according to cuflom, had ordered no
quarter to be given ; and obtained the vidtory through
a miftake of a body of Warwick’s forces, who fell with
fury on their own party inftead of the enemy. The earl
himfelfwasflain, together with his brother, and 10,000
of his braveft followers.
The queen was juft then returned with her fon from
France, where (he had been foliciting fupplies. She
had fcarce time to refrelh herfelf from the fatigues of
the voyage, when die received the fatal news of the
death of Warwick, and the total deftrudtion of her
party. All her refolution was not able to fupport her
under fuch a terrible difafter. Her grief now for the
firft time, it is faid, manifefted itfelf by her tears;
and die immediately took fandluary in the abbey of
Beaulieu in Hampfhire. Here {he ftill found fome
friends willing to aflift her. Tudor earl of Pembroke,
Courtney earl of Devonftu're, the lords Wenlock and
St John, with fome other men of rank, encouraged her
yet to hope for fuccefs, and promifed to ftand by her
to the laft. On this aflurance, {he refumed her courage;
and advancing through the counties of Devon, Somer¬
fet, and Glocefter, encreafed her army every day. At
laft, however, {he was overtaken by Edward with his
vidtorious army at Tewkefbury, on the banks of the
Severne. The queen’s army was totally defeated; the
earl of Devenftiire and lord Wenlock were killed in the
field; the duke of Somerfet, and about 20 other per-
fons pf diftindtion, who had taken Ihelter in a church,
were furrounded, dragged out, and immediately, be¬
headed; about 3000 of their party fell in battle, and
the army was entirely difperfed. Queen Margaret and
her fon were taken prifoners, and brought to the king,
who allied the prince in an infulting manner, how he
dared to invade his dominions? The young prince re¬
plied, that he came thither to claim his juft inheritance;
upon which Edward ftruck him on the face with his
gauntlet. The dukes of Clarence and Glocefter, lord Ha-
16 D 2 ftings.
England.
jpS
Total de-
ftruftion of
the queen’s
party.
ENG [27
HriglamL flings, and Sir Thomas Grey, taking this blow as a fig*
„ nal for farther violence, hurried the prince into the next
apartment, and there dii'patched him with their daggers.
Margaret was thrown into the tower along with her
hulband Henry, who expired in that confinement a few
days after. It was univerfally believed that he was
murdered by the duke of Glocefter, though of this
there was no direct evidence. Margaret was ranfomed
by the king of France for 50,000 crowns, and died a
few years after in a moft miferable fituation.
Edward being now freed from all his enemies, be¬
gan to infli£t punifliment on thofe who had formerly
appeared againft him. Among the cruelties he com¬
mitted, that on his brother the duke of Clarence was
the moft remarkable. The king happening to be one
day hunting in the park of Thomas Burdet, a fervant
of the duke, killed a white buck, which was a great
favourite of the owner. Burdet, vexed at the lofs,
broke out into a paffion, and wifhed the horns of the
deer in the belly of the perfon who advifed the king to
that infult. For this exclamation Burdet was tried for
his life, and executed at Tyburn. The duke of Cla¬
rence exclaimed againft the iniquity of this fentence;
upon which he was arraigned before the houfe of peers,
found guilty, and condemned to death. The only fa¬
vour granted him was to have the choice of his death;
and his choice was a very Angular one, namely, to be
drowned in a butt of malmfey wine, which was ac¬
cordingly done.—The reft of this reign affords little
dfe than an hiftory of the king’s amours. Among his
many miftreffes, Jane Shore was the moft remarkable.
She was the wife of a merchant in the city, and a wo¬
man of exquifite good fenfe and beauty; but (he had
not virtue fufficient to refill the folicitations of a hand-
fome man and a monarch.—The king died on the 9th
of April 1482, in the 42d year of his age, and 21ft of
his reign, counting from his firft afluming the crown.
Befides five daughters, he left two fons; Edward
prince of Wales, his fuccefibr, then in his 13th year;
and Richard duke of York in his ninth.
Edwkrd V t^ie ^eat^ Edward IV. the kingdom was di¬
vided into two new faftions. The queen’s family,
which, during the laft reign, had come into power,
was become obnoxious to the old nobility, who con-
fidered them as their inferiors. The king had endea¬
voured to prevent thefe animofities from coming to a
height, by defiring, on his death-bed, that his brother
Richard duke of Glocefter (hould be entrufted with
the regency; and recommended peace and unanimity
during the minority of his fon. But the king was no
fooner dead, than the former refentment between thefe
parties broke out with violence; and the duke of Glo¬
cefter, who was endued with almoft every bad quality,
refolved to profit by their contentions. His firft ftep
was to get himfelf declared proteftor of the realm;
and having arrefted the earl of Rivers, the king’s uncle
and guardian, he met young Edward in his way from
Ludlow caftle, where the late king had refided during
the latter part of his reign, and refpedtfully offered to
conduft him to London. Having thus fecured the
perfon of the king, he next got poffeffion of his bro¬
ther’s perfon alfo. The queen had retired with this
child into Weftminfter Abbey; and it was not with¬
out extreme regret that (he delivered him up at the
interceffion of the primate and archbilhop of York.
84 ] ENG
In a few days after Glocefter had made himfelf ma- England. '
fter of the perfons of the two princes, he had them
confined in the tower, under pretence of guarding them
from danger; and foon after fpread reports of their il¬
legitimacy, and by pretended obftacles put off the
young king’s coronation. Lord Stanley firft began
to fufpeft his defigns; and communicated his fufpicions
to lord Haftings, who had long been firmly attached
to the king’s family. Lord Haftings would not at
firft give credit to this furmife; but he very foon had
a fatal proof of the truth of what had been communi¬
cated to him. On the 13th of June 1483, he was
hurried out of the council-room in the tower by Glo-
cefter’s order, and beheaded on a log of timber. The
foldiers who carried him off made a buftle as though
an attempt had been made to refeue him, and one of
them difeharged a blow at lord Stanley’s head with a
pole-ax; but he happily efcaped it by (hrinking under
the table. The fame day were executed the earl Ri¬
vers, and fome others, who had committed no other 109 j
crime than being faithful to the young king. To ingra- Punifh- s
tiate himfelf with the populace, Glocefter next accufed |
the late king’s miftrefs, Jane Shore, of witchcraft; but, •'ane orei
as nobody would give credit to this charge, he had her
profecuted for incontinency, and deferting her hulband
to live in adultery with another man. To this ac-
cufation (lie pleaded guilty; and was condemned to I
walk bare-foot through the city, and to do penance in
St Paul’s church in a white (heet, with a wax taper in
her hand, before thoufands of fpe&ators. She lived
about 40 years after this fentence, reduced to the moft
extreme wretchednefs ; and Sir Thomas More affures
us, that he faw her gathering herbs for food in a field
near the city.
The prote£lor now thought he might with fafety
lay claim to the throne. He had previoufiy gained
over the duke of Buckingham, a nobleman of great
influence among the people. He ufed his utmoft en¬
deavours to infpire the people with a notion of the il¬
legitimate birth of the late king, and confequently of )
his children. Dr Shaw, a popular preacher, was alfo
hired to harangue the people to the fame purpofe from
St Paul’s crofs. Having expatiated on the inconti¬
nence of the queen, and the illegality of the young
king’s title, he then made a panegyric on the virtues
of the proteftor. “ It is the proteftor, (continued he,)
who carries in his face the image of virtue, and the
marks of a true defeent. He alone can reftore the loft
glory and honour of the nation.” It was hoped, that,
upon this occalion, fome of the populace would have
cried out, “ Long live king Richard!” but the audi¬
ence remaining filent, the duke of Buckingham under¬
took in his turn to perfuade them. Having expatiated
on the calamities of the laft reign, and the illegitimacy
of the prefent race, he told the people, that he faw only
one method of warding off the miferies which threat¬
ened the (late, which was by ele&ing the proteftor;
but he feemed apprehenfive that he would never be pre¬
vailed upon to accept a crown accompanied with fuch
difficulty and danger. He next alked his auditors,
whether they would have the protestor for their king;
but was mortified to find that a total filence enfued.
The mayor, who was in the fecret, willing to relieve
him in this embarraffed fituation, obferved, that the ci¬
tizens were not accuftomed to be harangued by a mart
England.
4o i
Richard III
aoi
Edward V.
hir brother
murdered.
ENG [27
of his quality, and would only give an anfwer to their
recorder. This officer, therefore, repeated the duke’s
fpeech; but the people continuing ftill filent, “ This
is ftrange obftitjacy, (cried the duke): we only require
of you, in plain terms, to declare, whether or not you
will have the duke of Glocefter for your king; as the
lords and commons have fufficient power without your
concurrence.” At this, fome of the meaneft appren¬
tices, incited by the fervants of the prote&or and
Buckingham, raifed a feeble cry of “ God fave king
Richard!” The mob at the door repeated the cry;
and throwing up their caps into the air, cried out,
“ A Richard! A Richard!” After this farce was
a&ed, Buckingham, on the 24th of June 1483, waited
on Richard with offers of the crown : but the protec¬
tor, with hypocritical modefty, at firft declined the of¬
fer; till being told that the people, in cafe of his refu-
fal, muft look out for one that would be more com-
. pliant, he accepted the government of England and
France, with a refolution, as he faid, to defend the one
and fubdue the other.
The firft ftep taken by the new king was to fend or¬
ders to Sir Robert Brackenbury governor of the tow¬
er, to put the young princes to death. But this
he refufed; and fubmiffively anfwered, that he knew
not how to embrue his hands in innocent blood. A
fit inftrument for this purpofe, however, was not long
wanting. Sir James Tyrrel readily undertook the of¬
fice ; and Brackenbury was ordered to refign the keys
to him for one night. Tyrrel choofing three affociates,
Slater, Deighton, and Foreft, came in the night-time
to the door of the chamber where the princes were
lodged; and fending in the affiaffins, bid them execute
their commiffion, while he himfelf ftaid without. They
found the young princes in bed, and fallen into a found
Beep. The affaffins fmothered them with the bolfter
and pillows; after which they ffiewed their naked bo¬
dies to Tyrrel, who ordered them to be buried at the
flair-foot under an heap of ftones.
Richard having thus fecured himfelf on the throne
by the mod iniquitous methods, attempted to ftrengthen
his intereft by foreign alliances, and procuring the favour
of the clergy at home by great indulgences; but he found
his power threatened from a quarter where he leaft ex¬
pected an attack. The duke of Buckingham, who
had been fo inftrumental in raifing him to the throne,
did not think himfelf properly rewarded. He made a
demand of fome confifcated lands in Hereford, to
which his family had an ancient claim. Richard ei¬
ther relu&antly complied with his requeit, or only
granted it in part; fo that a coolnefs foon enfued be¬
tween them, and in a little time Buckingham came to
a refolution of dethroning the irtonarch whom he had
juft raifed. For fome time he remained in doubt, whe¬
ther he (hould affume the crown himfelf, or fet up ano¬
ther. At length he determined on the latter; andre-
folved to declare for Henry earl of Richmond, who
was at that time an exile in Brittany, and was confi-
dered as the only furviving branch of the houfe of
Lancafter. He was one of thofe who had the good
fortune to efcape the numerous maflacres of the for¬
mer reigns; but, as he was a defendant of John of
Gaunt by the female line, he was for that reafon ob¬
noxious to thofe in power. He had long lived in
exile, and was once delivered over to the ambafladors
85 ] ENG
of Edward IV. who were preparing to carry him over England,
to England; when the duke of Brittany who delivered
him, repented of what he had done, and took him from
the ambafladprs juft as they were carrying him on fliip- aoj
board. Between him and Buckingham a negociation Infurrec-
was foon begun; and, in order to ftrengthen Henry’s *'°‘l °f the
title, a marriage was projected between him and the gu^ing-
princefs Elizabeth, eldelt daughter of the late king; ham for the
and the queen dowager was prevailed on to accede to earl of
the meafure. Richmond.
Richard, in the mean time, beginning to fufpeCt
Buckingham’s fidelity, fent for him to court; but he,
inftead of obeying the fummons, 'fled into Wales, where
be raifed a confiderable army : Richard immediately
put himfelf in a pofture of defence, by levying fome
troops in the north, with whom he marched againfl:
the infurgents. In the mean time, however, Bucking¬
ham’s forces being flopped by an inundation of the
Severn, and finding it impoffible to fubfift on their own
fide of that river, difperfed themfelves, notwithftand-
ing the duke’s utmoft efforts to keep tfiem together.
The duke took refuge in the houfe of one of his old
fervants; by whom he was betrayed to the fheriff of 104
Sbropfhire, and inftantly condemned and executed.— Bucking-
The earl of Richmond, who had by this time landed hara exe*
in England, finding his hopes fruftrated by the failure cute
of Buckingham, haftily fet fail again, and fafely landed
in Brittany. Richard fent ambaffadors to Landais the
duke of Brittany’s minifter, to treat about delivering
up Henry to him. The minifter entered into the ne¬
gociation ; but Richmond having got notice of their
intentions, fled into France, and reached the confines
of that country when he was on the point of being
overtaken by his enemies. 20*
It was not long, however, before Richard heard that Richmond
the earl of Richmond was making new, preparations p va?eSj
for the invafion of England. As the king knew not 20
in whsit quarter to expedl the invader, he took poll at
Nottingham, in the centre of the kingdom ; and he
had given commiffion to feveral of his officers to op-
pofe the enemy wherever he fhould land. Richmond,
in the mean time, fet out from Harfleur in Normandy,
with a retinue of about 2000 perfons ; and, after a
navigation of fix days, landed without oppofition at
Milford Haven in Wales, on the 7th of Auguft 1485.
Sir Rice ap Thomas, and Sir Walter Herbert, who
were entrufted by Richard to oppofe him in Wales,,
were both in his intereft.. The one deferted to him
on his firft appearance, and the other made but a very
feeble refiftance. On the news of this defcent, Rich¬
ard inftantly refolved to meet his antagonift, and de¬
cide their mutual pretenfions by a.battle.. Richmond,
on the other hand, being reinforced by Sir Thomas
Bourchier, Sir Walter Hungerford, and others, to the
number of about 6oco, boldly advanced with the fame
intention. In a few days both armies approached each
other at Bofworth field near Leicefter. The engage¬
ment began on the 22d of Auguft 1485. Henry had
about 6000 men, and Richard more than double that
number; but lord Stanley, who commanded upwards
of 7000 men for Richard, had made fuch a difpofition
as enabled him on occafion to join either party. Rich¬
ard eafily knew his intentions, but concealed them from
his own men for fear of difcouraging them; but, foon
after the battle began, lord Stanley, by joining the
earh
ENG [ 2786 1 ENG
Ktigland. earl of Richmond’s party, determined the vi&ory in
“ his favour. The tyrant perceiving his fituation to be
quite defperate, and feeing his rival at no great diftance
from him, drove up againft him with fury, in hopes
that either Henry’s death or his own would decide the
vi&ory between them. He killed Sir William Bran¬
don the earl’s ftandard-bearer; he difmounted Sir John
Cheyney; and was within reach of Richmond, when
Sir William Stanley breaking in with his troops,
2o<S Richard was furrounded and overwhelmed by num-
featedl'nd kers’ His body was found in the field, covered with
killed aD enemies, and befmeared with blood. It was
thrown carelefsly acrofs a horfe, carried to Leicefter
amidft the Ihouts of infulting fpe&ators, and interred
in the Gray-Friar’s church of that place.
The ufurper’s crown being found on the field of
battle, was placed on the head of the conqueror, while
the whole army cried out, “ Long live king Henry!'’
Two days after the battle, Henry gave orders to con¬
fine Edward Plantagenet earl of Warwick, and fon of
the unfortunate duke of Clarence; and to releafe the
princefs Elizabeth, who had been confined in the tower.
He then advanced by flow and gradual marches to the
toy city of London, where he was received with the greateft
Henry demonltrations of joy. He was crowned king of Eng¬
land on the 30th of O&ober 1485; and, to heighten
the fplendor on that occafion, he bellowed the rank of
knights-banneret on 12 perfons, and conferred peer¬
ages on three. Jafper earl of Pembroke, his uncle, he
created duke of Bedford ; Thomas lord Stanley his
father-in-law, earl of Derby; and Edward Courtenay,
earl of Devonlhire. At the , coronation likewife ap¬
peared a new inftitution, which the king had eltablifhed
for perfonal fecuritjr as well as pomp; a band of 50
archers, who were denominated yeomen of the guard.
But left the people fhould take umbrage at this ftep,
as if it implied a diffidence of his fubje&s, he decla¬
red the inftitution to be perpetuaL The ceremony of
the coronation was performed by cardinal Bourchier
archbilhop of Canterbury.—On the 18th of January
1486, he was married to the princefs Elizabeth; and
his marriage was celebrated at London with greater
appearance of joy than either his firft entry or his co¬
ronation had been. Henry remarked, with much dif-
pleafure, this general favour borne to the houfe of
York; and the fufpicions arifing from it, not only di-
flurbed his tranquillity during the .whole of his reign,
but bred difguft towards his confort herfelf, and poi-
foned all his domeftic enjoyments.
The reign of Henry VII. was for feveral years di-
flurbed by plots and infurredtions. The people, by a
long courfe of civil war, had become fo turbulent and
fa&ious, that no governor could rule, nor could any
king pleafe them. One rebellion feemed extinguifh-
ed only to give rife to another. The king at the be¬
ginning of his reign had given orders for the confine¬
ment of the duke of Clarence’s fon, as already men¬
tioned. This unfortunate youth, who had the title of
earl of Warwick, was, thro’ long confinement, quite un¬
acquainted with the world, and ignorant of the nvoft
common affairs of life. Harmlefs as he was, however,
*08 he was made an inftrument to deceive the people. One
Richard Simon, who lived in Oxford, trained up a
Simneh baker’s fon named Lambert Simnel, to counterfeit the
perfon of the earl of Warwick. He was inftruded by
his tutor to talk of many fads and occurrences which England,
had happened to him in the court of Edward. But as '
this impofture could not bear a clofe infpedion, it was
thought proper that he fhould firft make his appear¬
ance in Ireland. Here he was received with the utmofl
joy. He was proclaimed king of Ireland ; and con-
duded by the magiftrates and populace of Dublin
with great pomp to the caftle, where he was treated
conformably to his fuppofed birth and diftindion.
Henry eafily perceived that his mother-in-law, dif-
gufted with the fevere treatment he gave her daughter,
was at the bottom of this impofture. He therefore,
by the advice of his council, confined her in a mona-
ftery, where fhe remained as long as fhe lived.—The
next meafure was to fhew Warwick to the people. He
was taken from the tower, and led through the prin¬
cipal ftreets of London; after which he was conduded
in folemn proceffion to St Paul’s, where great num¬
bers were affembled to fee him. Still, however, they
proceeded in Dublin to honour their pretended mo¬
narch ; and he was crowned with great folemnity in
the prefence of the earl of Kildare, the chancellor, and
the other officers of ftate. At laft, being furnifhed by
the duchefs of Burgundy with a body of 2000 veteran
Germans under the command of Martin Swart, a brave
and experienced officer, he refolved to invade England.
He landed in Lancafhire, from whence he marched to
York, expeding that the country-people would rife
and join him on his march. But in this he was decei¬
ved : the people were unwilling to join a body of fo¬
reigners ; and were befides kept in awe by the great
reputation of Henry. Lord Lincoln, therefore, who
commanded the rebel army, determined to bring the
matter to a fpeedy iffue. Accordingly he met the roy¬
al army at Stoke in the county of Nottingham. An
obftinate engagement enfued, but at length king Hen¬
ry obtained a complete vidory. Lord Lincoln, with
4000 private men, perifhed in the battle; and Simnel
with his tutor Simon were taken prifoners. Simon be¬
ing a prieft, could not be tried by the civil power, and
was only committed to clofe confinement. Simnel was
pardoned, and made a fcullion in the king’s kitchen,
whence he was afterwards advanced to the rank of fal¬
coner, in which employment he died. j0j)
The bad fuccefs of Simnel did not deter another from Of Perkin
embarking in a fimilar impofture fome years after. JnWarbeck.
1492, the duchefs of Burgundy caufed a report to be
fpread, that the young duke of York, Edward V’s
brother, was ftill alive; and finding the rumour greedily
received, fhe foon found a young man who affumed
both his name and charadter. The perfon chofen to
aft this part was the fon of one Ofbeck, or Warbeck,
a converted Jew, who had been in England during the
reign of Edward IV. His name was Peter ; but it had
been corrupted after the Flemifh manner into Pe-
terkin, or Perkin. It was by fome believed, that Ed¬
ward, among his other amorous adventures, had a fe-
cret correfpondence with Warbeck’s wife, which might
account for the great fimilarity of features obferved be¬
tween Perkin and that monarch. The duchefs of Bur¬
gundy found this youth entirely fuited to herpurpofes.
The leffons fhe gave him were eafily learned and
flrongly retained. His graceful air, his courtly addrefs,
his eafy manners, and elegant converfation, were capable
of impoling upon all but thofe who were confcious of
ENG [2;
England, the Impofture. The kingdom of Ireland was pitched
“ upon for Perkin’s firft appearance, as it had been be¬
fore for that of Simnel. He landed at Cork, and im¬
mediately afluming the name of Richard Plantagenet,
was followed by great numbers of credulous, people.
He wrote letters to the earls of Defmond and Kildare,
inviting them to join his party ; he difperfed every
where the ftrange intelligence of his efcape from his
uncle Richard’s cruelty; and, his ftory meeting with
general credit, he foon became an objed of the .public
favour. All thofe who were difgufted with the king,
prepared to join Perkin ; but particularly thofe who
formerly were Henry’s favourites, and had contributed
to place him on the throne. Thefe, thinking their
fervices had not been fufficiently repaid, now became
heads of the confpiracy. Their attempts, however,
were all fruftrated by the vigilance of the king, and
moft of the confpirators of any note were publicly
executed.
Perkin finding it was in vain to attempt any thing
in England, went to the court of James IV. of Scot¬
land. Here he was received with great cordiality; and
James carried his confidence in him fo far, that he even
gave him in marriage lady Catharine. Gordon daugh¬
ter to the earl of Huntley, and a near knfwoman of
his own. But when he attempted to fet him On the
throne of England, he found himfelf totally difappoint-
ed ; and; on the conclufion of peace between the two
kingdoms, Perkin was obliged to leave Scotland. From
thence he went to Flanders; and meeting with but a
cool reception there, he refolved to try the affeSions
of the people of Cornwall, who had lately rifen againfl:
the king on account of a new tax which had been le¬
vied upon them. On his firft appearance Perkin was
joined by about 3000 of thefe people, with which;
force he laid fiege to Exeter. Henry, howevet*, having
marched againit him with a confiderable army, Per¬
kin’s heart failed him, though his followers now a-
mounted to 7000 ; and he took Ihelter in a monaftery.
His wife fell into the conqueror’s hands; who placed
her in a refpeftable fituation near the queen’s perfon,
with a fuitable penfion, which (he enjoyed till her
death. Perkin being perfuaded to deliver himfelf into
the king’s hands, was compelled to fign a confeffion of
his former life and conduit; but this was fo defective
and contradictory, that very little regard was paid to
it. His life was granted him; though he was ftillde¬
tained in cuftody, and keepers were appointed to watch
his conduit. From thefe, however, he broke loofe; and
flying to the fanituary of Shyne, put himfelf into the
prior’s hands. He was once more prevailed upon to truft
himfelf in the king’s hands, and was committed to the
tower ; but having here entered into a correfpondence
with the earl of Warwick in order to make their e-
fcape, both of them were condemned and executed,
inglift na- To Henry VII. in a great meafure is owing the
prefent civilized ftate of the Englifh nation. He had
.nry y all along two points principally in view; the one to de-
prefs the nobility and clergy, and the other to exalt
and humanize the populace. In the feudal times every
nobleman was poflelfed of a certain number of vaffals,
over whom he had, by various methods, acquired an
almoft abfolute power; and, therefore, upon every
flight difguft, he was able to influence them to join
him in his revolt or difobedience. Henry confidered,
787 ] ENG
that the giving of his barons a power to fell their Eogland.
eftates, which were before unalienable, muft greatly ~
weaken their intereft. This liberty therefore he gave
them; and it proved highly pleafing to the commons,
nor was it difagreeable to the nobles themfelves. His
next fcheme was to prevent their giving liveries to many
hundreds of their dependents, who were thus kept like
the foldiers of a (landing army to be ready at the com¬
mand of their lord. By an aft palled in this reign,
none but menial fervants were allowed to wear a livery;
and this law was enforced under fevere penalties.
With the clergy, Henry was not fo fuccefsful. The
number of criminals of all kinds who found proteftion
in monafteries and other places appointed for religious
worlhip, feemed to indicate little lefs than an abfolute
toleration of all kinds of vice. Henry ufed all his in¬
tereft with the pope to get thefe fanftuaries abolilhed,
but to no purpofe. All that he could procure was,
that if thieves, murderers, or robbers, regiftered as
fanftuary men, Ihould fally out and commit, frelh of¬
fences, and retreat again, in fuch cafes they might
be taken out of the fanftuary and delivered up to ju¬
ft ice.
In 1500, the king’s eldeft fon Arthur was married
to the Infanta Catharine of Spain, which marriage had
been projefted and negotiated feven years. But the
prince dying in a few months after marriage, the prin-
cefs was obliged to marry his younger brother Hen¬
ry, who was created prince of Wales in his room.
Henry himfelf made all the oppofition which a youth
of 12 years of age is capable of; but as the king per-
fifted in his refolution, the marriage was by the pope’s
difpenfation Ihortly after folemnized.—In the latter
part of this king’s reign, his ceconomy, which had al¬
ways been exaft, degenerated into avarice, and he op-
preffed the people in a very arbitrary manner. He had
two minifters, Empfon and Dudley, perfeftly quali¬
fied to fecond his avaricious intentions. They were
both lawyers, and ufually committed to prifon by in-
diftment fuch perfons as they intended to opprefs ;
from whence they feldom got free but by paying heavy-
fines, which were called mitigations and compofitions:
but by degrees the very forms of law were omitted; and
they determined in a fummary way upon the proper¬
ties of the fubjefts, and confifcated their effefts to the ltt
royal treafury.—Henry VII. died of the gout in his Death of
ftomach, in the year 1599, having lived 52 years, and Henry Vir.
reigned 23 ; and was fucceeded by his fon Henry VIII.
In Henry VII.’s reign was built a large (hip of war
called the Great Harry, which coft 14,000 pounds.
This was, properly fpeaking, the firft Ihip in the Eng-
lilh navy. Before this period, when the king wanted
a fleet, he had no other expedient than to hire fhips
from the merchants. XIl
Henry VIII. afcended the throne when he was a- HenryVtIL
bout 18 years of age, and had almoft every advan¬
tage which a prince can have on his acceflion. He
had a well ftored-treafury, an indifputed. title, and
was at peace with all the powers in Europe. Com¬
merce and arts had been fome time introduced in¬
to England, where they met with a favourable recep¬
tion. The young prince himfelf was beautiful in his
perfon, expert in all polite exercifes, open and liberal
in his air, and loved by all his fubjefts. The old king,,
who was himfelf a fcholar, had inftrufted him in all the
Leara-
"England.
* See Scot-
Cardinal
Wolfey
minifter.
* See mi-
h-
E N G [ 2788 ] ENG
learning of the times, fo that he was an adept in fchool-
divinity before the age of 18.
All thefe advantages, however, feemed to have been
loft upon the new king. Being deftitute of a good
heart and folid underftanding, he proved a tyrant.
Being always actuated, not by reafon, but the paffion
which happened to be uppermoft in his mindj he beha¬
ved in the mod abfurd and contradiftory manner ; and
however fortunate fome of his meafures proved at laft,
it is impoffible that either his motives, or the means he
took for the accomplifhment of his purpofes, can be
approved of by any good man.
One of Henry’s firft a&ions in his royal capacity
was to punilh Empfon and Dudley, who were obnoxi¬
ous to the populace, on account of their having been
the inftruments of the late king’s rapacity. As they
could not be impeached merely on account of their
having ftriftly executed the will of the king, they
were aCcufed of having entered into a treafonable con-
fpiracy, and of having defigned to feize by force the
adminiftration of government; and though nothing
could be more improbable than fuch a charge, the ge¬
neral prejudice againft them was fo great, that they
were both condemned and executed.
In 1510, the king entered into a league with pope
Julius II. and Ferdinand king of Spain, againft
Lewis, XII. of France. In this alliance Henry was
the only difinterefted perfon. He expe&ed nothing be-
iides the glory which he hoped would attend his arms,
and the title of Mofi Chrijiian King, which the pope
affured him would foon be taken from the king of
France to be conferred upon him. The pope was
defirous of wrefting from Lewis fome valuable pro¬
vinces which he poneffed in Italy, and Ferdinand was
defirous of fharing in the fpoil. Henry fummoned his
parliament; who very readily granted him fupplies, as
he gave out that his defign was to conquer the king¬
dom of France, and annex it to the crown of England.
It was in vain that one of his old prudent counfellors
objected, that conquefts on the continent would only
drain the kingdom without enriching it; and that Eng¬
land, from its fituation, was not fitted to enjoy exten-
five empire. The young king, deaf to all remon-
ftrances, and hurried away by his military ardour, re-
folved immediately to begin the war. But after feve-
ral attempts, which were rendered unfuccefsful only by
the mifmanagement of thofe who conduced them, a
peace was concluded with France on the 7th of Au-
guft 1514. See France.
Henry’s arms were attended with more fuccefs in
Scotland. King James IV. with the greateft part of the
Scots nobility, and 10,000 of the common people, were
cut off in the battle of Flowden, the greateft defeat
the Scots had ever received from the Englifh*. Henry
in the mean time, puffed up with his imaginary fuc-
ceffes againft France, and his real ones againft Scot¬
land, continued to lavifti his treafures by expenfive
pleafures, and no lefs expenfive preparations for war.
The old minifters who had been appointed by his fa¬
ther to dirett him, were now difregarded; and the king’s
confidence was entirely placed in Thomas, afterwards
cardinal Wolfey, who feconded him in all his favourite
purfuits, and who, being the fon of a private gentle-
man at Ipfwich, had gradually raifed himfelf to the
firft employments of the ftate *. He doth not feem to
have had many bad qualities befides his exceffive pride, England
which difgufted all the nobility ; but the great ftiare "*
he poffeffed in the favour of fuch an abfoiute prince as
Henry VIII. put him quite out of thevreach of his
enemies. r,4
The king having foon exhaufted all the treafures left Arbitrary '
him by his father, as well as the fupplies which he hehaviour
could by fair means obtain from his parliament, ap- °f 1 6
plied to Wolfey for new methods of replenifhing his
coffers. The minifter’s firft fcheme was to get a large
fum from the people under the title of benevolence;
though no title could be more improperly applied, as
it was not granted without the greateft murmurings
and complaints. Wolfey even met with oppofition in
the levying of it. In the firft place, having exadled a
confiderable fum from the clergy, he next applied him¬
felf to the houfe of commons; but they only granted
him half the fum he demanded. The minifter at firft
was highly offended, and defired>to be heard in the
houfe 5 but they replied that none could be permitted
to fit and argue there except fuch as were members.
Soon after, the king having occafion for new fupplies,
by Wolfey’s advice attempted to procure them by his
prerogative alone, without confulting his parliament.
He iffued out commiffions to all the counties of Eng¬
land for levying four fhillings in the pound from the
clergy, and three (hillings and fourpence from the laity.
This ftretch of royal power was foon oppofed by the
people, and a general infurredlion feemed ready to en-
fue. Henry endeavoured to pacify them by circular
letters ; in which he declared, that what he demanded
was only by way of benevolence. The city of Lon¬
don, however, ftill hefitated on the demand; and in
fome parts of the country infurreftions were adtually
begun. Thefe were happily fuppreffed by the duke
of Suffolk; but the cardinal loft fomewhat of the king’s
favour on account of the improper advice he had given
him. To reinftate himfelf in his good graces, Wolfey
made the king a prefent of a noble palace called Tork-
place, at Weftminfter, affuring him that from the firft
he had intended it for the king’s ufe. In order to have
a pretence for amafling more wealth, Wolfey next un¬
dertook to found two new colleges at Oxford; and for
this purpofe he received every day frefh grants from
the pope and the king. The former imprudently gave
him liberty to fupprefs fome monafteries, and make ufe
of their revenues for the ereftion of his new colleges;
but this was a fatal precedent for the pontiff’s interefts,
as it taught the king to feize on the monaftic revenues
whenever he ftood in need of money.
The cardinal continued to enjoy full power at the
court of Henry VIII. till the year 1527, when an event
happened which produced the moft remarkable altera- I1j j
tions both in church and ftate. Henry had been 18 He defires J
years married to Catharine of Arragon, who had be- a divorce
fore been married to his elder brother Arthur. But hls 1
notwithftanding the fubmiffive deference paid to the in¬
dulgence of the church, by which Henry had been al¬
lowed to marry his brother’s widow, his marriage
with this princefs did not pafs without fcruple and he-
fitation. The prejudices of the people in general were
bent againft a conjugal union between fuch near rela¬
tions; and it has been faid, that the late king, though
he had forced both parties to marry each other when
his fon was but 12 years of age, had given many inti¬
mations
ENG
jj England, tnatlons that he intended to annul the marriage at a
proper opportunity. It is poffible, that the king might
now begin to entertain fcruples about the legality of
his marriage; but as he indulged himfelf without re-
ftraint in tne pleafures of unlawful love, it feems much
more probable, that the age and decay of the beauty
of Catherine, who was fix years older than himfelf, had
prompted him to defire a^ diffolution of his marri¬
age. He had lately fallen in love with Anna Bullen,
or Boleyn, one of the maids of honour, and daughter
of a gentleman of diftindtion, who was related to moft
of the nobility. She was a lady of great beauty and
virtue; and as Henry found it impoffibld to make her
[ 2789 1
ENG
fent cardinal Campegio his legate to London ; who, England,
with Wolfey, opened a court for trying the legitimacy
of the king’s marriage with Catharine, and cited the a[g
king and queen to appear before them. The trial com- Tr;ai 0f the
menced the 31ft of May 1529. Both parties prefented king and
themfelves; and the king anfwered to his name when queen be-
called: but the queen, inttead of anfwering to hers,
rofe from her feat, and throwing herfelf at the king’s g°t^S 6
feet, made a very pathetic harangue; which her dig¬
nity, her virtue, and misfortunes, rendered ftill more
affeding. She told her hulband, That fhe was a ftran-
ger in his dominions, without protedion, without
council, and without afiiltance; expofed to all the in-
Comply with his criminal defires, he formed a defign of juftice which her enemies were pleafed to impofe up-
Applies to
the pope fo
difpenfa-
His contrc-
erfy with
(the pope.
divorcing queen Catherine, and marrying Anne Boleyn.
For this purpofe he applied to pOpe Clement VII. de-
firing him to difiblve the bull of his predecefibr which
had given him a difpenfation to marry Catherine; and
to declare that it was not in the power even of the holy
fee to difpenfe with a law fo llridly enjoined in fcrip-
ture.
By this requifition the pope was thrown into the
greateft perplexity. Queen Catherine was aunt to the
emperor who had lately made Clement Iiimfelf a pri-
foner, and whofe refentment he ftill dreaded: and be-
fides, he could not with any degree of prudence declare
the bull of the former pope illicit, as this would give
a mortal blow to the dodrine of papal infallibility.
On the other hand, Henry was his protedor and friend;
the dominions of England were the chief refource from
whence his finances were fupplied; and the king of
France, fome time before, had got a bull of divorce in
circumftances nearly fimilar. In this exigence he
thought the wifeft method would be to fpin out the
affair by negociation ; and in the mean time he fent
over a commiffion to Wolfey, in conjundion with the
archbiftiop of Canterbury, or any other Englifti pre¬
late, to examine the validity of the king’s marriage,
and of the former difpenfation ; granting them alfo a
provifional difpenfation for the king’s marriage with
any other perfon.
The pope’s meffage was laid before the council in
England: but they confidered, that an advice given by
the pope in this fecret manner, might very eafily be
difavowed in public; and that a clandeftine marriage
would totally invalidate the legitimacy of any iffue the
king might have by fuch a match. In confequence of
this, frdh meffengers were difpatched to Rome, and
evafive anfwers returned ; the pope never imagining
that Henry’s paflion would hold out during the tedious
courfe of an ecclefiaftical controverfy. But in this he
was miftaken. The king of England had been taught
to difpute as well as the pope, and valued himfelf not
a little on his knowledge in theology: and to his ar¬
guments he added threats; telling him, that the Eng¬
lifti were but too well difpofed to withdraw from the
holy fee; and that if he continued uncomplying, the
whole country would readily follow the example of
their monarch, who fhould always deny obedience to a
pontiff that had treated him with fuch falfehood and
duplicity. The king even propofed to his holinefs,
whether, if he were not permitted to divorce his pre-
fent queen, he might not have a difpenfation for ha¬
ving two wives at once?
The pope, perceiving the king’s eagernefs, at laft
Vol. IV.
her: That fhe had quitted her native country, with¬
out any other refource than her connexions with him
and his family; and that, inftead of fuffering thence
any violence or iniquity, fhe had been aflured of ha¬
ving in them a fafeguard againll every misfortune:
That fhe had been his wife during 20 years ; and would
here appeal to himfelf, whether her affeXionate fub-
miflion to his will had not merited other treatment than
to be thus, after fo long a time, thrown from him with
indignity: That fhe was confcious,—he himfelf was af-
fured,—that her virgin honour was yet unftained when
he received her into his bed; and that her connexions
with his brother had been carried no farther than the
mere ceremony of marriage: That their parents, the
kings of England and Spain, were efteemed the wifefl
princes of their time, and had undoubtedly aXed by
the beft advice when they formed the agreement for
that marriage, which was now reprefented as fo crimi¬
nal and unnatural: And that fhe acquiefced in their
judgment, and would not fubmit her caufe to be tried
by a court whofe dependance on her enemies was too
vifible ever to allow her any hopes of obtaining from
them an equitable or impartial decifion. Having fpo-
ken thefe words, the queen rofe, and, making the king
a low reverence, left the court, nor would fhe ever a-
gain appear in it.
The legate having again fummoned the queen to
appear before them, on her refufal, declared her con¬
tumacious, and the trial proceeded in her abfence. But
when the bufinefs feemed to be nearly decided, Cam¬
pegio, on fome very frivolous pretences, prorogued the
court, and at laft transferred the caufe before the fee
of Rome. Wolfey, in the mean time, whom the king
expeXed to have found a warm favourer and defender
of his caufe, was very irrefolute, and feemed to be much
in the fame dilemma with the pope himfelf. He had
determined to continue neuter in the difpute : but this
gave great umbrage to the king; who happening about
the fame time to meet with Cranmer, a perfon of equal
abilities with Wolfey, and of much lefs cunning, he
refolved to make him fupply the place of the latter.
Crimes are eafily found againft a favourite in difgrace; 3lp
and whatever errors Wolfey had committed, were re- Wolfey dif-
peated by the courtiers with all poffible exaggerationsb graced.
On the 18th of OXober 1529, the dukes of Norfolk
and Suffolk were fent to require the great feal from
him ; and, on his fcrupling to deliver it without a more
exprefs warrant, the king wrote him a letter. Upon
this it was immediately furrendered, and given by
Henry to Sir Thomas More; a man who, befides the
ornaments of elegant literature, poffeffed the higheft
16 E virtue,
ENG [ 2790 ] ENG
England, virtue, integrity, and capacity. Wolfey was ordered
to depart from York-place palace, and all his furniture
and plate were appropriated to the king’s ufe. The
inventory of his goods was found to exceed the moft
extravagant reports. Of fine holland alone, there were
found 1000 pieces; the walls of his palace were co¬
vered with cloth of gold and Giver; he had a cup¬
board of plate of maffy gold; all the reft of his riches
and furniture were in the fame proportion. One dif-
grace followed another, and his fall was at length com¬
pleted by a fummons to London to anfwer a charge of
high treafon.
Wolfey at firft refufed to anfwer to this fummons,
as being a cardinal: but being at length perfuaded, he
fet out on his journey; but was taken ill, and died by
* See Wol- the way*. After his death, the king, by Cranmer’s
fry- advice, had the legality of his marriage debated in all
the univerfities of Europe. The votes of thefe were
obtained in his favour by dint of money. The dif-
burfements made on the occalion have even been pre-
ferved to this day. To a fubdeacon he gave a crown,
to a deacon two crowns, and fo to the reft in propor¬
tion to the importance of their ftation or opinion.—
Being thus fortified by the opinions of the univerfities,
and even of the Jewifti rabbies, (for them alfo he had
Henry’s fi- confuited), Henry began to think he might fafely op-
nat quarrel pole the pope himfelf. He began by reviving in par-
with the Jiament an old law againft the clergy, by which all
P°Pe* thofe who had fubmitted to the authority of the pope’s
legate were condemned to fevere penalties. The cler¬
gy, to conciliate the king’s favour, were obliged to
pay a fine of 118,060 pounds. A confeflion was like-
wife extorted from them, that the king, and not the
pope, was the fupreme head of the church and clergy
of England. An aft was foon after puffed againft le¬
vying the firft-fruits, or a year’s rent of all the bi-
fhoprics that fell vacant. After this the king married
his beloved Anne Boleyn; and (he proving with child
quickly after marriage, he publicly owned her for his
wife, and paffed with her through London, with a
greater magnificence than had ever been known be¬
fore. The ftreets were ftrewed with flowers, the walls
of the houfes hung with tapeftry, and an univerfal joy
feemed to be diffufed among the people. The unfor¬
tunate queen Catherine, perceiving all further oppoli-
tion to be vain, retired to Amphthill near Dunftable,
where fhe continued the reft of her days in privacy and
peace.
The pope was no fooner informed of tlrefe proceed¬
ings, than he paffed a fentence, declaring Catherine to
be the king’s only lawful wife; requiring him to take
her again, and denouncing his cenfures againft; him in
cafe of a refufal. Henry, on the other hand, knowing
that his fubjefts were entirely at his command, refol-
axi ved to feparate totally from the church of Rome. In
Is declared the year 1534, he was declared head of the church by
par]iament; the authority of the pope was completely
abolifhed in England ; all tributes formerly paid to the
holy fee were declared illegal; and the king was en-
trufted with the collation to all ecclefiaftical benefices.
The nation came into the king’s meafures with joy,
and took an oath called the oath of fupremacy ; all the
credit which the. popes had maintained over England
for ages, was now overthrown at once ;. -and none
feemed to repine at the change, except thofe who were
immediately interefted by their dependence on Rome. England.
But though the king thus feparated from the church
of Rome, he by no means adhered to the doftrines of
Luther which had been lately publiftied. He had
wrote a book againft this celebrated reformer, which
the pope pretended greatly to admire; and honoured
king Henry, on its account, with the title of “ De¬
fender of the Faith.” This charafter he feemed to be
determined to maintain, and therefore perfecuted the
reformers moft violently. Many were burnt for deny¬
ing the popifti doftrines, and fome alfo were executed
for maintaining the fupremacy of the pope. The
courtiers knew not which fide to take, as both the new
and old religions were equally perfecuted; and as both
parties equally courted the favour of the king, he was
by that means enabled to affume an abfolute authority
over the nation. As the monks had all along fhewn
the greateft refiftance to Henry’s ecclefiaftical charac¬
ter, he refolved at once to deprive them of the power
of injuring him. He accordingly empowered Crom¬
well, fecretary of ftate, to fend commiffioners into the
feveral counties of England to infpeft the monafteries;
and to report, with rigorous exaftnefs, the conduct,
and deportment of fuch as were found there. This
employment was readily undertaken by fome creatures
of the court, whofe names were Layton, London,
Price, Gage, Petre, and Belafis. They are fa id to
have difcovered monftrous diforders in many of the re¬
ligious houfes; whole convents of women abandoned
to all manner of lewdnefs; friars accomplices in their
crimes; pious frauds every where committed, to in-
creafe the devotion and liberality of the people; and
cruel and inveterate faftions maintained between the
inhabitants. Thus a general horror was excited againft
thefe communities; and therefore the king, in 1536,
fuppreffed the leffer monafteries, amounting to 376 in Suppreffloni
number. Their revenues, computed at 32,000 pounds of tlie mo-*
a-year, were confifcated to the king’s ufe; befides their naftcr‘es; j
plate and other goods, computed at 100,000 pounds
more. In 1538, the greater monafteries alfo were demo-
lifhed. The better to reconcile the people to this great
innovation, ftories were publilhed, perhaps with aggra¬
vations, of the deteftable lives which the friars led in
their convents. The reliques alfo, and other objefts of
fuperftitious veneration, were now brought forth, and
became objefts of derifion to the reformers. A great
number of thefe are enumerated by Proteftant writers;
fuch as the parings of St Edmund’s toes; form' of the
coals that roafted St Laurence; the girdle of the Vir¬
gin Mary, fliewn in no fewer than eleven different
places; two or three heads of St Urfula ; the felt of
St Thomas of Lancafter, an infallible cure for the
head-ach ; part of St Thomas of Canterbury’s ftiirt,.
much reverenced among big-bellied women; fome re¬
liques, an excellent prefervative againft rain, others
againft weeds in corn ; &c. Some impoftures, howe¬
ver were difcovered, which difplayed a little more in¬
genuity in the contrivance. At Hales in the county
of Glocefter had been fliewn, during feveral ages, the
blood of Chrift brought from Jerufalem. The vene¬
ration for this precious relique may eafily be imagined;,
but it was attended with a moft remarkable circum-
ftance not obferved in any other reliques. The facred
blood was not vifible to any one in mortal fin, even
when let before him; nor,could it be difcovefed till he
had
I England.
* See
Bteket.
!The king
ixcommu-
ENG [ 2791 ] ENG
bad performed good works fufficient for bis abfolution.
At the diflblution of the monaftery, the whole con¬
trivance was difeovered. Two of the monks who were
let into the fecret, had taken the blood of a duck,
which they renewed every week: they put it into a
phial, one fide of which was thin and tranfparent cry-
ftal, the other thick and opaque. * When any rich pil¬
grim arrived, they were fure to (hew him the dark fide,
till maffes and offerings had expiated his offences; af¬
ter which they made him happy, by turning the phial.
—A miraculous crucifix had been kept at Boxely in
Kent, and- bore the appellation of the rood of grace.
The lips, eyes, and head of the image, moved on the
approach of its votaries. Helfey hifhop of Rochefter
broke the crucifix at St Paul’s crofs, and fhewed to all
the people the fprings and wheels by which it had
been feeretly moved. A great wooden idol, called
Darvel Gatherin, was alfo brought to London and
cut in pieces: and, by a cruel refinement of ven¬
geance, it was employed as fuel to burn friar Foreft;
who was punifhed for denying the king’s fupremacy,
and for fome pretended herefies. A finger of St An¬
drew’s, covered with a thin plate officer, had been
pawned for a debt of 40 pounds ; but as the king’s
commifiioners refufed to releafe the pawn, people made
themfelves very merry with the poor creditor on ac¬
count of his fecurity. On this occafion alfo was de-
molifhed the noted fhrine of Thomas a Becket, com¬
monly called St Thomas of Canterbury*. The riches
of it were inconceivable when broken down ; the gold
with which it was adorned, filled two large chefts that
eight ftrong men could fcarce carry out of the church.
The king, on the whole, fuppreffed 645 monafteries, of
which 28 had abbots who enjoyed a feat in parliament.
Ninety colleges were demolifhed in feveral counties;
2374 chantries and free chapels, and 110 hofpitals.
The whole revenue of thefe eftablifhments amounted to
161,100 pounds.
It is eafy to imagine the indignation which fuch an
uninterrupted courfe of facrilege and violence would oc¬
cafion at Rome. In 1535* the king had executed bilhop
Fifher, who was created a cardinal while in prifon, and
Sir Thomas More, for denying or fpeaking ambi-
guoufly about his fupremacy. When this was report¬
ed in Italy, numerous libels were publilhedall over the
country, comparing the king of England to Nero,
Domitian, Caligula, and the moft wicked tyrants of
antiquity. Clement VII. died about fix months after
he had threatened the king with a fentence of ex-
communication; and Paul III. who fucceeded him
in the Papal throne, entertained fome hopes of an
accommodation. But Henry was fo much accuftom-
ed to domineering, that the quarrel was foon ren¬
dered totally incurable. The execution of Fifher
was reckoned fuch a capital injury, that at laft the
pope palPed all his cenfures againft the king, citing
him and all his adherents to appear in Rome with¬
in 90 days, in order to anfwer for their crimes. If
they failed, he excommunicated them; deprived the
king of his realm; fubje&ed the kingdom to an inter-
dift; declared his iffue by Ann Boleyn illegitimate ;
diflblved all leagues which any Catholic princes had
made with him ; gave his kingdom to any invader;
commanded the nobility to take up arms againft him;
freed his fubje&s from all oaths of allegiance ; cut off
their commerce with foreign dates ; and declared it
lawful for any one to feize them, to make Haves of'
their perfons, and to convert their effeds to his own
ufe. But though thefe cenfures were then pafied, they
were not openly denounced. The pope delayed the
publication till he (hould find an agreement with Eng*
land totally defperate, and till the emperor, who was
then hard prefled by the Turks and the Proteftant
princes of Germany, fbould be in a condition to carry
the fentence into execution. But in 1538, when news
arrived at Rome that Henry had proceeded with the
monafteries as above related, the pope was at laft provo¬
ked to publifh the cenfures againft him. Libels were
again difperfed, in which he was anew compared to the
moft furious perfecutors of antiquity, and the preference
was now given on their fide. Henry, it was faid, had
declared war with the dead, whom the Pagans them¬
felves refpefled; was at open enmity with heaven ; and
had engaged in profefied hoftility with all the faints
and angels. Above all, he was reproached with his
refemblance to the emperor Julian, whom (it was faid)
he imitated in his aportacy and learning, though he fell
ftiort of him in his morals. But thefe terrible fulmi-
nations had now loft their effe<ft. Henry had long
ago denied the fupremacy of the pope, and therefore
had appealed from him to a general council ; but now
w'hen a general council was fummoned at Mantua, he
refufed to be fubjeA to it, becaufeit was fummoned by
the pope, and lay entirely under fubjedlion to that fpi-
ritual ufurper. He engaged his clergy to make a de¬
claration to the like purpofe, and preferibed to them
many other alterations with regard to their ancient te¬
nets and praftices. It was expe&ed that the fpirit of
oppofition to the church of Rome would have at laft
made him fall in with the dodtrines of the reformed ;
but, tho’ he had been gradually changing the theologi¬
cal fyftem in which he was educated, ever fince he came
to the years of maturity, he was equally pofitive and
dogmatical in the few articles he retained, as tho’ the
whole fabric had continued entire and unfhaken : and
though he flood alone in his opinion, the flattery of
courtiers had fo much inflamed his tyrannical arrogance,
that he thought himfelf entitled to regulate by his own
particular ftandard, the religious faith of the whole na¬
tion. The point on which he chiefly refted his'or¬
thodoxy was the moft abfurd in the whole Pojn'fh doc¬
trine, namely, that of tranfubftantiation. All departure
from this he held to be a damnable error; and nothing,
he thought, could be more honourable for him, than,
while he broke off all connexions with the Roman pon¬
tiff, to maintain, in this efiential article, the purity of
the Catholic faith.
In 1539, a parliament^was called, which met on the
28th day of April. The chancellor opened this par¬
liament by informing the houfe of lords, that it was
his majefty’s earneft defire to extirpate from his king¬
dom all diverfity of opinions with regard to religion j
and as this enterprize was, he owned, difficult and im¬
portant, he defired them to chufe a committee from
among themfelves, who might frame certain articles,
and communicate them afterwards to parliament. The
lords named the vicar-general, Cromwel now created a
peer, the archbifliops of Canterbury and York, the bi-
fhops of Durham, Carliflej Worcefter, Bath and
Wells, Bangor and Ely. This fmall committee itfelf
16 E 2 was
England.
114
His abfurd
and tyran-
duft. C°U
ENG [ 2792 ] E N G
England, was agitated with fuch diverfxty of opinions, that it
' could come to no conclufion. The duke of Norfolk
aij then moved, thatfince there was no hopes of having a
I.aw of the report from the committee, the articles of faith propo-
framed^5 ^ to ke eftahlifhed ftiould be reduced to fix, and a
new committee be appointed to frame an a£t with re¬
gard to them. As this peer was underftood to fpeak
the king’s mind, his motion was immediately complied
with ; and after a fhort prorogation, the bill of the fix
articles, or the bloody bill, as the Proteftants juftly
termed it, was introduced ; and having paffed the two
houfes, received the king’s affent. By this law
the dodtrine of the real prefence was eftablilhed; the
communion in one kind ; the perpetual obligation of
vows of chaftity ; the utility of private mafles; the ce¬
libacy of the clergy ; and the neceflity of auricular
confelfion. The denial of the real prefence fubjefted the
perfon to death by fire, and to the fame forfeiture as
in cafes of treafon ; and admitted not the privilege of
abjuring: an unheard of cruelty, unknown even to
the inquifition itfelf. The denial of any of the other
articles, even though recanted, was punifhable by the
forfeiture of goods and chattels, and imprifonment du¬
ring the king’s pleafure : an obftinate adherence to
error, or a relapfe, was adjudged to be felony, and pu¬
nifhable by death. The marriage of priefts was fub-
jefted to the fame punifhment. Their cbmmerce with
women, was, for the firft offence, forfeiture and im¬
prifonment ; and for the fecond, death. Abftaining
from confeffion, and from receiving the eucharift at
the accuttomed times, fubjefted the perfon to fine, and
to imprifonment during the king’s pleafure; and if the
criminal perfevered after convidion, he was punifh¬
able by death and forfeiture, as in cafes of felony.
Commifiioners were to be appointed by the king for
inquiring into thefe berelies and irregular pra&ices, and
the criminals were to be tried by a jury.
The parliament having thus furrendered their eccle-
fiaftical privileges, next proceeded to furrender their
civil ones alfo. They gave to the king’s proclamations
the fame force as to ftatutes enafted by parliament, and
thus by one blow made a total fubverfion of the Eng-
lifh conftitution ; and to render the matter worfe, if
poffible, they framed this law as if it were only de¬
claratory, and intended to explain the natural extent
of the royal authority.—Notwithftanding this, how¬
ever, they afterwards pretended to make fame limita¬
tions in the regal power; and they ena&ed, that no
proclamation fhould deprive any perfon of his lawful
pofleffions, liberties, inheritances, &c. nor yet in¬
fringe any common law or laudable cuflom of the
realm.
As foon as the aft of the fix articles had paffed, the
Catholics were extremely vigilant to inform againft of¬
fenders; and, in a fhort time, no fewer than 500 per-
fons were thrown into prifon. But fome of the chief
officers of ftate remonftrating againft the cruelty of
punifhing fuch a number of delinquents, they were all
of them fet at liberty; and foon after this, Henry, as
if he had refolved to give each party the advantage by
turns, granted every one permiffion to have a tranfla-
tion of the Bible, which had been newly made, in his
family.
In 1540, the king again complained to parliament of
the great di verfity of religious tenets which ftill prevailed
among his fubjefts; a grievance, he affirmed, which England. ;
ought the lefs to be endured, becaufe the Scriptures "7
were now publifhed in England, and ought univerfally
to be the ftandard of belief to mankind. But he had
appointed, he faid, fome bifhops and divines to draw
up a lift of tenets; and he was determined that Chrift
and the truth fhould have the viftory. The king feems
to have expefted more from this new book of his doc¬
tors, than had enfued from the publication of the Scrip¬
tures. Cromwel, as vicar-general, alfo made a fpeech
in the upper houfe ; and the peers in return told him,
that he deferved to be vicar-general to the univerfe:
To fuch a degree of mean and fervile fubmiffion was
the Englifh parliament at this time reduced. i2(S j
This year alfo the king fuppreffed the only religious Siippreffioij
order remaining in England ; namely, the knights of'f the
St John of Jerufalem, or the knights of Malta, as they ^’^ts
are commonly called. This order had by their valour ta‘ i
done great fervice to Chriftendom; and had very much
retarded, at Jerufalem, Rhodes, and Malta, the rapid
progrefs of the barbarians. During the general fur-
render of the religious houfes in England, they had
obftinately refufed to give up their revenues to the
king; and Henry, who would endure no fociety that
profeffed obedience to the pope, was obliged to have
recourfe to parliament for the diffolution of this order.
Their revenues were large, and formed a confiderable
addition to the acquifitions which the king had already
made. But he had been fuch a bad ceconomilt, that,
notwithftanding the immenfe plunder afforded him by
the church, he now demanded from parliament a very
confiderable fupply. The commons, however, though
lavifh of the blood of their fellow-fubjefts, were ex¬
tremely frugal of their money; and it was not without
murmuring that the grant could be obtained, even by
this abfolute and dreaded monarch.
The king all this time continued to punifh with un¬
relenting feverity the Proteftants who offended againft
the law of the fix articles, and the Papifts who denied
his fupremacy. This gave occalion to a foreigner at
that time to fay, that thofe who were againft the pope
were burned, and thofe who were for him were hang¬
ed. The king even feemed to difplay in an oftenta-
tious manner his tyrannical juftice and impartiality j
which reduced both parties to fubjeftion. This year • i
he executed three Proteftants and three Papifts coupled
together. The latter declared, that the moft grievous
part of their punifhment was the being coupled to fuch
heretical mifcreants as fuffered with them. tl7
In 1542, Henry proceeded to the further diffolution And of m*
of colleges, hofpitals, and other foundations of that ny colleges
nature. The courtiers had been dealing with the pre- hofpitalSr|
fidents and governors to make a furrender of their re- c‘
venues to the king; and they had fucceeded with eight.
But there was an obftacle to their farther progrefs: it
had been provided by the local ftatutes of moft of
thefe foundations, that no prefident nor any fellows
could make fuch a deed without the unanimous confent
of all the fellows. This confent would not have been
eafily obtained; but the parliament proceeded in a
fummary manner to annul all thefe ftatutes; by which
means the revenues of thofe houfes were expofed to
the rapacity of the king and his favourites. Henry
alfo now extorted from many biftiops a furrender of
their chapter-lands; by which means he pillaged the
ENG [ 2793 ] ENG
England, fees of Canterbury, York, and London, and enriched
his favourites with their fpoils. He engaged the par¬
liament to mitigate the penalties of the iix articles, as
far as regarded the marriage of priefts, which was now
only fubjefted to a forfeiture of goods, chattels, and
lands during life : he was ftill equally bent on main¬
taining a rigid purity in fpeculative principles. He had
appointed a commiflion confiding of two archbilhops
and feveral Bifhops of both provinces, together with a
confiderable number of doftors of divinity ; and by
virtue of his ecclefiafiical fupremacy he had charged
them to choofe a religion for his people. Before the
commiffioners, however, had made any progrefs in this
arduous undertaking, the parliament had paffed a law
by which they ratified all the tenets which thefe di¬
vines Ihould eftabliih with the king’s confent; and thus
they were not afeamed of declaring exprefsly that they
took their religion upon truft, and had no other rule
either in religions or temporal concerns than the arbi¬
trary will of their mafter. One claufe of the ftatute,
however, feems to favour fomewhat of the fpirit of li¬
berty. It was ena&ed, that the ecclefiaftieal commif¬
fioners (hould eftablilh nothing repugnant to the laws
and fiatutes of the realm. But in reality this provifo
was inferted by the king, to ferve his own purpofes.
By introducing a confufion and contradi&ion into the
laws, he became more the mafter of every one’s life
and property; and as the ancient independence of the
church ftill gave him jealoufy, he was well pleafed, un¬
der cover of fuch a claufe, to introduce appeals from
fpiritual to civil courts. For the fame reafon he would
never promulgate a body of canon law; and he encou¬
raged the judges,on all occafions'to interpofe in eccle-
fiaftical caufes, wherever they thought the law or the
prerogative concerned. Being thus armed by the au¬
thority of parliament, or rather by their acknowledge¬
ment of his fpiritual fupremacy, the king employed
his commiffioners to feledl a fyltem of tenets for the
Extreme affent and belief of the nation. A fmall volume was
abfurdity of publifhed, under the title of The Inftitution of a Chri-
the king’s (Han Man, which was received by the convocation,
conduct. ancj made the’infallible ftandard of orthodoxy. In this
book the points of juftification, faith, free-will, good-
works, and grace, were difcufled in a manner fome¬
what favourable to the opinions of the reformers. The
facraments, which a few years before were only al¬
lowed to be three, were now increafed to feven, con¬
formably to the fentiments of the Catholics. Through¬
out the whole of this book the king’s caprice is very
difcernible ; and the book is in reality to be regarded
as his compofition. ' For Henry, while he made his
opinion a rule for the nation, would himfelf fubmit to
no authority whatever; not even to any which he had
formerly eftablilhed. The fame year the people had a
farther inftance of the king’s inconfiftency. He order¬
ed a new bode to be compofed, called the Erudition
of a Chriftian man ; and without a/king the confent
of the convocation, he publifhed by his own authority
this new model of orthodoxy. He was no lefs pofitive
in his new creed than he had been in the old one; but
though he required the faith of the nation tq veer a-
bout at his fignal, he was particularly careful to incul¬
cate the dodtrine of paffive obedience in all his books,
and he was no lefs careful to retain the nation in the
pradlice.
But while the king was thus fpreading his own books England,
among the people, both he and the clergy feem to
have been very much perplexed with regard to the
Scriptures. A review had been made by the ecclefi-
aftical fynod of the new tranflation of the Bible; and
bifhop Gardiner had propofed, that, inftead of employ¬
ing Englifh expreffions throughout, feveral Latin words
fhould ftill be preferved, becaufe they contained, as he
pretended, fuch peculiar energy and fignificance, that
they had no correfpondent terms in the Euglifh tongue.
Among thefe were ecclefia, pccnitentia, pontifex, con~
tritus. See. But as this mixture would appear extreme¬
ly barbarous, and was plainly calculated for no other
purpofe than to retain the people in their ancient ig¬
norance, the propofal was reje&ed. The knowledge
of the people, however, feemed to be ftill more dan¬
gerous than their ignorance; and the king and parlia¬
ment, foon after the publication of the Scriptures, re¬
traced the conceffion which they had formerly made,
and prohibited all but gentlemen and merchants to
perufe them. Even that liberty was not granted with¬
out an apparent hefitation, and dread of the confe-
quences. Thefe perfons were allowed to read, fo it be
done quietly and ‘with good order. And the preamble to
the aft fets forth, “ That many feditious and igno¬
rant perfons had abufed the liberty granted them of
reading the Bible; and that great diverfity of opinion,
animofities, tumults, and fchifms, had been occafioned
by perverting the fenfe of the Scriptures.'’ The mafs-
book alfo paded under the king’s examination ; but
little alteration was yet made in it. Some doubtful or
fiCilious faints only were ftruck out; an/1 the name of
the pope was erafed. The latter precaution was alfo
ufed with every new book that was printed, and even
every old one that was fold. The word pope was carefully
omitted or blotted out; as if that precaution could abo-
lifh the term from the language, or caufe the people for¬
get that fuch a perfon exifted. About this time alfo;
the king prohibited the afting of plays, interludes, and
farces, in derifion of the popifh fuperftitions; which
the Proteftants had been in ufe to praCife : and this
prohibition was in the higheft degree pleafing to the
Roman Catholics.
In this tyrannical and head-ftrong manner Henry
proceeded with regard to ecclefiaftical affairs. In
other refpeCs his conduC was equally violent. With
regard to his domeftic concerns, hiftory fearce affords
his parallel; for an account of which, fee the bio¬
graphical article Henry. 119
The laft inftances of the king’s injuftice and cruelty Attainder
were the duke of Norfolk and his fon the earl of Surry, of Norfolk
The former had ferved the king with fidelity, and the and Su^'y•
latter was a young man of the moil promifing hopes.
His qualifications, however, were no fecurity againft
the violence of Henry’s temper. He had dropped fome
expreffions of refentment againft the king’s minifters,
who had difplaced him from the government of Bou¬
logne ; and the whole family had become obnoxious
on account of the late queen Catherine Howard. From
thefe motives, orders were given to arreft both the fa¬
ther and fon ; and accordingly they were arrefted both
on the fame day, and confined to the tower. The
duchefs dowager of Richmond, Surry’s own fifter,
was among the number of his accufers; and Sir Rich¬
ard Southwell alfo, his moft intimate friend, charged
ENG
t 2794 ]
ENG
Henry dies,
and is fuc-
ceeded by
Edward VI.
England, him with infidelity to the king. Surry denied the Oxford were ordered to be ranfacked, and purged of England.
" ' charge, and challenged his accuier to a lingle combat, the Romilh legends, miflals, and other fuperltitious ^
This favour was denied him ; and, notwithflanding his volumes; in which fearch, great devaftation was made
eloquent and fpirited defence, he was condemned and even in ufeful literature. Many volumes clafped in
executed at Tower-hill—The duke of Norfolk vainly filver were deltroyed for the fake of their rich bind-
endeavoured to mollify the king by letters and fub- ings; many of geometry and altronomy were fuppofed
millions. An attainder was found againft him, though to be magical, and dellroyed on that account; while
the only crime his accufers could allege was, that he the members of the univerlity, unable to put a flop to
had once faid that the king was lickly, and could not thefe ravages, trembled for their own fafety.
hold out long; and that the kingdom was likely to be The reformers, however, were not contented with
torn between the contending parties of different per- feverities of this kind. A commiffion was granted to
fuaiions. Cranmer, though engaged for many years the primate and others, to fearch after all Anabaptifts,
in an oppofite party to that of Norfolk, and though heretics, or contemners of the new liturgy. Among
he had received many and great injuries from him, the numbers who were found guilty upon this occalion,
would have no hand in fuch an unjnlt profecution ; was one Joan Boucher, commonly called
but retired to his feat at Croydon. The death-war- who was fo very obftinate, that the commiffioners^could
rant, however, was made out, and immediately lent to make no impreffion upon her. She maintained an ab-
the lieutenant of the tower; but a period was put to Itrufe metaphyfical fentiment, thatChrift, as man, was
the cruelties and violence of the king by his death, a finful man; but, as the Word, he was free from fin,
which happened on the 14th of January 1547, the and could be fubjedf to none of the frailties of the
night before Norfolk was to have been executed. flelh with which he was clothed. For maintaining
Henry was fucceeded by his only fon Edward, a this dodfrine, the poor woman was condemned to be
boy of nine years of age. The mod remarkable burnt to death as an heretic. The young king, who
tranfadtions of his reign are thofe with regard to reli- it feems had more fenfe than his teachers, refufed at
gion. The relfraint which Henry VIII. had laid up- firll to fign the death-warrant : but, at laft, being o-
on the proteftants was now taken off; and they not vercome by the importunities of Cranmer, he reludlant-
only maintained their dodfrines openly, but foon be- ly complied ; declaring, that if he did wrong, the fin
came the prevailing party. Henry had fixed the ma- (hould be on the head of thofe who had perfuaded him
jority of his fon at 18 years of age; and, in the mean to it. The primate, after making another unfuccefsful
time, appointed 16 executors of his will, to whom, du- effort, to reclaim the woman from her opinions, corn-
ring the minority, he entrulled the government of the milled her to the flames. Some time after, one Van
king and kingdom. This will, he imagined, would be Paris, a Dutchman, was condemned to death for Aria-
obeyed as implicitly after his death as though he had nifm. He buffered with fo much fatisfadfion, that he
been alive. But the firft adt of the executors was to hugged and careffed the faggots that were confuming
chufe the earl of Hertford, afterwards duke of Somer- him.
let, protedlor of the realm ; and in him was lodged all The reft of this reign affords only the hiftory of in-
the regal power, together with a privilege of naming trigues and cabals of the courtiers one againft another,
whom he ])leafed for his privy council. The protedlor was firft oppofed by his own brother
The duke of Somerfet had long been reckoned a admiral Sir Thomas Seymour, who had married Ca-
fecret partizan of the reformers; and, immediately on tharine Par, the late king’s widow. She died foon af-
his elevation to his prefent high dignity, began to ex- ter the marriage; and he then made his addreffes to
prefs his intention of reforming the abufes of the an- the princefs Elizabeth, who is faid not to have been
cient religion. Under his diredtion and that of Cran- averfe to the match. His brother the duke, however,
mer, therefore, the reformation was carried forward who was at that time in the north, being informed of
and completed ; fo that the religion of the Englilh be- his ambitious projedts, fpeedily returned, had him at-
came almoft What it is at prefent.—The only perfon -tainted of high treafon, and at laft condemned and ex-
of confequence who oppofed the reformers was Gardi- ecuted. The duke of Somerfet himfelf, however, was
ner bifhop of Winchelter; and, to the difgrace of their fome time afterwards deprived of his office by Dudley
own principles, the reformers now fhewed that they duke of Northumberland; who at laft found means to
could perfecute as feverely as the papifts had formerly get him accufed of high treafon, and executed. Not
perfecuted them. Gardiner was committed to the Satisfied with the office of Protedlor, which he affumed 2,j
Fleet prifon, where he was treated with great feverity. on the death of Somerfet, this ambitious nobleman Lady Jane
He was afterwards fent to the tower; and having con- formed a fcheme of engrofling the fovereign power al- Gray decla-
tinued there two years, he was commanded to fubfcribe together. He reprefented to Edward, who was now in red heir to
feveral articles, among which was one confeffing the adecliningftate ofhealth,thathisfiftersMaryandEliza-ne crown'
juftice of his own imprifonment. To all the articles beth, who were appointed by Henry’s will to fucceed, in
but this he agreed to fubfcribe; but that did not give failure of diredl heirs, to the crown, had both been de-
fatisfa&ion. He was then committed to clofecuftody; dared illegitimate by parliament; that the queen of
his books and papers were feized ; all company was Scots his aunt, flood excluded by the king’s will, and,
denied him, and he was not even permitted the ufe of beingan alien alfo,loft all right of fucceeding. Thethree
pen and ink. The bifhops of Chichefter, Worcefter, princeffes being thus excluded, the fuccemon naturally
and Exeter, were in like manner deprived of their offi- devolved to the marchionefs of Dorfet eldeft daughter
ces; but the biftiops of Landaff, Salilbury, and Co- of the French queen, Henry’s filler, who had married
ventry, efcaped by facrificing the moft confiderable fhare the earl of Suffolk, after her firft hulband’s death. The
of their revenues. The libraries of Weftminfter and next heir to the marchionefs was the Lady Jane Gray,
Reforma-
pletefl.
The refor¬
mers perfe-
ENG [ 2795 ] ENG
1 England, a lady univerfally refpefted, both on account of the
'1 ’ charms of her perfon, and the virtues and endowments
of her mind. The king, who was accuflomed to fub-
mit to the politic views of this minifter, agreed to have
the fucceffion fubmitted to council, where Northum¬
berland hoped to procure an eafy concurrence. The
judges, however, who were appointed to draw up the
king’s letters patent for this purpofe, warmly obje&ed
to the meafure; and gave their reafons before the
council. They begged that a parliament might be
fummoned, both to give it force, and to free its parti-
fans from danger: they faid that the form was invalid,
and would not only fubjedt the judges who drew it,
but every counfellor who figned it, to the pains of
treafon. Northumberland could not brook their de¬
murs; he threatened them with his authority, called
Sone of them a traitor, and faid he would fight with
' any man in his fhirt in fuch a juit caufe as that of La¬
dy Jane’s fucceffion. A method was therefore found
out of fcreening the judges from danger, by granting
them the king’s pardon for what they fhould draw up;
and at length the patent for changing the fucceffion
Was compleated, the princeffes Mary and Elizabeth
were fet afide, and the crown fettled on the heirs of the
duchefs of Suffolk (for (lie herfelf was contented to
forego her claim.)
I For fome time the king had languifhed in a confump-
tion. After this fettlement of the crown, his health
vifibly declined every day, and little hopes were enter¬
tained of his recovery. To make matters worfe, his
phyficians were difmiffed by Northumberland’s advice,
and by an order of council ; and he was put into the
hands of an ignorant old woman, who undertook in a
little time to reftore him to health. After the ufe of
her medicines all his bad fymptoms increafed to the
moft violent degree. He felt a difficulty of fpeech
and breathing; his pulfe failed, his legs fwelled, his
1234 colour became livid, and many other figns of approach-
eath of i0g death made their appearance. He expired at Green-
dward VI. wjch on the 6th of July 1553, in the 16th year of his
age and 7th of his reign.
After the death of king Edward, very little regard
was paid to the new patent by which Lady Jane Gray
had been declared heir to the throne. The undoubt¬
ed title of Mary, notwithflanding the fcandalous be¬
haviour of her father and his fervile parliaments, was
acknowledged by the whole nation. Northumberland,
1 however, was refolved to put the late king’s will in exe¬
cution. He therefore carefully concealed the death of
Edward, in hopes of fecuring the perfou of Mary, who
by an order of council had been required to attend her
brother during his illnefs ; but die being informed of
13s his death, immediately prepared to afiert her right to
_,ady Jane the crown. Northumberland then, accompanied by
t^ie duke of Suffolk, the earl of Pembroke, and fome
irone, but other noblemen, faluted Lady Jane Gray queen of
i forced to England. Jane was in a great meafure ignorant of
jefign it. thefe tranfa£iions, and it was with the utmoft difficul¬
ty ffie was perfuaded to accept of the dignity conferred
upon her. At laft ffie complied, and fuffered herfelf
to be conveyed to the tower, where it was then ufual
for the fovereigns of England to pafs fome days after
their acceffion. Mary, however, who had retired to
Kenning-hall in Norfolk, in a very few days found
herfelf at the head, of 40,000 men; and Lady Jane re-
figned the fovereignty in ten days, with much more Englaodi
pleafure than file had received it. She retired with her
mother to their own habitation; and Northumberland
finding his affairs quite defperate, attempted to quit-
the kingdom. But he was flopped by the band of
peniioner guards, who informed him that he muft flay
to juftify their conduct in taking arms againft their
lawful fovereign. He therefore furrendered himfelf to
Mary, and was foon after executed, together with Sir
John Crates, and Sir Thomas Palmer, two infamous
tools of his power. Sentence was alfo pronounced a-
gainft Lady jane Gray and her hulband Lord Guild¬
ford ; but without any intention of putting it in exe¬
cution againft them at prefent, as their youth and in-
nocence pleaded fo flrongly in their favour, neither of Mary de-
them having yet reached their 17th year. dared
Mary now entered London, and was peaceably fet- ‘I06611*
tied on the throne without any effufion of blood. The
Englilh, however, foon found reafon to repent their
attachment to her caufe. Though flie had at firft fo-
lemnly promifed to defend the religion and laws of
her predeceffor, ftie no fooner faw herfelf firmly efta-
blilhed on the throne, than Ihe refolved to reftore the
Popifti religion, and give back their former power to
the clergy. Gardiner, Bonnar, and the other bifhops
who had been imprifoned or fuffered lofs during the
laft reign, were taken from prifon, reinftated in their
fees, and now triumphed in their turn. On pretence
of difcouraging controverfy, the queen by her prero¬
gative filenced all preachers throughout England, ex¬
cept fuch as ftiould obtain a particular licenfe, and
this (he was refolved to give only to thofe of her own
perfuafion. The greater part of the foreign Prote-
ftants took the firft opportunity of leaving the king¬
dom ; and many of the arts and manufadtures, which
they had fuccefsfully introduced, fled with them. Soon
after the queen called a parliament, which feemed will¬
ing to concur in all her meafures. They at once repeal¬
ed all the ftatutes with regard to religion, that had
paffed during the reign of Edward VI. and the na¬
tional religion was again placed on the fame footing
in which it had been at the death of Henry VIII. 4jy7
The queen’s miniftersbeing now-willing to ftrengthen Marries
her power by a Catholic alliance, looked out for a pro- Philip of
per hufband to the queen. The perfon pitched up- sPain-
on, and whom the queen married, was Philip prince
of Spain, and fon of the emperor Charles V. In
order to render this match as little difagreeable to the
people as poffible, the articles of marriage were drawn
as favourable to their interefts and honour as the
nature of the thing would admit. It was agreed,
that though Philip fliould have the title of king,
the adminiftration of government fliould be entirely in
hands of the queen ; that no foreigner ftiould be ca¬
pable of enjoying any office in the kingdom; that no
innovation fliould be made in the Englifli laws, cu-
ftoms, and privileges ; that the queen’s iffue flionld in¬
herit, together with England, Burgundy and the
Low Countries ; and that if Don Carlos, Philip’s fon
by a former marriage, fliould die, the children of queen
Mary ftiould then enjoy all the dominions poffeffed by
king Philip.
Notwithftanding all thefe precautions, however, Ma- Wyat’s in-
ry’s alliance with Philip filled the whole nation with furreftion,
difcontent. Sir Thomas Wyatt, a Roman Catholic,,
at.
,
England.
of lady Jane
Gray and
* See Gray.
140
Proteftants
perfecutcd.
* See Cra i¬
mer, &c.
ENG
[ 2796 ]
ENG
at the head of 4000 infurgents, marched from Kent to
Hyde Park, publilhing, as he went forward, a decla¬
ration againft the queen’s evil counfellors, and againft
the Spanifh match. His firft aim was to fecurc the
red, that whofoever had fuch books in his pofleflion, England,
and did not burn them without reading, fhould fuffer
as a rebel. This was attended with the execution of
fuch numbers, that at laft the magiftrates who had
tower; but his temerity proved his ruin. As he march- been inftrumental in thefe cruelties, refufed to give
ed through the city of London, and among the nar¬
row ftreets, without fufpicion, care was taken by the
earl of Pembroke, to block up the way behind him by
ditches and -chains thrown acrofs, and guards placed at
the avenues, to prevent his return. Wyatt palfed on,
and fuppofed himfelf ready to reap the fruits of his
undertaking; when, to his utter confufion, he found he
could neither go forward nor retreat; fa that he was
obliged to furrender at difcretion. Some other infur-
reAions were formed ; but all of them were eafily fup-
prelfed, and the principal cOnfpirators executed. The
queen Was now determined to remove every perfon of
whom there could be the lead caufe of fufpicion. Lady
Jane Gray and her hufband were both ordered to pre¬
pare for death. The place intended at firft for their
execution was without the tower ; but their youth,
beauty, and innocence, being likely to raife an in-
furreftion among the people, orders were given that
they fhould be executed within the verge of the tower *.
The enemies of the ftate being thus fuppreffed,
thofe of the Catholic religion were next perfecuted.
The old fanguinary laws which had been rejefted by a
former parliament, were now revived. Orders were
given, that the priefts and bifhops who had married
fhould be ejedled; that the mafs fhould be reftored ; the
their affiftance any longer. It was computed, that, du¬
ring this perfecution, 277 perfons fuffered by fire, be-
fides thofe punifhed by imprifonments, fines, and con-
fifcations. Among thofe who fuffered by fire were five
bifhops, 21 clergymen, eight lay-gentlemen, 84 tradef-
men, 100 hufbandmen, 55 women, and four children.
The only remarkable tranfa&ion which happen¬
ed during this reign with regard to the temporal
affairs of the kingdom was the lofs of Calais, which
had been in the poffeflion of the Englifh for upwards
of 200 years*. This lofs filled the whole kingdom * Sc5
with complaints, and the queen with grief. She was Ca^a,Sm
heard to fay, that, when dead, the name of Calais 24I
would be found engraven on her heart. She did not Mary dies,
long furvive this lofs; but died in the year 1558, of a ai|d is (ue*
lingering illnefs, after a reign of five years four months
and eleven days.
After the death of Mary, the princefs Elizabeth
fucceeded to the throne without oppofition. She was
at Hatfield when news of her filler’s death were brought
her ; upon which fhe haftened up to London, where fhe
was received with great joy. This princefs was well
qualified for government. She had judgment fufficient
to make choice of proper minifters, and authority
enough to keep her fubje&s in awe. The reftraints al-
pope's authority eftablifhed; and that the church and fo, to which fhe had been fubje&ed during her fifter’s
its privileges, all but their goods and eftates, fhould be reign, had taught her fo well to conceal her fentiments,
put on the fame footing on which they were before
the commencement of the reformation. But as the
gentry and nobility had already divided the church-
lands among them, it was thought inconvenient, and
indeed impoffible, to make a reftoration of thefe. The
perfons who chiefly promoted thefe meafures were Gar¬
diner bifhop of Winchefter, and cardinal Pole, who
was a kinfman of Henry VIII’s, but had been long in
Italy, and was now returned from it. The latter was
for tolerating the Proteftants ; but the former, percei¬
ving that rigorous meafures would be moft agreeable
to the king and queen, declared himfelf againft it. He
was too prudent, however, to appear in perfon at the
head of the perfecution ; and therefore configned that
office to Bonner bifhop of London, a man of a very
abandoned charadler. The bloody fcene began by the
execution of Hooper bifhop of Glocefter, and Rogers
prebendary of St Paul’s. Thefe were quickly follow¬
ed by others, of whom the principal were archbifhop
Cranmer, Ridley bifhop of London, and Latimer bi¬
fhop of Worcefter *. Thefe perfecutions foon became
odious to the whole nation, and the perpetrators of
them were all willing to throw the blame from
themfelves upon others. Philip endeavoured to fa¬
llen the whole reproach upon Bonner; but that bi¬
fhop would not take the whole, and therefore retort¬
ed on the court. A bold ftep was now taken to in¬
troduce a court fimilar to the Spanifh inquifition, that
fhould be empowered to try heretics, and condemn
them without any other law but its own authority.
But even this was thought a method too dilatory in
the prefent exigence of affairs. A proclamation iffued
againft books of herefy, treafon, and fedition, decla-
that fhe had become a perfeft miftrefs of diffimulation;
which, though no commendable part of her charafter,
proved occafionally of great fervice to her government.
She perfedted the reformation, and put the religion of
England upon the fame plan which fubfifts at prefent.
This was accomplifhed without the leaft difficulty; for
the perfecutions in Mary’s reign had ferved only to
give the whole nation an averfion for popery. In the
time of Edward VI. the people had been compelled to
embrace the Proteftant religion, and their fears indu¬
ced them to conform ; but now, almoft the whole na¬
tion were Proteftants from inclination. The reforma¬
tion was confirmed by a£l of parliament in 1559, and
thus England was feen to change its religion four times
in the fpace of 32 years.
For many years of queen Elizabeth’s reign nothing
remarkable occurs, except her ungenerous and cruel
treatment of Mary queen of Scots, who had fled into her
dominions for protedlion from her own fubjedls. On
the nth of November 1586, this unfortunate princefs
was executed, under pretence of having engaged herfelf
in a confpiracy againft the queen of England ; for an
account of which, fee the articles Mary and Scotland.
In a fhort time after her execution, Elizabeth found her¬
felf in a much greater danger than what could have a- J44
rifen from the machinations of Mary. Philip of Spain, ProjefteJ
who had long meditated the deftrudlion of England, mvafion
and who by his extenfive power feemed to have rea- fromSPa'I*i
fonable grounds to hope for fuccefs, began now to put
his projedls in execution. The perpetual objeft of his
fchemes was to fupport the Catholic religion and ex¬
terminate the reformation. The revolt of the Dutch,
who about this time broke off from Spain, Hill more
inflamed
ENG [ 2797 ] ENG
England. Inflamed his refentment againft the EngH/h, as they had
_ encouraged that infurreftion and afltlted the revolters.
He had, therefore, for fome time, been making prepara¬
tions to attack England by a powerful invafion; andnow
every part of his vaft empire refounded with the noife of
armaments, and every art was ufed to levy fupplies for
that great defign. The marquis of Santa Croce, a fea-
officer of great reputation and experience, was deftined
to command the fleet, which cdnfifted of 13b veflels,
of a greater fize than any that had been hitherto feen
in Europe. The duke of Parma was to conduft the
land-forces, 20*000 of whom were on board the fleet,
and 34,000 more were aflembled in the Netherlands,
ready to be tranfported into England. The moft re¬
nowned nobility and princes of Italy and Spain were
ambitious of {haring in the honour of this great enter-
prize. Don Amadasus of Savoy, Don John of Me-
Idicis, Gonzago duke of Sabionetta, and others, haften-
ed to join this great equipment; no doubt was enter¬
tained of its Puccefs, and it was oftentatioufly ftyled the
invincible armada. It carried on board, befides the
land-forces, 8400 mariners, 2000 galley-flaves, and
2630 great pieces of brafs ordnance. It was vi&ualled
for fix months; and was attended with 20 lefler fhips,
called caravals, having 10 flaves, and fix oars a-piece.
Nothing could exceed the terror and contternation
which all ranks of people felt in England upon the
news of this terrible armada being under fail to invade
them. A fleet of not above 30 (hips of war, and thofe
8 very fmall, in comparifon, was all that was to oppofe it
by fea ; and as for refiftance by land, that was fup-
pofed to be impoffible, as the Spanifh army was com-
pofed of men well difciplined, and long inured to dan¬
ger. The queen alone feemed undifmayed in this
threatening calamity; (he iffued all her orders with
tranquillity; animated her people to a fteady refiftance;
and the more to excite the martial fpirit of the nation,
appeared on horfeback in the camp at Tilbury, ex¬
horting the foldiers to their duty, and promifing to
{hare the fame dangers and the fame fate with them.
‘‘ I myfelf, (cried {he), will be your general, your
judge, and the rewarder of every one of your virtues
in the field. Your alacrity has already deferred its re¬
wards; and on the word of a prince they {hall be duly
paid you. Perfevere then in your obedience to com¬
mand; Ihewyourwalourin the field; and we IhallToon
have a glorious vi&ory over thofe enemies of my God,
my kingdom, and my people.” The foldiers with
{bouts proclaimed their ardour, and only wiftied to be
led on to conqueft.
Nor were her preparations by fea carried on with lefs
alacrity ; although the Englilh fleet was much inferior
in number and fize of {hipping to that of the enemy,
yet it was much more manageable, the dexterity and
courage oTthe mariners being greatly fuperior. Lord
Howard of Effingham, a man of great courage and
capacity, as lord high admiral took upon him the com¬
mand of the navy. Drake, Hawkins, and Forbifher, the
moft renowned feamen in Europe, ferved under him ;
while a fmall fquadron confifting of 40 veffels, Englifti
and Flemifti, commanded by lord Seymour, lay off
Dunkirk, in order to intercept the duke of Parma.
Such were the preparations made by the Englilh, while
all the Proteftant powers of Europe regarded this en-
terprize as the critical event which was to decide for
Yol. IV,
ever the fate of their religion. England.
In the mean time, while the Spanifti armada was
preparing to fail, the admiral Santa Croce died, as
likewife the vice-admiral Paliano ; and the command 0f the Spa-
of the expedition was given to the duke de Medina Si- ni<h arma-
donia, a perfon utterly unexperienced in fea-affairs; ^
and this, in fome meafure, ferved to fruftrate the de¬
fign. But fome other accidents alfo contributed to its
failure. Upon leaving the port of Lilbon, the armada
next day met with a violent tempeft, which funk fome
of the fmalleft of their {hipping, and obliged the fleet
to put back into harbour. After fome time fpent in
refitting, they again put to fea; where they took a
fifherman, who gave them intelligence that the Englilh
fleet, hearing of the difperfion of the armada in a ftorm,
was retired back into Plymouth harbour, and moft of
the mariners difcharged. From this falfe intelligence,
the Spanifti admiral, inftead of going dire&ly to the
coaft of Flanders, to take in the troops Rationed there,
as he had been inftrufted, refolved to fail to Plymouth,
and deftroy the {hipping laid up in that harbour. But
Effingham, the Englifti admiral, was very well prepa¬
red to receive them; he was juft got out of port when
he faw the Spanifti armada coming full fail towards
him, difpofed in the form of an half-moon, and ftretch-
ing feven miles from one extremity to the other. How¬
ever, the Englifti admiral, feconded by Drake, Haw¬
kins, and Forbiftier, attacked the armada at a diftance,
pouring in their broadfides with admirable dexterity.
They did not choofe to engage the enemy more clofe-
ly, becaufe they were greatly inferior in the number of
{hips, guns, and weight of metal; my could they pre¬
tend to board fuch lofty {hips without manifeft difad-
vantage. However, two Spanifti galleons were dif-
abled and taken. As the armada advanced up the
channel, the Englifti ftill followed and infefted their
rear; and their fleet continually increafing from diffe¬
rent ports, they foon found themfelves in a capacity to
attack the Spanifti fleet more nearly; and accordingly
fell upon them, while they were as yet taking ftielter in
the port of Calais. To increafe their confufion, How¬
ard took eight of his fmaller {hips, and filling them
with combuftible materials, fent them, as if they had
been fire-ftiips, one after the other into the midft of the
enemy. The Spaniards, taking them for what they
feemed to be, immediately took flight in great difor-
der; while the Englifti, profiting by their panic, took
or deftroyed about 12 of their {hips.
This was a fatal blow to Spain. The duke de Me¬
dina Sidonia being thus driven to the coaft of Zealand,
held a council of war, in which it was refolved, that as
their ammunition began to fail, as their fliips had re¬
ceived great damage, and the duke of Parma had re-
fufed tq venture his army under their prote&ion, they
fliould return to Spain by failing round the Orkneys,
as the wind was contrary to his paffage dire&ly back.
Accordingly they proceeded northward, and were fol¬
lowed by the Englifti fleet as far as Flamborough head,
where they were terribly fhattered by a ftorm. Seven¬
teen of the ftu’ps, having 5000 men on board, were af¬
terwards call away upon the Weftern ifles, and the
coaft of Ireland. Of the whole armada, 53 fliips only
returned to Spain, in a miferable condition; and the
feamen as well as foldiers who remained, only ferved,
by their accounts, to intimidate their countrymen from
16 F at-
ENG
[
England, attempting to renew fo dangerous an expedition.
Thefe difafters of the Spanifh armada, ferved only
to excite the fpirit and courage of the Englifh to at¬
tempt invafions in their turn. It would be endlefs to
relate all the advantages obtained over the enemy at
fea, where the capture of every fhip muft have made a
feparate narrative. It is fufficient to obferve, that the
fea-captains of that reign are ftill confidered as the
boldeft and moft enterprizing fet of men that England
ever produced; and among this number, we are to
reckon Raleigh and Howard, Drake, Cavendifh, and
Hawkins. The Engliih navy then began to take the
lead; and has fincecontinued irrefiftible in all parts of
the ocean.
Elizabeth continued to reign with great glory till
the year 1603 ; but all her greatnefs could not prevent
her from being extremely miferable before her death.
She had caufed her greateft favourite, and probably
* Set Dcve- her lover, the earl of Eflex * to be executed. Though
reux. execut;on could not be called unjuft, the queen’s
affeftion (on being informed that he had at laft thrown
himfelf entirely on her clemency) returned to fuch a
»44 degree, that {he thenceforth gave herfelf entirely over
Elizabeth’s to defpair. She refufed food and fuftenance; fhe con-
grief for the tinned filent, and gloomy ; fighs and groans were the
on^ vent 8ave t0 her defpondence; and fhe lay for
ten days and nights upon the carpet, leaning on cu-
fhions, which her maids brought her. Perhaps the fa¬
culties of her mind were impaired by long and violent
exercife ; perhaps fhe refle&ed with remorfe on fome
paft adtions of her life, or perceived, but too ftrongly,
the decays of nature, and the approach of her diffolu-
tion. She faw her courtiers remitting in their aflidu-
ity to her, in order to pay their court to James the
apparent fucceflbr. Such a concurrence of caufes was
more than fufficient to deftroy the remains of her con-
ftitution; and her end was now vifibly feen to ap¬
proach. Feeling a perpetual heat in her ftomach, at¬
tended with an unquenchable thirft, fhe drank without
ceafing, but refufed the affiftance of her phyficians.
Her diftemper gaining ground, Cecil, and the lord
admiral, defired to know her fentiments with regard to
the fucceffion. To this {he replied, that, as the crown
of England had always been held by kings, it ought
not to devolve upon any inferior chara&er, but upon
her immediate heir the king of Scotland. Being then
advifed by the archbilhop of Canterbury to fix her
thoughts upon God, {he replied, that her thoughts did
not in the leaft wander from him. Her voice foon af-
14$ ter left her; (he fell into a lethargic {lumber, which
Her death, continued fome hours; and fhe expired gently without
a groan, in the 70th year of her age, and 45th of her
reign. She was fucceeded by James I. king of Scot¬
land ; fine? which time, the hiftory of both England and
*46 Scotland is comprehended under the article Britain.
how'divi* Since the Norman conqueft, England has been di-
^e{j viddd into fix circuits, each circuit containing a certain
number of counties. Two judges are appointed for
each circuit, which they vifit in the fpringand autumn,
for adminiftering juftice to the fubje&s who are at a
diftance from the capital. In holding the Lent (or
fpring) aflizes, the northern circuit extends only^to
York and Lancafter; the affizes at Durham, New-
ealth, Cariifle, and Appleby, being held only in the
autumn, and diftinguilhed by the appellation of the
r98 ] ENG
long circuit. Thefe circuits and counties are ; England
1. Home Circuit contains the counties of Eflex, :
Hertford, Kent, Surry, and Suflex.
2. .Afor/9/if £7m-z«Y contains thofe of Bucks, Bedford,
Huntingdon, Cambridge, Suffolk, and Norfolk.
3. Oxford Circuit. Oxon, Berks, Gloucefter, Wor-
cefter, Monmouth, Hereford, Salop, and Stafford.
4. Midland Circuit. Warwick, Leicefter, Derby,
Nottingham, Lincoln, Rutland, and Northampton.
5. Wejlcrn Circuit. Hants, Wilts, Dorfet, Somer-
fet, Devon, and Cornwal.
6. Northern Circuit. York, Durham, Northum¬
berland, Lancafter, Weftmoreland, and Cumberland.
Middlefex andChelhire are not comprehended in the
above circuits; the former being the feat of the fu-
preme courts of juftice, and the latter a county palatine.
There is ftill a court of chancery in Lancafter and Dur¬
ham, with a chancellor; and there is a court of ex¬
chequer at Chefter, of a mixed kind, both for law and
equity, of which the chamberlain of Chefter is judge :
there are alfo other juftices in the counties palatine to
determine civil adfions and pleas of the crown.
Befides the 40 counties into which England is di¬
vided, there are counties corporate, conlifting of cer¬
tain diftridls, to which the liberties and jurifdi£tions
peculiar to a county have been granted by charter
from the throne. Thus the city of London is a county
diftindt from Middlefex ; the cities of York, Chefter,
Briftol, Norwich, Worcefter, and the towns of King-
fton upon Hull and Newcaftle upon Tyne, are coun¬
ties of themfelves, diftinft from thofe in which they
lie. The fame may be faid of Berwick upon Tweed,
which lies in Scotland, and has within its jurifdidtion
a fmall territory of two miles on the north fide of the
river. Under the name of a town, boroughs and cities
are contained : for every borough or city is a town,
though every town is not a borough or city.—An ac¬
count of the Englifti conftitution and government is
given under the articles King, Lords, Commons,
Parliament, Law, Liberty, Rights, &c. 14T
The eftablifhed religion of England is epifcopacy. Religion.
Since the reign of Henry VIII. the fovereigns of
England have been called, in public writs, the fupreme
heads of the church; but this title conveys no fpiritual
meaning, as it only denotes the regal power to pre¬
vent any ecclefiaftical differences, or, in other words, to
fubftitute the king in place of the pope before the re¬
formation, with regard to temporalties and the in¬
ternal ceconomy of the church. The kings of Eng¬
land never intermeddle in ecclefiaftical difputes, and
are contented to give a fan&ion to the legal rights of
the clergy.
The church of England, under this defcription of
the monarchical power over it, is governed by two arch-
bifhops, and 24 biihops, befides the biftiop of Sodor
and Man, who, not being poffeffed of an Englifti ba¬
rony, does not fit irr the houfe of peers. See Arch¬
bishop and Bishot.
England contains about 60 archdeacons. Subordi¬
nate to them are the rural deacons, formerly ftyled arch-
prejhyters, who fignify the bifhops pleafure to his cler¬
gy, the lower clafs of which confifts of parilh-prieft*
(who are called reftors or vicars'), deacons, and curates.
See the articles Curate, Deacon, Parson, and Vicar.
The following is a lift of the Englifh bilhoprics,
with
ENG [ 2799 ] ENG
dEngland,
Jl-fl New
■ f the
[fergy.
with their revenues, as charged in the king’s books:
though that fum is far from being the real annual va-
_lue of the fee, yet it affitls in forming a comparative
eftimate between the revenues of each fee with thofe of
another.
Archbishoprics. £. s. d.
Canterbury, - - 2682 12 2
York, - - 1610 o o
Bishoprics.
London, - - 2000 o o
Durham, - - 1821 I 3
Winchefter, - - 3124 12 8
Thefe three bifhops take precedency of all others in
England, and the others according to the fenio-
rity of their confecrations.
Ely, - - 2134 t8 6
Bath and Wells, - - 533 1 3
Hereford, - - 768 11 o
Rochefter, - • 358 4 9
Lichiield and Coventry, - S?9 17 3
Chelter, - - 420 1 8
Worcefter, - - 929 13 3
Chicefter, - - 677 1 3
St Afaph, - - - 187x18
Salifbury, - - 5 0
Bangor, - - - 131 16 3
Norwich, - - 834 11 7
Gloucefter, - - 3^5 7 '5
Landaff, - - 154 14 2
Lincoln, ... 894 18 1
Briltol, ... 294 11 o
Carlifle, - - - 531 4 9
Exeter, - - - 500 o o
Peterborough, - - 414 14 8
Oxford, - - - 381 11 o
St Davids, - - 426 2 1
The ecclefiaftical government of England is, proper¬
ly fpeaking, lodged in the convocation ; which is a na¬
tional reprefentative or fynod, and anfwers pretty near
to the ideas we have of a parliament. They are con¬
voked at the fame time with every parliament; and
their bufinefs is to confider of the ftate of the church,
and to call thofe to an account who have advanced new
opinions, inconfiilent with the doftrines of the church
of England. Some high-flying clergymen during the
reign of queen Anne, and in the beginning of that of
George I. raifed the powers of the convocation to a
height that was inconfiftent with the principles of reli¬
gious toleration, and indeed of civil liberty: fo that
the crown was obliged to exert its prerogative of call¬
ing the members together, and of diffolving them ; and
ever fince they have not been permitted to fit for any
time, in which they could do bufinefs.
New ENGLAND, a province of the Britilh em¬
pire in America, bounded on the north'-eaft by Nova
Scotia, on the weft by Canada, on the fouth by New
York, and on the eaft by the Atlantic ocean. It lies
between 41 and 49 degrees of north latitude, and be¬
tween 67 and 74 of weft longitude; extending in length
, 550 miles, and in breadth about 200.
When firft This country was difcovered in the beginning of the
difcovered. ]aft; century, and called North Virginia ; but no Eu¬
ropeans fettled there till the year 1608. The firft co¬
lony, which was weak and ill-direfted, did not fuc-
ceedj and, for fome time, there were only a few
adventurers who came over at times in the fummer, New-
built themfelves temporary huts for the fake of trading En8lal‘d-
with the favages, and, like them, difappeared again
for the reft of the year. At laft fome Englilh prelby-
terians, who had been driven from their own country,
and had taken refuge in Holland, refolved to found a
church for their fe£t in the new hemifphere. They
therefore purchafed, in 1521, the charter of the Eng¬
lilh North Virginia company. Forty-one families,
making in all 120 perfons, landed in the beginning of
a very hard winter, and found a country entirely co¬
vered with wood, which offered a very melancholy
profpeft to men already exhaufted with the fatigues of
their voyage. Near one half perilhed either by cold, the
fcurvy, or other diftrefs. The courage of the reft was
beginning to fail; but it was revived by the arrival of
60 favage warriors, who came to them in the fpring,
headed by their chief. The old tenants afligned for
ever to the new ones all the lands in the neighbour¬
hood of the fettlement they had formed, under the
name of JVi?au Plymouth ; and one of the favages who
underftood a little Englifh, (laid to teach them howto
cultivate the maize, and initrudl them in the manner of
filhing upon their coaft.
This kiudnefs enabled the colony to wait for the
companions they expefted from Europe, with feeds,
with domeftic animals, and with every affiftance they
wanted. At firft thefe fuccours arrived but flowly;
but the perfecution of the puritans in England increa-
fed the number of profelytes to fuch a degree in Ame¬
rica, that, in 1630, they were obliged to form diffe¬
rent fettlements, of which Bofton foon became the
principal. Thefe firft fettlers were not merely ecclefia-
ftics, who had been deprived of their preferments on
account of their opinions ; nor thofe fe&aries influen¬
ced by new opinions, that are fo frequent among the
common people. There were among them feveral per¬
fons of high rank, who, having embraced puritanifm,
had taken the precaution to fecure themfelves an afy-
lum in thefe diftant regions. They had caufed houfes
to be built, and lands to be cleared, with a view of re¬
tiring there, if their endeavours in the caufe of civil
and religious liberty Ihould prove abortive.
The inhabitants of New England lived peaceably for RaynaPs
a long time, without any regular form of policy. Their ™fiory °f
charter had indeed authorized them to eftablilh anyf*^*”1
mode of government they might choofe ; but thefe eii- * emen *’
thufiafts were not agreed among themfelves upon the
plan of their republic, and government did not pay
fufficient attention to them to urge them to fecure their
own tranquillity. At length they grew fenfible of the
neceflity of a regular legiflation ; and this great work,
which virtue and genius united have never attempted
but with diffidence, was boldly undertaken by blind
fanaticifm. It bore the ftamp of the rude prejudices 4
on which it had been formed. Three was in this new Firft code
code a Angular mixture of good and evil, of wifdom of laws,
and folly. No man was allowed to have a {hare in the
government except he were a member of the eftabliftied
church. Witchcraft, perjury, blafphemy, and adul¬
tery, were made capital offences ; and children were
alfo puniftied with death, either for curfing or ftriking
their parents. Marriages, however, were to be fo-
lemnized by the magiftrate. The price of corn was
fixed at 2 s. u^-d. perbulhel. The favages who ne-
16 F 2 glefted
ENG [ 2800 ] ENG
New gle&ed to Cultivate their lands were to be deprived of
^ngland' them ; and Europeans were forbidden under a heavy
penalty to fell them any ftrong liquors or warlike
ilores. All thofe who were dete&ed either in lying,
drunkennefs, or dancing, were ordered to be publicly
whipped. But at the fame time that amufements were
forbidden equally with vices and crimes, one might be
allowed to fwear by paying a penalty of 1d. and to
break the fabbath for 2 1. 19 s. 9^ d. Another in¬
dulgence allowed was, to atone, by a fine, for a ne-
gleft of prayer, or for uttering a ralh oath. But it is
ftill more extraordinary, that the worlhip of images
was forbidden to the puritans on pain of death; which
was alfo inflifted on Roman Catholic priefts, who
3 fhould return to the colony after they had been banifli-
Qnakcrs ecj . and on Quakers who fhould appear again after
perfecuted. }jav;ng been whipped, branded, and expelled. Such
was the abhorrence for thefe fe&aries, who had them-
felves an averfion for every kind of cruelty, that who¬
ever either brought one of them into the coiintryj or
harboured him but for one hour, was liable to pay a
confiderable fine.
Thofe unfortunate members of the colony, who, lefs
violent than their brethren, ventured to deny the coer¬
cive power of the magifirate in matters of religion,
were perfecuted with ftill greater rigour. This was
confidered as blafphemy by thofe very divines who had
rather chofento quit their country than to {hew any defe¬
rence to efpifcopal authority. This fyftem was fupported
by the feverities of the law, which attempted to put a
flop to every difference in opinion, by inflicting capi¬
tal punifhment on all who diffented. Thofe who were
either convifted, or even fufpeCted, of entertaining fen-
timents of toleration,, were expofed to fuch cruel op-
preffions, that they were forced to fly from their firft
afylum, and feek refuge in another. They found one on
the fame continent; and as New England had been firft
founded by perfecution, its limits were extended by it.
This intemperate religious zeal extended itfelf to
matters in themfelves of the greateft indifference. A
proof of this is found in the following public declara-
4 tion, tranfcribed from the regifters of the colony.
Law again ft “ It is a circumftance univerfally acknowledged,
■wearing « that the cuftom of wearingdong hair, after the man-
long hair. « ner 0f immoral perfons and of the favage Indians,
“ can have been introduced into England only in
“ facrilegious contempt of the exprefs command of
“ God, who declares that it is a fhameful praftice for
“ any man who has the lead care for his foul to wear
u long hair. As this abomination excites the indig-
M nation of all pious perfons ; we, the magiftrates, in
“ our zeal for the purity of the faith, do exprefsly and
“ authentically declare, that we condemn the impious
“ cuftom of letting the hair grow; a cuftom which we
look upon to be very indecent and difhoneft, which
“ horribly difguifes men, and is offenfive to modeft
“ and fober perfons, in as much as it corrupts good
“ manners. We, therefore, being juftly incenfed a-
“ gainft this Scandalous cuftom, do defire, advife, and
earneftly requefl all the elders of our continent, zea-
14 loufly to (hew their averfion for this odious prac-
“ tice, to exert all their power to put a flop to it, and
“ efpecially to take care that the members of their
churches be not infected with it ; in order that thofe
perfons, who, notwithftanding thefe rigorous pro-
“ hibitions, and the means of corredtion that {hall New
“ be ufed on this account, fliall ftill perfift in this cu- England,
“ ftom, {hall have both God and man at the fame time
“ againft them.”
This feverity foon exerted itfclf againft the Quakers.
They were whipped, banifhed, and imprifoned. The
behaviour of thefe new enthufiafts, who in the midft of
tortures and ignominy praifed God, and called for
blefiings upon men, infpired a reverence for their per¬
fons and opinions, and gained them a number of pro-
felytes. This circumftance exafperated their perfecu-
tors, and hurried them on to the moft atrocious afts
of violence ; and they caufed five of them, who had
returned dandeftindy from banifhment, to be hanged.
This fpirit of perfecution was, however, at laft fup-
preffed by the interpofition of the mother-country, from
whence it had been brought. Charles II. moved with
the fufferings of the quakers, put a flop to them by a
proclamation in 1661 ; but he was never able totally
to extinguilh the fpirit of perfecution that prevailed in
America.
The colony had placed at their head Henry Vane,
the fon of that Sir Henry Vane who had fuch a re¬
markable fliare in the difturbances of his country. This
obftinate and enthufiaftic young man had contrived to
revive the queftions of grace and free-will. The dif-
putes upon thefe points ran very high ; and would
probably have plunged the colony into a civil war, if
feveral of the favage nations united had not happened
at that very time to falbupon the plantations of the dif-
putants, and to maffacre great numbers of them. The
colonifts, heated with their theological contefts, paid at
firft very little attention to this confiderable lofs. But
the danger at length became fo urgent and fo general,
that all took up arms. As foon as the enemy was re-
pulfed, the colony refumed its former diffentions ; and
the phrenzy which they excited, broke out in 1692 in
a war, marked with as many atrodous inftances of vio¬
lence, as any ever recorded in hiftory. j
There lived in a town of New England, called Sa- F.xtraorJi- '
lem, two young women who were fubjett to convul- na,7 perfe-t
fions, accompanied with extraordinary fymptoms. ^'/tches^ I
Their father, minifter of the church, thought that * j
they were bewitched ; and having in confequence caft
his fufpicions upon an Indian girl, who lived in this
houfe, he compelled her by harfh treatment to confefs
that Ihe was a witch. Other women, upon hearing
this, immediately believed, that the convullions, whicfr
proceeded only from the nature of their fex, were ow¬
ing to the fame canfe. Three citizens, cafually named,
were immediately thrown into prifon, accufed of witch¬
craft, hanged, and their bodies left expofed to wild
beafts and birds of prey. A few days after, 16 other
perfons, together with a connfellor, who, becaufe he
refufed to plead againft them, was fuppofed to {hare
in their guilt, fuftered in the fame manner. From this
inftant, the imagination of the multitude was inflamed \
with thefe horrid and gloomy fcenes. Children of ten
years of age were put to death, young girls were ftrip-
ped naked, and the marks of witchcraft fearched for
upon their bodies with the moft indecent curiofity; and
thofe fpots of the fcu,rvy which age impreffes upon the
bodies of old men, were taken for evident figns of the
infernal power. In default of thefe, torments were
employed to extort confeffions dictated by the execur
» tioners
ENG [ 2801 ] ENG
New tioners themfelves. If the magiftrates, tired out with
England. executions, refufed to punirti, they were themfelves ac-
cufed of the crimes they tolerated ; the very minifters
of religion raifed falfe witndfes againft them, who
made them forfeit with their lives the tardy remorfe
excited in them by humanity. Dreams, apparitions,
terror, and confternation of every kind, increafed thefe
prodigies of folly and horror. The prifons wer£ fill¬
ed, the gibbets left Handing, and all the citizens in¬
volved in gloomy apprehenfions. The moft prudent
quitted the country itained with the blood of its inha¬
bitants ; and nothing lefs than the total and immediate
fubverfion of the colony was expefted, when, on a fud-
den, all eyes were opened at once, and the excefs of the
evil awakened the minds Vvhich it had firfi ftupefied.
Bitter and painful remorfe was the immediate confe-
quence ; the mercy of God was implored by a general
fall, and public prayers were offered up to alk forgive-
nefs for the prefumption of having fuppofedthat heaven
could have been pleafed with facrifices with which it
could only have been offended.
Pofterity, will, probably, never know exaftly what
was the caufe or remedy of this dreadful diforder. It
had, perhaps, its firlt origin in the melancholy which
thofe perfecuted enthufialts- had brought with them
from their own country, which had increafed with the
-fcurvy they had contra£led at fea, and had gathered
frefh ftrength from the inconveniencies and hardlhips
infeparable from a change of climate and manner of li¬
ving. The contagion, however, ceafed like all other
epidemical diftempers, exhaufttd by its very commu¬
nication. A perfeft calm fucceeded this agitation;
and the Puritans of New England have never fince
been feized with fo gloomy a fit of enthufiafm.
But though the colony has renounced the perfecu-
ting fpirit which hath ftained all religious fe£ts with
blood, it has preferred fome remains if not of intolera¬
tion, at lead of feverity, which reminds us of thofe
melancholy days in which it took its rife. Some of its
laws are ftill too fevere.
New England had, however, fome remedy, againft
bad laws, in the conftitution of its mother-country,
where the people who have the legiflative power in their
own hands are at liberty to correct abufes ; and it has
others derived from its fituation, which open a vaft
6 field to induftry and population.
Manner of The clearing of the lands in this colony is not di-
fettlement re&ed by chance as in the other provinces. This mat-
lomr15 C°" ter ^’orn t^ie was fuhje&ed to laws which' are ftill
religioufly obferved. No citizen whatever has the li¬
berty of fettling even upon unoccupied land. The go¬
vernment, defirous of preferring all its members from
the inroads of the favages, and of placing them in a
condition to fhare in the proteftion of a well-regulated
fociety, hath ordered that whole villages (hould be
formed at once. As foon as 60 families offer to.build
a church, maintain a clergyman, and pay a fchool-
mafter, the general affjmbly allot them a fituation, and
permit them to have two reprefentatives in the legifla¬
tive body of the colony. The diftrid afligned them al¬
ways borders upon the lands already cleared, and ge¬
nerally contains 60,000 fquare acres. Thefe new people
choofe the fituation moft convenient for their habitation,
which is ufually of a fquare figure. The church is placed
in the centre; the colonifts divide the land among them¬
felves, and each inclofes his property with a hedge. New
Some woods are referved fora common ; and thus New E!lSlatl^‘
England is conftantly enlarging its territory, though
it ftill continues^ to make one complete and well confti-
tuted province. 7
Though the colony is fituated in the midft of the Climate,
temperate zone, yet the climate is not fo mild as that &c'
of fome European provinces which are under the fame
parallel. The winters are longer and colder ; the fum-
mers ftiorter and hotter. The iky is commonly clear,
and the rains are more plentiful than lading. The air is
grown purer fince its circulation has been made free by
cutting down the woods; and malignant vapours, which
at firft carried off numbers of the inhabitants, are no
longer complained of. g
The country is divided into four provinces, which at Divifioii,
firft had no connexion with one another. The' necef- ^c*
fity of maintaining an armed force againft the favages,
obliged them to form a confederacy in 1643, when they
took the name of the United Colonies. In confequence
of this league, two deputies from each eftablifliment
ufed to meet in a ftated place to deliberate upon the
common affairs of New England, according to the in-
ftruttions they had received from the affembly by
which they were fent. This affociation laid no con-
ftraint upon the right of every individual to a<ft entire¬
ly as he pleafed, without either the permiffion or ap¬
probation of the mother-country. All the fubmiffion
required of thefe provinces was merely to acknowledge
the kings of England for their fovereigns. Charles IL
wiftied to make them more dependent. The province of
Maffachufet’s bay, which, though the fmalleft, was the
richeft and the moft populous of the four, being guilty
of tome mifdemeanour againft government, the king
feized that opportunity of taking away its charter in
i6»4: and it remained without one till the revolution;
when it received another, which, however, did not
anfwer its claims or expectations. The crown referved
to itfelf the right of nominating the governor, and ap¬
pointing to all military employments, and to all prin¬
cipal polts in the civil and juridical departments: it al¬
lowed the people of the colony their legiflative power,
and gave the governor a negative voice and the com¬
mand of the troops, which fecured him a fufficient influ¬
ence to enable him to maintain the prerogative of the mo¬
ther-country in all its force. The provinces of Connec¬
ticut and Rhode-Ifland by timely fubmiflion prevented
the punifhment which that ofMaffachufet had incurred,
and retained theiroriginal charter. That of Nevv-Hamp-
ftiire had been always regulated by the fame mode of
adminiftration as the province of Maffachufet’s bay.
The fame governor prefides over the whole colony, but
with regulations adapted to the conftitution of each
province. According to the moft exad. calculations,
the number of inhabitants in New England, before the
commencement of the prefent war, was computed at
400,000; but the fouthern parts of the colony are bet¬
ter peopled than the northern, where the foil is lefs
fertile. Among fuch a number of citizens, there are
few proprietors wealthy enough to leave the care of
their, plantations to ftewards or farmers : moft of them
are planters in eafy circumftances, who live upon their
eftates, and are employed in the labours of the field.
This equality of fortune, joined to their religious prin¬
ciples, and to the nature of the government, gives this
people-
Ene'rfh.
ENG [ 2802 ] ENG
people a more republican caft than is to be obferved in
' the other colonies.
No European fruits have degenerated in New Eng¬
land ; it is even faid, that the apple is improved, at
leaft has multiplied exceedingly, and made cyder a
more common drink there than in any other part of the
world. All European roots and garden-duffs have
equally profpered; but the feeds have not thriven quite
fo well. Wheat is apt to be blighted, barley grows
dry, and oats yield more draw than grain. In default
of thefe, the make, which is commonly ufed in ma¬
king beer, is the drink of the common people. There
are large and fruitful meadows., which are covered with
numerous flocks.
The arts, though carried to a greater degree of per-
fe&ion in this colony than in any of the others, have
not made near the fame progrefs as agriculture. Before
the commencement of the difputes with the mother-
country, there were not more than four or five manu¬
factures of any importance.
ENGLISH, or the English Tongue, the language
fpoken by the people of England, and, with Come va¬
riation, by thofe of Scotland, as well as part of Ireland,
and the red of the Britifh dominions.
The ancient language of Britain is generally allow¬
ed to have been the fame with the Gaulic, or French;
this ifland, in all probability, having been fird peopled
from Gallia, as both Cefar and Tacitus affirm, and
prove by many drong and conclufive arguments, as by
their religion, manners, cudoms, and the nearnefs of
their fituation. But now we have very fmall remains
of the ancient Britifii tongue, except in Wales, Corn¬
wall, the iflands and Highlands of Scotland, part of
Ireland, and fome provinces of France; which will not
appear drange, when what follows is cpnfidered.
Julius Cefar, fome time before the birth of our Sa¬
viour, made a defcent upon Britain, though he may be
faid rather to have difcovered than conquered it; but,
about the year of Chrid 45, in the time of Claudius,
Aulus Plautius was fent over with fome Roman forces,
by whom two kings of the Britons, Togodumnus and
Claradlacus, were both overcome in battle: whereupon
a Roman colony was planted at Malden in Effex, and
the fouthern parts of the ifland were reduced to the
form of a Roman province: after that, the ifland was
conquered as far north as the friths of Dunbarton and
Edinburgh, by Agricola, in the time of Domitian;
whereupon a great number of the Britons, in the con¬
quered part of the ifland, retired to the wed part call¬
ed Wales, carrying their language with them.
The greated part of Britain being thus become a
Roman province, the Roman legions, who refided in
Britain for above 200 years, undoubtedly diffeminated
the Latin tongue; and the people being afterwards go¬
verned by laws written in Latin, mud neceffarily make
a mixture of languages. This feems to have been the
fird mutation the language of Britain fuffered.
Thus the Britiffi tongue continued, for fome time,
mixed with the provincial Latin, till, the Roman le¬
gions being called home, the Scots and Pifts took the
opportunity to attack and harrafs England: upon which,
K. Vortigern, about the year 440, called the Saxons
to his affidance; who came over with feveral of their
neighbours, and having repulfed the Scots and Pi£ls,
were rewarded for their fervices with the ifle of Tha-
net, and the whole county of Kent; but growing too Eng
powerful, and not being contented with their allot-
ment, difpoffeffed the inhabitants of all the country on
this fide of the Severn f : thus the Britifti tongue was in t See
a great meafure dedroyed, and the Saxon introduced
in its dead. 4I'
What the Saxon tongue was long before the con-
qued, about the year 700, we may obferve in the mod
ancient manufcript of that language, which is a glofs
on the Evangelids, by bifliop Edfrid, in which the three
fird articles of the Lord’s prayer runs thus:
“ Uren fader thic arth in heofnas, fic gehalgud thin
noma, fo cymeth thin ric. Sic thin willa fue is heofnas,
and in eortho, &c.”
In the beginning of the ninth century the Danes in¬
vaded England; and, getting a footing in the northern
and eadern parts of the country, their power gradually
increafed, and they became foie maders of it in about
200 years. By this means the ancient Britidi obtained
a tin&ure of the Danifh language; but their govern¬
ment being of no long continuance, did not make fo
great an alteration in the Anglo-Saxon, as the next
revolution, when the whole land, A. D. 1067, was
fubdued by William the conqueror, duke of Normandy
in France : for the Normans, as a monument of their
conqued, endeavoured to make their language as ge¬
nerally received as their commands, and thereby ren¬
dered the Britifh language an entire medley.
About the year 900, the Lord’s prayer, in the an¬
cient Anglo-Saxon, ran thus:
“ Thue ur fader the eart on heofenum, fi thin nama
gehalgod; cume thin rice fi thin willa on eorthanfwa,
fwo on heofenum, See.”
About the year 1160, under Henry II. it was ren¬
dered thus by pope Adrian, an Engliffiman, in rhyme:
“ Ure fader in heaven rich,
“ Thy name be halyed ever lirh,
“ Th?iji bring us thy michell bliflfe:
“ Als hit in heaven y doe,
“ Evar in yearth beene it alfo, &c.”
Dr Hicks gives us an extraordinary fpecimen of the
Englilh, as fpoken in the year 1385, upon the very
fubjeft of the Englidt tongue,
“ As it is knowe how meny maner peple beeth in
this lond; ther beeth alfo fo many dyvers longages and
tonges. Nothelefs Walfchemen and Scots that beeth.
nought medled with other nation, holdeth wel nyh hir
firde longage and fpeche; but yif the Scottes, that
were fometime confederate and woned with the Pi&es,
drawe fomewhat after hir fpeche ; but the Flemynges,
that woneth on the wed fide of Wales, haveth lod her
drange fpech, and fpeketh Sexonliche now. Alfo Eng-
liffiemen, they had from the bygynnynge thre maner
fpeche; northerne, foutherne, and middel fpeche in the
middel of the lond, as they come of thre maner of
peple of Germania: nothelefs by commyxtion and mel-
lynge fird with Danes, and afterwards with Normans,
in meny the contrary longage is apayred [corrupted.)
“ This apayrynge of the burth of the tunge is by-
caufe of tweie things; oon is for children in fcole agenft
the ufuage and maner of all other nations, beeth com¬
pelled for to leve hire own longage, and for to condrue
hir leffons and here thynges in French, and fo they
haveth fethe Normans come fird into Engelpnd. Alfo
gentlemen children heeth taught to fpeke Frenfche
from
ENG [ 2803 ] ENG
from the tyme that they beeth roked in here cradel,
and kunneth fpeke and play with a childe’s broche; and
uplondiffche men will lykne hymfelf to gentilmen, and
fondeth with great befynefle for to fpeak Frenfche.to
be told of.“Hit feemeth a greet wonder how Eng-
lifchemen and her own longage and tonge is fo dyverie
of fown in this oon iland: and the longage of Norman¬
die is comlynge of another lond, and hath oon maner
foun amonge alle men that fpeketh hit arigt in Enge-
lond. Alfo of the forefaid Saxon tonge that is deled
{divided) a three, and is abide fcarceliche with fewe
uplondiffche men, is greet wonder. For men of the elt,
with men of the weft, is, as it were, undir the fame
partie of hevene accordeth more in fownynge of fpeche,
than men of the north with men of the fouth. There¬
fore it is that Mereii, that beeth men of myddel Enge-
lond, as it were, parteners of the endes, underflondeth
bettre the fide longes northerne and foutherne, than
northerne and foutherne underitondeth either other.
—All the longage of the Northumbers and fpechial-
liche at York, is fo fcharp, flitting and frotynge, and
unfchape, that we foutherne men may that longage
unnethe underftonde, &c.”
In the year 1537, the Lord’s prayer was printed as
follows: “ O oure father which arte in heven, hallow¬
ed be thy name: let thy kingdome come, thy will be
fulfilled as well in erth as it is in heven; geve us this
dayc in dayly bred, &c.” Where it may be obferved,
that the diftion is brought almoft to the prefent fland-
ard, the chief variations being only in the orthography.
By thefe inftances, and many others that might be gi¬
ven, it appears, that the Englifh Saxon language, of
which the Normans defpoiled us in a great meafure,
had its beauties, was fignificant and emphatical, and
preferable to what they impofed on us. “ Great,
verily, (fays Camden), was the glory of our tongue
before the Norman conqueft, in this, that the old Eng¬
lifh cohld exprefs moll aptly, all the conceptions of the
mind in their own tongue, without borrowing from
any.” Of this he gives feveral examples.
Having thus (hewn how the ancient Britifh language
was in a manner extirpated by the Romans, Danes,
and Saxons, and fucceeded by the Saxon, and after
that the Saxon blended with the Norman French, we
fhall now mention two other caufes of change in the
language. The firft of thefe is owing to the Britons ha¬
ving been a long time a trading nation, whereby offi¬
ces, dignities, names of wares, and terms of traffic,
are introduced, which we take with the wares from the
perfons of whom we have them, and form them anew,
according to the genius of our own tongue ; and be-
fides this change in the language, arifing from com¬
merce, Britain’s having been a conliderable time fub-
je& to the fee of Rome, in eCclefiaftical affairs, muft un¬
avoidably have introduced fome Italian words among us-
Secondly, As to the particular properties ofa language,
our tongue has undergone no fmall mutation, or rather
has received no fmall improvement upon that account 1
for, as to the Greek and Latin, the learned have, to¬
gether with the arts and fciences now rendered familiar
among us, introduced abundance} nay, almoft all the
terms of art in the mathematics, philofophy, phyfic,
and anatomy; and we have entertained many more
from the Latin, French, &c. for the fake of neatnefs
and elegancy: fo that, at this day, our language, which.
about 1800 years ago, was the ancient Britifh, or Engrafting
Welfh, &c. is now a mixture of Saxon, Teutonic, 1 ,
Dutch, Danifh, Norman, and modern French, embel- 11gtaving-
liflied with the Greek and Latin. Yet this, in our
opinion, is fo far from being a difadvantage to the
Englifh tongue as now fpoken, (for all languages have
undergone changes, and do continually participate with
each other), that it has fo enriched it, as now tq be¬
come the moft copious, fignificant, fluent, courteous,
and mafculine language in Europe, if not in the world*. * See Las-
ENGRAFT1NG, in gardening. See Grafting.
ENGRAILED, or Ingrailed, in heraldry, a term
derived from the Yrex\ch grejly, “ hail;” and fignifying
a thing the hail has fallen upon and broke off the edges,
leaving them ragged, or with half-rounds, or femi-
circles, ftruck out of their edges.
ENGRAVING, the art of cutting metals and pre¬
cious ftones, and reprefenting thereon figures, letters,,
or whatever device, or delign, the artift fancies.
Engraving, properly a branch of fculpture, is divi¬
ded into feveral other branches, according to the mat¬
ter whereon it is employed, and the manner of perform¬
ing it. For the rudeft branch, that of
Engraving on Wood. See Cutting in Wood.
Engraving on Copper, the making, correfpondently
to fome delineated figure or defign, fuch concave lines
on a finooth furface of copper, either by cutting or
corrofion, as render it capable, when charged properly
with any coloured fluid, of imparting by compreffion
an exadt reprefentation of the figure or defign to paper
or parchment.
Whether we confider the art of engraving, wdth re¬
gard to the utility and pleafure it affords, or the diffi¬
culty that attends its execution, we cannot but confefsr
that on every account it deferves a diftinguifhed rank
among the polite arts f. It is by means of this art f See Vo-
that the cabinets of the curious are adorned with the^fiARTS>
portraits of the greateft men of all ages and all na-11 I3‘
tions ; that their memories, their moft remarkable and
moft glorious a&iona, are tranfmitted to the lateft po-
fterity. It is by this art alfo, that the paintings of the
greateft mailers are multiplied to a boundlefs number;,
and that the lovers of the polite arts, diffufed over the
face of the whole earth, are enabled to enjoy thofe
beauties which their diftant fituations feemed to have
for ever debarred them ; and perfons of moderate for¬
tunes are hereby enabled to become poffeffed of all the
fpirit, and all the poetry, that are contained in thofe
miracles of art, which feemed to have been referved for
the temples of Italy, or the cabinets of princes. When
we refleft, moreover, that the engraver, befide the
beauties of poetic eompofition, and the artful ordi¬
nance of delign, is to exprefs, merely by the means of
light and fliade, all thevarions tints of colours and clair
obfcure ; to give a relief to each figure, and a truth to
each objetSt; that he is now to paint a Iky ferene and
bright, and then loaded with dark clouds; now the
pure tranquil ftream, and then the foaming, raging
fea ; that here he is to exprefs the character of the
man, ftrongly marked in his countenance, and there
the minuteft ornament of his drefs ; in a word, that he
is to reprefent all, even the moft difficult objedls in
nature ; we cannot fufficiently admire the vaft improve¬
ments in this art, and that degree of perfedlion to
which it is at this day arrived. See the article Prints.
The
ENG [ 2804 ] ENG
Engraving. The invention of this art is faid to be owing to
B,elf,eld's chance. In the 15th century, a goldfmith of Flo-
ef rence, who was in much efteem with pope Innocent X.
Erudition, having placed a (beet of oiled paper under a plate of
filver that was engraved, and on which, by accident,
he had laid a heavy weight, was much furprifed to
•find, a few days after, a complete impreffion of the
plate upon the paper. This he communicated to feme
able painters, his cotemporaries ; who profiting by that
example, laid the firft foundation of the art of engra¬
ving: which Raphael in Italy, and Albert Durer in
Germany, greatly improved ; and which the Italian,
French, and Flemilh mafters, fuch as Michael Ange¬
lo, Edelinck, Rembrandt, &c. and lately fome of the
Britilh artifts, have fucceffively carried to the higheft
degree of excellence.
The method by which engraving is performed, is of
three kindsr Ey the graver or tool alone, which is in
common language the only kind called engraving: by
corrofion with aqua fortis, which is generally called
etching: and by covering the furface of a copper-plate
with a freeze or ground, in fnch a manner, that the
whole would produce the effeft of black in an impref¬
fion ; and then feraping or burnilhfng away part of the
freeze, fo as to caufe the remainder to have the fame
effect as if they had been cut on the even furface, ac¬
cording to the delineation of any figure or defign}
which laff kind is called feraping in mezzotinto. See
Etching and Mezzotinto.
Engraving with the tool was the kind originally
pradtifed, and it is yet retained for many purpofes. For
though the manceuvre of etching be more eafy, and
other advantages attend it; yet where great regularity
and exa&nefs of the ftroke or lines are required, the
working with the graver is much more effeftual : on
which account it is more fuitable to the precifion ne-
ceffary in the execution of portraits; as there every
thing the moll minute muff be made out and expref-
fed, according to the original fubjedf, without any li-
ciyife to the fancy of the defigner in deviating from it,
or varying the effeft either by that mafterly negligence
and fimpiieity in fome parts, or thofe bold fallies of the
imagination and hand in others, which give fpirit and
- force to hiftory-painting.
The principal inftrumerts ufed in engraving with
the tool, are gravers, ferapers, a burnilher, an oil-ftone,
and a culhion for bearing the plates.
Gravers are made in feveral forms with refpedt to the
points, fome being fquare, others lozenge ; the fquare
graver for cutting broad and deep, and the lozenge
for more delicate and fine ftrokes and hatches. La
Boffe recommends, as the moft generally ufeful, fuch
as are of a form betwixt the fquare and lozenge : and
he advifes, that they Ihould be of a good length ; fmall
towards the point, but ftronger upwards, that they
may have ftrength enough to bear any ftrefs there may
be occafion to lay upon them: for if they be too fmall
and mounted high, they will bend; which frequently
caufes their breaking, efpecially if they be not em¬
ployed for very fmall fubjefts.
The burnilher is ufed to afiift in the engraving on
fome occalions, as well as to polifh the plates. It is
feven inches in length, and made of fine fteel well po-
lilhed. The burnilher is formed at one end, and a
feraper on the other, each about an inch and a half
long from the point: betwixt them, about four inches Engraving,
of the inftrument is made round, and ferves as a
handle; and is thicker in the middle than at the necks,
where the burnilher and feraper begin, which necks
are only one quarter of an inch in diameter. The
principal application of it in engraving, befides its ufe
in polifhing the plates, is to take out any fcratches, or
accidental defacings, that may happen to the plates
during the engraving; or to leffen the effeft of any
parts that may be too ftrongly marked in the work,
and require to be taken down.
A culhion, as it is called, is likewife generally ufed
for fupporting the plate in fuch a manner, that it may
be turned every way with eafe. It is a bag of leather
filled with fand, which Ihould be of the fize that will
bell; fuit the plates it is intended to bear. They are
round, and about nine inches over, and three inches in
thicknefs.
The cufhion, made as above direfted, being laid on
the table, the plate mull be put upon it; and the gra¬
ver being held in the hand, according to the inltruc-
tions before given, the point muff be applied to the
plate, and moved in the proper direftion for producing
the figures of the lines intended: obferving, informing
ftraight lines, to hold the plate Heady on the culhion;
and where they are to be finer, to prefs more lightly,
ufing greater force where they are to be broader and
deeper. In making circular or ®ther curve lines, hold
your hand and graver fteadily; and as you work, turn
your plate upon the cnfhion againlt your graver, other-
wife it will be impofiible for you to make any circular
or curved lines with that neatnefs and command of
hand you by this means may. After part of the work
is engraved, it is neceffary to ferape it with the feraper,
or graver, palled in the moft level direftion over the
plate to take off the roughnefs formed by the cutting
of the graver; but great care muftbe taken not to in¬
cline the edge of the feraper or tool ufed, in fuch a
manner that it may take the leaft hold of the copper,
as it wouldptherwife produce falfe ftrokes or fcratches
in the engraving: and that the engraved work may be
rendered more vifible, it may afterwards be rubbed
over with a roll of felt dipped in oil. In ufing the
graver, it is heceffary to carry it as level as pofiible with
the furface of the plate; for otherwife, if the fingers
flip betwixt them, the line that will be produced, whe¬
ther curve or ftraight, will become deeper and deeper
in the progrefs of its formation; which entirely pre¬
vents ftrokes being made at one cut, that will be fine
at their extremities, and larger in the middle; andoc-
cafions the neceffity of retouching, to bring them to
that ftate. For this reafon, it is very neceffary for
thofe, who would learn to engrave in perfeftion, to en¬
deavour, by frequent trials, to acquire the habit of
making fuch ftrokes both ftraight and curving, by
lightening or finking the graver with the hand, ac¬
cording to the occalion. If, after finilhing the de¬
fign, any fcratches appear, or any part of the engra¬
ving be falfely executed, fuch fcratches, or faulty parts,
muft be taken out by the burnilher, and further po-
lifhed, if neceffary, by the above-mentioned roll.
The plate being thus engraved, it is proper to round
off the edges, by ufing firft a rough file, and after¬
wards a fmoother; and to blunt the corners a little, by
the fame means: after which, the burnilher fhould be
palled
ENG [ 2805 ] E N H
Ei pafTed over the edges to give it a farther polifli.
" Engraving on Precious Sones, is the reprefenting
of figures, or devices, in relievo or indented, on di¬
vers kinds of hard polifhed ftones.
The art of engraving on precious ftones is one of
thofe wherein the ancients excelled ; there being divers
antique agates, cornelians, and onyxes, which furpafs
any thing of that kind the moderns have produced.
Pyrgoteles among the Greeks, and Diofcorides under
the firft emperors of Rome, are the moft eminent en¬
gravers we read of: the former was fo efteemed byA-
lexander, that he forbad any body elfe to engrave his
head; and Auguftus's head, engraven by the latter,
was deemed fo beautiful, that the fueceeding emperors
chofe it for their feal.
All the polite arts having been buried under the
ruins of the Roman empire, the art of engraving on
ftones met with the fame fate. It was retrieved in Italy
at the beginning of the 15th century, when one John
of Florence, and after him Dominic of Milan, per¬
formed works of this kind no way to be defpifed.
From that time, fuch fculptures became common
enough in Europe, and particularly in Germany, whence
great numbers were fent into other countries: but they
came fhort of the beauty of thofe of the ancients, efpe-
eially thofe on precious ftones; for, as to thofe on cry-
ftal, the Germans, and, after their example, the French,
&c. have fucceeded well enough.
In this branch of engraving, they make ufe either of
the diamond, or of emery.
The diamond, which is the hardeft of all ftones,
is only cut by itfelf, or with its own matter. The
firft thing to be done in this branch of engraving, is
to cement two rough diamonds to the ends of two
fticks big enough to hold them, fteady in the hand,
and to rub or grind them againft each other till they
be brought to the form defired. The duft or powder
that is rubbed off ferVes afterwards to polifh them,
which is performed with a kind of mill that turns a
wheel of foft iron. The diamond is fixed in a brafs
difti; and, thus applied to the wheel, is covered with
diamond-duft, mixed up with oil of olives ; and when
the diamond is to be cut facet-wife, they apply firft
one face, then another, to the wheel. Rubies, fap-
phires, and topazes, are cut and formed the fame
way on a copper wheel, and poliftied with tripoli di¬
luted in water. As to agates, amethyfts, emeralds,
hyacinths, granates, rubies, and others of the fofter
ftones, they are cut on a leaden wheel, moiftened with
emery and water, and polilhed with tripoli on a pew¬
ter wheel. Lapis-lazuli, opal, &c. are polilhed on a
wooden wheel. To falhion and engrave vales of agate,
cryftal, lapis-lazuli, or the like, they make ufe of a
kind of lathe, like that ufed by pewterers to hold the
veffels, which are to be wrought with proper tools:
that of the engraver generally holds the tools, which
are turned by a wheel; and the veffel is held to them
to be cut and engraved, either in relievo or otherwife;
the tools being moiftened from time to time with dia¬
mond duft and oil, or at leaft emery and water. To
engrave figures or devices on any of thefe ftones, when
polilhed, fuch as medals, feals, &c. they ufe a little
iron wheel, the ends of whofe axis are received within
two pieces of iron, placed upright, as in the turner’s
lathe; and to be brought clofer, or fet further apart,
Vol. IV.
at pleafure: at one end of the axis are fitted the pro- Engraving
per tools, being kept tight by a fcrew. Laftly, The I)
wheel is turned by the foot, and the ftone applied by Enniacrm°'
the hand to the tool, and is Ihifted and conducted as  —1
occafion requires.
The tools are generally of iron, and fometimes of
brafs ; their form is various, but it generally bears
fome refemblance to chifels, gouges, &c. Some have
fmall round heads, like buttons, others like ferrels, to
take the pieces out, and others flat, &c. When the ftone
has been engraven, it is polilhed on wheels of hair-
brulhes and tripoli.
Engraving on Steel is chiefly employed in cutting
feals, punches, matrices, and dyes proper for linking
coins, medals, and counters. The method of engra¬
ving with the inftruments, &c. is the fame for coins as
for medals and counters : All the difference confifts in
their greater or lefs relievo; the relievo of coins being
much lefs confiderable than that of medals, and that of
counters Hill lefs than that of coins.
Engravers in fteel commonly begin with punches,
which are in relievo, and ferve for making the creux,
or cavities, of the matrices and dyes: though fome¬
times they begin with the creux, or hollownefs; but
then it is only when the intended work is to be cqt very
lhallow. The firft thing done, is that of defigning the
figures; the next is the moulding them in wax, of the
fize and depth they are to lie, and from this wax the
punch is engraven. When the punch is finilhed, they
give it a very high temper, that it may the better bear
the blows of the hammer with which it is (truck to give
the impreffion to the matrix.
The fteel is made hot to foften it, that it may the
more readily take the impreflion of the pqnch; and af¬
ter ftriking the punch on it, in this ftate, they proceed
to touch up or finilh the ftrokes and lines, where by
reafon of their finenefs or the too great relievo they
are any thing defedtive, with fteel gravers of different
kinds, chifels, flatters, &c. being the principal inftru¬
ments ufed in graving on fteel.
The figure being thus finilhed, they proceed to*en-
grave the reft of the medal, as the mouldings of the
border, the engrailed ring, letters, &c. with little fteel
punches, well tempered, and very (harp.
' ENGUICHE', in heraldry, is faid of the great
mouth of a hunting horn, when its rim is of a different
colour from that of the horn itfelf.
ENHARMONIC, in mufic. The Greeks had
three different fpecies of mufic; the diatonic, the chro¬
matic, and the enharmonic. This Jaft was efteemed by
much the moft agreeable and powerful of the three;
but the difficulty of its execution rendered its duration
fhort, and latter artifts were upbraided for having fa-
crificed it to their indolence. It proceeded upon leffer
intervals than either the diatonic or chromatic; and as
the chromatic femitone is ftill ]efs than the diatonic,
the enharmonic intervals muft have confifted of that
femitone divided into parts more minute. In Rouf-
feau’s Mufical Dictionary (at the word Enhcfrmonique),
the reader may fee how that interval was found in the
tetrachords of the ancients. It is by no means eafy
for modern ears, inured to intervals fo widely different,
to imagine how a piece qf mufic, whofe tranfitions
were formed either chiefly or folely upon fuch minute
divifions, could have fuch wonderful effeCls j yet the
16 G melody
E N N [ 2806 ] E N S
.Enhydrus melody of fpeech, which rifes or falls by intervals ftill
Ennius more m*nute than the enharmonic, when properly mo-
nnlu5‘ dulated, and applied with tafte, has an aftonifhing
power over the foul. As to the modern enharmonic
lyftem, we may likewife refer the reader to the fame
work for an account of its nature and ufe; though he
will find it accurately and clearly explained by D’A¬
lembert, in the Treatife of Music given in theprefent
Work, (art. 144. 145. 146.)
ENHYDRUS, in natural hiftory, a genus of fide-
rochita or cruftated ferrugineous bodies, formed in
large and in great part empty cafes, inclofing a fmall
quantity of an aqeous fluid.
Of this genus there are only two fpecies : 1. The
thick-fhelled enhydrus, with black, reddifh-brown, and
yellow crufts. 2. The thinner-ihelled kind, with yel-
lowifh-brown and purple crufts; neither of which fer¬
ments with aqua fortis* or gives fire with fteel.
ENIGMA. See ./Enigma.
ENIXUM, among chemifts, a kind of neutral fait,
generated of an acid and an alkali.
The fal enixum of Paracelfus, is the caput mortuum
of fpirits of nitre with oil of vitriol, or what remains
in the retort after the diftillation of this fpirh; being
of a white colour, and pleafing acid tafte.
ENMANCHE', in heraldry, is when lines are drawn
from the centre of the upper edge of the chief to the
fides, to about half the breadth of the chief; figni-
fying fleeved, or refembling a fleeve, from the French
manche.
ENNEAGON, in geometry, a polygon with nine
fides. See Polygon.
ENNEAHEDRIA, in natural hiftory, a genus of
columnar, cryftalliform, and double-pointed fpars,com-
pofed of a trigonal column, terminated at each end by
a trigonal pyramid.
Of this genus there are feveral fpecies, diftinguiftied
by the length or fliortnefs of the column and pyramids,
none of which give fire with fteel, but all of them fer¬
ment with aqua fortis. See Spar.
ENNEANDRIA, in botany, (from nine, and
«''»/>) a man or hulhand), the name of the ninth clafs in
Linnxus’s fexual fyftem, confifting of plants which have
hermaphrodite flowers with nine ftamina or male or¬
gans. See Botany, p. 1292.
ENNIUS (Quintus), an ancient Latin poet, born
at Rudii, a town in Calabria. He came firft to Rome
when M. Porcius Cato was queftor, whom he had in-
ftrufted in the Greek language in Sardinia ; and by
his genius and behaviour he gained the efteem of
the mod eminent perfons in the city. According to
Horace, Ennius never applied himfelf to writing till
he had drank freely of wine. Hence he contraded
the gout, of which he died 9 y. B. C. He was interred
in Scipio’s fepukhre; who had a great efteem and
friendlhip for him, and caufed a ftatue to be erefted to
him upon his monument. He endeavoured to intro¬
duce the treafures of the Greek tongue among the La¬
tins, and was the firft among the Romans who made
ufe of heroic %’erfes. He wrote the Annals of Rome:
he tranflated feveral tragedies from the Greek, and
wrote others, befide feveral comedies. We have only
fome fragments of his works, which were firft colle&ed
by the two Stephens, and afterwards publiftied at Na¬
ples, with a learned commentary, by Jerom Columna,
in quarto, 1590; and reprinted at Amfterdam in 1707, Enoch
in quarto, with additions by Heflelius. U
ENOCH (the Prophecy of); an apocryphal book, Enfemble>
of which there remains but a few fragments.
Enoch was certainly one of the moft illuftrious pro¬
phets of the firft world, fince Mofes fays of him, that
be ‘walked ‘with God. This prophet is famed in the
church for two things: The firft is, his being taken up
into heaven, without feeing'death, (Heb. xi.5.): the
fecond is, his prophecy; a paflage of which St Jude
has cited in his epiftle, ver. 14. The ancients greatly
etteemed the prophecy of Enoch. Tertullian, on the
authority of this book, deduces the original of idolatry,
aftrology, and unlawful arts, from the revolted angels,
who married with the daughters of men. And it is on
the teftimony of this book, that the fathers of the 2d
and 3d centuries, as Irenseus, Cyprian, and La&antius,
received for true this fable of the marriage of the angels
with the daughters of men. St Auguftin, who was
Jefs credulous, allows, indeed, that Enoch wrote fome-
thing divine, becaufe he is cited by St Jude; but infi-
nuates, that the authority of this book is doubtful, and
that it cannot be proved that it was really written by
Enoch. Indeed, the account it gives of giants engen¬
dered by angels, and not by men, has manifeftly the
air of a fable; and the moft judicious critics believe, it
ought not to be afcribed to Enoch.
ENS, among metaphyficians, denotes entity, being,
or exiftence: this the fchools call ens reale, and e>ts
pojitivum; to diftinguilh it from their ens rationis, which
is only an imaginary thing, or exifts only in the ima¬
gination.
Ens, among chemifts, imports the power, virtue,
and efficacy, which certain fubftances exert upon our
bodies.
Ens, in geography, a city of Germany, fituated at
the confluence of the Danube and the river Ens, about
80 miles fouth of Vienna: E. Long. 14. 20. N. Lat.
48. 16.
ENSAT^E, in botany, (from enjts, a fword); the
name of the fixth order in Linnaeus’s natural method,
confifting of plants with fword-lhaped leaves*. It * See Bs-
contains the following genera, viz. Antholyza, Callifia, tanh
Commelina, Crocus, Eriocaulon, Ferraria, Gladiolus, p‘ ,3°**
Iris, Ixia, Moraea, Pontaederia, Sifyrinchium, Tradef-
cantia, Wachendorffa, Xyris.
ENSEELED, in falconry, is faid of a hawk that
has a thread drawn through her upper eye-lid, and
made fall under her beak, to take away the fight.
ENSEMBLE, a French term, fometimes ufed in
our language; literally fignifying together, or one •with
anotherbeing formed from the Latin in and fimul.
In architecture, we fay the enfetnhle, or tout cnfemble,
of a building, meaning the whole work, or compofi-
tion, confidered together, and not in parts; and fome¬
times alfo, the relative proportion of the parts to the
whole.—“All thofe pieces of building make a fine
enfemble.”
To judge well of a work, a ftatue, or other piece of
fculpture, one muft firft examine whether the enfernhle
be good. The tout enfemble of a painting,, is that har¬
mony which refults from the diftribution of the feveral
objeCts or figures whereof it is compofed.—“ This pic¬
ture is good, taking the parts feparately: but the tout
enfemble is bad.” t
ENT [ 2807 ] ENT
SnfiformU ENSIFORMIS cartilago. See Xiphoides.
II ENSIGN, in the military art, a banner or colours
EBtabler' under which foldiers are ranged, according to the
different companies or parties they belong to. See
Flag, Colours, Standard, &c.
The Turkifh enligns are horfes tails; thofe of the
Europeans are pieces of taffety, with divers figures,
colours, arms, and devifes thereon. Xenophon tells
us, that the enfign bore by the Perfians was a golden
eagle on a white flag ; the Corinthians bore the winged
hoife, or Pegafus, in theirs; the Athenians, an owl;
the Meffenians, the Greek letter M ; the Lacedaemo¬
nians, the a- Tlie Romans had a great diverfity of
enfigns ; the wolf, minotaur, horfe, boar, and at length
the eagle, where they flopped: this was firft affumed
f Sec Eug/e. in the fecond year of the confulate ofMariusf.—A mi¬
litary enfign on a medal of a Roman colony, denotes
it a colony peopled with old foldiers.
Ensign is alfo the officer that carries the colours,
being the lowefl commiffioned officer in a company of
foot, fubordinate to the captain and lieutenant. It is
a very honourable and proper poft for a young gentle¬
man at his firft coming into the army: he is to carry
the colours both in affault, day of battle, &c. and
fhould not quit them but with his life: he is always to
carry them himfelf on his left fhoulder: only on a
march he may have them carried by a foldier. If the
enfign is killed, the captain is to carry the colours in
his flead.
JVava/Ensign, a large ftandard or banner hoifted
on a long pole ere&ed over the poop, and called the
tr/j/fen Jiaff.—The enfign is ufed to diftinguifh the fhips
of different nations from each other, as alfo to charac-
terife the different fquadrons of the navy. The Britifh
enfign in fhips of war is known by a double crofs, viz.
that of St George and St Andrew, formed upon a field
which is either red, white, or blue.
ENSISHEIM, a town of France, in Upper Alface.
It is a pretty little place, well built, and confifts of
about 200 houfes. E. Long. 7. 41. N. Lat. 47. 49.
ENT (Sir George), an eminent Englifh phyfician,
born at Sandwich in Kent in 1604. He was educated
at Sidney college, Cambridge ; and, afterwards tra¬
velling into foreign countries, received the degree of
dodlor of phyfic at Padua. After his return he ob¬
tained great praftice, was made prefident of the col¬
lege of phyficians in London, and at length received
the honour of knighthood from king Charles II. He
was extremely intimate with Dodlor Harvey; whom
he learnedly defended in a piece entitled, “ Apologia
pro Circulatione Sanguinis, contra iEmilium Parifa-
num.” He alfo publifhed, “ Animadverfiones in Ma-
lachiae Thruftoni;” and fome obfervations in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfadlions. Glanville, fpeaking of his
Plus Ultra of the modern improvements in anatomy,
numbers Sir George Ent, Doftor Glifibn, and Dodlor
Wallis, with the moft celebrated difcoverers in that
fcience. The two former were among the firft mem¬
bers of the Royal Society. Sir George Ent died in
Odlober 1689.
ENTABLATURE, or Entablement, in archi-
tedlure, is that part of an order of a column which is
over the capital, and comprehends the architrave,
frieze, and corniche. See Architecture, chap. i.
ENTABLER, in the menage, the fault of a horfe
whofe croupe goes before his flioulders in working Entail
upon volts; which may be prevented by taking hold II
of the right rein, keeping your right leg near, and re- meme*
moving your left leg as far from the horfe’s ihoulder JL.
as poffible.
This is always accompanied with another fault call¬
ed aculer. See Aculer.
ENTAIL, in law, fignifies fee tail, or fee entailed;
that is, abridged, curtailed, or limited to certain con¬
ditions. See Fee, and Tail.
ENTE', in heraldry, a method of marfhalling, more
frequent abroad than with us, and fignifying grafted
or ingrafted.
We have, indeed, one inftance of ente in the fourth
grand quarter of his majefty’s royal enfign, whofe bla-
zoit is Brunfwick and Lunenburg impaled with ancient
Saxony, ente en pointe, “ grafted in point.”
ENTEROCELE, in furgery, a tumor formed by
a prolapfion of the inteftines through the rings of the
abdomen and proceffes of the peritonaeum, into the
fcrotum. See Surgery.
ENTHUSIASM, a tranfport of the mind, whereby
it is led to think and imagine things in a fublime, fur-
prifing, yet probable manner. This is the enthufiafm
felt in poetry, oratory, mufic, painting, fculpture, &c.
Enthusiasm, in a religious fenfe, implies a. tranf¬
port of the mind, whereby it fancies itfelfinfpired with
fome revelation, impulfe, &c. from heaven. Mr Locke
gives the following defcription of enthufiafm. “ In
all ages, men in whom melancholy has mixed with de¬
votion, or whofe conceit of themfelves has railed them
into an opinion of a great familiarity with God, and
a nearer admittance to his favour than is afforded to
others, have often flattered themfelves with a perfua-
fion of an immediate intercourfe with the Deity, and
frequent communications from the Divine Spirit. Their
minds being thus prepared, whatever groundlefs opi¬
nion comes to fettle itfelf ftrongly upon their fancies,
is an illumination from the Spirit of God. And what-
foever odd aftion they find in themfelves a ftrong incli¬
nation to do, that impulfe is concluded to be a call or
dire£lion from heaven, and muft be obeyed. It is a com-
miflion from above, and they cannot err in executing it.
This I take to be properly enthufiafm, which, tho’ ari-
fing from the conceit of a warm and overweening brain,
works, when it once gets footing, more powerfully on
the perfuafions and a&ions of men, than either reafon
or revelation, or both together ; men being moft for¬
wardly obedient to the impulfes they receive from
themfelves.” Devotion, when it does not lie under
the check of reafon, is apt to degenerate into en¬
thufiafm. When the mmd finds itfelf inflamed with
devotion, it is apt to think that it is not of its own
kindling, but blown up with fomething divine within
it. If the mind indulges this thought too far, and
humours the growing paflion, it at laft flings itfelf
into imaginary raptures and ecftafies ; and when once
it fancies itfelf unde- the influence of a divine impulfe,
no wonder if it flights human ordinances, and refufes
to comply with the eftablifhed form of religion, as
thinking itfelf dire&ed by a much fuperior guide.
ENTHUSIAS F, a perfon poffeffed with enthufi¬
afm. See the preceding article.
ENTHYMEME. See Logic, n° 93. and Ora¬
tory, n° 31.
16 G 2 EN-
ENT [ 2808 ] E P A
Entity ENTITY, the fame with Ens.
gj ENTREPAS, in the manege, a broken pace or
n ry‘ going, that is neither walk nor trot, but has fomewhat
of an amble.
This is a pace or gait of fuch horfes as have no reins
or hack, ami go upon their Ihoulders ; or, of fuch as
are fpoiled in their limbs.
TiLmKiKG-Laclders, in a fliip, are of two forts ; one
ufed by the velfel’s fides, in a harbour, ot in fair wea¬
ther, for perfons to go in and out of the flip : the
other is made of ropes, with fmall ftaves for fteps; and
is hung out of the gallery to enter into the boat, or to
come aboard the Ihip, when the fea runs fo high that
they dare not bring the boat to the Ihip’s fide for fear
of ftaving it.
ENTROCHUS, in natural hiftory, a genus of ex¬
traneous foffiis, ufually of about an inch in length, and
made up of a number of round joints, which, when fe-
parate and loofe, are called trod:itte; they are compo-
fed of the fame kind of plated fpar with the foffile fhells
of the echini, which is ufually of a bluifh-grey colour,
and very bright where frefh-broken; they arc all ftri-
ated from the centre to the circumference, and have a
cavity in the middle. See Plate Cl. fig. 4.
The entrochi are found of all fixes, from that of a
pin’s head to a finger’s length, and the thicknefs of
one’s middle finger ; and are plainly of marine origin,
having often fea-fhells adhering to them. They feem
to be the petrified arms of that fingular fpecies of the
fea-ftarfifh, calledftella arborefcens.
They are efteemed very powerful diuretics, and pre-
fcribed in nephritic cafes with good fuccefs; the dofe
being as much of the powder as will He on a fiiilling.
ENTRY, in law, fignifies taking poffeffion of
lands or tenements, where a perfon has a right fo to
do.
Entry of an Heir, in Scots law, that form of law by
which an heir veils in himfelf a proper title to his pre-
deceffor’s eftate. See Precept of Ci.ah's. Constat.
Bill a/'Entry, in commerce. See Bill.
In making entries inwards, it is ufual for merchants
to include all the goods they have on board the fame
Ihip in one bill, though fometimes they may happen to
be upwards of 20 feveral kinds.; and in cafe the goods
are Ihort entered, additional or poll entries are now
allowed; though formerly the goods, fo entered, were
forfeited. As to bills of entry outwards, or including
goods to be exported, upon delivering them, and pay¬
ing the cuftoms, you will receive a fmall piece of parch¬
ment called a cocket, which tellifies your payment there¬
of, and all duties for fuch goods.
If feveral foists of goods are exported at once, of
which fome are free, and others pay cuftoms; the ex¬
porter mull have two cockets, and therefore mud make
two entries ; one for the goods that pay, and the other
for the goods that do not pay cullom.
Entries of goods, on which a drawback is allowed,
mull likewife contain the name of the Ihip in which the
goods were imported, the importer’s name, and time
of entry inwards. The entry being thus made, and an
oath taken that the cuftoms for thofe goods were paid
as the law diretSts, you mull carry it to the colleflor
and comptroller, or their deputies ; who, after exami¬
ning tneir books, will grant Warrant, which mull be
given to the furveyor, fearcher, or land-waiter, for them
to certify the quantity of goods ; after which the cer- Envelope
tificate mull be brought back to the colle&or and H
comptroller, or their deputies, and oath made that the Epa™s"°a'
faid goods are really (hipped, and not landed again in —-—i—-
any part of Great Britain.
ENVELOPE, in fortification, a work of earth,
fometimes in form of a fimple parapet, and at others
like a fmall rampart with a parapet: it is raifed fome¬
times on the ditch, and fometimes l>eyond it.
ENVIRONNE', in heraldry, fignifies furrounded
with other things: thus, they fay, a lion environn£
with fo many bezants. See Bezant.
ENUMERATION, an account of feveral things,
in which mention is made of every particular article.
Enumeration, in rhetoric, apart of peroration; in
which the orator, collefting the fcattered heads of what
has been delivered throughout the whole, makes a brief
and artful relation or recapitulation thereof.
ENVOY, a perfon deputed to negociate fome affair
with any foreign prince or Hate. Thofe fent from the
courts of Britain, France, Spain, &c. to any petty
prince or Hate, fuch as the princes of Germany, the
republics of Venice, Genoa, &c. go in quality of en¬
voys, not ambaffadors; and fuch a charadler only do
thofe perfons bear, who go from any of the' principal
courts of Europe to another, when the affair they go
upon is not very folemn or important. There are en¬
voys ordinary and extraordinary, as well as ambaffa¬
dors : they are equally under the prote&ion of the
law of nations, and enjoy all the privileges of ambaf¬
fadors; only differing from them in this, that the fame
ceremonies are not performed to them.
ENVY, in ethics ; pain felt, and malignity con¬
ceived, at the fight of excellence or happinefs in ano¬
ther. See Emulation.
EPAMINONDAS, a celebrated Theban, the fon
of Polymnus, and one of the greatell captains of anti¬
quity. He learned philofophy and mafic under Lyfis, a
Pythagorean philofopher; and was from his infancy
inured to all the exevcifes of body and mind. He was
learned, generous, well-flailed in war, brave, modell,
and prudent; and had fuch a regard for truth, that he
would not tell a falfehood even in jeft. He ferved firft
under the Lacedemonians; fared the life of Pelopidas
their chief, who received in a battle feven or eight
wounds ; and contra&ed a ftri£t friendfliip with that
general, which lafted till his death. At his perfua-
fions, Pelopidas delivered the city of Thebes from the
yoke of the Spartans, who had rendered themfelve*
mafters of Cadmea, which occafioned a bloody war be¬
tween the two nations. Epaminondas was made ge¬
neral of the Thebans; on which he gained the cele¬
brated battle of Leu&ra, in which Cleomhrotus, the
valiant king of Sparta, was killed. He then ravaged
the enemy’s country, and caufed the city of Meffina
to be rebuilt and peopled. At length, the command
of the army was given to another, beeaufe Epaminon¬
das had kept his troops in the field four months longer
than he had been ordered by the people; but, inftead
of retiring in difguft, he now ferved as acomtnon fol-
dier, and diftinguilhed himfelf by fo many brave ac¬
tions, that the Thebans, alhamed of having deprived
him of the command, reftored him to his poll, in order
to carry the war into Theffaly, where his arms were
always vi&orious. A war breaking out between the
Elia ns
E P H [ 2809 ] E P I
(EpanoIopGs Eiians and the inhabitants of Man tinea 5 the Thebans
II took the part of the former. Epaminondas then re-
[ rides^' ^ve<^ to endeavour to furprife Sparta and Mantinea;
  !— but not fncceeding, he gave the enemy battle, in which
he received a mortal wound with a javelin, the bearded
iron remaining in the wound. Knowing that it could
not be drawn out without occafioning immediate death,
he would not fuffer it to be touched, but continued to
give his orders: and on his being told, that the enemy
were entirely defeated, “ I have lived long enough, he
cried, fince 1 die without being conqueredand at
the fame time he plucked the javelin from his wound,
and expired, 363 B. C.
EPANOLOPSIS. See Oratory, n° 73.
EPANODOS. Ibid. n° 75.
EPANORTHOSIS. Ibid. n° 86.
EPARER, in the manage, fignifies the flinging of
a horfe, orhisyerking and ftriking with his hind-legs.
EPAULEMENT, in fortification, a work raifed to
cover fidewife, is either of earth, gabions, or fafeines
loaded with earth. The epaulements of the places of
arms for the cavalry, at the entrance of the trenches,
are generally of fafeines mixed with earth.
EPENTHESIS, in grammar, the interpofition or
infertion of a letter or fyllable in the middle of a word;
as alituum, for ajituni; rtiiigio, for religio; induperli¬
ter, for imperator, 8cc.
EPEUS, of the line of Endymion, the inventor of
the battering ram, an engine of great fervice in fieges
to make a breach. He is thought to have built the
Trojan horfe, and to have founded the city Metapon-
tum.
EPHA, or Ephah, in Jewifh antiquity, a meafure
for things dry, containing x0.961 of a bulhel.
EPHEMERA, from */*(/>*, “ a day;” a diary fever,
or fever of one day’s continuance only. In this cafe,.
fuch:a heat as attends an excefs of wine, a pulfe fome-
what full and quick, but foft and regular, a flight
head-ach, a naufea, and reftlefsnefs, are all the fymp-
toms, and which terminate without any fenfible evacu¬
ation. If it continue unto the third day, it is not a
diary fever; and if the conftitution is very dry, an
heftic is to be dreaded.
Ephemera, the Day-Fly, in zoology, a genus be¬
longing to the order of neuroptera. It has no teeth
or palpa:; there are two large protuberances above the
eyes; the wings are ere&, the two hind ones being
largeft ; and the tail is briltly. There are 11 fpecies,
diftinguiflied by their colour and the number of bridles
in their tail. This fly derives its name from the cir-
cumftance of its living but one day. They are feen
flying about the furface of the water in mid-fummer,
for three days, and no longer; they eat nothing, and
their only bufinefs is to drop their eggs on the water
after they have copulated. Thefe eggs finking to the
bottom, produce a fort of worms or maggots ; thefe
Foon hollow themfelves cavities in the clay, where they
remain three years, growing every year about an inch
in length. When the worm is come to its full growth,
it rifes to the furface of the water, about fix o’clock in
the morning ; and there iffues from it this fly, which
lays its eggs,and dies, about fix o’clock the fame night:
fo that the life of the creature in the fly-ftate is only
about 12 hours.
EPHEMERIDES, in literary hiftory, an appella¬
tion given to thofe books or journals, which fhew the
motions and places of the planets for every day of the
year.
It is from the tables contained in thefe ephemerides -
that eclipfes, and all the variety of afpe&s of the pla¬
nets, are found.
EPHESUS, a city of antiquity, much celebrated on
account of its temple of Diana, and for being the molt
famous mart or Itapie town of Hither Afia. It was
enlarged and walled round by Lyfimachus and Paufa-
nias; and owed its increafe of trade and riches to Ly-
fander the Lacedemonian. It is now fubjeft to the
Turks; and is ftill a confiderable city of Natolia, or
Lefler Afia. E. Long. 27. 3. N. Lat. 38. 16.
EPHOD, in Jewilh antiquity, one part of the prieft-
ly habit; being a kind of girdle, which, brought from
behind the neck over the two fhoulders, and hanging
down before, was put crofs the ftomach, then carried
round the waift, and made ufe of as a girdle to the tu¬
nic—There were two forts of ephods, one of plain li¬
nen for the priefts, and the other embroidered for the
high prieft.
EPHOR1, in Grecian antiquity, magiftrates efta-
blilhed in ancient Sparta to balance the regal pow¬
er. The authority of the ephori was very great.
They fometimes expelled and even put to death the
kings, and abolilhed or fufpended the power of the
other magiftrates, calling them to account at pleafure.
There were five of them, others fay nine. They pre-
fided in the public ftiews and feftivals. They were en-
trufted with the public treafure; made war and peace;
and were fo abfolute, that Ariftotle makes their govern¬
ment equal to the prerogative of a monarchy. They
were eftabliftved by Lycurgus.
EPHREM (Synjs), an ancient Chriftian writer, in
the fourth century, deacon of Edefia, was born at Ni-
fibe, in Syria. He was greatly efteemed by St Bafil,
St Gregory Nyffen, and other great men. He wrote
againft the opinions of Sabellius, Arius, ApollonariuS’,
the Manichees, &c. and acquired fuch reputation by
his virtue and his works, that he was called the doftor
and the prophet of the Syrians. He died in 378. The
beft editions of his works are, that of Oxford, in 1708,
in folio, and that of Rome, from 1732 to 1736, iu
Syriac, Greek, and Latin, 6 vols folio.
EPHYDOR, in antiquity, an officer in the Athe¬
nian courts of juftice, who was to provide the plaintiff
and defendant with equal water hour-glafles. When
the gkfs was run out, they were not permitted to
fpeak any farther; and, therefore, we find them very
careful not to lofe or mifpend one drop of their water.
Whilft the laws quoted by them were reciting, or if
any other bufinefs happened to intervene, they gave
orders that the glafs fhould be flopped.
EPICHARMUS, an ancient poet and philofophen,
born in Sicily, was a fcholar of Pythagoras, pie and
Phormusare faid to have invented comedy in Syracufei.
He prefented 55 plays. Horace commends Plautus for
imitating him, in following the chace of the intrigue
fo clofely as not to give the readers or fpeftators time
to trouble themfelves with doubts concerning the dif-
covery. He wrote likewife, treatifes concerning phi-
lofophy and medicine ; but none of his works have been
preferved. He died aged 90, according to Laertius,
who has preferved four verfes inferibed on his ftatue.
EPIC,
Ephefus
Epichar-
E P I [ 2810 ] E P I
Kpic EPIC, or Heroic, Poem, a poem exprefled in nar-
.J ration, formed upon a ftory partly real, and partly
1,1 e u5, feigned; reprefenting, in a fublime ftyle, fome fignal
and fortunate adlion, diftinguiflied by a variety of great
events, to form the morals, and affedt the mind with
the love of heroic virtue.
We may diftinguilh three parts of the definition,
namely, the matter, the form, and the end. The mat¬
ter includes the adlion of the fable, under which are
ranged the incidents, epifodes, chara&ers, morals, and
machinery. The form comprehends the way or man¬
ner of the narration, whether by the poet himfelf, or
by any perfons introduced, whofe difcourfes are related:
to this branch likewife belong the moving of the paf-
fions, the defcriptions, difcourfes, fentiments, thoughts,
•Ityle, and verfification; and befides thefe, the fimilies,
tropes, figures, and, in fhort, all the ornaments and
decorations of the poem. The end is to improve
our morals, and increafe our virtue. See Poetry,
chap. ii.
EPICEDIUM, in ancient poetry, a poem rehear-
fed during the funeral folemnity of perfons of diftinc-
tion.
EPICOENE, in grammar, a term applied to nouns,
which, under the fame gender and termination, mark
indifferently the male and female fpecies.
EPICTETUS, a celebrated Stoic philofopher, born
at Hierapolis in Phrygia, in the firft century, was the
Have of Epaphroditus, a freedman and one of Nero’s
guard. Domitian banifhing all philofophers from
Rome, about the year 94, Epi&etus retired to Nico-
polis in Epirus, where he died in a very advanced age;
and after his death, the earthen lamp he made ufe of fold
for 3000 drachmas. He was a man of great modefty ;
•which was eminent in his own pra&ice, as well as in his
recommendation to others: hence he ufed to fay, “ That
there is no need of adorning a man’s houfe with rich
hangings or paintings, fince the mod graceful furniture
is temperance and modefty, which are laftingornaments,
and will never be the worfe for wearing.” Of all the
ancient philofophers, he feems to have made the near-
eft approaches to the Chriftian morality, and to have
had the moft juft ideas of God and providence. He
always poffefled a cool and ferene mind, unruffled by
paffion; and was ufed to fay, that the whole of mo¬
ral philofophy was included in thefe wor&s, fupport and
obfiain. One day, his mafter Epaphroditus drove in
a frolic to wrench his leg; when Epi&etus faid, with
a fmile, and free from any emotion, “ If you go on, you
will certainly break my legbut the former redoubling
his effort, and ftriking it wdth all his ftrength, heatlaft
broke the bone; when all the return Epi&etusmade was,
“ Did not I tell you. Sir, that you would break my
leg?” No man was more expert at reducing the rigour
of the maxims of the Stoics into pradlice. He con¬
formed himfelf ftri&ly, both in his difcourfe and be¬
haviour, to the manners of Socrates and Zeno. He
waged continual war with fancy and fortune; and it is
an excellence peculiar to himfelf, that he admitted all
the feverity of the Stoics without their fournefs, and
reformed Stoicifm as well as profeffed it; and befides
his vindicating the immortality of the foul, as ftrenu-
oufly as Socrates, or any Stoic of them all, he declared
openly againft felf-murder, the lawfulnefs of which was
maintained by the reft of the left. Arrian, his difciple,
wrote a large account of his life and death, which is Epicurean^
loft; and preferved four books of his difcourfes, and Epicurus
his Enchiridion, of which there have been feveral edi-
tions in Greek and Latin; and, in 1758, a tranflation
of them into Engliih was publiftied by the learned and
ingenious Mifs Carter.
EPICUREAN philosophy, the do&rine or fy-
ftem of philofophy maintained by Epicurus and his
followers.
His philofophy confifted of three parts; canonical,
phyfical, and ethereal. The firft was about the canons
or rules of judging. The cenfure which Tully paffes
upon him for his defpifing logic, will hold true only
with regard to the logic of the Stoics, which he could
not approve of, as being too full of nicety and quirk.
Epicurus was not acquainted with the analytical method
of divilion and argumentation, nor was he fo curious
in modes and formation as the Stoics. Soundnefs and
fimplicity of fenfe, affifted with fome natural reflec¬
tions, was all his art. His fearch after truth proceed¬
ed only by thefenfes; to the evidence of which he gave
fo great a certainty, that he confidered them as an in¬
fallible rule of truth, and termed them the firjl natural
light of mankind.
In the fecond part of this philofophy he laid down
atoms, fpace, and gravity, as the firft principles of all
things: he did not deny the exiftence of God, but
thought it beneath his majefty to concern himfelf with
human affairs; he held him a bleffed immortal Being,
having no affairs of his own to take care of, and above
meddling with thofe of others.
As to his ethics, he made the fupreme good of man
to confift in pleafure, and confequently fupreme evil in
pain. Nature itfelf, fays he, teaches us this truth; and
prompts us from our birth to procure whatever gives
us pleafure, and avoid what gives us pain. To this end
he propofes a remedy againft the fharpnefs of pain :
this was to divert the mind from it, by turning our
whole attention upon the pleafures we have formerly
enjoyed. He held that the wife man muft be happy, as
long as he is wife: the pain, not depriving him of his
wifdom, cannot deprive him of his happinefs.
There is nothing that has a fairer fhew of honefty
than the moral doftrine of Epicurus. Gaffendus pre¬
tends, that the pleafure in which this philofopher has
fixed the fovereign good, was nothing elfe but the high-
eft tranquillity of mind in conjundlion with the moil
perfedl health of body: but Tully, Horace, and Plu¬
tarch, as well as almoft all the fathers of the church,
give us a very different reprefentation: indeed the na¬
ture of this pleafure, in which the chief happinefs is
fuppofed to be feated, is a grand problem in the mo¬
rals of Epicurus. Hence there were two kinds of E-
picureans, the rigid and the remifs: the firft were thofe
who underftood Epicurus’s notion of pleafure in the
belt fenfe, and placed all their happinefs in the pure
pleafures of the mind, refulting from the pradice of
virtue: the loofe or remifs Epicureans, taking the words
of that philofopher in a grofs fenfe, placed all their hap- ' :
pinefs in bodily pleafures or debauchery.
Epicurus, the greateft philofopher of his age, was
born at Gargettium in Attica, about 340 B. C. in the
109th Olympiad. He fettled at Athens in a fine garden
he had bought; where he lived with his friends in great
tranquillity, and educated a great number ofdifciples.
They
e p i r 2811 i e p 1
p Epicycle They lived all in common with their mafter. The re-
!j fpedl which his followers paid to his memory is admi-
U drum?* ra^e : ^11S fchool was never divided, but his do&rine
 was followed as an oracle. His birth-day was ftill
kept in Pliny’s time ; the month he was born in was
Iobferved as a continued feftival; and they placed his
pi&ure every where. He wrote a great many books,
and valued himfelf upon making no quotations. He
raifed the atomical fyftem to a great reputation,
though he was not the inventor of it, but had only
made fome change in that of Democritus. As to
his dodtrine concerning the fupreme good or happi-
nefs, it was very liable to be mifreprefented, and fome
ill effedts proceeded from thence, which difcredited his
fedl. He was charged with perverting the worfhip of
the gods, and inciting men to debauchery 5 but he did
not forget himfelf on this occafion : he publiflied his
opinions to the whole world ; he wrote fome books of
devotion; recommended the veneration of the gods, fo-
briety, and chaftity ; and it is certain that he lived in an
exemplary manner, and conformably to the rules of
philofophical wifdom and frugality. Timocrites, a de-
ferter of his fedt, fpoke very fcandaloufly of him. Gaf-
fendus has given us all he could colledi from the an¬
cients concerning the perfon and dodtrine of this phi-
lofopher ; who died of a fuppreffion of urine, aged 72.
EPICYCLE, in the ancient aftronomy, a little
circle whole centre is in the circumference of a greater
circle : or it is a fmall orb or fphere, which being fix¬
ed in the deferent of a planet, is carried along with it;
and yet, by his own peculiar motion, carries the pla¬
net fattened to it round its proper centre.
It was by means of epicyles, that Ptolemy and his
followers folved the various phenomena of the pla¬
nets, but more efpecially their ftations and retrogra-
dations.
EPICYCLOID, in geometry, a curve generated
by the revolution of the periphery of a circle, along
the convex or concave fide of the periphery of another
circle.
EPICYEMA, among phyficians, denotes a fuper-
fetation ; being a falfe conception or mole happening
after the birth of a regular fetus. '
EPIDEMIA, in Grecian antiquity, feftivals kept
in honour of Apollo and Diana, at the ftated feafons
when thofe deities, who could not be prefent every
where, were fuppofed to vifit different places, in order
to receive the vows of their adorers.
EPIDEMIC, among phyficians, an epithet of dif-
eafes which at certain times are popular, attacking
Isee JVM--great numbers at or near the fame time *.
cine. EPIDENDRUM, in botany, a genus of the di-
andria order, belonging to the gynandria clafs of
plants. This is the plant which produces the fruit
called vanilla, and which is ufed in the making of
chocolate. It is a native of Mexico and alfo of fome
parts of the Eaft Indies. It is a parafitic plant; the
leaves of which greatly refemble the vine, andareabout
18 inches long and three inches broad. The flowers
are of a white colour intermixed with ftripes of red and
yellow. When thefe fall off, they are quickly fucceed-
ed by the pods, which at firft are green, but afterwards,
as they ripen, become yellow, and are gathered for
nfe. The pods of the belt vanilla are long, flender,
and well filled with feeds. If opened when frefh, the
cavity of the pod is found to contain a humid fub- Epidermis
fiance that is black, oily, and balfamic, of fuch a Jl
ftrong fmell, that it frequently caufes head-achs, and. °gne»
even a fort of temporary intoxication. The feafon for
gathering the pods begins about the latter end of Sep¬
tember, and lafts till the end of December. They are
dried in the fhade; and when dry and fit for keeping,
they are rubbed externally with a little oil of cocoa or
calba, lo render them fupple, or preferve them the bet¬
ter, and to prevent them from becoming too dry or
brittle. The ufe of this fruit is only for perfuming
chocolate. In New Spain it is reckoned unwholefome;
and therefore never u fed: but in England and other
countries of Europe, it is a conftant ingredient; and
perhaps its noxious qualities may be correcled by the
fea-air. In thofe countries where they grow, the
plants are very eafily propagated by cuttings. In this
country they require to be kept in a ftove, and alfo to
be placed near fome American tree, round which they
may climb for their fupport.
EPIDERMIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, n° 73.
EPIDIDYMIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
n0 37i, c.
EPIGASTRIC region,apart or fubdivifion of the
abdomen. See Anatomy, n° 349* b.
EPIGLOTTIS, in anatomy, one of the cartilages
of the larynx, or wind-pipe. See Anatomy, n° 380, a.
EPIGRAM, in poetry, a fhort poem in verfe,
treating only of one thing, and ending with fome live¬
ly, ingenious, and natural thought or point *. *SeePottrj,
EPIGRAPHE, among antiquarians, denotes then°47*
infcription of a building, pointing out the time when,
the perfons by whom, the ufes, and the like, for which
it was erected.
EPILEPSY, in medicine, the fame with what is
otherwife called the falling-Jlcknefs, from the patient’s
falling fuddenly to the ground. See Medicine.
Epilepsy, in farriery. See there, $ ix.
EPILOBIUM, the willow-herb; a genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the oftandria clafs
of plants. There are feven fpecies, all of them natives
of Britain. They grow in marfhes, or under hedges in
moift and fliady places; having bloffoms generally of
a red colour, and fometimes of confiderable beauty.
The molt remarkable is the hirfutum, commonly call¬
ed codlins and cream. The top-fhoots of this plant
have a very delicate fragrancy; but fo tranfitory, that
before they have been gathered five minutes, it is no
longer perceptible. Horfes, (heep, and goats eat this
plant; cows are not fond of it; fwine refufe it.
EPILOGUE, in oratory* the end or eonclufion of
a difcourfe, ordinarily containing a recapitulation of
the principal matters delivered.
Epilogue, in dramatic poetry, a fpeech addreffed
to the audience, after the play is over, by one of the
principal adtors therein; ufually containing fome reflec¬
tions on certain incidents in the play, efpecially thofe
in the part of the perfon that fpeaks it; and having
fomewhat of pleafantry, intended to compofe the paf-
fions raifed in the courfe of the reprefentation: A prac¬
tice which is ridiculed by the Speftator; and compa¬
red to a merry jigg upon the organ after a good
fermon, to wipe away any impreflions that might have
been made thereby, and fend the people away juft as
they came.
EPIME-
E P I [ 2812 ] E P I
Epime- EPIMEDIUM, barren-wort ; a genus of the
dium monogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of
Epiphanius P^ants* There is only one fpecies, viz. the alpinum.
  It is a low herbaceous plant, with a creeping root,
having many ftalks about nine inches high, each of
which has three flowers compofed of four leaves pla¬
ced in the form of a crofs. They are of a reddifh co¬
lour, with yellow ftripes on the border.
EPIMENIDES, an ancient poet and philofopher,
was born at Gnoflus in Crete. Contrary to the cuftom
of his country, he always wore his hair long ; which,
according to fome, was becaufe he was afliamed of
being thought a Cretan: and indeed he does not feem
to have had a high opinion of his countrymen, if that
verfe cited by St Paul be, as it is generally believed to
be, his ; “ The Cretans are always liars, evil beafts,
flow bellies.” Many ftories are related of him, too
wonderful to merit attention 5 however, his reputation
was fo great over all Greece, that he was there efteem-
ed a favourite of the gods. The Athenians being af-
fli&ed with the plague, and commanded by the oracle
to make a folemn luftration of the city, lent Nicias,
the fon of Niceratus, with a fhip to Crete, to defire
Epimenides to come to them. He accepted their in¬
vitation, accompanied the meffengers to Athens, per¬
formed the luftration of the city, and the plague ceafed.
Here he contracted an acquaintance with Solon, whom
he privately inilruCted in the proper methods for the re¬
gulation of the Athenian commonwealth. Having finifli-
ed his bufinefs at Athens, the citizens offered him many
valuable prefents and high honours, and appointed a
fliip to carry him back to Crete : but he returned their
prefents, and would accept of nothing except a little
branch of the facred olive preferved in the citadel; and
defired the Athenians to enter into an alliance with the
Gnoflians. Having obtained this, he returned to
Crete; where he died foon after, aged 157 years; or
as the Cretans, coniiftently with their charafter, pre¬
tended, 299. He was a great poet, and wrote 5000
verfes on “ the genealogy of the gods,” 6500 “ on
the building of the fhip Argos and Jafon’s expedition
to Colchis,” and 4000 “ concerning Minos and Rha-
damanthus.” He wrote alfo in profe, “ Concerning
facrifices and the commonwealth of Crete.” St Jerom
likewife mentions his “ book of oracles and refponfes.”
The Lacedemonians procured his body, and preferved
it among them by the advice of an oracle ; and Plu¬
tarch tells' us, that he was reckoned the feventh wife
man by thofe who refufed to admit Periander into the
number.
EPIPHANIUS (St), an ancient father of the
church, born at Befanducan, a village in Paleftine,
about the year 332. He founded a monaftery near
the place of his birth, and prefided over it. He was
afterwards ele&ed bifhop of Salamis; when he Tided
with Paulinus againft Meletius, and ordained in Pale¬
ftine, Paulintan, the brother of St Jerom; on which a
conteft arofe between him and John bifhop of Jerufa-
lem. He afterwards called a council in the ifland of
Cyprus, in which he procured a prohibition of the
reading of Origen’s writings; and made ufe of all his
endeavours to prevail on Theophilus, bifhop of Alex¬
andria, to engage St Chryfoftom to declare in favour
of that decree : but not meeting with fuccefs, he went
himfelf to Conftantinople, where he would not have
any converfation with St Chryfoftom ; and formed the Epiphany
defign of entering the church of the apoftles, to publifh |l
his condemnation of Origen : but being informed of EPirus‘
the danger to which he would be expofed, he refolved
to return to Cyprus; but died at fea, in the year 403.
His were printed in Greek, at Bafil 1544, in folio ;
and were afterwards tranflated into Latin, in which
language they have been often reprinted. Petav us re-
vifed and correfted the Greek text by two manfcripts,
and publifhed it together with a new tranflation at Pa¬
ris in 1622. This edition was reprinted at Cologne in
1682.
EPIPHANY, aChriftian feftival, otherwife called
the Manifeftation of Cbrifl to the Gentiles, obferved on
the fixth of January, in honour of the appearance of our
Saviour to the three magi, or wife-men, who came to
adore him and bring him prefents. The feaft of epi¬
phany was not originally a diftindf feftival; but made a
part of that of the nativity of Chrift, which being cele¬
brated 12 days, the firft and laft of which were high
or chief days of folemnity, either of thefe might pro¬
perly be called epiphany, as that word lignifies the ap¬
pearance of Chrift in the world.
The word in the original Greek, fignifies
appearance or apparition; and was applied, as fome
critics will have it, to this feaft, on account of the ftar
which appeared to the magi.—-St Jerom and St Chry¬
foftom take the epiphany for the day of our Saviour’s
baptifm, when he was declared to men by the voice.
Hie eftfilius mens dilettus, in quo mihi complacui: “ This
is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleafed.”
And accordingly it is ftill obferved by the Cophtse and
Ethiopians in that view. Others contend, that the
feaft of Chriftmas, or the nativity of our Saviour, was
held in divers churches on this day ; which had the
denomination epiphany, or appearance, by reafon of
our Saviour’s firft appearance on earth at that time.
And it muft be allowed, that the word is ufed among
the ancient Greek fathers, not for the appearance of the
ftar to the magi, but for that of our Saviour to the
world: In which fenfe, St Paul ufes the word epi-
phania, in his fecond epiftle to Timothy, c. i. v. 10.
EPIPHONEMA. See Oratory, n° 96.
EPIPHORA, in medicine, a preternatural deflux¬
ion of the eyes, when they continually difeharge a fharp
ferous humour, which excoriates the cheeks.
EPIPHYSIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, n° i.e.
EPIPLOCELE, in medicine, is a kind of hernia,
or rupture, in which the omentum fubfides into the
ferotum.
EPIPLOOMPHALON, in medicine, an hernia
umbilicalis, proceeding from the omentum falling into
the region of the umbilicus or navel.
EPIPLOON. See Omentum.
EPIRUS, a diftrift of ancient Greece, bounded
on the eaft by Etolia, on the weft by the Adriatic, on
the north by Theflaly and Macedon, and on the fouth
by the Ionian fea. This country was anciently go¬
verned by its own princes, in which ftate it made a
very confiderable figure. The country, according to
Jofephus, was firft peopled by Dodanim the fon of
Javan and grandfon of Japhet. The people were very
warlike: but they continued in their favage ftate
long after their neighbours were civilized ; whence the
Iflanders ufed to threaten their offenders with tranfpor-
tation
Epirus.
E P I [28
tation to Epirus. Their horfes were in great requeft
among the ancients, as well as the dogs produced in
one of the divifions called Moloffus; and hence thefe
dogs were called by the Romans Molofji.
The hiftory of Epirus commences with the reign of
Pyrrhus the fon of Achilles by Deidamia the daughter
of Lycomedes king of Scyros. He is faid to have behaved
with great bravery at the fiege of Troy; but it would ap¬
pear that he behaved with no lefs barbarity. After the
ci. y was taken, he is faid to have killed old king Priam
with his own hand; to have thrown Aftyanax the fon
of Heftor and Andromache'headlong from an high
tower ; and facrificed Polyxena the daughter of Priam
on the tomb of, his father. He carried Andromache
with him into Epirus, where he fettled by the advice
of the famous foothfayer Helenus, one of Priam’^ fons,
who had ferved during the Trojan war both under his
father and, himfelf. The only remarkable period of
the hiftory of Epirus is the reign of Pyrrhus II. who
made war upon the Romans. He was invited into I-
taly by the Tarentines ; and embarked about 280
B. C. After having efcaped many dangers by fea, he
landed in that country, and with great difficulty gain¬
ed a viftory over the Romans; but he was afterwards
* SeeRotne. utterly defeated by them *, and obliged to re¬
turn into his own country. To retrieve his honour,
he then undertook an expedition againft Macedon ;
where he overthrew Antigonus, and at laft made him¬
felf mafter of the whole kingdom. He then formed a
defign q{ fubduing all the other Grecian dates ; but
met with fuch an obftinate refiftance at Lacedaemon,
that he was obliged to drop the enterprize; and was
foon after killed at the fiege of Argos, by a woman,
who from the wall threw a tile upon his head. Dei¬
damia, the grand-daughter of Pyrrhus, was the laft
that fat on the throne of Epirus. She is faid to have
been murdered after a ffiort reign ; upon which the
Epirots formed themfelves into a republic.
Under the new form of government Epirus never
made any confiderable figure, but feems rather to have
been dependent, on the kingdom of Macedpn. The
Romans having conquered Philip king of that country,
reftored the Epirots, to their ancient liberty ; but they,
forgetful of this favour, foon after took up arms in fa¬
vour of Perfeus. As a punifhment for this ingratitude,
the Romans gave orders to Paulus Emilius, after the
reduftion of Macedon, to plunder the cities of Epirus,
and level them with the ground. This was pun&ual-
ly executed throughout the whole country on the fame
day, and at the fame hour. The booty was fold, and
each foot-foldier had 200 denarii, that is, fix pounds
nine fhillings and two pence, and each of the horfe
the double of this fum. An hundred and fifty thou-
fand men were made fiaves, and fold to the bed bid¬
der for the benefit of the republic. Nor did the ven¬
geance of Rome flop here ; all the cities of Epirus, to
the number of 70, were difmantled, and the chief men
of the country carried to Rome, where they were tried,
and moft of them condemned to perpetual imprifon-
ment. After this terrible blow, Epirus never recover¬
ed its ancient fplendor. Upon the diflblution of the
Achaean league, it was made part of the province of
Macedon; but, when Macedon became a diocefe, E-
pirus was made a province of itfelf, called the province
of Old Epirusy to diftinguilh it from iVew Epirus, an-
Vol. IV.
>3 1 . . E p r.
other province lying to the eaft of it. On the divifion Epiru*.
of the empire, it fell to the emperors of the eaft, and '
continued under them till the taking of Conftantinople
by the Latins, when Michael Angelus, a prince near¬
ly related to the Greek emperor, feized on Etolia and
Epirus, of which he declared himfelf defpote or prince;
and was fucceeded by its brother Theodorus, who took
feveral towns from the Latins, and fo far enlarged his
dominions, that, difdaining the title of defpote, he af-
fumed that of emperor, and was crowned by Deme¬
trius archbifhop of Bulgaria. Charles, the laft prince
of this family, dying without lawful iffue, bequeathed
Epirus and Acarnania to his natural fons, who were
driven out by Amurath the fecond. Great part of E-
pirus was afterwards held by the noble family of the
Caftriots ; who, though they were matters of all Alba¬
nia, yet ftyled themielves princes of Epirus. Upon the
death of the famous George Caftriot, furnamed Scan-
derbeg, Efims fell to the Venetians, who were foon
difpoffeffed of it by the Turks; in whofe hands it ftill
continues, being now known by the name of Albania,
which comprehends the Albania of the ancients, all E-
pirus, and that part of Dalmatia which is fubjedl to
the Turks.
EPISCOPACY, the government of the church by
bilhops. See the word Bishop.— In that article, when
defcribing the office and power of bilhops in the firfl:
ages, we followed Mr Peter King’s Account of the
Confutation of the Ancient Church ; and confidered them
only as pallors of a Angle congregation. But here a
regard to impartiality obliges us to acknowledge, that
we were not then acquainted with Mr Slater’s Anfwer
to that performance, in his Original Draught of the Pri¬
mitive Church; where it is Ihown, that, at the time Mr
Peter King alludes to, bilhops had more than one,
fometimes many congregations, with their clergy, un¬
der their care. As to the abfolute validity of his rea-
foning, however, or how far it is capable of being
redargued, we mull leave our polemical readers to judge
from a perufal of the books themfelves.
EPISCOPAL, fomething belonging to bishops.
EPISCOPALIANS, in church-hiftory, an appel¬
lation given to thofe who prefer the epifcopal govern¬
ment and difcipline to all others. See Episcopacy.
By the tell aft, none but Epifcopalians, or members
of the church of England, are qualified to enjoy any
office civil or military.
EPISCOPIUS (Simon), one of the moft learned
men of the 1 7th century, and the chief fupporter of the
Arminian feft, was born at Amfterdam in 1583. In
1612, he was chofen divinity profeflor at Leyden, in
the room of Gomar.us, who refigned ; and the func¬
tions of his. office, with his private ftudies, were light
burdens to him, compared with the difficulties he fu«
ftained on account of the Arminian controverfy: which,
though it began in the univerfities, foon flew to the
pulpits, from whence it fpread and inflamed the peo¬
ple. The Hates of Holland having invited Epifcopiua
to take his place at the fynod of Dort, he went thither
accompanied by fome remonftrant minifters; but the
fynod would not allow them to fit as judges, nor to
appear in any other capacity than as perfons fummon-
ed before them : they fubmitted, were depofed from
their funftions, and banilhed the territories of the
commonwealth. Epifcopius and his perfecuted bre-
16 H threa
E P I [ 2814 ] E P O
Epiftle.
Epifcopus thren retired to Antwerp; but the times growing more
favourable, he returned to Holland in 1626, and was
- made minifter of the church of the Remonftrants at
Rotterdam: in 1634, he was qhofen re&or of the col¬
lege founded by his feA at Amfterdam, where he
fpent the remainder of his days. He died in 1643, of
the fame diforder which had killed his wife before, a
retention of urine ; having loll his fight fome weeks
previous to his end. The learned have bellowed great
eulogiums on Epifcopius; but he did not always write
with that moderation which might have been wilhed.
His works make two volumes in folio, of which the fe-
condconfills of pollhumous publications.
EPISCOPUS, the fame with bilhop. See Bishop
and Episcopacy.
EPISODE, in poetry, a feparate incident, llory,
©r aftion, which a poet invents, and connects with his
principal a£lion, that his work may abound with a
greater diverfity of events ; though, in a more limited
fenfe, all the particular incidents whereof the adlion or
narration is compounded, are called See Poe¬
try, chap. ii. 19.
EPISPASTIC, in medicine, a topical remedy, which
being applied to the external parts of the body, at-
tradls the humours to that part.
EPISTATES, in the Athenian government, was
the prefident of the proedri. See Proedri.
EPISTEMONARCH, in the ancient Greek church,
an officer of great dignity, who had the care of every
thing relating to faith, in the quality of cenfor. His
office anfwered pretty nearly to that of matter of the
facred palace at Rome.
EPISTLE, denotes the fame with a miffive letter;
but is now chiefly ufed in fpeaking of ancient writings,
as the epillles of St Paul, epillles of Cicero, epiltles of
Pliny, &c.
Epistles and G of pels, in the liturgy of the church
of England, are feledl portions of fcripture, taken out
of the writings of the evangelills and apoftles, and ap¬
pointed to be read, in the communion-fervice, on Sun¬
days and holidays. They are thought to have been fe-
lefted by St Jerom, and by him put into the ledlion-
ary. It is certain, they were very anciently appro¬
priated to the days whereon we now read them, fince
they are not only of general ufe throughout the wdlern
church, but are alfo commented upon in the homilies
of feveral ancient fathers, which are faid to have been
preached upon thofe very days to which thefe portions
©f fcripture are now affixed.
The epittles and gofpels are placed in an admirable
order and method, and bear a fpecial relation to the
feveral days whereon they are read. The year is di-
fiinguifhed into two parts; the firft being defigned to
commemorate Chrift’s living among us, the other to in-
ftrufk us to live after his example. The former takes
in the whole time from Advent to Trinity-Sunday; the
latter, all the Sundays from Trinity to Advent. Du¬
ring the firft of thefe feafons, the epiftles and gofpels
are calculated to raife in us a grateful fenfe of what our
Saviour did and fuffered for us, and fet before our eyes
his nativity, circumcifion, and manifeftation to the
Gentiles; his doftrines, and miracles; his baptifm,
fading, and temptation; his agony and bloody fweat;
his crofs and paffion ; his death, burial, rdurreilion,
, and afcenfion; and his miffion of the Holy Ghoft.
During the fecond feafon of the year, the epiftles and Epiftolary
gofpels tend to inftrudl us in the true paths of Chrifti- II
anity. See Collects. ^E|)ode•
EPISTOLARY, fomething belonging to an e-
piftle. See Epistle.
Epistolary Compofition. See Letter ; and Poe¬
try, n° 76, &c.
EPISTROPHE. See Oratory, n° 71.
EPISTYLE, in' the ancient archite‘£lure, a term
ufed by the Greeks for what we call architrave, viz. a
a maffive piece of (tone or wood, laid immediately over
the capital of a column.
EPITAPH, a monumental infcription in honour
or memory of a perfon defunft. See Poetry, n° 102.
EPITASIS, in ancient poetry, the fecond part or
divifion of a dramatic poem, wherein the plot, enter¬
ed upon in the firft part, or protafis, was carried on,
heightened, and worked up, till it arrived at its ftate,
or height, called catajlajis.
Epitasis, in medicine, the increafe of a difeafe, or
beginning of a paroxyfm, particularly in a fever.
EPITHALAMIUM, in poetry, a nuptial fong,
or compofition, in praife of the bride and bride¬
groom, praying for their profperity, for a happy oft-
fpring, See.
Among the Greeks, the married couple were no
fooner bedded, than the young men and maids gather¬
ed round the door, dancing and finging the epithala-
mium, (houting, and damping with their feet, with in¬
tention to drown the maid’s cries.
EPITHEM, in pharmacy, a kind of fomentation,
or remedy of a fpirituous or aromatic kind, applied ex¬
ternally to the regions of the heart, liver, &c. to
ftrengthen and comfort the fame, or to correil fome in¬
temperature thereof. See Pharmacy, n° 1015, &c.
EPITHET, in poetry and rhetoric, an adjedlive
expreffing fome quality of a fubftantive to which it is
joined ; or fuch an adjedlive as is annexed to fubftan*
ftives by way of ornament and illuftration, not to make
up an effential part of the defeription. Nothing, fays
Ariilotle, tires the reader more than too great a re¬
dundancy of epithets, or epithets placed improperly;
and yet nothing is fo effential in poetry as a proper ufe
of them. The writings of the beft poets are full of
them.
EPITOME, in literary hiftory, the fame with A-
BRIDGEMENT.
EP1TRITUS, in profody, a foot confifting of three
long fyllables and one fliort. Of thefe, grammarians
reckon four kinds : the firft confifting of an iambus
and fpondee, as falutantes ; the fecond, of a trocheus
and fpondee, as concitatl; the third, of a fpondee
and an iambus, as eommufncans ; and the fourth, of a
fpondee and trocheus, as Incantare. See the articles
Spondeus, Trocheus, &c*
EPITROPE. See Oratory, n° 83.
EPIZEUXIS. Ibid. n° 68.
EPOCHA, in chronology, a term or fixed point
of time whence the fucceeding years are numbered or
counted. See jEra.
EPODE, in lyric poetry, the third or laft part of
the ode, the ancient ode being divided into ftrophe,
antiftrophe, and epode. See Ode, &c.
The epode was fung by the priefts. Handing ftill be¬
fore the altar, after all the turns and returns of the
ftrophe
Epopoeia
■ II
F.queftrian.
f See
Chcmijlry,
n° 139.
f See
Aftronomy,
n° 181.
E C^_ U [28
ftrophe and antiftrophe, and was not confined to any
precife number or kind of verfes.
The epode is now a general name for all kinds of
little verfes that follow one or more great ones, of what
kind foever they be : and in this fenfe, a pentameter
is an epode after an hexameter. And as every little
verfe, which, being put after another, clofes the period,
is called hence the fixth book of Horace’s odes
is entitled liber epodon, “ book of epodes,” becaufe the
verfes are all alternately long and ihort, and the Ihort
ones generally, though not always, clofe the fenfe of
the long one.
EPOPOEIA, in poetry, the hiftory, adion, or
fable, which makes the fubje£t of an epic poem. The
word is derived from the Greek, sra-®-, carmen, “ verfe j”
and woua, facto, “ I make.”
In the common ufe of the word, however, epopxia
is the fame with epos, or epic poem ’itfelf. See the
article Poetry.
EPOPS, or Hoopoe. See Upupa.
EPSOM, a town of Surry, about 15 miles fouth-
weft of London : much reforted to on account of its
medicinal waters ; from which the bitter purging fait
being firlt extra&ed, got the name of Epfom fait f.
EPULONES, in Roman antiquity, minifters who
affifted at the facrifices, and had the care of the facred
banquet committed to them.
EQUABLE, an appellation given to fuch motions
as always continue the fame in degree of velocity, with¬
out being either accelerated or retarded.
EQUAL, a term of relation between two or more
things of the fame magnitude, quantity, or quality.
Mathematicians fpeak of equal lines, angles, figures,
circles, ratios, folids.
EQUALITY, that agreement between two or more
things, whereby they are denominated equal.
EQUANIMITY, in ethics, denotes that even and
calm frame of mind and temper, under good or bad
fortune, whereby a man appears to be neither puffed up
nor overjoyed with profperity, nor difpirited, foured,
or rendered uneafy by adverfity.
EQUATION, in algebra. See Algebra, fe&. ii.
Equation of Time, in aftronomy and chronology,
the reduction of the apparent time or motion of the
fun, to equable, mean, or true time f.
EQUATOR, in geography, a great circle of the
terrellrial globe, equidiftant from its poles, and dividing
it into two equal hemifpheres; one north, and the o-
ther fouth. See Geography.
EQUERRY, in the Britifh cuftoms, an officer of
ftate, under the mafter of the horfe.
There are five equerries, who ride abroad with his
majefty: for which purpofe they give their attendance
monthly, one at a time, and are allowed a table.
As to the equerries of the crown ftable, they have
this diftinft appellation, as being employed in mount¬
ing, managing, and breaking the faddle-horfes for his
majefty’s ufe, and holding his ftirrup.
EQUES auratus, is ufed for a knight bachelor,
called auratus, q. d. gilt, becaufe anciently none but
knights were allowed to beautify their armour, or
other habiliments for war, with gold.
EQUESTRIAN statue, fignifies the ftatue of a
perfon mounted on horfeback.
Equestrian Order, among the Romans, fignified
.5 ] E O. U
their knights, or equites; as alfo their troopers, or
horfemen in the field: the firft of which orders ftood
in contradiftinftion to the fenators ; as the laft did to
the foot, military, or infantry. Each of thefe diftinc-
tions was introduced into the ftate by Romulus.
EQUIANGULAR, in geometry, an epithet given
to figures whofe angles are all equal: fuch are a fquare,
an equilateral triangle, &c.
EQUICRURAL, in geometry. See Isosceles.
EQUIDISTANT, an appellation given to things
placed at equal diftances from fome fixed point, or place,
to which they are referred.
EQUILATERAL, in general, fomething thathath
equal tides ; as an equilateral triangle.
EQUILIBRIUM, in mechanics, is when the two
ends of a lever or balance hang fo exadtly even and le¬
vel, that neither doth afcend or defcend, but both keep
in a pofition parallel to the horizon ; which is occafion-
ed by their being both charged with an equal weight.
EQUIMULTIPLES, in arithmetic and geometry,
are numbers or quantities multiplied by one and the
fame number or quantity. Hence, equimultiples are
always in the fame ratio to each other, as the fimple
quantities before multiplication: thus, if 6 and 8 are
multiplied by 4, the equimultiples 24 and 32 will be
to each other as 6 to 8.
EQUINOCTIAL, in aftronomy, a great circle of
the celeftial globe, whofe poles are the poles of the
world. See Astronomy and Geography.
EQUINOX, the time when the fun enters either of
the equinodlial points, where the ecliptic interfe&s the
equino&ial. See Astonomy, n° 135.
Precefwn of the Equinoxes. See Astronomy,
n° 137.
EQUISETUM, Horse-tail; a genus of the or¬
der of filices, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of
plants. There are feven fpecies, of which the moft re¬
markable are, j. The fylvaticum, or wood horfe-tail.
It grows in woods and moift fhady places in many
parts of England and Scotland. The ftalk rifes from
12 to 18 inches high, angular, and rough to the touch;
the angles being edged with fliarp fpicula, fcarce vi-
fible without a microfcope. The leaves grow verticil-
late, 12 or more in a whorl, and thefe whorls are about
an inch diftant from one another. The leaves are very
flender, nearly quadrangular, about five inches long,
pendent, and befet with feveral other fecondary whorls,
fo that it refembles a pine-tree in miniature. Horfes
are very for)d of this plant, and in fome parts of Swe¬
den it is colle&ed to ferve them as winter food. 2. The
arvenfe, common or corn horfe-tail, grows in wet mea¬
dows and corn-fields. The moft remarkable property
of this is, that its feeds, when viewed by a mifcrofcope,
are feen to leap about as if they were animated. It has
a very aftringent and diuretic quality, and has been e-
fteemed fervictable in the heematuria and gonorrhoea^
but is difregarded by the prefent pra&ice. It is a trou-
blefome plant in paftures; and difagreeable to cows,
being never touched by them unlefs they are compel¬
led by hunger, and then it brings on an incurable di¬
arrhoea. It does not feem to affeft horfes or ftieep.
3. The paluftre, marfh horfe-tail, or paddock pipe, is
frequent in marfhes and ditches. It is not fo rough as
the former, but is likewilc prejudicial to cattle. 4. The
fluviatile, or great river horfe-tail is frequent in ffiady
16 H 2 xnarlhes
Equian¬
gular
!l
Eqmletum.
Equity
Equuleus.
. E U [28
marfhes, and on the brinks of ftagnant waters. It is
the iargeft of all the fpecies, growing fometimes to the
height of a yard, and near an inch in diameter. Hal¬
ler tells us, that this kind of equifetum was eaten by
the Romans; and Linnaeus affirms, that oxen and rein¬
deer are fond of it, but that horfes refufe it. 5. The
hyemale, rough hoffe-tail, (have-grafs, or Dutch rulhes.
This is much ufed by the whitefmiths and cabinet-ma¬
kers, under the name of Dutch rujhes, for polifhing
their metals and wood. All the other fpecies will an-
fwer this purpofe in feme degree, but the laft better
than any of the reft. In Northumberland the dairy¬
maids fcour and clean their milk-pails with it. Some
imagine, that if cows are fed with this fpecies, their
teeth will fall out.
EQUITY, in a general fenfe, the virtue of treating
all other men according to reafon and juftice, or as we
would gladly be treated ourfelves when we underftand
aright what is our due. See Justice.
Equity, in jurifprudence, is defined a corre&ion or
qualification of the law, generally made in that part
wherein it faileth or is too fevere. It likewife fig-
nifies the extenfion of the words of the law to cafes un-
exprdfed, yet having the fame reafon ; fo that where
one thing is ena&ed by ftatute, all other things are
enadled that are of the like degree. For example, the
ftatute of Glouc. gives a&ion of wafte againft him that
holds lands for life or years; and, by the equity there¬
of, a man lhall have a&ion of wafte againft a tenant
that holds but for one year, or one half-year, which is
without the words of the a£V, but within the meaning
of it; and the words that ena£t the one, by equity
enaft the other. So that equity is of two kinds.
The one abridges and takes from the letter of the law:
the other enlarges and adds to it; and ftatutes maybe
conftrued according to equity, efpecially where they
give remedy for wrong, or are for expedition of juftice.
Equity feems to be the interpofing law of reafon, ex-
ercifed by the lord chancellor in extraordinary matters
to do equal juftice, and, by fupplying the defeats of
the law,s gives remedy in all cafes. See Chancery.
[See alfo Blackft. Comment, vol. i. 61, 91. vol. iii. 49,
429, 436. vol. iv. 435.]
EQUIVALENT, an appellation given to things
which agree in nature or other circumftance ; as force,
virtue. See.
EQUIVOCAL terms or words, among logicians,
are thofe which have a doubtful or double meaning.
According to Mr Locke, the doubtfulnefs and un¬
certainty of words has its canfe more in the ideas them-
felves, than in any incapacity of the words to fignify
them; and might be avoided, would people always ufe
the fame term to denote the fame idea, or colledtion of
ideas: but, adds he, it is hard to find a difeourfe on
any fubjeft where this is the cafe; a praftice which can
only be imputed to folly, or great difhonefty; fince a
man, in making up his accounts, might with as much
fairnefs ufe the numeral characters fometimes for one
fometimes for another collection of units.
Equivocal Generation, the production of animals
without the intercourfe between the fexes, by the influ¬
ence of the fun or ftars, &c.
This kind of generation is now quite exploded by
the learned.
EQUULEUS, orEccuLEus, in antiquity, a kind
16 ] E U
of rack ufed for extorting a confeffion, at firft chiefly Equus.
praCtifed on flaves, but afterwards made ufe of againft "
the Chriftians.
The equuleus was made of wood, having holes at
certain diltances, with a ferew, by which the criminal-
was ftretched to the third, fometimes to the fourth, or
fifth holes, his arms and legs being faftened on the e-
quuleus with cords ; and thus was hoifted aloft, and
extended in fuch a manner, that all his bones were dif-
located. In this ftate red-hot plates were applied to
his body, and he was goaded in the fides with an in-
ftrument called ungula.
Equulus, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, n° 206.
EQUUS, the Horse, in zoology, a genus of qua¬
drupeds belonging to the order of belluae. This genus
comprehends the horfe, the afs, and the zebra ; they
have fix ered and parallel fore-teeth in the upper jaw,
and fix fomewhat prominent ones in the under jaw ; the
dog-teeth are folitary, and at a confiderable diftance
from the reft; and the feet confift of an undivided
hoof. The horfe is a domeftic animal; and the figure
and dimenfions of his body are fo well known, that a
general defeription is altogether unneceflary. We ftiall
therefore confine ourfelves to the natural hiftory of this
noble animal.
The horfe, in a domeftic ftate, is a bold and fiery Bnfin,
animal; equally intrepid as his mafter, he faces danger Hijhire
and death with ardour and magnanimity. He delights
in the noife and tqmult of arms, and feems to fed the
glory of victory: he exults in the chafe; his eyes fparkle
with emulation in the courfe. But though bold and
intrepid, he is docile and traCtable: he knows how to
govern and check the natural vivacity and fire of his
temper. He not only yields to the hand, but feems to
confult the inclination of his rider. Conftantly obedient
to the impreffions he receives, his motions are entirely
regulated by the will of his mafter. He in fome mea-
fure refigns his very exiftence to the pleafure of man.
He delivers up his whole powers; he referves nothing;
he will rather die than difobey. Who could endure ta
fee a character fo noble abufed! who could be guilty
of fuch grofs barbarity!
This character, though natural to the animal, is in
fome meafure the effeCt of education. His education
commences with the lofsof liberty, and it is finiflied by
conftraint. The flavery of the horfe is fo ancient and
fo univerfal, that he is but rarely feen in a natural ftate.
Several ancient writers talk of wild horfes, and even
mention the places where they were to be found. He¬
rodotus takes notice of white favage horfes in Scythia;
Ariftotle fays, they are to be found in Syria ; Pliny,
in the northern regions ; and Strabo, in Spain and the
Alps. Among the moderns, Cardan fays, that wild
horfes are to be found in the Highlands of Scotland
and the Orkney ifles; Olaus, in Mufcovy; Dapper, in
the ifland of Cyprus ; Leo and Marmol, in Arabia and
Africa, &c. But as Europe is almoft equally inhabit¬
ed, wild horfes are not to be met with in any part of
it: and thofe of America were originally tranfported
from Europe by the Spaniards; for this fpecies of ani¬
mals did not exift in the new world. The Spaniards
carried over a great number of horfes, left them in dif¬
ferent iflands, &c. with a view to propagate that ufe-
ful animal in their colonies. Thefe have multiplied in¬
credibly in the vaft defarts of thofe thinly peopled coun -
E P I [28
Eqmis. tries, where they roam at large, without any reftraint.
' M. de Salle relates, that he law, in the year 1685,
The horfe. jj0rfe8 feeding in the meadows of North America, near
the bay of St Louis, which were fo ferocious that no¬
body durft come near them. Oexmelin fays, that he
has fcen large troops of them in St Domingo running
in the valleys : that when any perfon approached,
they all flopped; and one of them would advance till
within a certain diftance, then fnort with his nofe, take
to his heels, and the whole troop after him. Every
author who takes notice ofs thefe horfes of America,
agree that they are fmaller and lefs handfome than
thofe of Europe. Thefe relations fufficiently prove,
that the horfe, when at full liberty, though not a fierce
or dangerous animal, has no inclination to affociate with
mankind; that all the foftnefs and duftility of,his tem¬
per proceeds entirely fcom the culture and poliflt he
receives in his domeftic education, which in fome mea-
fure commences as foon as he is brought forth.
The motions of the horfe are chiefly regulated by
the bit and the fpur; the bit informs him how to dire£t
his courfe, and the fpur quickens his pace. The mouth
of the horfe is endowed with an amazing fenfibility :
the flighteft motion or prcffure of the bit gives him
warning, and infiantly determines his courfe.
The horfeTas not only a grandeur in his general ap¬
pearance, but there is the greateft fymmetry and pro¬
portion in the different parts of his body. The regu¬
larity and proportion of the different parts of the head
gives him an air of lightnefs, which is well fupported
by the ftrength and beauty of his chert. ' He ere&s his
head, as if willing to exalt himfelf above the condition
of other quadrupeds: his eyes are open and lively ;
his ears are handfome, and of a proper height; his
mane adorns his neck, and gives him the appearance of
ftrength and boldnefs.
At the age: of two years, or two years and a half,
the horfe is in a condition to propagate; and the mare,
like moft other females, is ready to receive hjm (till
fooner. But the foals produced by fuch early em¬
braces are generally ill-made and weakly. The horfe
fhould never be admitted to the mare till he is four or
four and a half; this is only meant with regard to
draught-horfes. Fine hovfes rtiould not be admitted to
the mare before they be fix years old; and Spanifli ftal-
lions not till feven. The mares are generally in feafon
from the beginning of April to the end of March ; but
their chief ardour for the horfe lafts but about 15 or 20
days, and this critical feafon fhould always be embra¬
ced. The ftallion ought to be found, well made, vi¬
gorous, and of a good breed. For fine faddle-horfes,
foreign ftaliions, as Arabians, Turks, Barbs, and An-
daloufians, are preferable to all others. Next to thefe,
Britifh ftallions are the beft ; becaufe they originally
fprang from thofe above-mentioned, and ^re very little
degenerated. The ftallions of Italy, and efpecially
the Neapolitans, are very good. The beft ftallions for
draught or carriage horfes, are thofe of Naples, Den¬
mark, Holftein, and Freezeland. The ftallions for fad¬
dle-horfes fhould be from 14 to 15 hands high, and for
draught-horfes at lead 15 hands. Neither ought the
colour of ftallions to be overlooked ; as a fine black,
grey, bay, forrel, &c. Befides thefe external qualities,
a ftallion ought to have courage, tra&ability, fpirit, a-
gility, a feufible mouth, fure limbs, &c. Thefe precau-
■7 ] E P I
tions in the choice of a ftallion are the more neceffary,
becaufe he has been found by experience to communi- ~
cate to his offspring almoft all his good or bad quali- '
tits, whether natural or acquired.
The mare contributes lei's to the beauty of her off-
fpring than the ftallion ; but ftie contributes perhaps
more to their conftitution and ftature : for thefe rea
fons, it is neceffary that the mares for breed be per¬
fectly found, and make good nurfes. For elegant horfes,
the Spanilh and Italian mares are beft; but, for draught-
horfes, thofe of Britain and Normandy are preferable.
However, when the ftallions are good, the mares of any
country will produce fine horfes, provided they be well
made and of a good breed.
Mares go with young eleven months and fome days.
They bring forth Handing; contrary to the courfe of
moft other quadrupeds, who lie during this operation.
They continue to bring forth till the age of 16 or 18
years ; and both horfes and mares live between 25 and
30 years. Horfes call their hair once a-year; general¬
ly in the fpring, but fometimes in the autumn. At this
time they are weak, and require to be better fed and
taken care of than at any other feafon.
In Perfia, Arabia, and moft eaftern countries,, they
never geld their horfes, as is done in Europe and Chi¬
na. This operation greatly diminifhes their ftrength,
courage, and fpirit; but it makes them good humour¬
ed, gentle, and tradable. With regard to the time of
performing this operation, the pradice of different
countries is different: fome geld their horfes when a
year old, and others at 18 months. But the beft and
moft general pradice is to delay the operation till they
be two years old at leaft ; becaufe, when the gelding
is delayed for two years or more, the animals retain
more of the ftrength and other qualities which natu¬
rally belong to the male.
As the utility of horfes furpaffes that of all other
domeftic animals, it may be of ufe ta fubjoin fome
marks by which the age and other properties of horfes
may be diftinguilhed.
in old horfes, the eye-pits are generally deep ; but
this is only an equivocal mark, being alfo found in
young horfes begot by old ftallions. The moft cer¬
tain knowledge of the age is to be obtained from the
teeth. Of thefe a horfe has 40 ; 24 grinders or double¬
teeth, four turtles, and 12 fore-teeth: mares have no>
turtles, or at leaft very fliort ones. It is not from the
grinders that we know the age; it is difcovercd firft by
the fore-teeth, and afterwards by the turtles’. The 12
fore-teeth begin to ftioot within 12 days after the colt is
foaled. Thefe firft, or foal-teeth, are round, ftiort, not
very folid, and are caft at different times, to be repla¬
ced by others. At the age of two years and a half,,
the four middle fore-teeth are caft, two in the upper
jaw, and two in the lower. In one year more, four
others drop out, one on each fide of the former, which-
are already replaced. When he is about four years
and a half old, he (beds four others, and always next
to thofe which have fallen out and been replaced.
Thefe four foal-teeth are replaced by four others, but
are far from growing fo fart as thofe which replaced
the eight former, and are called the corner-teeth; they
replace the four laft foal-teeth, and by thefe the age
of a horfe is difcovered. They are eafily known, be¬
ing the third both above and below, counting from the
middle
Equus,
.'he horfe.
Equus.
1'he horfe
E U [28
middle of the jaw. They are hollow, and have a black
mark in their cavity. When the horfe is four years
and a half old, they are fcarce vifible above the gum,
and the cavity is very fenfible: at fix and a half, they
begin to fill; and the mark continually diminifties and
contrails till feven or eight years, when the cavity is
quite filled up, and the black fpot effaced. After eight
years, thefe teeth ceafing to afford any knowledge of
the age, it is judged of by the tufhes: which are four
teeth adjoining to thofe laft mentioned; and, like the
grinders, are not preceded by any other teeth. The
two in the lower jaw ufually begin to (hoot at three
years and a half, and thofe of the upper jaw at four;
continuing very fharp-pointed till fix. At 10, the up¬
per feem blunted, worn out, and long, the gum con-
trailing itfelf as its years increafe; the barer therefore
they are, the older is the horfe. From 10 to 13 or 14
years, little can be feen to indicate the age; but at
that time fume hairs of the eye-brows begin to turn
grey. This mark, however, is equivocal, like that
drawn from the depth of the eye-pits; horfes from old
ilallipns, or mares, having grey hairs in the eye-brows
when they are not above nine or ten years old. In
fome horfes the teeth are of fuch a hardnefs as not to
wear; and in fuch the black mark always fubfijls, be¬
ing never effaced by time : but the age of thefe hor¬
fes, which are called beguts by : the French, is eafily
known ; the hollow of the tooth being filled up, and at
the fame time the tufhes very long. It has been, farr
ther obferved, that this is more common in mares than
in horfes. The age of a horfe may be alfo known,
though lefs accurately, by the bars in his mouth,
which wear away as he advances in years.
When the horfe is without blemifh, the legs and
thighs are clean, the knees flraight, the fkin and fhank
thin, and the back-finew flrong and well-braced. The
finews and the bones fhould be fo diflinfl, as to make
the legs appear thin and lathy, not full and round.
The pattern joints fhould never be large and round ;
nor mutt there be any fwelling near the coronet. The
hocks fhould be lean and dry, not puffed up with wind.
With regard to the hoof, the coronet fhould be equally
thick, and the horn fhining and greyifh. A white
horn is a fign of a bad foot, for it will wear out in a
fhort time; and likewife when the horn is thin, it is
liable to be fpoiled in fhoeing, and by travelling hard
on ftony grounds. This is beft known when the fhoe
is taken off; for then the verge all round the foie will
appear thin, and the horfe will wince at the leaft touch
of the pincers.
A ftrong foot has the fibres of the hoof very diftinfk
running in a direft line from the coronet to the toe,
like the grain of wood. In this cafe, care mutt be ta¬
ken to keep the foot moift and pliable. The greateft
inconvenience attending a hard ftrong foot, is its be¬
ing/ubjeft to rifts and fiffures, which cleave the hoof
quite through fometimes from the coronet down to the
bottom.
A narrow heel is likewife a defeft; and when it is
not above two fingers in breadth, the foot is bad. A
high heel caufes a horfe to trip and ftumble often; and
the low one, with long yielding patterns, is very apt
to be worn quite away on a journey. Too large a foot
in proportion to the reft of the body, renders a horfe
weak and heavy.
18 ] E U
The head of a horfe fhould be fmall, and rather lean
than flefhy. The ears fhould be fmall, eredl, thin,
fprightly, and pointed. The forehead, or brow, fhould
be neither too broad nor too flat, and fhould have a
flar or fnip thereon. The nofe fhould rife a little, and
the noftrils fhould be wide that he may breathe more
freely. The muzzle fhould be fmall, and the mouth
neither too deep nor too (hallow. The jaws fhould be
thin, and not approach too near together at the throat,
nor too high upwards towards the onfet, that the horfe
may have fufficient room to carry his head in an eafy
raceful pofture. The eyes fhould be of a middle fize,
right, lively, and full of fire. The tongue fhould be
fmall, that it may not be too much prcffed by the bit;
and it is a good fign when his mouth is full of white
froth, for it (hews that he will not foon be overheated.
The neck fhould be archfd towards the middle,
growing fmaller by degrees from the breaft and /boul¬
ders to the head. The hair of the main fhould be
long, fmall, and fine; and if it be a little frizzled, fo
much the better. The fhoulders fhould be pretty long;
the withers thin, and enlarge gradually from thence
downwards; but fo as to render his breaft neither too
narrow nor too grofs. A thick-fhouldered horfe foon
tires, and trips and (tumbles every minute; efpecially
if he has a thick large neck at the fame time. When
the breaft is fo narrow that the fore-thighs almoft
touch, they are never good for much. A horfe of a
middle fize fhould have the diftance of five or fix inches
between his fore-thighs, and there fhould be lefs di¬
ftance between.his feet than his thighs near the fhoul¬
ders when he (lands upright.
The body or carcafe of a horfe fhould be of a mid¬
dling fize in proportion to his bulk, and the back
fhould fink a little below the withers ; but the other
parts fhould be ftraight, and no higher behind than
before. He fhould alfo be home-ribbed ; but the fhort
ribs fhould not approach too near the haunches, and
then he will have room to fetch his breath. When a
horfe’s back is fhort in proportion to his bulk, and yet
otherwife well limbed, he will hold out a journey, tho’
he will travel flow. When he is tail, at the fame time
with very long legs, he is but of little value.
The wind fhould never be overlooked in the choice
of a horfe: and it may eafily be known by his flanks,
if he is broken-winded, when he (lands quiet in the
flable; becaufe he always pinches them in with a very
flow motion, and drops them fuddenly. A thick-
winded horfe fetches his breath often, and fometimes
rattles and wheezes. This may be always difcovered
when he is put to brifk exercifes.
The temper of a horfe fhould always be obferved ;
a vicious horfe generally lays his ears clofe to his pole,
(hews the whites of his eyes, and looks fallen and dog¬
ged. An angry horfe may be known by his frowning
looks; and he generally feems to (land in a pofture of
defence. When he is very vicious, he pays no regard to
the groom that feeds him : However, fome horfes that
are ticklifh will lay back their ears, and yet be of a
good difpofition. A fearful horfe is apt to ftart, and
never leaves it off till he is old and ufelefs. A fret¬
ful horfe is very unfit for a journey; and you may dif-
cover his temper as foon as he gets out of the ftable.
A dull, heavy, fluggifh horfe may be eafily known,
whatever tricks are ufed to roufe his fpirits.
EqtniJ,
The horfe.
With
E O U [ 2819 ] E U
Eqvius. With regard to the colour of a horfe, the bright
* ~~ bay, and indeed all kinds of bays in general, are ac-
The horfe. counted good colours. The chefnut horfe is gene¬
rally preferable to the forrel, unlefs the forrher hap¬
pens to be bald, or party-coloured, with white legs.
Brown horfes have generally black manes and tails,
and their joints are of a rufty black. Thofe of this
colour that are dappled, are much handfomer than the
reft. Horfes of a fhining black, and well-marked,
without too much white, are in high efteem for their
beauty. A ftar, or blaze, or white mgzzle, or 6ne or
more feet tipped with white, are thought to be rather
better than thofe that are quite black.
Of greys, the dappled are, accouhted beft ; though
the filver grey make a more beautiful appearance, and
often prove good. The iron grey with white manes
and tails are thought not to be fo hardy. Greys of
every kind will turn white fooner or later; but the
nutmeg grey, when the dappled parts incline to bay or
chefnut, are faid to be good hardy horfes. Roan
horfes have a diverfity of colours mixed together; but
the white is more predominant than the reft. They
are all generally hardy, and fit for the road ; and fome
are exceeding good. Thofe of a ftrawberry colour
moft referable the forrel, and they are often marked
with white on the face and legs. When the bay is
blended with it, he feems to be tin&ured with claret ;
and fome of thefe prove to be very good. Dun, fal¬
low, and cream-coloured horfes have a lift down their
backs; and their manes and tails are black. Dun hor¬
fes are feldom chofen by gentlemen, and yet they may
he very ufeful to the country farmer. The fallow and
cream-coloured are more efteemed, both for beauty
and ufe. Thofe horfes that are finely fpotted with gay
colours like leopards are a great rarity, and for that
reafon are only in the hands of great mert.
There is fome difference in horfes according to the
different countries where they are bred. For inftance,
in France, thofe of Bretagne ate pretty ftrong made,
and have generally black hair, or brown bay ; and they
have good legs and feet, with a hardy mouth, and a
head fhort and flefhy ; but in general they are pretty
clumfy. The horfes of Tranche Compte are faid to
have the legs of tigers, and the belly of a hind ; but
they are fhort and thick, and of a middle fize; being
much more proper for drawing than riding. The
horfes of Gafcony are not unlike thofe of Spain; but
they are not fo handfome, nor fo a&ive, and therefore
they are more proper to draw carriages. The Limo-
fin horfes are very vicious, and are good for little till
they are fix years old. Their colour is generally bay,
or a bay brown. The horfes of Normandy are much
like thofe of Bretagne ; and thofe of Poitou have good
bodies, legs, feet, and eyes; but they are far from
being handfome.
The horfes of Germany are much better and more
handfome than thofe of the Low countries. They are
of great ufe for carriages; but much more for the ar¬
my, and for drawing the artillery. They have a great
deal of hair, efpecially about the legs. They are not
large, but they ar£ well fet; and yet they have tender
feet. The Hungarian horfes are excellent for the coach,
as well as for riding: but they are large, though well
proportioned; and they are of all colours, and in gene¬
ral very fwift.
The Danifh horfes are low, fliort, and fquare ; but Equus.
they have a fine head, and ftiort hair. The horfes of . ",
the Low countries are very fit for the coach, and they T e or e‘
are beft known by the name of Flahders-mares. The
Polilh horfes are like the Danilh; only they have not
fo fine a fore-hand: their colour is generally a bright
bay, and that of the outward peel of an onion ; and
they are fiery and vicious. The horfes of Switzerland
are pretty much like thofe of Germany; which is no
wonder, fince the Germans purchafe a great number of
them. The hbrfes of Piedmont are fiery, of a middle
fize, and of all forts of colours; their legs are good
and handfome, their eyes fine, their ears fmall, and
their mouths good; but they do not carry their heads
well.
The horfes of Naples and Italy are generally ill-
made, and lean ; and yet they are good and ufeful, for
they are light and proper for racing, though not for a
long courfe ; they never do well in a colder climate.
The Spanilh horfes are very well made, and handfome,
as well as very aftive and nimble ; they have good eyes,
handfome legs and heads, and are eafily managed; they
are alfo good for racing, if they are well kept: how¬
ever, they are not fo good in northern climates as in
their own country. The Turkifti horfes are of dif¬
ferent fhapes; but they are generally fwift, though
their mouths are bad. Moft of them are white; though
there are other colours ; and they are large, hardy,
ftrong, and fit for the road.
The horfes of Barbary, commonly called have
ftrong hoofs, and are more proper for racing than any
others whatever: fome have faid they never grow old,
becaufe they preferve their vigour to the laft. They
are excellent ftallions ; and fome of them are ufed as
fuch in Britain : however, the Arabian horfes are not
quite fo good as the Barbary, though fome think they
are both of the fame kind; only thofe that are ufed to
the deferts of Arabia are always in a&ion. The hor¬
fes of the Gold-Coaft of Guinea are very few in number,
and in other parts of that coaft there are none at all ;
for many of the negroes, when they have been firft
brought over to our American plantations, have ex-
preffed great admiration at the fight of a horfe, and
even been afraid to come near one.
The horfes of the Cape of Good Hope were origi- Pennant's
nally brought from Perfia: and they are generally fmall, ^> lt- Zc^-
and of a chefnut colour; for thofe that are natives of
that country are all wild, and could never yet be tamed.
The horfes of China are good, and more particularly
thofe in the province of YunNan; for they are very
vigorous, though a little low. The horfes of the El nth
Tartars are good and full of fire; and their fize is
much the fame as the Polifti horfes: they are afraid of
nothing; not even of lions and tigers : but perhaps this
may be owing to ufe. In the country of the Mogul they
are very numerous, and of all colours: they are gene¬
rally of the middle fize, though there are foirte as large
and as handfome as thofe in Europe. The wild horfes
of Tartary differ very little from the tame ; but they
are fo fwift, that they avoid the arrows of the moft
fkilful hunters.
The breed of horfes in Great Britain is as mixed as
that of its inhabitants: the frequent introduftion of fo¬
reign horfes has given us a variety, that no fingle country
can boaft of: moft other countries produce only one
kind;
E(]«us.
The horfe.
E U [ 2820 ] E Q_ U
kind; while ours, by a judicious mixture of the feveral
fpecies, by the happy difference of our foils, and by
our fuperior fkill in management, may triumph over
the reft of Europe, in having brought each quality of
this noble animal to the higheft perfe&ion.
In the annals of Newmarket, may be found inftances
of horfes that have literally outftripped the wind, as
the celebrated M, Condamine has lately fhewn in his
remarks on thofe of Great Britain. Childers is an Ama¬
zing inftance of rapidity; his fpeed having been more
than once exerted equal to 82-^ feet in a fecond, or
near a mile in a minute: the fame horfe has alfo run
the round courfe at Newmarket, (which is about 400
yards lefs then 4 miles) in fix minutes and 40 feconds;
in which cafe his fleetnefs is to that of the fwifteft barb,
as four to three; the former, according to Dr Maty’s
computation, covering at every bound a fpace of ground
equal in length to 23 feet-royal, the latter only that
of i8| feet royal.
Horfes of this kind derive their origin from Arabia;
the feat of the pureft and moft generous breed.
The fpecies ufed in hunting, is a happy Combina¬
tion of the former with others fuperior in ftrength, but
inferior in point of fpeed and lineage: an union of
both is neceftary ; for the fatigues of the chace muft
be fupported by the fpirit of the one, as well as by the
vigour of the other.
No country can bring a parallel to the ftrength and
fize of our horfes deftined for the draught; or to the
aftivity and ftrength united of thofe that form our ca¬
valry.
In our capital there are inftances of fingle horfes
that are able to draw on a plain, for a fmall fpace, the
weight of three tuns; but could with eafe, and for a
continuance, draw half that weight. The pack-horfes
of Yorkfttire, employed in conveying the manufactures
of that county to the moft remote parts of the king¬
dom, ufually carry a burden of 420 pounds; and that
indifferently over the higheft hills of the north, as well
as the moft level roads. But the moft remarkable proof
of the ftrength of our Britilh horfes, is to be drawn
from that of our mill-ftorfes: fome of thefe will carry
at one load 13 meafures, which at a moderate compu-'
tation of 70 pounds each, will amount to 910; a weight
fuperior to that which the leffer fort of camels will bear:
this will appear lefs furprifing, as thefe horfes are by
degrees accuftomed to the weight; and the diftance they
travel no greater than to and from the adjacent ham¬
lets.
Our cavalry, in the late campaigns, (when they had
opportunity) ftiewed over thofe of our allies, as well as
of the French, a great fuperiority both of ftrength
and aftivity: the enemy was broken through by the
impetuous charge of our fquadrons; while the German
horfes, from their great weight and inaftive make,
were unable to fecond our efforts; though thofe troops
were aftuated by the nobleft ardour.
The prefent cavalry of this ifland only fupports its
ancient glory. It was eminent in the earlieft times : our
fcythed chariots, and the aftivity and good difcipline
of our horfes, even {truck terror into Cefar’s legions:
and the Britons, as foon as they became civilized enough
to coin, took care to reprefent on their money the ani¬
mal for which they were fo celebrated. It is now im-
poffible to trace out this fpecies; for thofe which exift
among the indigence of Great Britain, fuch as the little
horfes of Wales and Cornwal, the hobbies of Ireland,
and the fhelties of Scotland, though admirably well ad¬
apted to the ufes of thofe countries, could never have
been equal to the work of war: but probably we had
even then a larger and ftronger breed in the more fer¬
tile and luxuriant parts of the ifland. Thofe we em¬
ploy for that purpofe, or for the draught, are an off-
fpring of the German or Flemifti breed, meliorated by
our foil and a judicious culture.
The Englifh were ever attentive to an exaft culture
of thefe animals; and in very early times fet a high
value on their breed. The efteem that our horfes were
held in by foreigners fo long ago as the reign of A-
thelftan, maybe collected from a law of that monarch,
prohibiting their exportation, except they weredefign-
ed as prefents. Thefe muft have been the native kind,
or the prohibition would have been needlefs; for our
commerce was at that time too limited to receive im¬
provement from any but the German kind, to which
country their own breed could be of no value.
But when oiir intercourfe with the other parts of
Europe was enlarged, we foon laid hold of the advan¬
tages this gave of improving our breed. Roger de Be-
lelme, earl of Shrewfbury, isthe firft that is on record:
he introduced the Spanifti ftallions into his eftate in
Powifland, from which that part of Wales was for
many ages celebrated for a fwift and generous race of
b"rfes. Giraldus Cambrenfis, who lived in the reign of
Henry II. takes notice of it; and Michael Drayton,
cotemporary with Shakefpear, fings their excellence in
the fixth part of his Polyolbion. This kind was pro¬
bably deftined to mount our gallant nobility, or cour¬
teous knights for feats of chivalry, in the generous con-
tefts of the tilt-yard. From thefe fprung, to fpeak the
language of the times, the flower of courfers, whofe
elegant form added charms to the rider, and whofe
activity and managed dexterity gained him the palm
in that field of gallantry and romantic honour.
The increafe of our inhabitants, and the extent of
our manufactures, together with the former negleft of
internal navigation to convey thofe manufactures, mul¬
tiplied the number of our horfes: an excefs of wealth,
before unknown in thefe iflands, increafed the luxury
of carriages, and added to the neceffity of an extraor¬
dinary culture of thefe animals: their high reputation
abroad has alfo made them a branch of commerce,
and proved another-caufe of their vaft increafe.
As no kingdom can boaft of parallel circumftances,
fo none can vie with us in the number of thefe noble
quadrupeds. It would be extremely difficult to guefs
at the exaCt amount of them, or to form a periodical
account of their increafe: The number feems very
fluctuating. William Fitz-Stephen relates, that in
the reign of king Stephen, Eondon alone poured out
20,000 horfemen in the wars of thofe times: yet we
find, that, in the beginning of queen Elizabeth’s reign,
the whole kingdom could not fupply 2000 horfes to
form our cavalry: and even in the year 1588, when
in the moft imminent danger from the Spanifti inva-
fion, all the cavalry which the nation could then fur-
nifti amounted only to 3000. To account for this dif¬
ference we muft imagine, that the number of horfes
which took the field in Stephen’s reign was no more
than an undifciplined rabble; the few that appear-
fiqiius.
The horfe.
E U [ 2811 ] E O U
Sgmis. cd tinder the banners of Elizabeth, a corps well form-
TheHorfe eC^’ an<^ 38 0PP°fe^ to formidable an
enemy as was then expedted: but fuch is their prefent
increafe, that, in the late war, the number employed
was 13,575; and fuch is our improvement in the breed
of horfes, that moft of thofe which are ufed in our
waggcns and carriages of different kinds, might be
applied to the fame purpofe: of thofe, our capital a-
lone employs near 22,oco.
The all-wife Creator hath finely limited the feveral
fervices of domeftic animals towards the human race ;
and ordered that the parts of fuch, which in their lives
have been the moft ufeful, fhould after death contri¬
bute the leaft to our benefit. The chief ufe that the
exuvite of the horfe can be applied to, is for collars,
traces, and other parts of the harnefs; and thus, even
after death, he preferves fome analogy with his former
employ. The hair of the mane is of ufe in making
wigs; of the tail, in making the bottoms of chairs,
floor-cloths, and cords; and to the angler in making
lines.
Technical Description of the Parts of a Horse.
The Fore Part. 1. The forehead. 2. The temples.
3. Cavity above the eye. 4. The jaw. 5. The lips.
Plate CTII. 6. The noftrils. 7. The tip of the nofe. 8. The chin.
% i- 9. The beard. 10. The neck. n. The mane. 12. The
fore-top. 13. The throat. 14. The withers. 15. The
fhoulders. 16. The cheft. 17. The elbow. 18. The
arm. 19. The plate vein. 20. The chefnut. 21. The
knee. 22. The fhank. 23. The ipain tendents.
24. The fetlock joint. 25. The fetlock. 26. The
paftern. 27. The coronet. 28. The hoof. 29. The
quarters. 30. The toe. 31. The heel.— The Body.
32. The reins. 33. The fillets. 34. The ribs.
35. The belly. 36. The flanks. —TA? Hind Part.
37. The rump. 38. The tail. 39. The buttocks.
40. The haunches. 41. The ftifle. 42. The thighs.
43. The hock. 44. The kerb. 45. The point of
the hock.
For the breeding, rearing, &c. of horfes, fee the
articles Colt, Horse, and Stallion; for the me¬
thod of training and managing them, fee Horse¬
manship ; and for their difeafes and cure, fee Far¬
riery.
2. The Ass is likewife a domeftic animal, and eafily
diftinguiftied from the horfe at firft fight; we never
PlateCUI. conf°und thefe two animals, even though they (hould
fig. a. happen to be of the fame colour and ftature. However,
when we view the different parts of the afs, whether
the external or internal, and compare them with the
correfponding parts of the horfe, the refemblance of
thefe parts is fo perfeft, that we are furprifed to find
the individuals fo different and fo eafily diftinguifhable
by the eye. From this circumftance, fome naturalifts
have confidered the afs and the horfe to be of the fame
fpecies of animals ; and that the fmall differences be¬
tween them are accidental, or owing to the influence of
climate, culture, &c. Linnaeus’s fpecific mark of the
horfe is, that the whole tail is covered with long hair;
and his fpecific mark of the afs is, that the tail has long
hair only towards the point, and a black crofs over
the fhoulders. On the other hand, when we confider
the differences in the temper, the manners and difpo-
fitions of thefe two animals, and, above all, the impof-
fibility of mixing them fo as to produce a common or
Vol. IV.
intermediate fpecies capable of propagating and tranf- Eqmis.
mitting in the fame manner as other diftindt fpecies,"~7
the notion that the horfeand the afs are the fame fpe- e - s'
cies will appear to be without any folid foundation.
Befides, the afs differs materially from the horfe in the
thicknefs of the head, the length of the ears, the hard-
nefs of the fkin, and in the voice, the difpofnions, the
manner of drinking, &c. With regard to animals,
there is perhaps but one permanent and uniform fpe¬
cific diftindtion in nature: A male and female of differ¬
ent fpecies may copulate, may produce a third animal
refembling both, but very different from either: but
here nature has put a final ftop to all further procrea¬
tion ; the third animal, although it be feemingly fur-r
nifhed with every thing neceffary for propagating, re¬
mains for ever barren. Now, the horfe may be made
to copulate with the afs; a mule, or mixture of the two,
is the fruit of the unnatural embrace: but the impreg¬
nation of a mule is found by experience to be altoge¬
ther impoffible.
The afs, therefore, is a diftindt fpecies, and his race
as ancient as that of the horfe. Why, then, fhould this
ufeful, patient, fober animal be fo much defpifed? We
are apt to compare him, on every occafion, with the
horfe, and from this comparifon are led to very falfe
and unfavourable conclufions. The horfe is educated
with great care and expence 5 while the poor afs, aban¬
doned to the abufe of the meaneft fervants or the cruel¬
ty of children, inftead of deriving benefit from inftruc-
tion, lofes in effedt his natural good qualities by the
bad treatment he fuffers. He is the fport and buffet-
block of every ruftic, who beat and overload him with¬
out mercy or difcretion. They never confider that the
afs would be the moft ufeful, the beft made, and moft
diftinguifhed of all aniipals, if there were no horfes in
the world.
The afs is as humble, patient, and tranquil, as the
horfe is bold, ardent, and impetuous. He fubmits with
firmnefs, perhaps with magnanimity, to ftrokes and cha-
ftifement; he is temperate both as to the quantity and
quality of his food; he contents himfelf with the rigid
and difagreeable herbage which the horfe and other
animals leave to him, and difdain to eat: he is more
delicate with regard to his drink, never ufing water
unlefs it be' perfedtly pure. As his matter does not
take the trouble of combing him, he often rolls himfelf
on the turf among thiftles, ferns, &c. Without regard¬
ing what he is carrying, he lies down to roll as often
as he can, feeming to reproach his matter for negledl
and want of attention.
When very young, the afs is a gay, fprightly, nim¬
ble, and gentle animal. But he foon lofes thefe quali¬
ties, probably by the bad ufage he meets with; and
becomes lazy, untractable, and ftubborn. When under
the influence of love, he becomes perfectly furious.
The affeftion of the female for her young is ftrong:
Pliny affures us, that when an experiment was made to
difcover the ftrength of maternal affe&ion in a fhe-afs,
file run thro’ the flames in order to come at her colt.
Although the afs be generally ill ufed, he difcovers
a great attachment to his matter; he fmells him at a
diftance, fearches the places and roads he ufed to fre¬
quent, and eafily'diftinguifhes him from the reft of man¬
kind. The afs has a very fine eye, an excellent fcent,
and a good ear. When overloaded, he hangs his head,
16 I and
Eqmis.
The Afs.
E CL IT [ 2822 ] -ERA
and finks In’s earsr when too much teazed or torment¬
ed, he opens his mouth and retrafts his lips in a disa¬
greeable manner, which gives him an air of ridicule
and derifion. If you cover his eyes, he will not move
another ftep ; if you lay him on his fide, and place his
head fb that one eye refts on the ground, and cover the
other with a cloth, he will remain in this Situation with¬
out making any attempt to get up. He walks, trots,
and gallops in the fame manner as the horfe ; but all
his motions are flower. Whatever be the pace he is
going at, if you pufli him, he inftantly flops.
The cry of the horfe is known by the name of neigh¬
ing; that of the afs, by braying, which is a long, dif-
agreeable noife, confifting of alternate difeords from
fharp to grave and from grave to fliarp; he feldbm
cries but when prefled with hunger or love: the voice
of the female is clearer and more piercing than that of
the male.
The afs is lefs fubje& to vermin than other animals
covered with hair; he is never troubled with lice, pro¬
bably owing to the hardnefs and drynefs of his (kin;
and it is probably for the fame reafon, that he is lefs
fenfible to the whip and fpur than the horfe.
The teeth of the afs fall out and grow at the fame
age and in the fame manner as thofe of the horfe; and
he has nearly the fame marks in his mouth.
Affes are capable of propagating when two years
old. The females are in feafon during the months of
May and June. The milk appears in the dugs ten
months after impregnation ; (he brings forth in the
twelfth month, and always one at a time. Seven days
after the birth, the feafon of the female returns, and
fhe is again in a condition to receive the male. The
colt (hould be taken from her at the end of five or fix
months, that the growth and nourifliment of the fetus
may not be obftru&ed. The ftallion or jack afs (hould
be the largeft and ftrongeft that can be found ; he (hould
be at lead three years old, and never ought to exceed
ten.
The afs, like the horfe, takes three or four years in
growing, and lives till he be 25 or 30: he deeps lefs
than the horfe, and never lies down to deep but when
excefiively fatigued. He is more roburt, and lefs fub-
je£t to difeafes, than the horfe.
Travellers inform us that there are two forts of affes
in Perfia; one of which is ufed for burdens, they be¬
ing flow and heavy : the other is kept like horfes
for the faddle; for they have fmooth hair, carry their
head well, and are much quicker in their motion; but
when they ride them, they fit nearer their buttocks
than when on a horfe: they are drefled like horfes,
and are taught to amble like them; but they generally
cleave their noftrils to give them more room for brea¬
thing. Dr Ruflel likewife tells us they have two forts
in Syria ; one of which is like ours, and the other very
large, with remarkably long ears; but they are both
put to the fame ufe, which is, to carry burdens.
3. The Onager, or wild afs, has, byfome authors,
been confounded with the zebra; but very improperly,
for this laft is a diftinft fpecies ; for the onager is not
ftreaked like this, nor is his fhape fo beautiful. Wild-
aflesare faidto be veryfwift of courfe; and when they fee
a man, they make a bound, and immediately flyaway;
infomuch, that there is no taking of them, but by traps
and gins. They have much the fame (hape as com¬
mon afles; but they are of a brighter colour, and there
runs a white lift from the head to the tail. Of the hide
of thefe afles, and particularly of that part next the
rump, they make that excellent leather which we call
Jbagreen, and which is put to fo many curious ufes.
In America there were originally no afles at all, nor yet
horfes: but they were carried thither long ago, at firft by
the Spaniards, and afterwards by other nations, where
they have multiplied greatly; infomuch, that, in fome
places, there are whole droves of them that run wild,
and are very hard to be caught. Afles in general carry
the heavieft burdens in proportion to their bulk ; and,
as their keeping cofts little or nothing, it is a great
wonder that they are not put to more ufes than they
generally are among us.
The flefh of the common afs is never eaten in thefe
parts of the world ; though fome pretend their colts
are tender, and not difagreeable.
3. The Zebra. - This animal has the figure and
gracefulnefs of the horfe, joined to'the fwiftnefs of the
flag. He is about 7 feet long, from the point of the
muzzle to the origin of the tail, and about 4 feet high.
The colour of his (kin is beautiful and uniform, con¬
fifting of alternate parallel rings of black and white,
difpofed in the moft regular manner, as reprefented in
the plate. He is generally lefs than the horfe, and
larger than the afs.
The zebra is found no where but in the eaftern and
fouthern provinces of Africa, from Ethiopia to the Cape
of Good Hope, and from the Cape of Good Hope to
Congo. The Dutch have been at great pains to tame
and ufe them fordomeftic purpofes, but with little fuc-
cefs. He is hard-mouthed, and kicks when anyperfon
attempts to touch or come near him. He is reftlefs and
obftinate as a mule: but perhaps the wild horfe is na¬
turally as untra&able as the zebra; for, it is probable,
if he were early accuflomed to obedience and a dome-
flic life, he would become as docile as the horfe.
ERA, in chronology. See ^Era.
ERANARCHA, a public officer among the an¬
cient Greeks, whofe bufinefs was to prefide over and
dire<ft the alms and provilions made for the poor. Cor¬
nelius Nepos, in his life of Epaminondas, deferibes his
office thus: When any perfon was reduced to poverty,
taken captive, or had a daughter to marry, which he
could not effefl for want of money, &c. the eranarcha
called an aflembly of friends and neighbours, and tax¬
ed each according to his means and eftate, to contri¬
bute towards his relief.
ERASMUS (Dtfiderius),born at Rotterdam, 1467.
He loft his father and mother at 14 years of age; and
was committed to the care of certain guardians, who
would force him to be an ecclefiaftic, which he refufed
for a long time. However, he was obliged to aflume
the religious habit among the canons regular in the
monaftery of Stein near Tergou ; but afterwards ob¬
tained a difpenfation from his vows. He was the moft
learned man of the age in which he lived; and contri¬
buted, by his example and his writings, to the reftora-
tion of learning in the feveral countries in which he oc-
cafionally refided, viz. Italy, Switzerland, Holland,
France, and England : with the laft, he was moft fa-
tisfied; and found the greateft encouragement from
Henry VIII. Sir Thomas More, and all the learned
Engliftimen of thofe days. He publilhed a great many
books j.
Equns
Erafmus.
Plate CIII.
fig- 3-
Plafe CIU.
. ’3. Equus Zebra.
E quits CaraeCus ,
<rr j3&r^s.
■ //U/' '
E R I [ 2823 1 E R I
books; and died at Bafil in 1536. He was buried ho¬
nourably, and his memory is ttill had in veneration.
He had, however, many enemies; and as he did not
embrace the reformation, and yet cenfured many things
in Popery, he hath been treated injurioufly both by
Catholics and Proteftants. The works of Erafmus in
10 vols folio were publifhed at Leyden in 1706, in a
very handfome manner, under the care of M. Le Clerc.
Hr Jortin publilhed his life in one vol. 410, 1758.
ERATO, in fabulous hiftory, one of the mufes.
She preiided over elegiac or amorous poetry, and dan¬
cing ; and is reprefented as a young maiden crowned
with myrtle and rofes, having a lyre in her right-
hand, and a bow in her left; with a little winged
Cupid placed by her, armed with his bow and arrows.
ERATOSTHENES, a Cyrensean philofopher, hi-
ftorian, and poet; called for his learning, Plato Minor.
He was keeper of the famous library at Alexandria ;
and was greatly in favour with Ptolemy Euergetes, by
whofe order he wrote a hiftory of the Theban kings of
Egypt, which fucceffion was entirely omitted by Ma-
netho. He thus fixed the Egyptian chronology, and
his authority is by many preferred to that of Manetho.
He wrote many other things, a catalogue of which is
to be feen in Fabricius, Voffius, &c. but his only piece
now remaining entire is a defcription and fabulous ac¬
count of the ftars. He ftarved himfelf in old age
through grief for the dimnefs of his fight, about the
10th or 12th year of Ptolemy Epiphanes, 194 B. C.
EREBUS, called by the poets the god of hell, born
of Chaos and Tenebrae. It is likewife the name of an
infernal river.
ERECTION, in a general fenfe, the art of raifing
or elevating any thing; as the ere&ion of a perpendi¬
cular, &c. It is alfo ufed in a figurative fenfe; as the
ere&ion of a bilhopric, marquifate, &c.
Erection is particularly ufed by medical writers,
for the ftate of the penis when fwelled and diftended
by the a&ion of the mufcles called eredores. See A-
natomy, n° 371, u, y.
There is alfo an ereftion of the clitoris, which is per¬
formed by mufcles for that pnrpofe. Ibid. n° 372, c.
EREMITA, in zoology; a fpecies of Scarab^us.
ERFORT, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, the capital of Thuringia, and fubjeft
to the eleftor of Mentz. It is defended by good ram¬
parts; and has a caftle on an eminence, which com¬
mands the town. Its inhabitants are almoft all Lu¬
therans, but its principal churches belong to the Ca¬
tholics. There are feveral handfome ftru&ures, both
public and private; but the houfes in general are but
indifferently built. E. Long. 11. 14. N. Lat. 50.49.
ERGOT, in farriery, is a ftub, like a piece of foft
horn, about the bignefs of a chefnut, placed behind
and below the paftern-joint, and commonly hid under
the tuft of the fetlock.
ERICA, heath ; a genus of the monogynia or¬
der, belonging to the o&andria clafs of plants. Of this
there are four fpecies, natives of Britain; which are fo
well known, that no defcviption needs be given of
them. In the Highlands of Scotland this plant is made
fubfervient to a great variety of purpofes. The poorer
inhabitants make walls for their cottages with alter¬
nate layers of heath and a kind of mortar made of
black earth and ftraw. The woody roots of the heath
are placed in the centre ; the tops externally and in- Erdann?
ternally. They make their beds of it, by placing the .11
roots downwards; and the tops only being uppermoft, ngena.^
they are fuificiently foft to deep upon. Cabbins are al¬
fo thatched with it. In the illand of Hay, ale is fre¬
quently made by brewing one part of malt and two of
the tops of young heath ; fometimes adding hops.
Boethius relates, that this liquor was much ufed by the
Pifts.—Woolen cloth boiled in alum water, and after¬
wards in a ftrong decoftion of heath-tops, comes out of
a fine orange colour. The ftalks and tops will tan lea¬
ther. Befoms and faggots to burn in ovens are alfo
made of this plant. It is alfo ufed for filling up drains
that are to be covered over. Sheep and goats will
fometimes eat the tender ftioots, but they are not fond
of them. Cattle not accuftomedto feed on heath, give
bloody milk; but they are foon relieved by drinking
plentifully of water. Horfes will eat the tops. Bees
extraft a great deal of honey from the flowers; and,
where heath abounds, the honey has a reddifh call.
ERIDANUS, in allronomy. See Astronomy,
n° 206.
ERIE, a vaft lake to the weftward of Penfilvania,
in North America, fituated between 8o° and 87° W,
Long, and between 410 and 420 N. Lat.
ERIGENA, or Scotus, (John), a famous fcho-
laftic divine, born about the beginning of the ninth cen¬
tury ; but where, is a matter of difpute among authors.
Bale and Pits fay he was born at St David’s in Wales ;
Dempfter, Mackenzie, and Henry, that he was born
at Ayr in Scotland ; which they infer from his names
Erigina and Scotus, by the latter of which he was ge¬
nerally diftinguilhed by his cotempornry writers. But
Du Pin and Sir James Ware affert that he was by
birth an Iriftiman ; Ireland being in thofe days called
Scotia, and by the natives Erin. They agree, how¬
ever, in relating that he travelled to Athens, where he
acquired a competent knowledge of the Greek and o-
ther oriental languages; and that he afterwards refided
many years in the court of Charles the Bald, king of
France, who, on account of his Angular abilities, treat¬
ed him as his intimate friend and companion. He flept
frequently in the royal apartment; and was conftantly
admitted to the king’s table. “ We may judge (fays
a modern hiftorian) of the freedom which he ufed with.
Charles, by the following repartee. As the king and
Scotus were fitting one day at table, oppofite to each
other, after dinner, drinking a cheerful glafs, the phi¬
lofopher having faid fomething that was not quite a-
greeable to the rules of French politenefs, the king in
a merry humour afked him, Pray what is between a
Scot and a fot ? To which he anfwered, Nothing but
the table.” See Henry's Hijlory of Great Britain, vol. I.
p. 344. who quotes this ftory from Hovcdeni Annul, ad
an. 86. Quer. What language were they talking
when this bon mot was uttered ?
During his refidence with Charles, he wrote feveral
books of fcholaftic divinity; which, though abfurd
enough, were at that time not fufficiently fo to fecure
him from the imputation of heterodoxy ; and on that
account the pope commanded Charles the Bald to fend
him to Rome ; but the king had too great a regard for
his companion to truft him with his holinefs. One of
the chief controverfies in which Scotus was engaged,
and with which the pope was much offended, was con-
16 I 2 cerning
Erigena
.-11
jEngonc.
E R I [ 2824 ] E R I
cerning the real prefence and blood of Chrift in the
wafer. His opinion of this weighty matter is exprefs-
ed in thefe few words: “ What we receive corporally
is not the body of our Lord; but that which feeds the
foul, and is only perceived by faith.” He wasalfo.
engaged in two other controverfies of equal import¬
ance, but of a fomewhat lefs delicate nature. The
firft was, Whether any part of the eucharift be evacua¬
ted by (tool ? and the fecond, Whether Chrift was
born of the Virgin Mary aperta vulva ? Pafchafius
was of opinion, that this could not be without fome
injury to her perpetual virginity; and therefore belie¬
ved that Chrift came into the world per vulvam clau-
fam, as he came into the place where his difciples were
afietnbled, through the door and not through the wall,
without opening the door. Concerning the firft of
thefe delicate queftions, Scotus with feveral others de-
.dared, that part of the eucharift was certainly evacua¬
ted by ftool ; for which they were honoured with the
appellation of Stercofifts. And as to the fecond que-
flion, he faid, that the vulva claufa was~a dangerous
opinion : for it would thence follow, that he was not
born, but iflued ; non ejl nafci, federumpi. See Mac¬
kenzie, vol. I. p. 55.
Whether this John Scotus returned to England, or
«nded his days in France, is a matter of doubt. Some
of our^hiftorians tell us, that he left France in the
year 864; and that, after refiding about three years
in Oxford, he retired to the abbey of Malmfbury, where
his fcholars ftabbed him with their pen-knives. There
is no foundation for this ftory. Probably he died
about the year 874; but whether in France or Eng¬
land, is uncertain, and of little importance. Some
have related, that he was invited to England by king
Alfred : but in this they confound him with John, ab¬
bot of Etheling, who was afiaffinated in 895 ; and to
this miftake the various accounts concerning this au¬
thor are to be attributed. Regardlefs of his hiftory,he
appears from his writings to have been a man of parts,
and, in point of learning, fuperior to any of his co¬
temporaries. He wrote, 1. De divifione natures, \\b. v.
2. De predejlinatione Dei. 3. Excerpt a de differentiis
& focietatibus Graci Latiniqueverbi. 4. De corpore et
fanguine Domini. 5. yfmbigua S. Maximi feu, fcholia
ejus in difficiles locos S. Gregorii Nazianzeni, Latine
verfa. 6. Opera S. Dhnyfii quatuor in Latinam ling,
converfa. All publiftied. 7. De vifiont Dei, and fe¬
veral other works, in manufeript, preferved in different
libraries.
ERIGERON, flea-bane ; a genus of thepolyga-
xnia fuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs
of plants. There are five fpecies; of which the moil
remarkable is the vifeofum, or male flea-bane of Theo-
phraftus, and greater flea-bane of Diofcorides. It is
a native of the fouth of France and Italy ; and hath a
perennial root, from whence arife many upright ftalks
near three feet high. The leaves in warm weather
fweat out a clammy juice ; the flowers are produced
Angle upon pretty long footftalks, are of a yellow co¬
lour, and have an agreeable odour. The plants are
eafily propagated by feeds ; and thrive beft in a dry
foil, and funny expofure.
ERIGONE, in fabulous hiftory, daughter to Ica-
rius, died of grief for her father’s death, was tranflated
into heaven, and makes the fign Virgo.
ERINACEUS, or hedge-hog, in zoology; age-
nus of quadrupeds belonging to the order of ferte, the
charadlers of which are thefe: They have two foreteeth
in the upper jaw, at a confiderable diftance from one
another, and two in the under jaw, lefs diftant ; and
they have two recumbent dog-teeth, one on each fide.
There are three fpecies, viz. 1. the europasus, or com¬
mon hedge-hog, with round ears, and crefted noftrils.
It is about nine inches long; the upper part of the bo¬
dy is totally covered with (harp prickles, and the un¬
der part is covered with hair. The hedge-hog, even
when Handing on his legs, has a very ugly afpeft.
His body is an oblong mafs, convex above, termi¬
nated on the fore-part by a very (harp muzzle,
and mounted on four Ihort legs, of which nothing
appears but the feet, and the tail is not difcernible.
His ears are broad, round, and fhort; and his eyes
are fmall and protuberant. The length of his body,
from the point of the muzzle to the anus, is about nine
inches.
The hedge hog has a very uncommon method of
defending himfelf from the attacks of other animals:
being poffeffed of little ftrength or ability, he does not
attempt to fly from or affafl his enemies; but ere&shis
briftles, and rolls himfclf up like a ball, expofing no
part of his body that is not furnilhed with (harp wea¬
pons of defence; he will not nnfold himfelf, unlefs
thrown into water: the more he is frightened or har-
raffed, the clofer he Ihuts himfelf up ; and frequently
difeharges his urine, which has a very fetid and loth-
fome fmell. While in this date, moft dogs, infteadof
biting him, Hand off and bark, not daring to feize
him ; or, if they attempt it once, their mouths are fo
prickled with his briftles, that they cannpt.be prevail¬
ed upon to attempt it a fecond time. Both the male
and female are covered with briftles from the head to
the tail. Thefe briftles are of great ufe in defending
them from other animals ; but muft be very inconve¬
nient when they incline to copulate. This operation
they cannot perform in the manner of other quadru¬
peds ; but do it face to face, either Handing on end, or
the female lying on her back. The females come in
feafon in the fpring, and bring forth their young in
the beginning of fummer. They commonly bring
forth three or four, and fometimes five, at a time.
The young ones are of a whitifti colour, and only the
points of the briftles appear above the Ikin. It is im-
poffible to tame them : the mother and her young have
frequently been confined together, and furnifhtd with
plenty of provifions ; but, inftead of nourifhing them,
file uniformly devoured them one after another. Males
and females have likewife been kept in one apartment,,
where they lived, but never copulated. Hedge-hogs
feed upon fallen fruits, fome roots, and infects : they
are very fond of flefh-meat, whether raw or roafted.
They frequent woods, and live under the trunks of old
trees, in the chinks of rocks, or under large ftones.
Naturalifts allege, that they go into gardens, mount
the trees, and come down with pears, apples orplumbs,
ftuck upon their briftles. But this is a miftake : al¬
though kept in a garden, they never attempt to climb
trees, or flick even fallen fruit upon their briftles, but
lay hold of their food with their mouth. They never
come out of their holes in the day, but go about in
queft of food during the night. They eat but little.
Erinacetj*,
Hedge-hog.
E R P [ 2825 ] ERR
Eringo and can live very long without taking any nourifh-
J. ment. They do not lay up any ftore of provifions in
rmimtes }jarve^ . fuc^ an would be ufelefs, as they deep
all the winter. They lie under the undeferved re¬
proach of fucking cattle and hurting their udders; but
the fmallnefs of their mouth renders that impoffible.
2. The inauris, or white hedge-hog, has no external
ears. It is a native of America. 3. The malaccenfis
has hanging ears, and is a native of Afia.
ERINGO, in botany. See Eryi«3ium.
ERINUS, in botany, a genus of the angiofpermia
order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants.
There iare fix fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
They grow from two inches to four feet in height, and
are adorned with flowers of a white or purple colour.
They are propagated by feeds, but in this country ge¬
nerally require to be kept in a Hove.
ERIVAN, a city of Perfia, in Afia, and capital
of Perfian Armenia. It is a large, dirty, ill-looking
place, in which are no handfome buildings, the houfes
being very mean, and raifed with earth or mud ; but it is
full of gardens or vineyards. It is fituated in a plain
which isfurrounded on all fides with mountains. Two
rivers pafs near it, the Zengui to the north-welt, and
the Queur Boulac to the fouth-weft. The fortrefs may
pafs for a town of itfelf; it is of an oval form, and is
four miles in circumference, containing about 800
houfes. It is inhabited by none but the native Per-
fians. The Armenians have fliops in it, where they
work and trade in the day-time, but at night return
to their habitations in the city. The fortrefs is fur-
rounded with three walls, made with bricks dried in
the fun, which have battlements, and are flanked with
towers, and defended with ramparts. On the north-
eaft there is a dreadful precipice, above 200 yards in
depth, at the bottom of which the river runs. The
garrifon ufually confifted of 2000 men; but how many
there are fince the revolution, is hard to fay. The pa¬
lace of the governor of the province is within the fort¬
refs. The city is about a cannon’s fhot diftant from
the fortrefs, and the fpace between is full of houfes and
markets. E, Long. 44. 50. N. Lat. 40. 20.
ERMIN, in zoology. See Mustela.
Ermin, in heraldry. This word alone fignifies
black fpots on a white field ; but if the word plain
fhould be ufed with it, it denotes nothing but white
furs.
Ermin, or Ears of corn ; an order of knights in
France, inftituted by Francis the laft of that name,
duke of Britanny.
This order was fo called on account that the collar
of it was made up of ears of corn, lying athwart one
another in faltier, bound together, both above and be¬
low, each ear being crofled twice, the whole of gold.
To this collar there hung a little white beaft, called
an ermin, running over a bank of grafs diverfified with
flowers.
Ermines, in heraldry, the reverfe of ermine, i. e.
white fpots on a black field.
ERMINITES, in heraldry, fhould fignify little
ermines, but it is otherwife ; for it fignifies a white field
powdered with black, only that every fuch fpot hath
a little red hair on each.—Erminites alfo fignify a yel¬
low field powdered with black, which the French ex-
prefs mucli better by or femee d’ ermine de fable.
ERMINOIS, in heraldry, fignifies the field or, and Emiinois
the fpots black. H
EROSION, among phyficians, denotes much the rronr‘
fame with corrosion, only in a ftronger degree.
EROTESIS. See Oratory, n° 94.
EROTIC, in general, any thing relating to the
pafiionlove.
ERPENIUS (Thomas), in Dutch Thomas of
Erpe; a celebrated profeflbr of the Arabic language,
was born at Gorcum in Holland, in 1584, and educa¬
ted at Leyden. He applied himfelf to the oriental
languages at the perfuafion of Jofeph Scaliger; and af-
wards travelled into England, France, Italy and Ger¬
many, and every where obtained the efteem of the
the learned. On his return to Holland, he was made
profeflbr of Arabic in the univerfity of Leyden, and
died there in 1624. He publifhed a great many excel¬
lent works, which fpread his reputation through the
whole learned world. It is faid, that the king of
Morocco admired fo greatly the letters Erpenins wrote
to him in Arabic in the name of the United Provin¬
ces, that he could not ceafe reading them, and fhow-
ing them to thofe who fpoke that language naturally.
ERRATIC, in general, fomething that wanders,
or is not regular : hence it is the planets are called erra¬
tic Jiars.
ERRH1NES, in pharmacy, medicines which when
fnuffed up the nofe promote a difcharge of mucus from
that part.
Among the milder kinds of the errhineswe may rec¬
kon marjoram, bafilicon, thyme, hyflbp, favory, ma-
rum fyriacum, the tops of origanum, flowers of lilies
of the valley, and gum benzoin, the refin of guaia-
cum, fine rafpings of aloes wood, dry volatile fait of
fal ammoniac perfumed with oil of marjoram, as alfq
white vitriol. On the contrary, violent errhines are
euphorbium, the powder of white hellebore, and, in
a milder degree, feveral forts of fnuffs, precipitate mer¬
cury, and pepper. '
Errhines are more friendly to the conftitution and
nerves than fternutatories, by their fubtile, acrid, and
volatile fait gently ftimulating the pituitary mem¬
brane, and drawing the mucid humour from it. They
are alfo much fafer than fternutatories, in their effedts.
Errhines prepared of cephalic herbs are of Angular
fervice in oppreffive pains of the head, a hermicrania,
lethargic diforders, weaknefles of memory, ftuffings of
the head, and coryza, mucous defluxions of the eyes,
drowfinefs, vertigoes, and in cafes where the malignant
humours generated by the lues venerea are lodged in
the membranes of the nottrils.
ERROUR, error, in philofophy, a miftake of
our judgment, giving aflent to that which is not true.
Mr Locke reduces the caufes of error to thefefour;
firft, want of proofs •, fecondly, want of ability to ufe,
them ; thirdly, want of will to ufe them and, fourth¬
ly, wrong meafures of probability.
He obferves upon the firft of thefe caufes of error,
that the greateft part of mankind want conveniencies
and opportunities of making experiments and obferva-
tions themfelves, or of colle&ing the teftimony of o-
thers, being prevented by the neceflity of their condi¬
tion. Upon the fecond of thefe caufts, he obferves,
that there are many, who, from the ftate of their con¬
dition, might beftow time in colleding proofs, but yet
are
E R U [ 2826 ] E R U
Error are not able to carry a train of confequences in their
Eruca heads, nor weigh exaftly the preponderancy of con-
 trary proofs and teftimonies, merely from the diffe¬
rence in mens underftandings, apprehenfions, and rea-
fonings. Thirdly, he remarks, that though fome have
opportunities and leifure enough, and want neither
pwts, learning, nor other helps, that they never come
to the knowledge of feveral truths within their reach,
either upon account of their attachment to pleafure or
bufinefs; and otherwife becaufe of their lazinefs or a-
verfion to ftudy. The fourth caufe of error, viz. wrong
meafures of probability, he imputes, I. To the prac¬
tice of taking for principles propofitions that are not
in themfelves certain and evident, but, on the contrary,
doubtful and falfe. 2. To received hypothefes. 3. Pre¬
dominant pafiions or inclinations. And, 4. To au¬
thority, or the giving up our affent to the common re¬
ceived opinions either of our friends or party, neigh¬
bours or country.
The eaufes of error in philofophy, or the reafons
why all former philofophers have through fo many ages
erred, according to Lord Bacon, are thefe following.
1. Want of time fuited to learning. 2. The little
labour beftowed upon natural philofophy. 3. Few en¬
tirely addifted to natural philofophy. 4. The end of
the fciences wrong fixed, y. A wrong way chofen-
6. The negleft of experiments. 7. Regard to anti¬
quity and authority. 8. Admiration of the works in
ufe. 9. The artifice of teachers and writers in the
fciences. 10. Oftentatious promifes of the moderns.
XI. Want of propofing worthy tafles. 12. Superfti-
tion and zeal being oppofite to natural philofophy, as
thinking philofophy dangerous, on account of the
fchool-theology; from the opinion that deep natural
inquiries fhould fubvert religion. 13. Schools and aca¬
demies proving unfavourable to philofophy. 14. Want
of rewards. And, 15. Defpair, and the fuppofition of
impollibility.
Error Loci. Boerhaave is faid to have introdu¬
ced this term, from the opinion that the veflels were
of different fizes for the circulation of blood, ferum,
and lymph ; and that when the larger-fized globules
were forced into the leffer veffels by an error of place,
they were obftrufted. But this opinion does not feem
well grounded.
ERSKINE’s Centrifugal Machine. See Cen¬
trifugal Machine.
ERUCA, in general, denotes caterpillars of all
kinds.
The caterpillar ftate is that through which every
butterfly mull pafs before it arrives at its perfec¬
tion and beauty: and, in the fame manner, all the
known winged animals, except only the puceron, pafs
through a reptile ftate ; none of them, except this, be¬
ing produced in their winged form. The change from
caterpillar to butterfly was long efteemed a fort of me-
tamorphofis; a real change of One animal into ano¬
ther : but this is by no means the cafe. The egg of
a butterfly produces a butterfly, with all the linea¬
ments of its parent; only thefe are not difclofed at
firft, but for the greater part of the animal's life they
are covered with a fort of cafe or mufcular coat, in
which are legs for walking, which only fuit it in this
ftate; but its mouth takes in nourifhment, which is con¬
veyed to the included animal; and after a proper time
this covering is thrown off, and the butterfly, which Eruca,
all the while might be difeovered in it by an accurate or
obferver with the help of a microfcope, appears in its p
proper form. Before it pafles into this ftate, however,
there requires a ftate of reft for the wings to harden,
and the feveral other parts to acquire their proper firm-
nefs; this is tranfafted in a time of perfeft reft, when
the animal lies in what is called the nymph ar chryfaiit
Jlate, in appearance only a lump of inanimate matter.
There is a fettled and determined time for each of
thefe changes in every fpecies; but, in the feveral dif¬
ferent kinds, the periods are very different.
Some caterpillars are produced from the eggs of their
parent butterfly in the fpring, as foon as the trees, on
on whofe leaves they are to feed, begin to bud: after
a life of 13 days, they pafs into their chryfalis ftate;
and, after remaining three weeks at reft in that, they
iffue forth with wings with all the beauty of their pa¬
rents. As foon as they arrive at. this their final ftate,
their wings are fcarce dry before they feek to copulate or
propagate their fpecies: this done, the male dies; and
the female only lives to depofit her eggs, and then fol¬
lows him. This is their whole bufinefs: nature never
intending that they (hould eat in this ftate, has given
them no organs for this purpofe; fo that they muft
neceffarily die of hunger in a ilwrt time, could they
efcape their natural death, or the great devourers of
them the birds. Many fpecies of thefe fpring butter¬
flies have no farther being except in the embryo in¬
cluded in the egg, till the fucceeding fpring: they lay
their eggs very carefully, and in extremely nice order,
round about the ftalk of a perennial plant, or the young
branch of a tree; where they remain through the
heats of the fummer and colds of the winter, and are
never hatched till the fucceeding fpring; and, though
thus expofed, it is obfervable that the fevereft winters
do them no harm.
Other fpecies of thefe are fooner hatched from the
egg; and live, during the remainder of the fummer,
on the leaves of trees. After this, they pafs the
whole winter in the caterpillar ftate, ufually hiding
themfelves in fome ftieltered place, covered wu'th webs
of their own fpinnirtg. Thefe remain torpid all the
winter; and, at the return of fpring, leave their webs
as the others do their eggs, and feed a few weeks
longer; after which they pafs through the chryfalis
ftate to their perfect form. The butterfly of this fpe¬
cies, therefore, enjoys a much longer life than the
other which remains fo long in the egg; though the
ultimate duration of the animal from its exclufion from
the parent, till its death, is much the fame; fo great a
part of it being paffed in the egg ftate by the one, and
fo fmall a part by the other.
Other fpecies of thefe animals remain the whole win¬
ter in the chryfalis ftate, and are butterflies in fpring;
and, after pairing the middle of the fummer in the egg,
are caterpillars in the autumn. The difference of this
ftage of life is remarkably great, in proportion to the
whole duration of the animal; in fome fpecies it doesnot
exceed a fortnight, and in others continues 11 months.
There is no fign of fex in the animal while in the
caterpillar ftate: the propagation of the fpecies is the
bufinefs of the creature in its ultimate perfection ; and
till that, thefe parts are never excluded : one female
butterfly, when fire has been impregnated by the male,
will
E R U [ 2827 ] E R U
Eruca, will produce 300 or 400 eggs, or even more.
Caterpillar ’There is no way of knowing the fexes of thefe little
 ' creatures by viewing the parts; but the whole figure
and manner of the animal makes the difference. The
females are always larger than the males; they are alfo
more flow in their motions; andfome of them have no
wings, or, at the molt, only very fmall ones. The
males, however, have a fort of beards, more beautiful
than the antenna or horns of the females: the female
is much ftronger as well as bigger than the male; and
not unfrequently, in cafe of danger or difturbance, Ihe
flies away v/ith him in time of copulation.
On differing the female, her uterus affords an afto-
nifhing fight. The number of eggs in the tubes is
amazing: but thefe have not all the fame figure; and,
in fome fpecies, as the filk-worm, &c. the eggs are of a
beautiful blue; if any yellowifh ones are feen among
them, they are judged to be defeftive.
The care of all the butterfly tribe to lodge their eggs
in fafety is furprifing. Thofe whofe eggs are to be
batched in a few weeks, and who are to live in the ca¬
terpillar ftate during part of the remaining fummer,
always lay them on the leaves of fuch plants as will
afford a proper nourifhment; but, on the contrary,
thofe whofe eggs are to remain unhatched till the fol¬
lowing fpring, always lay them on the branches of
• trees and fluubs, and ufually are careful to feleft fuch
places as are lead expofed to the rigour of the enfuing
feafon, and frequently cover them from it in an artful
manner. Some make a general coat of a hairy matter
over them, taking the hairs from their own bodies for
that purpofe ; others hide themfelves in hollow places
in trees, and in other ftieltered cells, and there live in a
kind of torpid ttate during the whole winter, that they
may depofit their eggs in the fucceeding fpring, at a
time when there will be no feverities of weather for
them to combat. The day-butterflies only do this,
and of thefe but a very few fpecies; but the night ones,
or phalanx^ all without exception, lay their eggs as foon
as they have been in copulation with the male, and die
immediately afterwards.
It is well known, that the common and natural food
of thefe creatures is the leaves and verdure of vege¬
tables ; yet, as weak and hamdefs as they feem, they
will many of them deftroy their fellows whenever they
get an opportunity. M. Reamur gives us an inftance
of this in 20 caterpillars of the oak, which he kept in
a box with a fufficient quantity of their natural food;
yet their numbers daily decreafed, till at laft there re¬
mained only one. This is, however, only the cafe in
fome few fpecies, the generality of thefe animals being
very peaceable, many fpecies living together in the
fame place, without molerting one another. Thefe
fpecies, however, though freed from fuch dangers, are
expofed to others of a much more terrible kind; the
worms or maggots of feveral forts of flies are frequently
found about them, fome preying upon their outfide,
others lodged within them under the fkin, but both
kinds eating the poor defencelefs creature up alive. Thofe
which feed on the outfides are eafily difcovered, the
others are more hid ; and frequently the caterpillar,
which feems very hearty and vigorous, and very flefliy,
fhall be found, upon opening, to be a mere fltin, the
internal parts being found to be all eaten away, and
ail the food that he fwallows ferving only to feed a vait
number of worms, or maggots, which crawl about at Emca,
liberty within him. Thefc devouring worms are of or
many different fpecies; fome being of the gregarious, ^attrpl‘ *
fome of the folitary kinds, and fome fpinning webs of
their own filk to transform themfelves in; others un¬
dergoing that change without any fuch covering. The
beautiful cabbage-caterpillar is one of thofe unhappy
kinds which frequently are infefted with the gregari¬
ous kinds, large numbers of which fpin themfdves webs
one after another, and afterwards come out in the fliapc
of the parent-fly to whofe eggs they owed their origin.
Thefe inteftiue enemies are a fore prevention of the
butterfly’s appearing at its proper time; and as many
of the former naturalifts, who knew what butterfly to
exped from a peculiar fpecies of caterpillar which they
preferved, often faw a parcel of flies come out in the
place of it, they having no idea that the fly had laid
its eggs in the flefti of the poor creature, fuppofed that
this was one of its natural transformations, and that
certain fpecies of caterpillars fometimcs produced but¬
terflies, fometimes fmall flies.
Thefe, and many other deftroyers, among which the
birds are to be reckoned in the principal place, ferve a
noble purpofe in preventing the too great numbers of
thefe mifchievous animals. Their ufoal habitation be¬
ing the leaves and flowers of plants, they are, in their
feeding, much expofed to all thofe deltroyers: yet na¬
ture has taken care to preferve a great number, by ma¬
king many of them fo exaSIy of the colour of the leaves
they feed on, that they are not eafily diftinguiflied from
them ; and by giving others a caution of keeping on
the under part of the leaves and being by that means,,
out of fight. But fome fpedes are much lefs expofed,
and of much more mifehief to the plants they feed on,
by devouring more effential parts of them. Of thefe
fome eat the roots, and others the interior part of the
trunk, deftroying the veffels that imbibe, and thofe
that diftribute, the juices. Thefe are different from the
common caterpillars, in that their il<in is much lefs
rough and hard; and thefe are fecure from our obfer-
vation, and in general from their great deftroyers the
birds. They are not, however, abfolutely fafe from
the common dangers of the other fpecies; for there
is a kind of worms that find their food and habitation
even in the bodies of thefe.
The root-caterpillars, and thofe which live within
the branches of plants, are much more eafily found out-
The roots of fcrophularia, and the ftalks of lettuces,
and fome other plants, afford caterpillars which feem
all of the fame fpecies. Thofe found in the lettuces
are extremely plentiful fome years, and deftroy vaft
quantities of that plant. Thefe ufnally have their firft
habitation in the (talk, near the root.
Nothing more forprifes us, in regard to infers, than
their induftry ; and in this the caterpillars yield to no
kind, not to mention their filk, the fpinning of which
is one great proof of it. The ftieaths and cafes which
fome of thefe infedts build for the pafiing their tranf-
formations under, are, by fome, made of the filk, with
their own hair, mixed with pieces of bark, leaves, and
other parts of trees, with paper, and other materials ;
and the ftrudf ure of thefe is well worthy our attention.
There are others whofe workmanlhip, in this article,
far exceeds thefe. There is one which builds in wood,
and is able to give its cafe a harduefs greater than that
E R U [ 2828 ] E R U
Hmca, of the wood hfelf in its natural date. This is the
„ or... ftrange horned caterpillar of the willow, which is one
 1 of thofe that eat their exuvice. This creature has
extremely fharp teeth, and with thefe it cuts the wood
into a number of fmall fragments: thefe fragments it
afterwards unites together into a cafe, of what (hape it
pleafes, by means of a peculiar filk; which is no other
than a tough and vifcous juice, which hardens as it
■dries, and is a ftrong and firm cement. The folidity
of the cafe being thus provided for, we are to confider,
that the caterpillar inclofed in it is to become a butter¬
fly; and the wonder is, in what manner a creature
of this helplefs kind, which has neither legs to dig
nor teeth to gnaw with, is to make its way out of fo
firm and ftrong a lodgment as this in which it is
hatched. It has been fuppofed by fome, that the but¬
terfly, as foon as hatched, difcharged a liquor which
foftened the vifcous matter that holds the cafe toge¬
ther, and fo its feveral fragments falling to pieces, the
way out lies open. This is evidently the truth of the
cafe; though thofe who fuppofed it, did it by mere
conjecture : for, on a ftrift examination, this liquor is
always to be found in the animal, and is of the moft
proper kind for fuch a fervice. Reaumur judged, from
the effects, that this liquor muft be of a Angular na¬
ture, and very different from the generality of animal
fluids : and in differing this creature in the caterpillar
ftate, there will always be found near the mouth, and
under the oefophagus, a bladder of the bignefs of a
fmall pea, full of a limpid liquor, of a very quick and
penetrating fmell, and which, upon divers trials, proves
to be a very powerful acid; and, among other proper¬
ties, which it has in common with other acids, it fen-
fibly foftens- the glue of the cafe, on a common appli¬
cation.
It is evident that this liquor, befides it ufe to the
caterpillar, remains with it in the chryfalis ftate, and is
the very thing that gives it a power of diffolving the
ftrufture of the cafe, and making its way through in a
proper manner at the neceffary time. Dr Boerhaave
has adopted the opinion, that there are no true acids
in animals, except in the ftomach, or inteftines ; but
this familiar inftance proves the error of that determi¬
nation. Phil. Tranf. abr. ix. p. 39, &c.
Another very curious and myfterious artifice, is that
by which fome Ipecies of caterpillars, when the time
of their changing into the chryfalis ftate is coming on,
make themfelves lodgments in the leaves of the trees,
by rolling them up in fuch a manner as to make them-
. felves a fort of hollow cylindric cafe, proportioned to
the thicknefs of their body, well defended againft the
injuries of the air, and carefully fecured for their ftate
of tranquillity.
Befides thefe caterpillars, which in this manner roll
up the leaves of plants, there are other fpecies which
only bend them once; and others which, by means of
thin threads, conneft many leaves together to make
them a cafe. All this is a very furprifing work, but
all much inferior to this method of rolling.
The different fpecies of caterpillars have different
inclinations, not only in their fpinning, and their
choice of food, but even in their manners and behavi¬
our one to another. Some never part company from
the time of their being hatched to their laft change;
but live and feed together, and undergo together their
laft change into the chryfalis-ftate. Others feparate Ernes,
one from another as foon as able to crawl about, and ol!
each hunts its fortune fingle; and there are others a erpi ar'
which regularly live to a certain time of their lives in
community, and then feparate each to (hift for itfelf,
and never to meet again in that ftate. Reaumur, Hift.
Infett. vol. ii. pajjim.
Caterpillars are very deftruftive and pernicious in
gardens, particularly thofe of two fpecies. The one
of thefe is that which afterwards becomes the common
white butterfly. This is of a yellowifh colour, fpot-
ted with black; andinfefts the leaves of cabbages, cau¬
liflowers, and the Indian crefs, of which it eats off all
the tender parts, leaving only the fibres entire ; fo that
whole plantions are often feen deftroyed by them in au¬
tumn, efpecially fuch as are near large buildings, or
are crowded with trees. There is no remedy againft
this evil, but the pulling the creatures off before they
are fpread from their nefts, and watching the butter¬
flies, which are daily, in the hot weather, depofiting
their eggs on thefe plants. Thefe, however, feed prin¬
cipally on the outfide of the leaves of the plants, and
are therefore the eafier taken off; but the other kind
lives near the centre, and therefore is with much more
difficulty difcovered. This is much larger; and the
Ikin is very tough, and of a brown colour. It is call¬
ed by the gardeners, a grub, and is extremely pernici¬
ous. The eggs which produce it are ufually depofited
in the very heart, or centre, of the plant, particularly
in cabbages; and the creature, when formed, and
grown to fome fize, eats its way through all the blades,
and leaves its dung in great quantity behind it, whiqh
fpoils the cabbage. This infett alfo burrows under
the furface of the ground, and makes fad havock a-
mong young plants, by eating off their tender lhanks,
and drawing them into its holes. This mifchief is
chiefly done in the night; but wherever a plant is
feen thus deftroyed, if the earth be ftirred with a
finger an inch deep, the creature will be certainly
found, aftd this is the only way of deftroying them.
Miller.
When thefe animals attack fruit-trees, the beft me¬
thod of driving them off is to boil together a quantity
of rue, wormwood, and the common tobacco, of each
equal parts, in common water; to make the liquor
very ftrong, and fprinkle it on the leaves and young
branches every night and morning, during the time
when the fruit is ripening. See alfo the article Ca¬
terpillar.
In Dr Hawkefworth’s Account of the Voyages to
the South Sea, vol. iii. p. 520. we have the follow¬
ing account of a kind of fmall green caterpillar, which
the voyagers found in great numbers on the true Weft
Indian mangroves. Their bodies were thick fet with
hairs, and they were ranging on the leaves fide by fide
like files of foldiers, to the number of 20 or 30 toge¬
ther. When they touched them, they found that the
hairs on their bodies had the quality of a nettle, and
gave them a much more acute, though lefs durable
pain.
Erucas Aquatic*, Water-Caterpillars. It may
feem incredible, that there is any fuch thing as a ca¬
terpillar whofe habitation is under water; but expe¬
rience and obfervation prove, that there are fuch, and
that they feed on the water-plants as regularly as the
common
Caterpillar.
E R U [ 2829 ] E R V
common kinds do on thofe at land. Thefe are not na¬
med at random like many of the aquatic animals of the
larger kinds, as the fea-wolf, the fea-horfe, &c. which
might as well be called any thing elfe as wolves and
horfes ; but they are properly what they are called, and
do not refpire in. the manner of the fifh-tribe, but by
their ftigmata as other caterpillars. M. Reaumur, in his
obfervations, met with two fpecies of thefe ; the one
upon the potamogiton or pond-weed, the other up¬
on the lenticula or duck-meat. Thefe are both very
induftrious animals; but the firft being much the lar-
geft, its operations are more eafily diftinguifhed.
This, though truly an aquatic animal, fwims but
badly, and does not at all love to wet itfelf. The pa¬
rent butterfly lays her egg on a leaf of the potamogi¬
ton ; and as foon as the young caterpillar is hatched,
it gnaws out a piece of the leaf, of a roundifh (hape.
This it carries to another part of the fame leaf, and
lays it in fuch a manner, that there may be a hollow
between, in which it may lodge. It then fattens down
this piece to the larger leaf with filk of its own fpin-
ning only leaving certain holes at which it can put
out its head, and get to gnaw any of the leaves that are
near. It only gets out, though the aperture be na¬
turally fmall, fince a little force from its body bends
up the upper leaf, and bends down the lower, both be¬
ing flexile ; and when the creature is out, it has a fort
of down that defends it from being wetted, and the
natural elatticity of the leaves and of the filk joins
the aperture up again, fo that no water can get in.
The leaves of this kind of plant are alfo naturally very
flippery, and not eafily wetted by water. It foon hap¬
pens that this habitation becomes too fmall for the
animal, in which cafe it makes juft fuch another; and
after that, at times, feveral others; each being only
made fit for it at the fize it is then of. The changes
of this creature into the chryfalis and butterfly ftates
are in the common method. The butterfly gets out of
a chryfalis which was placed on the furface of the wa¬
ter ; the lightnefs of the animal eafily fuftains it on the
water till its wings are dried, and then it leaves that
element, never to return to it again.
Eruc/f. Sylvejlres, Wood-caterpillars; the name of
a genus of caterpillars which do not live, after the man¬
ner of others, on leaves of trees or plants, or open to
our obfervation; but under the bark, in the trunk and
branches, and in the roots of trees, and fometimes in
the body of fruits. •
Thefe are eafily diftinguifhed from thofe worms and
maggots which are found in roots and fruits, and owe
their origin to flies of another kind; but are liable to
be confounded with a fort of animals, called by M.
Reaumur, falfe or bajlard caterpillars, which carry a
great refemblance in their figure to real caterpillars,
but which have more legs than any of the true ones
have, and are finally transformed into four-winged flies,
which are not true butterflies.
The butterflies which are the parents of thofe ca¬
terpillars that lie immured in trees or fruits, lay their
eggs on the furface; and the young caterpillars, when
hatched, eat their way in. What appears fomething
furprifing, however, in this, is, that there ufually is
only one caterpillar in a fruit which is large enough
to afford food to a great number; and if there are
fometimes found two creatures within, one is ufually
Vol. IV.
a caterpillar, the other a worm of fome other kind. Eruca
The whole occafion of which is, that the operation of ,11
penetrating into the fruit is fo difficult to the young
animal, that it feldom fucceeds in it; and tho’the but¬
terfly depofits many eggs on each fruit, and thefe all
hatch, yet it is only here and there one on a fruit that
can find the way into it.
Thefe creatures, when once lodged in their prifon,
have nothing to do but to eat up the fubftances which
inclofe them, leaving the outer hard fhell unhurt, which
ftill ferves as a cafe for them. This is a very frequent
cafe in the grains of corns, where the farinaceous fub-
ftance ferves as aliment, and the hard outer fkin be*
comes a firm hollow cafe afterwards for the animal.
The farinaceous fubftance in this cafe ufually proves
enough for the animal in its caterpillar-ftate; but if it
does not, the creature has recourfe to a very Angular
expedient: it eats again its own excrements; and finds
its now ftronger ftomach able to feparate nourifhment
from that very matter which had before pafled off from
its weaker ftomach undigefted.
Of thefe fpecies of caterpillars, fome go out of their
prifon in order to change into their chryfalis, and
thence into their butterfly-ftate ; but the greater num¬
ber remain there, and pafs through all their changes
within. Thefe caterpillars, like all the other kinds,
have certain flefh-eating worms, whcfe parents are of
the fly-kind, for their terrible enemies and deftroyers;
and it is not unfrequent, on opening one of thefe Spoil¬
ed fruits, infteadof the expedted caterpillar, to find a
fly juft ready to come out: this has been produced
from the chryfalis of a worm, which had before found
its way into the fruit, and eat up the caterpillar, which
was the original poffeffor of the place.
ERUDITION, denotes an extenfive acquaintance
with books, efpecially fuch as treat of the Belles
Lettres.
ERUPTION, in medicine, a fudden and copious
excretion of humours, as pus or blood : it fignifies al¬
fo the fame with exanthema, any breaking out, as the
puftules of the plague, fmall-pox, meafles, &c.
Eruption of Volcanoes. See JEtna, Vesuvius,
Volcano, &c.
ERVUM, the lentil; a genus of the decandria
order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants.
There are fix fpecies; of which the moft remarkable is
the lens, or common lentil. It is cultivated in many
parts of England, either as fodder for cattle, or for
the feeds which are frequently ufed in meagre foups.
It is an annual plant, and rifes with weak ftalks about
18 inches high, garnilhed with winged leaves com-
pofed of feveral pairs of narrow lobes, terminated by
a clafper or tendril, which faftens to any neighbour¬
ing plant, and is thereby fuppoited the flowers come
out three or four together, upon fliort footftalks from
the fide of the branches. They are fmall, of a pale
purple colour, and are fucceeded by fhort flat pods,
containing two or three feeds which are flat, round,
and a little convex in the middle. The feeds of this
plant are moft commonly fown in the month of March,
where the land is dry; but in moift ground, the beft
time is April. The ufual quantity of feed allowed for
an acre of land is from one bufliel and a half to two
bulhels. If thefe are fown in drills, in the fame man¬
ner as peafe, they will fucceed better than when fown
16 K io
E R Y [ 2830 ] ESC
Eryngium Jn broadcaft: the drills fliould be a foot and an half
! . afunder, to allow room for the Dutch hoe to clean the
des ground between them ; for if the weeds are permitted
  to grow among them, they will get above the lentils
and ftarve them. There is another fort of lentil alfo
cultivated in this country under the name of/?»-
til. It is twice the fize of the former, both in plant and
feed ; and is much better worth cultivation than the
other.
ERYNGIUM, sea-holly, or Eryugo; a genus
of the digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs
of plants. There are nine fpecies ; moll of which are
hardy herbaceous perennials, producing eredt ftalks
from one to two or three feet high;, with fimple, en¬
tire, or divided prickly leaves ; and the ftalks termi¬
nated by roundilh aggregate heads of quinquepetalous
flowers, of white, blue, or purple colours. They all
flower moftly in July, and the feeds ripen in Septem¬
ber. They are propagated by feeds fown in a bed or
border, either in fpring or autumn. The plants are to
be removed the autumn after they come up, into thofe
places where they are defigned to remain. The leaves
of one of the fpecies, [viz. the maritimum, which
grows naturally on the fea-coafts of England and Scot¬
land) are fweetilh, with a light aromatic warmth and
pungency. The roots are accounted aphrodifiac, and
are ordered to be kept candied in the (hops. The young
flowering (hoots eaten like afparagus are very grateful
and nourilhing.
ERYSIMUM, HEDGE -mustard; a genus of the
filiquofa order, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of
plants. There are fix fpecies, of which the moft re¬
markable is the officinale, hedge-muftard, or bank-
creffes. It grows naturally in Britain under walls, by
the fides of highways, and among rubbifh. It is warm
and acrid to thetafte; and when cultivated, is ufed as
a vernal pot-herb. Birds are fond of the feeds; (heep
and goats eat the herb ; cows, horfes, and fwine re-
fufe it. Some medical virtues have been attributed
to the leaves, but thefe appear to be without foun¬
dation.
ERYSIPELAS, in medicine, an eruption of a
fiery or acrid humour, from which no part of the bo¬
dy is exempted, tho’ it chiefly attacks the face. See
[Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
ERYTHRINA, coral-tree; a genus of the de-
candria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of
plants. There are four fpecies, all of them (hrubby
flowering exotics for theftove, adorned chiefly with tri¬
foliate or three-lobed leaves, and fcarlet fpikes of pa¬
pilionaceous flowers. They are all natives of the warm
parts of Africa and America ; and mull always be kept
in pots, which are to remain conftantly in ftoves in
this country. They are propagated by feeds, which
afe annually imported hither from Africa and Ame¬
rica. They are to be fown half an inch deep in pots
of light rich earth, which are then to be plunged in the
bark-bed of the ftove ; and when the plants are two
inches high, they are to be feparated into fmall pots,
plunging them alfo in the bark-bed, giving them fre¬
quent waterings, and as they increafe in growth (hift-
ing them into larger pots.
ERYTHRINUS, in ichthyology, a fpecies of spa-
rus.
ERYTHROIDES, in anatomy, the firft of the pro¬
per tunics or coats which cover the tefticles. Erythro-
ERYTHRONIUM, dog’s-tooth violet ; a ge- ni',rn
nus of the monogynia order, belonging to the hexan- Efc^eat
dria clafs of plants. There is only one fpecies, which, ^
however, admits of feveral varieties in its flowers, as
white, purple, pale red, dark red, crimfon, and yel¬
low. The plants are low and herbaceous, with a pur¬
ple (talk and hexapetalous flowers. All the varieties
are hardy and durable; and may be planted in fmall
patches in borders, where they will make a good appear¬
ance. They rarely perfedl their feeds in this country,
but may be propagated by offsets. In Siberia, ac¬
cording to Gmelin, they dry and mix the root of this
plant with their foups. It grows there in great abun¬
dance ; and is called by the people of the country, befs.
ERZERUM, or Erzeron, a city of Turky in Aiia,
and capital of Armenia, or Turkomania. It is a pretty
large town, five days journey from the Black Sea, and
ten from the frontiers of Perfia. It (lands in a delight¬
ful plain, at the foot of a chain of mountains, which
hinder the Frat, or Euphrates, from falling into the
Black Sea. A neighbouring hill fupplies very fine
fprings, which not only water the fields, but the ftreets
of the town. Erzerum is furrounded wnth double
walls, defended by pentagonal towers; but the ditches
are neither deep nor well kept up. The beglerbeg, or
bafhaw of the province, lives in the feraglio, which is
very ill-built. They reckon that there are 18,000 Turks
at Erzerum, 6000 Armenians, and 10,000 Greeks.
The Armenians have a bifliop, and two churches; and
the Greeks have alfo a bifhop, but the church is a mi-
ferable place. The lad are moftly braziers, inhabiting
the fuburbs, who work the copper brought from the
neighbouring mountains. They drive a great trade in
copper utenfils and furs, particularly martins (kins.
Five or fix days journey from the town there are oaks
that produce plenty of gall-nuts, which are brought
hither. This place is the thoroughfare and reding
place of all the merchants trading to the Indies, efpe-
cially when the Arabs are watching for their prey
round Aleppo and Bagdad. E. Long. 40. 50. N. Lat.
29. 46. .
ESCAPE, in law; a violent or privy evafion out of
fome lawful rellraint, without being delivered by due
courfe of law. There are two forts of efcapes, volun¬
tary and negligent. Voluntary, when a man arrefts
another for felony, or other crime, and afterwards lets
him go freely by confent; in which cafe, the party
that permits fuch efcape is held guilty, committed,
and mud anfwer for it. Negligent efcape, on the con¬
trary, is where one is arrefted, and afterwards efcapes
againft the will of the perfon that arrefted him, and is
not purfued with frefti fuit, and re-taken before the
perfon purfuing hath loft fight of him. By ftatute 8 &
9 Will. III. c. 26. the keepers of prifons conniving
at efcapes, (hall forfeit 500/. ; and, in civil cafes, the
(heriff is anfwerable for the debt.
ESCHAR, in furgery, the cruft or fcab occafioned
by burns or cauftic medicines.
ESCHAROTICS, in pharmacy, medicines which
produceEscHARS.
ESCHEAT, in law, fignifies any lands or tenements
that cafoally fall to a lord within his manor, by way
of forfeiture, or by the death of his tenant, without any
heirs general or fpecial.
The
Efcheate The word efchclkt is fometimes ufed for the place or
II circuit within which the king or other lord is entitled
Efcutcheon t0 gfc^eats . alf0 for a writ to recover the6 fame from
the perfon in pofieffion after the tenant’s death.
Escheat, in Scots law, is that forfeiture which is
incurred upon a perfon’s being denounced a rebel. See
Law, Part III. N° clxvi. 12.
ESCHRAKITES, in matters of religion, a feft of
Mahometans, who believe that man’s fovereign good
confifts in the contemplation of God. They avoid all
manner of vice, and appear always in good-humour,
defpifing the fenfual paradife of Mahomet. The molt
able preachers in the royal mofques are of this fe<ft.
ESCLAIRCISSEMENT, a French term adopted
into our language, fignifying the explaining or clear¬
ing up of fome difficulty or obfcurity.
ESCUAGE, in our old cuftoms, a kind of knight-
fervice, called fervice of the Jhield, by which the tenant
was bound to follow his lord to the wars at his own
charge. See the articles Chivalry, Feodal Syjlem,
and KniGHT-Serv/ee.
ESCULENT, an appellation given to fuch plants,
or the roots of them, as may be eaten: fuch are beets,
carrots, artichokes, leeks, onions, purfneps, potatoes,
radifhes, fcorzonera, &c.
ESCURIAL, a palace which takes its name from
a village about 15 miles north-weft of Madrid, the ca¬
pital of Spain. It is the largeft and moft fuperb ftruc-
ture in the whole kingdom, and perhaps one of the
fined in Europe. It was begun by Philip II, in 1557,
who was 22 years in building it. He called it St Lau¬
rence of the Efcurial, becaufe he had gained a battle
over the French on that faint’s day. It contains as
many different buildings as are ufually met with in a
city; for there is a royal palace, a church, a college, a
library, cloifters, fhops for mechanics, lodgings for
great numbers of people, fine walks, large alleys, a vaft
park, and gardens with water-works. It is built in a
dry barren fpot, furrounded with rugged mountains,
infomuch that every thing that grows there is owing
to art. This place was chofen only for the fake of the
ftone wherewith it is built, which is got from a moun¬
tain juft by, and is very durable. The way from the
village to the Efcurial, is along a walk planted with
four rows of elm and lime-trees, about a mile and a
half in length. There is a glacis round the building,
which, before the front, is feparated from the fquare
by walls, through which there are gates to enter the
fquare. The fquare is paved with ftones of different
figures, difpofed into compartments. The ftrufture it-
felf is almoft fquare, and is a little longer one way than
the other; all the walls are conftrufted with grey ftone,
fo well polifhed, that it looks like marble. This noble
ftru&ure has 11,000 windows, 17 cloifters, 22 courts,
800 columns, a prodigious number of chambers, halls,
faloons, &c.
ESCUTCHEON, or Scutcheon, in heraldry, is
derived from the French efcujfon, and that from the
Latin fcutum, and fignifies the Ihield whereon coats of
arms are reprefented.
Moft nations of the remoteft antiquity, were wont
to have their (hields diftinguiftied by certain marks
painted on them; and to have fuch on their ihields was
a token of honour, none being permitted to have them
^ till they had performed fome honourable action.
Efdras
II I
Efox.
The efcutcheon, as ufed at prefent, is fquare, only
rounded off at the bottom.
E8DRAS, a Jewifti prieft, and doftor of the law.
Artaxerxes Longimanus fent him with rich prefents
for the ufe and ornament of the temple at Jerufalem,
re-built under Zerubbabel; the king alfo ordered the
neighbouring governors to provide him with what con¬
duced to the pomp of the Jewifh religion, and to ex¬
empt the priefts from paying taxes. He is fuppofed to
be the colle£tor of the Canon of Scripture; and that,
by divine infpiration, he added fome things which hap¬
pened after the deaths of the authors. It is gueffed
he wrote the Chronicles, befides thofe books which bear
his name, the two laft of which are exploded even by
the church of Rome.
ESK, the name of feveral rivers both in England
and Scotland, particularly of one which forms part of
the boundary between the two kingdoms. It runs from
north-eaft to fouth-weft, and gives name to the county
of Efkdale.
ESKIMAUX. See Esquimaux.
ESOX, in ichthyology, a genus of fifties belonging to
the order of abdominales. The body is elongated; the
head is plainifti above; the upper jaw is plain, and
fhorter than the under one, which is dotted ; and the
branchioftege membrane has from feveii to twelve rays.
1. The lucius, or Pike, has a flat head: the upper The Pike,
jaw is broad, and fhorter than the lower: the under jaw
turns up a little at the end, and is marked with mi¬
nute punftures. The teeth are very fharp, difpofed
only in the front of the upper jaw, but in both fides
of the lower; in the roof of the mouth, and often in
the tongue. The flit of the mouth, or the gape, is
very wide ; the eyes fmall.
The pike is common in moft of the lakes of Europe 5
but the largeft are thofe taken in Lapland, which, ac¬
cording to Scheffer, are fometimes eight feet long.
They are taken there in great abundance, dried, and
exported for fale. The largeft fifh of this kind find to
be caught in England, weighed 35 pounds.
All writers who treat of this fpecies bring inftances
of its voracioufnefs. It hath been known to choke it-
felf by attempting to fwallow one of its own fpecies
which proved too large a morfel. Yet its jaws are very
loofely connefted, and have on each fide an additional
bone like the jaw of a viper, which renders them ca¬
pable of greater diftenfion when it fwallows its prey.
It does not confine itfelf to feed on fifh and frogs; it
will devour the water-rat, and draw down the young
duks as they are fwimming about. But there are in¬
ftances of its fiercenefs ftill more furprifipg, and which
indeed border a little on the marvellous. Gefner re¬
lates, that a famifhed pike in the Rhone, feized on the
lips of a mule that was brought to water, and that the
bead drew the fifh out before it could difengage itfelf;
that people have been bit by thefe voracious creatures
while they were walking their legs 5 and that the pike
will even contend with the otter for its prey, and en¬
deavour to force it out of its mouth.
Small fifties Ihew the fame uneafinefs and deteftation
at the prefence of this tyrant, that the little birds do
at the fight of the hawk or owl. When the pike lies
dormant near the furface, aS is frequently the cafe, the
leffer fifties are often obferved to fwim around it in vaft:
numbers and in great anxiety. Pikes are often halter-
16 K 2 ed
Efox,
Efpalicr.
The pike.
The gar.
Saury.
ESP [ 2832 ] E S
ed in a noofe, and taken while they thus lie afleep, as
they are often found in the ditches near the Thames,
in the month of May.
In the (hallow water of the Lincolnfliire fens they
are often taken in a manner, we believe, peculiar to
that country, and to the ifland of Ceylon. The fifher-
man makes ufe of what is called a cronun-net; which is
no more than a hemifpherical balket, open at top and
bottom. He (lands at the end of one of the little fen-
boats, and frequently puts his baflcet down to the bot¬
tom of the water; then poking a (lick into it, difcovers
whether he has any booty by the (triking of the fi(h;
and vaft numbers of pike are taken in this manner.
The longevity of this fi(h is very remarkable, if we
may credit the accounts given of it. Rzaczynlki tells
us of one that was 90 years old; but Gefner relates,
that, in the year 1497, a pike was taken near Hailbrun
in Suabia, with a brazen ring affixed to it, on which
were thefe words in Greek charablers: “lam the fi(h
which was firft put into this lake by the governor of
the univerfe, Frederick the Second, the 5th of Oftober
1230;” So that the former mull have been an infant
to this Methufalem of a filh.
Pikes fpawn in March or April, according to the
coldnefs or warmnefs of the weather. When they are
in high feafon, their colours are very fine, being green,
fpotted with bright yellow; and the gills are of a mod
vivid and full red. When out of feafon, the green
changes to a grey, and the yellow fpots turn pale.
2. The belone, or Gar, fometimes grows to the
length of three feet or more. The jaws are very long,
(lender, and (harp - pointed; the under jaw extends
much farther than the upper ; and the edges of both
are armed with numbers of (hort and (lender teeth: the
tongue is fmall: the eyes are large; the irides filvery;
the noftrils wide and round. The body is (lender, the
belly quite flat, bounded on both fides by a rough line.
The tail is much forked. The colours are extremely
beautiful when the fiffi is in the water : the back is of
a fine green, beneath which appears a rich changeable
blue and purple: the fides and belly are of a fine fil¬
very hue. This fi(h, which is found in many places, is
known by the name of the fen-needle. It comes in
fhoals on our coafts in the beginning of fummer, and
precedes the mackerel: it has a refemblance to it in
tafte; but the light green which ftains the back bone
of this fi(h gives many people a difgufl to it.
3. The saurus, or Saury, isn inches in length:
the nofe (lender; the jaws produced like thofe of the
fea-needle, but of equal length : the eyes large: the
body anguilliform; but towards the tail grows fud-
dcnly fmaller, and tapers to a very incmfiderable girth.
The tail is much forked: the back dulky: the belly
bright and filvery. Great numbers of thefe fi(h were
thrown afliore on the fands of Leith near Edinburgh,
after a great dorm in November 1768. Rondeletius
defcribes this fpecies among the filh of the Mediterra¬
nean ; but fpeaks of it as a rare kind.
ESPALIERS, in gardening, are rows of trees
planted about a whole garden or plantation, or in
hedges, in fuch a manner as to inclofe quarters or fe-
parate parts of a garden; and are trained up regularly
to a lattice of wood-work in a clofe hedge for the de¬
fence of tender plants againft the injuries of wind and
weather. They are of admirable ufe and beauty in a
kitchen-garden, ferving not only to (belter the tender
plants, but fcreen them from the fight of perfons in
the walks.
The trees chiefly planted for efpaliers, arc apples,
pears, and fome plums: Come plant apples grafted up¬
on paradife (locks: but, as thefe are of (hort duration,
it is better to plant thofe grafted upon crabllock, or
upon what the gardeners call Dutcb-Jlocks; which will
both caufe them to bear fooner, and prevent their
growing too luxuriant. The bed kind of apple for this
purpofe, are the golden pippen, nonpareil, rennete, &c.
and the bed fort of pear, are the jargonelle, blan-
quette, &c. Thefe lad, if defigned for a drong moid
foil, (hould be grafted upon quince-docks; but, if for
a dry foil, upon free-docks.
While the trees are young, it will be fufficient to
drive a few dakes into the ground on each fide of them;
fadening the branches to thefe in an horizontal pofi-
tion, as they are produced. This method will do for
the three firfi years ; after which an efpalier (hould be
made of a(h-poles, whereof there mud be two forts,
larger and fmaller; the former to be driven upright
into the ground a foot afunder, and the latter, or (len¬
der poles, to be nailed acrofs thefe, at about nine
inches. Some prefer to this another fort of efpalier,
made of fquare timber cut to any fize: thefe are, in¬
deed, more fightly, but withal vadly more expen-
five.
When the efpalier is thus framed, the branches are
to be fadened to it with ofier-twigs; obferving to train
them in an horizontal pofition, and at equal-diflances.
Fruit-trees thus managed, are preferable to any o-
thers ; not only as bearing better-tafled fruit, but as
taking up very little room in a garden, fo as to be lefs
hurtful to plants udiich grow in the quarters.
ESPLANADE, in fortification, the (loping of the
parapet of the covered-way towards the campaign.
ESPLEES, in law, the general products which
lands yield, or the profit or commodity that is to be ta¬
ken or made of a thing.
ESPOUSALS, in law, fignify a contraft or pro-
mife made between a man and a woman, to marry each
other; and in cafes where marriages may be confum-
mated efpoufals go before. Marriage is termed an
efpoufal de prafentu
ESQUIMAUX, a people of North America inha¬
biting all that vad tratl of land known by the name
of Labrador., or New Britain.—They differ very con-
fiderably, both in afpett and behaviour, from the other
American nations; agreeing in mod refpefts with the
inhabitants of Wed Greenland. See New Britain,
and Greenland.
ESQUIRE, (from the French e/ra, and the La¬
tin fcutum, in Greek o-xvt©-, which fignify an hide,
of which (hields were anciently made, and after¬
wards covered; for, in the time of the Anglo-
Saxons, the (hields had a covering of leather) was
originally he, who, attending a knight in time of war,
did carry his (hield ; whence he was called efcuier
in French, and fcutifer, or armiger, i. e. armour-
bearer, in Latin. Hotoman fays, that thofe whom the
French call efquires, were a military kind of vaflals,
having/a/ fcuti, viz. liberty to bear a {hield, and in
it the enfigns of their family, in token of their genti¬
lity or dignity. But this addition hath not of long
Efpalier
Efquire.
ESS [ 2833 ] ESS
Efquire, time had any relation to the office or employment of
the perfon to whom it hath been attributed, as to car-
* rying of arms, &c. but hath been merely a title of
dignity, and next in degree to a knight. For thofe
to whom this title is now due, fee the article Com¬
monalty. Officers of the king’s courts, and of the
king’s houfehold, counfellors at law, juftices of the
peace, are only efquires in reputation; and he who is
a juftice of peace has this title only during the time he
is in commiffion, and no longer, if he is not otherwife
qualified to bear it. A fheriff of a county being a
fuperior officer, bears the title of efquire during his
life; in refpedt of the great truft. he has in the com¬
monwealth. The chief of fome ancient families are
efquires by prefcription ; and in late adts of parliament
for poll-money, many wealthy perfons commonly re¬
puted to be fuch, were ranked among the efquires of
this kingdom.
There is a general opinion, that every gentleman of
landed property who has L. 300 a-year, is an efquire ;
which is a vulgar error: for no money whatfoever, or
landed property, will give a man properly this title,
unlefs he comes within one of the above rules : and no
perfon can afcribe this title where it is not due, unlefs
he pleafes; there being no difficulty in drawing the line
by the accounts given above and in the article Com¬
monalty : but the meaner ranks of people, who know
no better, do often bafely prollitute this title; and, to
the great confufion of all rank and precedence, every
man who makes a decent appearance, far from think¬
ing himfelf any way ridiculed by finding the fuper-
fcription of his letters thus decorated, is fully grati¬
fied by fuch an addrefs.
Esquires of the King, are fuch as have that title by
creation, wherein there is fome formality ufed, as the
putting about their necks a collar of SS, andbeftowing
on them a pair of filver fpurs, &c.
ESSAY, a trial or experiment for proving the qua¬
lity of any thing; or an attempt to learn, whether or
not any invention will fucceed.
Essay, in literature, a peculiar kind of compofition,
the character whereof is to be free, eafy, and natural;
not tied to ftrift order or method, nor worked up and
finifhed like a formal fyftem.
Essays, in metallurgy, are chemical operations
made in fmall, to determine the quantity of metal or
other matter which is contained in minerals, or to dif-
cover the value or purity of any mafs of gold or filver.
We fnall treat here of the latter kind; referring for
the former, to Metallurgy.
1. Ejfay of the Value of Silver, to examine its purity,
or the quantity of alloy mixed with it. The common
method of examining the purity of filver, is by mix¬
ing it with a quantity of lead proportionable to the
quantity of imperfedl metals with which it is fuppofed
to be alloyed ; by telling this mixture; and after-
* wards by weighing the remaining button of filver.
The lofs of weight which the filver fuffers by cupel-
lation ffiews the quantity of imperfedt metals which it
contained.
We may hence perceive, that the efiay of filver is
nothing elfe than the refining of it by cupellation. The
only difference between thefe two operations is, That
when filver is tefted merely for the purpofe of refining
it, its value is generally known; and it is therefore
mixed with the due proportion of lead, and tefted Effay of
without any neceffity of attending to the lofs of weight Sl ver‘
it fuftains during the operation : whereas, in the effay,
all poffible methods ought to be employed to afeertain
precifely this lofs of weight. The firft of thefe opera¬
tions, or the mere refining of filver, is made in the
great, in the fmelting of filver ores, and in mints for
making money *. The fecond operation is never * See Rep-
made but in fmall; becaufe the expences of fmall ope-
rations are lefs than of great, and in the requifite ac¬
curacy is more eafily attended to. The laft opera¬
tion is our prefent fubjedt, and is to be performed in the
following manner.
We fuppofe, firft, that the mafs or ingot of filver,
of which an effay is to be made, confifts of 12 parts
perfe&ly equal; and thefe 12 parts are called penny- Ghem. Did.
•weights. Thus, if the ingot of filver be an ounce
weight, each of thefe 12 parts will be xV of an ounce ;
or if it be a mark, each of thefe will be tV of a mark,
&c. Hence if the mafs of filver be free from all alloy,
it is called filver of 12 penny-weights ; if it contains TV
of its weight of alloy, it is called filver of 11 penny¬
weights ; if xV of its weight be alloy, it is calledfilver
of xo penny-weights; and thefe 10 penny-weights or
parts of pure filver are called fine penny-weights.
We ought to obferve here concerning thefe penny¬
weights, that effayers give alfo the name penny-weight
to a weight equal to 24 real grains: which latter real
penny-weight mull not be confounded with the for¬
mer, which is only ideal and proportional; and fuch a
confufion is the more likely to take place, as this ideal
penny-weight is alfo, like the former, divided into 24
ideal grains, which are called fine grains.
An ingot of fine filver, or filver of 12 penny-weights,
contains then 288 fine grains ; if this ingot contains
•5~§"g- part of alloy, it is faid to be fiver of 11 penny¬
weight and 2 f grains; if it contains x|r of alloy, it is
called fiver of \i penny-weight and 22 grains; if it
contains it is called filver of 11 penny-weight and
\ograins; and fo on. Laftly, the fine grain has alfo
its fradtions, as x, of a grain, &c.
As eflays to difeover the value of filver are always
made in fmall, effayers only take a fmall portion of an
ingot for the trial; and the cuftomin France is to take
36 real grains for this purpofe, which is confequently
the largeft weight they employ, and reprefents 12 fine
penny-weights. This weight is fubdivided into a fuf-
ficient number of other fmaller weights, which alfo re-
prefent fradtions of fine penny-weights and grains.
Thus 18 real grains, which is half of the quantity em¬
ployed, reprefent fix fine penny-weights; three real
grains reprefent one fine penny-weight, or 24 fine
grains; a real grain and a half reprefent 12 fine grains ;
and yx part of a real grain reprefents part of a fine
grain, which is only T-fx part of a mafs of 12 penny¬
weights.
We may eafily perceive, that weights fo fmall, and
effay-balances, ought to be exceedingly accurate. Thefe
balances are very fmall, fufpended and inclofed in a box
the fides of which are panes of glafs, that they may be
preferved from dull, and that their motion may not be
affedted by agitated air, fo as to diforder their adlion*. *
When an effay of a mafs or ingot of filver is to be
made, the cuftom is to make a double effay. For this
purpofe, two fidtitious femi-marks, each of which may
be
ESS [ 2834 ] ESS
Effay be equal to 36 real grains, are to be cut from the in-
of Silver. g0t> Thefe two portions oflilver ought to be weighed
very exactly; and they ought alfo to have been taken
from oppofite (ides of the ingot.
Perfons accuitomed to thefe operations know pretty
nearly the value of filver merely by the look of the ingot,
and ftill better by rubbing it on a touchftone. By the
judgment they form of the purity of the ingot, they
regulate the quantity of lead which is to be added to
it, as this quantity mutt be always proportionable to
the quantity of imperfedt metal mixed with the filver.
Neverthelefs, this proportion of lead to the alloy has
not been precifely determined. Authors who treat of
this fubjedt differ much. They who diredt the largeft
quantity of lead fay, that thereby the alloy is more
certainly deltroyed ; and others who diredt a fmall
quantity of lead, pretend, that no more of that metal
ought to be ufed than is abfolutely neceflary, becaufe
it carries off with it always fome portion of filver.
Every effayer ufes his own particular method of pro¬
ceeding, to which he is attached.
To afcertain thefe doubtful points, three chemifts of
the Academy of Sciences at Paris, MefTrs Hellot,
Tillet, and Macquer, were appointed by the French
government. They were diredted to afcertain every
thing concerning the effay of gold and filver by au¬
thenticated experiments, made under the infpedlion of
a minifler whofe fuperior knowledge is equal to his de¬
fire of public good, and in prefence of the officers of
the mint.
The experiments made by thefe chemifts, and the
confequent regulation, have determined that four parts
of lead are requifite for one part of filver of j 1 penny¬
weight and 12 grains, that fix parts of lead are requi¬
fite for ftlver of 11 penny-weight, eight parts of lead
for Giver of 10 penny-weight, 10 parts of lead for Gi¬
ver of nine penny-weight, and fo on in the fame pro-
greffion.
Two cupels of equal fize and weight are to be cho-
fen. The cuftom is to ufe cupels of fuch a Gze that
their weight fhall be equal to that of one half of the
lead employed in the effay; becaufe fuch cupels have
been found capable of imbibing all the litharge formed
during the operation. Thefe cupels are to be placed
together under a muffle in an effay-furnace. The fire
is to be kindled, and the cupels are to be made red-hot,
and to be kept fo during half an hour at leaft before
any metal be put into them. This precaution is ne-
ceffary to dry and calcine them perfeftly; becaufe if
they contained any moifture or inflammable matter, an
ebullition and effervefcence would be occafioned in the
effay. When the cupels are heated fo as to become
almoft white, the lead is to be put into them ; the fire
is to be encreafed, which is done by opening the door
of the afti-hole fo as to admit air, till the lead becomes
red, fmoking, and is agitated by a motion of its parts
called its circulation^ and till its furface becomes fmooth
and clear.
Then the filver, previoufly beat into fmall plates for
its eafier fufion, is to be put into the cupels; the fire
is to be continued, and even increafed, by putting hot
coals at the mouth of the muffle, till the filver ftiall
have entered the lead, that is, till it have melted and
taixed vith the lead. When the melted matter circu-
late& well) the heat is to be diminiftted by taking away,
partly or entirely, the coals put at the mouth of the EfTiy
muffle, and by clofing more or lefs the doors of the Silver.
furnace.
The heat ought to be regulated fo, that the effays
in the cupels ftiall have furfaces fenlibly convex, and
fhall appear ardent, while the cupels are lefs red; that
the fmoke fhall rife almoft to the roof of the muffle ;
that undulations fhall be made in all direftions upon
the furfaces of the effays, which are called circulations i
that their middles fhall be fmooth, and furrounded with
a fmall circle of litharge, which is continually imbibed
by the cupels.
The effays are to be kept in this ftate till the opera¬
tion is fiuifhed, that is, till the lead and alloy have
foaked into the cupel; and the furfaces of the buttons
of filver being no longer covered with a pellicle of li¬
tharge, become fuddenly bright and fhining, and are *
then faid to lighten. If the operation has been well
conduced, the two effays ought to become bright
nearly at the fame time. When the filver has been by
this operation well refined, we may fee, immediately
after it has brightened, the furface of the filver covered
with rainbow colours, which quickly undulate and
crofs each other, and then the buttons become fixed or
folid.
The management of the fire is an important article
in effays. For if the heat be too great, the lead is
fcorified and imbibed by the cupel fo quickly, that it
has not fufficient time to fcorify and carry along with
it all the alloy; and if the heat be too little, the li¬
tharge is gathered upon the furface, and does not pe¬
netrate the cupel. The effayers fay then, that the ef¬
fay is choaked or drowned. In this cafe the effay does
not advance; becaufe the litharge covering the furface
of the metal defends it from the contaft of air, which
is abfolutely neceffary for the calcination of metals.
We have above related the marks of a fuccefsful ef¬
fay. The heat may be known to be too great, from
the convexity of the furface of the melted metal; from
a too ftrong circulation ; from the too vivid appearance
of the cupel, fo that the colours given to it by the li¬
tharge cannot be diftinguifhed; and, laftly, by the
fmoke rifing up to the roof of the muffle, ©r not being
at all vifible from its being fo ardent and red-hot as
not to be diftinguiffiable. In this cafe, the heat muft
be diminiftied by fflutting the door of the afti-hole:
Some effayers, for this purpofe, put round the cupels,
fmall, oblong, cold pieces of baked clay, which they
call injlruments.
If, on the contrary, the melted metal have a furface
not very fpherical, relatively to its extent; if the cupel
appear dark-coloured, and the fmoke of the effay do
only creep upon the furface; if the circulation be too
weak, and the fcoria, which appears like bright drops,
have but a dull motion, and be not foaked into the
cupel; we may be affured that the heat is too weak ;
much more may we be affured of it when the metal a.
fixes, as the effayers call it. In this cafe, the fire ought
to be increafed by opening the door of the afti-hole,
and by placing large burning coals at the mouth of the
muffle, or even by laying them acrofs upon the cupels.
As foon as the lead is put into the cupels, the fire
is to be increafed, becaufe they are then cooled by the
cold metal; and the lead ought to be quickly melted,
to prevent its calx from colleding upon its furface in
too
ESS [ 2S35 ] ESS
Eflay toe great quantity before it be formed into litharge;
of Silver. which it would do, and be difficultly fufed, if the heat
were too weak.
When the filver is added to the lead, the heat muft
be ftill increafed; not only beeaufe the lilver cools the
mafs, but becaufe it is lefs fufible than lead. And as
all thefe effedts ought to be produced as quickly as
poffible, more heat is at length given than ought to be
continued ; and therefore, when the filver has entered
the lead, the heat is to be diminilhed till it becomes of
a due intenfity for the operation.
During the operation, the heat ought gradually to
be augmented to the end of it, both becaufe the me¬
tallic mixture becomes lefs fufible as the quantity of
lead diminilhes; and alfo becaufe the lead is more dif¬
ficultly fcorifiable, as it is united with a larger propor¬
tion of lilver. Hence the effays muft be rendered very
hot before they brighten.
When the operation is finilhed, the cupels are left
in the fame heat during fume feconds, to give time to
the laft portions of litharge to be entirely abforbed ;
becaufe if any of it remained under the buttons of fil-
ver, it would ftick to them. The fire is then allowed
to extinguilh, and the cupels to cool gradually, till the
buttons have entirely fixed, particularly if they be
pretty large; becaufe if they cool too quickly, their
furfaces fix and contrail before the internal mafs, which
is thereby fo ftrongly compreffed as to burft through
the external folid coat and form vegetations, or even to
be entirely detached from the reft of the mafs, and
diffipated. This is called the vegetation of the button.
It ought to be carefully prevented, becaufe fmall bits
of filver are fometimes thrown out of the cupel.
Laftly, when the buttons are thoroughly fixed, they
are to be difengaged from the cupels by a fmall iron
utenfil while they are yet hot; otherwife they could
not be difengaged clean and free from part of the cu¬
pels which ftrongly adhere to them when the heat is
much diminifhed.
Nothing then remains to complete the eflay, but to
weigh the buttons. The diminution of weight which
they have fuftained by cupellation will ffiow the purity
or value of the ingot of filver.
We ought to obferve, that as almoft all lead natu¬
rally contains filver, and that after cupellation this fil¬
ver is mixed with the filver of the ingot in the button
of the effay; before we employ any lead in this opera¬
tion, we ought to know how much filver it contains,
that we may fubtradl this quantity from the weight of
the button, when we compute the finenefs of the filver
of the ingot effayed. For this purpofe efiayers gene¬
rally cupel a certain quantity of their lead feparately,
and weigh accurately the button of filver it yields: or,
at the fame time when they efiay filver, they put into
a third cupel, in the muffle, a quantity of lead equal to
that employed in both their effays; and when the ope
ration is finifhed, and the buttons are to be weighed,
they throw the fmall button produced from the lead
alone into the'fcale which contains the weights; and
as this exadlly counterpoifes the fmall portion of filver
which the eflay buttons have received from the lead
employed in the cupellation, the weights will fhew pre-
cifely the quantity of filver contained in the ingot, and
thus the trouble of calculating is prevented. The fmall
button of filver procured from the cupellation of lead
alone is called the •witnefs. But to prevent this trouble, Eflay
effayers generally employ lead which contains no filver, of Silver.
fuch as that from Willach in Carinthia, which is there¬
fore procured by efiayers.
In the fecond place, we fhall obferve, that a certain
quantity of filver always pafles into the cupel, as re¬
finers in the great have long obferved, and which hap¬
pens alfo in efiaying fmall quanties. The quantity of
filver thus abforbed, varies according to the quantity
of the lead employed, and the matter and form of the cu¬
pels ; all which objects will undoubtedly be determined
by the above-mentioned chemifts.
The cupellation which we have now deferibed is
exactly the fame for eflays by which the produce of a
filver ore, or of an ore of another metal containing fil¬
ver, is determined. But as thefe ores contain fre¬
quently gold, and fometimes in confiderable quantity,
when thefe eflays are made, the buttons of filver ob¬
tained by the eflays ought to be fubjedted to the ope¬
ration called parting. See Silver, Refining, Fur¬
nace, Muffle, and Cupel.
M. Tillet has publilhed a memoir, {hewing that ef¬
fays of filver made in the common method are uncer¬
tain and not to be depended upon, and that this uncer¬
tainty proceeds from the different quantities of filver ab¬
forbed by the cupel in different effays, according as the
heat and other circumftances happened to vary. He
therefore propofes, in order to render eflays accurate,
to extradl from the cupel the quantity of filver it has
abforbed during the operation, and to add this particle
of filver to the button, as thefe two contain the whole
quantity of filver in the matter effayed.
The variations in the different refults of different ef¬
fayers, or of the fame efiayer at different times, upon
the fame mafs of filver, are fufficient proofs of the un¬
certainty mentioned by M. Tillet. Thefe variations
are occafioned, according to that author, principally
from the following caufes: 1. From the inaccuracy of
the balances and weights employed. 2. From the
faulty fufion of the mafs to be effayed; by which
means, the contained alloy may be Unequally diffufed.
3. From the impurity of the lead, efpecially from its
containing filver, which is not always equally diffufed
through its mafs. 4. From the different proportions
of lead ufed by different effayers. 5. From the diffe¬
rence of the intenfity of heat: for, if the heat be not
fufficiently intenfe, the filver will ttill contain a por¬
tion of alloy ; and if the heat be too intenfe, too much
of the filver will be imbibed by the cupel. 6. From the
want of care in picking the fmall particles of filver,
which frequently adhere to the fides of the cupel fe¬
parately, from the principal button. 7. From the
fpurting which fometimes happens unobferved by the
effayer; and which may further falfify the effays of
other pieces included under the fame muffle, by the
falling of the particles thrown out of one cupel into
others adjacent. But, with all the attentions to avoid
thefe caufes of error, the author obtained different re¬
fults from different effays of the fame mafs of filver.
Nor could he, by any method, make his different effays
confiftent with each other, but by adding to each but¬
ton the particle extradted from the cupel; and this me¬
thod he found by accurate experiments to be perfedlly
exadt.
M. Tillet obferved, that the quantity of lead direc¬
ted
ESS [ 2836 ] ESS
Eflay ted in the regulations eftablifhed in confequence of the
of g0^1, report made by MeflVs Macquer, Hellot, and Tillet, is
not fufficient to purify the filver perfeftly from its al¬
loy. He neverthelefs approves of the faid regulation;
and confiders the weight of the alloy retained by the
button, as fome compenfation for the weight of the
filver abforbed by the cupel. And as it is a conftant
faft, that the more lead is ufed, the greater is the lofs
by the abforption of the cupel, he remarks, that a re¬
gulation, dire&ing a larger proportion of lead for
France, than is ufed in other countries, would be dif-
advantageous to that kingdom; as thereby the filver of
the fame denomination would be required to be finer in
that than in other countries where a lefs proportion of
lead was employed. He obferves, that the above-
mentioned rule, “ that the more lead is ufed, the greater
is the lofs by the abforption of the cupel,” does not
extend to quantities of lead much above double the
ufual quantities. Thus 32 parts of lead to one of fil-
ver, will not occafion more abforption than 16 parts of
lead. For the refining fcarcely takes place till the ex¬
traordinary quantity of lead be gone, and the filver is
only or chiefly carried into the cupel along with the
copper. Accordingly, he found that he could render
the filver finer by ufing four parts of lead at firft, and
afterwards adding two more parts when the irifes be¬
gan to appear, than by employing all the fix parts of
the lead at once. By this method of dividing the
quantity of lead, the lofs of filver by abforption was
greater. M. Tillet did not find, that by employing
bifmuth alone, or mixed with lead, his effays were more
certain, than when lead alone was ufed.. He obferved,
however, that the addition of bifmuth made the filver
purer, but occafioned a greater abforption by the cupel.
2. EJfay of the Value of Gold. The fictitious weights
ufed to determine the purity of gold, and to effay this
metal, are different from thofe of filver. See the pre¬
ceding article. A mafs of gold perfeClly pure, or
which contains no alloy, is ideally divided into 24 parts,
called carats ; this pure gold is therefore ca\\e& gold of
24 carats. If the mafs or ingot contains ^ part of
its weight of alloy, the gold is then of 23 carats; and
if it contains or ^ of alloy, it is gold of 22 carats,
&c. Hence we fee, that the carat of gold is only a re¬
lative and proportional weight, fo that the real weight
of the carat varies according to the total weight of the
mafs of gold to be examined. If this mafs of gold
weighs a mark, the real weight of the carat will be
of eight ounces, which is equal to a mark. If the mafs
weigh an ounce, the carat will be part of an ounce,
or 24 grains. If it is only a penny-weight or 24
grains, the real weight of a carat will be one grain;
and fo on.
For greater accuracy, the carat of gold is divided
into 32 parts, which are relative and proportional
weights, as the carat itfelf is. Thus of a carat of
gold is -jSj- of -j^, or the of any mafs of gold: and
the gold which contains an alloy equal to the ^-5-5- part
of the whole mafs is called gold of 23 carats and -f4-;
gold which contains of alloy is gold of 23 carats
and and fo on.
The real weight nowrgenerally ufed in the operation
for determining the purity of gold, is fix grains. This
weight then reprefents 24 carats. The half of this
weight, or three real grains, reprefents 12 carats. Ac¬
cording to this progreffion, we fhall find that of a
real grain reprefents one carat, and the part of a II
grain rtprefents the TV of a carat, or the yfa part of ' 'ene*'
a mafs of gold to be effayed.
As thefe weights are exceedingly fmall, fome effayers
employ a weight of 12 grains, which mull be very con¬
venient.
When a mafs or ingot of gold is to be effayed, fix
grains are to be cut off, and exa&ly weighed: alfo 18
grains of fine filver are to be weighed. Thefc two me¬
tals are to be cupelled together with about ten times
as much lead as the weight of the gold. Thiq cupella-
tion is condu&ed precifely like that of the efiay to de¬
termine the purity of the filver, excepting that the heat
muft be raifed a little more towards the end of the ope¬
ration when the effay is going to brighten. Then the
gold is freed from all alloy but filver. If the quantity
of copper or other alloy deftru&ible by cupellation be
required to be known, the remaining button is accu¬
rately weighed. The diminution of weight from the
fum of the weights of the gold and of the filver deter¬
mines the quantity of this alloy.
The button containing gold and filver is then to be
flattened upon a poliihed piece of fteel, and care muft
be taken to anneal it from time to time, to prevent its
fplitting and cracking. By this method it is reduced
to a thin plate, which is to be rolled up, in order to be
parted by aqua fortis *. The diminution found after * See Part*
the parting from the original weight of the gold ef- ,nS'
fayed, fhews the whole quantity of alloy contained in
that gold.
The effay for determining the purity of gold is then
made by two operations: the firft, which is cupella¬
tion, deprives it of all its imperfeft metals ; and the
fecond, which is parting, feparates all the filver from
it. By antimony alfo gold may be purified, which is
a kind of dry parting. By this Angle operation, all
the imperfedi metals, and filver with which gold is al¬
layed, are feparated. See Purification, Gold, Sil¬
ver, Refining.
JLssAY-Hatch, is the miners term for a little trench
or hole, which they dig to fearch for flroad or ore.
ESSENCE, in metaphyfics, that which conftitutes
the particular nature of each genus or kind, and di-
ftinguiflies it from all others ; being nothing but that
abltradt idea to which this name is affixed, fo that
every thing contained in it is effential to that particular
kind.
This Mr Locke calls the nominal ejfence; in contra-
diftindtien to the real eflence, or conftitution of fub-
ftances on which this nominal offence depends. Thus,
the nominal eflence of gold, is that complex idea the
word gold Hands for ; let it be, for inftance, a body,
yellow, weighty, malleable, fufible, and fixed : but
its real eflence is the conftitution of its infenfible parts,
on which thofe qualities and all its other properties de¬
pend, which is wholly unknown to us.
ESSENES, or Essenians, in Jewilh antiquity,
one of the three ancient fedfs among that people.
They allowed a future ftate, but denied a refurredtion
from the dead. Their way of life was very Angular :
they did not marry; but adopted the children of others,
whom they bred up in the inftitutions of their fedl:
they defpifed riches, and had all things in common,
and never changed their cloaths till they were entirely
worn
E S T [ 2837 ] E S T
Eflential worn out. When initiated, they were ftriftly bound
!i not to communicate the rpyfteries of their feft to
cte' others ; and if any of their members were found guilty
of enormous crimes, they were expelled.
Pliny tells us, that they dwelt on the well fide of
the lake of Afphaltites; and that they were a folitary
kind of men, living without women or money, and
feeding upon the fruit of the palm-tree: he adds, that
they were conftantly recruited by new comers, whom
the furges of ill fortune had made weary of the world ;
in which manner the fe& was kept up for feveral
thoufands of years, without any being born among
them. The reafon why we find no mention made of
them in the New Teftament, may be their reclufe and
retired way of life, not lefs than their great fimplicity
and honefty, whereby they lay open to no cenfure or
reproof,
ESSENTIAL, fomething neceffarily belonging to
a thing, from which it cannot be conceived diftind:
thus the primary qualities of bodies, as extenfion, fi¬
gure, number,. &c. are eflential or infeparable from
them in all their changes and alterations.
Essential Oil. See Chemistry, n° 487.
ESSEX, a county of England, bounded on the call
by the fea; on the north by Suffolk and Cambridge-
fhire, from which it is parted by the Stour; on the
fouth, it is parted from Kent by the Thames ; and on
the weft from Middlefex by the river Lea, and from
Hertfordfhire by the Stort. It extends from eaft to
weft 40 miles in length, 35 in breadth from north to
fouth, and 140 in circumference. It is in the diocefe
of London, and gives title of earl to the family of Ca-
pel. The foil of the inland parts is generally fandy or
gravelly, and the air good ; but in the low fenny
grounds along the Thames, and on the fea-coaft, it is
aguilh and unhealthy. The county in fome places pro¬
duces a great deal of faffron, as about Saffron Wal¬
den. It is well fupplied both with fea and river fifh,
wood, and wild-fowl. Vaft numbers of oxen, horfes,
fheep, and cows, are fed and bred in the fens; a great
deal of corn is raifed, and cheefe made ; the foil be¬
ing there as rich as the air is bad. In this county,
too, a great fum of money is got by decoys.
ESTATE, in law, fignifies the title or intereft that
a perfon has in lands, tenements, or other effedts; com¬
prehending the whole in which a perfon hath any pro¬
perty, and will pafs the fame.
Eftates are either real or perfonal; otherwife diflin-
guifhed into freeholds, which defcend to heirs; or
chattels, that go to executors or adminiftrators.
A fee-fimple is the ampleft eftate our law admits
of. See Fee.
Eftates are obtained feveral ways; as, by defcent
from a father to a fon ; by conveyance or grant, from
one peribn to another ; by gift or purchafe; or by deed
or will. See Descent, Succession, Tenure, &c.
Estates, in a political fenfe, is ufed either to de¬
note the dominions of fome prince, or the general claf-
fes into which the people are divided.
In Britain, the eftates are the king, lords, and com¬
mons ; or rather the lords and commons, who meet
the king in parliament, for reforming abufes, and enac-
ting good and wholefome laws.
ELESTE', in heraldry, denotes the heads of beafts
torn off by main force.
Vol. IV.
ESTHER, a canonical book of the Old Telia- Either
ment; containing the hiftory of a Jewilh virgin, dwell-
ing with her uncle Mordecai at Shufhan, in the reign
of Ahafuerus one of the kings of Perfia.  
The great beauty of this maid raifed her to the
throne of Perfia; whereby Ihe had an opportunity to
fave her countrymen, whofe deftruftion was plotted by
Haman, a favourite of that prince.
The learned are not agreed who this Ahafuerus was.
Archbifhop Ulher fuppofes him to be Darius Hyftaf-
pes, and Artyftona to be Either. Scaliger makes him
the fame with Xerxes, and his queen Hameftris to be
Efther. Jofephus, on the contrary, pofitively afferts,
that the Ahafuerus of the fcriptures, is the Artaxerxes
Longimanus of profane flory; and the Septuagint,
throughout the whole book of Efther, tranflate Aha¬
fuerus by Artaxerxes. Moll people fubfcribe to this
laft opinion ; and, indeed the extraordinary kindnefs
Ihewed by Artaxerxes to the Jews, can fcarce be ac¬
counted for otherwife, than by fuppofing that they
had fo powerful an advocate as Efther to folicite for
them.
ESTOILE'E, or Cross Estoille'e, in heraldry,
a ftar with only four long rays in form of a crofs; and,
accordingly, broad in the centre, and terminating in
fharp points.
ESTRAY, in law, any beaft not wild, that is found
within a lordlhip, and owned by nobody : in which
cafe, being cried, according to law, in the two mar¬
ket-towns adjacent, and not claimed in a year and a
day by the owner, it becomes the property of the lord
of the manor or liberty wherein it was found.
ESTONIA, is a province of the Ruffian empire,
and part of Livonia. It is bounded on the eaft by the
Baltic fea, on the north by the Gulph of Finland, on
the weft by Ingria, and on the fouth by Lettonia. It
is divided into fix diftridls: 1 Harrien ; 2. Wireland ;
3. Alentakin; 4. Wich; 5. Jerven; and, 6. Odepoa.
The principal towns are, Revel, Weifenberg, Borch-
holm, Narva, Nyflot, Habfal, Derpt, St Elin, Per-
nau, and Roderfwick.
In former times the inhabitants of this country car¬
ried on a good trade in corn, which was dried in ftoves :
but wars have much depopulated the country, infomuch
that not a fourth part of it is inhabited, and a great
number of gentlemens feats lie in ruins.
ESTREMADURA, a province of Spain, has New
Caftile on the eaft, Leon on the north, Andalufia on
the fouth, and Portugal on the weft. It is i 75 miles
in length, and 100in breadth; and its principal towns
are, Calatrava, Menda, and Badajoz, on the river
Guadiana; Alcantara, on the Tajo; and Cona and
Placentia, to the north of this river.
This province enjoys a very pure and healthful air,
and its mountains are full of wild and tame animals;
they having woods and forefts for the one fort, and pa-
ftures for the other. The fields are planted with fruit-
trees, which bear all kinds of delicious fruit. The vine¬
yards produce excellent wjnes of all colours, and the
fields yield plenty of corn.
Estremadura, a province of Portugal, near the
mouth of the Tagus or Tajo, is bounded on the north
by Beira, on the eaft and fouth by Alentejo, and on
the weft by the Atlantic Ocean. It is about 88 miles
in length, and 45 in breadth. This province is divided
16 L into
ETC [ 2838 ] ETC
Etching, into fix comarcas, viz. Litria, Lt'fbon, Tomar, San-
~ ~ taren, and Alanquar, to the north of the Tagus; and
that of Setubal, to the fouth of this river. Thefe are
likewife the principal towns. Eftremadura is equal, if
not preferable, to any other province in Spain or Por¬
tugal. The diftridt of Santaren produces fuch plenty
of corn, and feeds fo many flocks of Iheep, that it may
enter into competition with Sicily. The fruits and the
wines are all excellent; and it was here that the fvveet
oranges brought from China were firft planted, and of
which there are large quantities tranfported to foreign
parts, with the wines and other fruits. The fields
are covered with flowers almofi: all the year, from
which the bees colleft large quantities of fine ho¬
ney. The olive-trees are numerous, from which they
have excellent oil. The rivers abound with good
fifh, and the mountains have quarries of feveral kinds.
ETCHING, a method of engraving on copper, in
which the lines or llrokes, inftead of being cut with a
tool or graver, are eaten in with aquafortis.
Etching is of a later invention, though not very
modern, than engraving with the tool; of which it
was at firft only an imitation, that was pra&ifed by
painters and other artifls, who could much fooner form
their hand to, and attain a faculty of, working in this
way, than with the graver. But being the,n neverthe-
lefs confidered as a counterfeit kind of engraving, and
therefore inferior to the other, it was cultivated in a
very confined manner ; the clofenefs of the refemblance
of the work to that performed by the tool, being made
the left of its merit, and confequently the principal
objeft of aim in thofe who purfued it. This fervile
confinement of the art of etching to the imitation of the
original kind of engraving, was a great caufe of re¬
tarding its advancement towards perfection, as many
of the moft able mafters cramped their talents with the
obfervance of it: which may be feen in the inftancesof
Sadelers, Swauneberg, Vilamene, and particularly Le
Bofle ; who, in his treatife on engraving, has laid
down as a principle, that the perfection of this kind
con fills in the clofe fimilitude of the work with that
done by the tool. This abfurd prepofleffion has been
fince worn out: and the method of working with aqua¬
fortis has been fo far improved, that, inftead of being
now deemed a fpurious kind of engraving, it evident¬
ly appears the foundation of an excellence in many mo¬
dern works, that could never have been produced with¬
out it: fince, though the neatnefs and uniformity of
the hatches, which attend the ufe of the tool, is more
advantageous with refpedl to portraits; yet the liber¬
ty and facility of the other manner give a much greater
opportunity to exercife the force of genius and fancy in
hiftory-engraving ; where the effeft of the whole, and
not the minute exaCtnefs in finilhing all the parts, con-
ftitutes the principal value. There are two methods
praClifed of engraving in this way ; the one with a
hard varnifh or ground, the other with a foft. The
firft was formerly much ufed, being better accommo¬
dated to the intention of imitating the engraving with
the tool; as the firmnefs of the body of the varnifli
gave more opportunity of retouching the lines, or en¬
larging them with the oval-pointed needles, called by
the French ecboppes, as was praftifed by Le Bofle and
others for that purpofe. The latter has now almoft
wholly fuperfeded the ufe of the other, by the free
manner of working it admits of; which affords a power Etch
of expreflion incompatible with the greater inflexibi-
lity of the hard varnilh, that confines the lines and
hatches to fuch a regularity and famenefs, as gives a
ftiffnefs of manner and coldnefs of effeCt to the work.
The mixture of the ufe of the tool and aquafortis,
which are now both employed in many cafes, has, how¬
ever, given that perfe&ion to engraving which it poflef-
fes at prefent. The truth and fpirit of the outline, that
the method of working with aquafortis affords, and the
variety of Ihades which the different kinds of black
produce in this way, as well as other means of ex-
preffing the peculiar appearance and character of par¬
ticular fubjefits, furnifh what was defeftive in the foie
ufe of the tool; while, on the other hand, the exaA-
nefs and regularity of the lines, which are required for
finilhing many kinds of defigns, are fupplied by the
graver; and by a judicious application of both, that
complete finilhing is obtained, which either of them
alone mujft neceffarily want.
The manner by which this art is performed, is the
covering the furface of the plate with a proper varnilh
ox ground, as it is called, which is capable of refilling
aquafortis; and then fcoring or fcratching away, by
inftruments refetnbling needles, the parts of this var¬
nifh or ground, in the places where the ftrokes or
hatches of the engraving are intended to be : then,
the plate being covered with aquafortis, the parts
that are laid naked and expofed by removing the
ground or varnilh, are corroded or eaten away by it;
while the reft, being fecured and defended, remain un¬
touched.
There are two methods of etching, as hath been
already obferved ; the difference of which from each
other confifts, as well in the difference of the varnifh
or ground, as in that of the aquafortis, adapted to
each kind : but the general methods of performing
them are alike in both. Thefe varnilhes or grounds arc
diftinguilhed by the names of hard and foft: for, in
their confiftence, or the reliftance they give to the
needles, lies their effential variation from each other.
The hard varnilh, it is with good reafon conjedlured,
was not the firft in ufe: but foon took place of the
other; and was, for fome time, the moft received in
pradtice, on account of its admitting the work to be
made more like that of the graver : the foft has, how¬
ever, fince, in its turn, prevailed to the exclufion of it
in fome degree, except in the cafe of particular fub-
je&s; but not fo entirely as to take away the expe¬
dience of Ihewing how it is performed. The manner
of etching with the foft varnifh is now, however, one
of the moft important objedls of the art of engraving;
and it is at prefent in univerfal ufe, fometimes alone,
but more frequently intermixed with the work of the
tool, and, in fome cafes, with great advantage, even
where the whole is intended to pafs for being perform¬
ed by the graver.
Preparation of the foft varnifb ; according to Mr Law¬
rence, an eminent Englijh engraver at Paris.
“ Take of virgin’s wax and afphaltum, each two
ounces; of black pitch and Burgundy pitch, each half
an ounce. Melt the wax and pitch in a new earthen¬
ware glazed pot; and add to them, by degrees, the
afphaltum finely powdered. Let the whole boil, till.
fuck
ETC L 2839 ] ETC
Etching. fuch time as that, taking a drop upon a plate, it will
break when it is cold, on bending it double two or
three times betwixt the fingers. The varnifh being
then enough boiled, muft be taken off the fire ; and,
letting it cool a little, muft be poured into warm wa¬
ter, that it may work the more eafily with the hands,
fo as to be formed into balls ; which muft be rolled up,
and put into a piece of taffety for ufe.”
It muft be obferved, firft, that the fire be not too
violent, for fear of burning the ingredients ; a flight
fimmering will be fufficient: fecondly, that while the
afphaltum is putting in, and even after it is mixed with
them, the ingredients fhould be ftirred continually with
the fpatula : and thirdly, that the water, into which
this compofition is thrown, (hould be nearly of the
fame degree of warmth with it, to prevent a kind of
cracking that happens when the water is too cold.
The varniih ought always to be harder in fummer
than in winter; and it will become fo if it be fuffered
to boil longer, or if a greater proportion of the af¬
phaltum or brown refin be ufed. The experiment
abovementioned, of the drop fuffeted to cool, will de¬
termine the degree of hardnefs or foftnefs that may be
fuitable to the feafon when it is ufed.
Preparation of the hard varnijh ufed by Callot, common¬
ly called the Florence varnifli.
Take four ounces of fat oil very clear, and made
of good linfeed oil, like that ufed by painters: heat it
in a clean pot of glazed earthen-ware, and afterwards
put to it four ounces of maftich well powdered; and
ftir the mixture brilkly, till the whole be well melted;
then pafs the whole mafs through a piece of fine linen,
into a glafs bottle with a long neck, that can be flop¬
ped very fecurely; and keep it for the ufe that will be
below explained.
Method of applying the foft varnifo to the plate, and of
blackening it.
The plate being well polilhed and burnifhed, as
alfo cleanfed from all greafinefs by chalk or Spa-
nilh white, fix a hand-vice on the edge of the plate
where no work is intended to be, to ferve as a handle
for managing it when warm: then put it upon a
chafing-difh, in which there is a moderate fire; ob-
ferving to hold it fo, that it may not burn : keep
the plate over the fire till it be fo hot, that the
varnifh being brought into contadl with it, may melt:
then cover the whole plate equally with a thin coat of
the varnifh ; and while the plate is warm, and the var¬
nifh upon it in a fluid ftate, beat every part of the var¬
nifh gently with a fmall ball or dauber made of cot¬
ton tied up in taffety; which operation fmooths and di-
ftributes the varnifh equally over the plate.
When the plate is thus uniformly and thinly cover¬
ed with the varnifh, it muft he blackened by a piece of
flambeau, or of a large candle, which affords a copious
fmoke; fometimes two, or even four, fuch candles are
ufed together for the fake of difpatch, that the varnifh
may not grow cold : which if it does during the ope¬
ration, the plate muft then be heated again, that it
may be in a melted ftate when that operation is per¬
formed: but great care muft be taken not to burn it ;
which, when it happens, may be eafily perceived by
the varnifh appearing burnt and lofing its glofs. The
following expedient is made ufe of for the more com- Etching,
modioufly blackening the varnifli, being particularly —~
neceffary where the plates are large : Fix a ftrong hook
in the roof of the room, through which pafs four pieces
of cord of equal length, at the end of which are fixed
four iron rings of about four inches diameter, for fup-
porting the corners of the plate. The plate being thus
fufpended in the air, with the varnifhed fide down¬
wards, may be blackened with great convenience: but
this is not, however, abfpliitely requifite, except in the
cafe of large plates that could not, without difficulty,
be held up, unlefs this, or fome other fuch contrivance,
were made ufe of.
It is proper to be very cautious in keeping the flam¬
beau or candle at a due diftance from the plate, left
the wick touch the varnifh, which would both fully
and mark it. If it appear that the fmoke has not pe¬
netrated the" varnifh, the plate muft be again placed for
fome little time over the chafing-difh ; and it will be
found, that, in proportion as the plate grows hot, the:
varnifh will melt and incorporate with the black which
lay above it, in fuch a manner that the whole will be*
equally pervaded by it.
Above all things, the greateft caution ftiould be ufed
in this operation, to keep all the time a moderate fire;
and to move frequently the plate, and change the place
of all the parts of it, that the varnifh may be alike
melted every where, and kept from burning. Care muft
alfo be taken, that during this time, and even till the
varnifh be entirely cold, no filth, fparks, or dull, fly
on it; for they would then flick fall, and fpoll the
work.
Method of applying the hard varnifh.
This is precifely the fame as for the foft; being
fpread equally over the warm plate with the taffety-
ball, and fmoked in the fame manner: only after it is
fmoked, it muft be baked, or dried over a gentle fire
of charcoal, till the fmoke from the varnifh begins
to decreafe; taking care not to overheat the plate,
which would both foften it and burn the varnifh.
The plate being thus prepared, and an exaA draw¬
ing of the outlines of the ejefign made upon thin paper,
the other fide of the paper muft be well rubbed with
chalk, or Spanifh whitening, or, which is better, with
red chalk.fcraped to a powder; and the loofe chalk is
cleared off with a linen rag: then the ftained fide of
the paper is laid upon the varnifh, fixing the corners
to the plate with wax or wafers, to prevent its fhuf-
fling; and with a blunted needle, or pointer, the draw¬
ing is flightly traced, and communicates to the varnifli
an exadf outline of the defign to be etched.
A variety of pointers is neceffary for the work.
Thofe ufed for the broad large ftrokes ought to be very
blunt, exceeding rpund, and well pohfhed at the point;
the foal of a fhoe anfwers very well for polifhing the
points. The fineft ought to be as fharp as a needle.
If any fcratches or falfe ftrokes happen in the working,
they are ta be flopped up with a hair-pencil dipped in
Venetian varnifh, mixed with lamp-black, by which
means thefe places will be defended from the a&ion of
the aquafortis.
The next operation is that of eating or corroding
the plate with aquafortis ; in order to which, a border
of foft wax (being a compofition of bees-wax melted
16 L 2 and
1*
E T H [ 2840 ] E T H
•Eternity and tempered with a little Venice turpentine and tal- nature and charafter of this ether. Some conceive it as a
Ethe l°w)> fattened round the plate about an inch body fuigeneris, appointed only to fill up the vacuities "
1 r' high, in the form of a little wall or rampart, to contain between the heavenly bodies ; and therefore confined
the aquafortis. At one of the corners of this border to the regions above our atmofphere. Others fuppofe
a gutter isufually made, which ferves for pouring com- it of fo fubtile and penetrating a nature, as to pervade
modioufly the aquafortis off the plate. The plate be- the air, and other bodies, and poflefs the pores and
ing thus bordered, take a due quantity of the refiners intervals thereof. Others deny the exiftence of any
aquafortis; mix it with half its quantity of common wa- fuch fpecific matter; and think the air it felf, by that
ter; and pour it gently on, till it rife above a finger’s immenfe tenuity and expanfion it is found capable of,
breadth above the furface of the plate : when, if all may diffufe itfelf through the interftellar fpaces, and
things have been rightly conduced, it will befeen that be the only matter found therein,
the aquafortis will loon exert its adlion in the hatches In effect, ether, being no obje& of our fenfe, but
which have been ftrongly touched; but thofe more the mere work of imagination, brought only upon the
weakly engraved will appear at fir ft clear, and of the ftage for the fake of hypothefis, or to folve fome phe-*'
colour of the copper. The menftruum mutt therefore nomenon, real or imaginary; authors take the liberty
be fuffered to continue on the plate till its effefts be- to modify it how they pleafe. Some fuppofe it of an
Come vifible on the more tender parts: then the aqua- elementary nature, like other bodies; and only diftin-
fortis firould be poured off, the plate walhed with clean guilhed by its tenuity, and the other affe&ions confe-
water, and dried before the fire: then take a fmall quent thereon: which is the philofophical ether. O-
pencil dipped into the Venetian varnilh, and cover with thers will have it of another fpecies, and not elemen-
it the lighter parts of the plate. This being done, the tary; but rather a fort of fifth element, of a purer,
aquafortis mutt again be poured on, and fuffered to more refined, and fpirituous nature, than the fubftances
continue a longer or Ihorter time, according to the about our earth: and void of the common affections
ftrength of the menftruum, or the nature of the engra- thereof, as gravity, &c. The heavenly fpaces being
ving; when it mutt be again poured off as before, and the fuppofed region or refidence of a more exalted clafs
the plate immediately waihed with water. of beings, the medium muff be more exalted in pro*
It may not be improper to obferve, that, when the portion. Such is the ancient and popular idea of ether,
aquafortis is on the plate, a feather fhould be ufed to or etherial matter. See Etherial.
cleanfe away the foulnefs of the verdigreafe that ga- The term ether being thus embarraffed with a va-
thers in the hatches when the aquafortis operates on riety of ideas, and arbitrarily applied to fo many dif-
them, and to give it more room to exert its a&ion; for ferent things; the later and feverer philofophers choofe
by moving the aquafortis to and fro on the plate by to fet it afide, and in lieu thereof fubftitute other more
the feather, and brulhing away the black faline matter determinate ones. Thus, the Cartefians u(e the term
where it appears to be formed, the hatches will be materia fubtilis; which is their ether: and Sir Ifaac
cleanfed, and the aquafortis exert its whole foi 2e equal- Newton, fometimes a _/«£///? fpirit, as in the clofe of
ly on every part. his Principia; and fometimes a fubtile or ethereal me-
The jffate being thus fuffxciently corroded by the dium, as in his Optics,
aquafortis, and well walhed with water, it mutt be The truth is, there are abundance of confiderations,
warmed at the fire, and the border of wax removed ; which feem to evince the exiftence of fome matter in
after which, it mutt be made hotter till the varnilh melt: the air, much finer than,the air itfelf. There is an un-
then it muft be well wiped with a linen cloth, and af- known fomething, which remains behind when the air
terwards rubbed heartily with oil of olives; when it is taken away; as appears from certain effeifts which
will be ready to be retouched and finilhed by the gra- we fee produced in vacuo. Heat, Sir Ifaac Newton
ver. See the article Engraving. obferves, is communicated through a vacuum, almoft as
, ETERNITY, an attribute of God, expreffing his readily as through air: but fuch communication can-
infinite or endlefs duration. not be without fome interjacent body, to aft as a me-
According to Mr Locke, we come by an idea of dium. And fuch body may be fubtile enough to pe-
eternity, by being able to repeat any part of time, as netrate the pores of glafs; and may be very well con-
a year, as often as we will, without ever coming to an eluded to permeate thofe of all other bodies, and con-
cn(I. fequently be diffufed through all the parts of fpace:
ETHELBALD, r „ which anfwers to the full charafter of an ether f. f
ETHELBERT, £ kings of j (Hiftor ofl The exiftence of fuch an etherial medium being fet-
ETHELRED, r England, j V ' or^ 0 ' tied, that author proceeds to its properties ; inferring
E EHELWOLF, p Q ‘ it to be not only rarer and more fluid than air, but
ETHER, is ufually underftood of a thin, fubtile exceedingly more elallic and aftive: in virtue of which
matter, or medium, much finer and rarer than air; which properties, he (hews, that a great part of the pheno-
commencing from the limits of our atmofphere, pof- mena of nature may be produced by it. To the weight*
feffes the whole heavenly fpace.—The word is Greek, e.g. of this medium, he attributes gravitation, or the
fuppofed to be formed from the verb a»8n</>, “ to weight of all other bodies ; and to its elafticity, the
burn, to flame;” fome of the ancients, particularly elaftic force of the air and of nervous fibres, and the
See Fire. Anaxagoras, fuppofing it of the nature of fire f. emiffion, refraftion, refleftion, and other phenomena
The philofophers cannot conceive that the largeft of light;, as alfo, fenfation, mufcblar motion* &c. In;
part of the creation ihould be perfedlly void ; and there- fine, this fame matter feems the primum’mobile, the
fore they fill it with a fpecies of matter under the de- firft fource or fpring of phyfical adtion in the modern
Homination of ether. But they vary extremely as to the fyftem.
Ether.
See Heat.
The
E T H [ 2841 ] E T H
Ether The Cartefian ether is fuppofed not only to pervade,
II. but adequately to fill, all the vacuities of bodies; and
Etheridge. tQ majce an abfolute plenum in the univerfe.
But Sir Ifaac Newton overturns this opinion, from
divers confiderations ; by (hewing, that the celeftial
fpaces are void of all fervfi'ole refiilance : for, hence it
follows, that the tnatter contained therein mail; be im-
menfely rare, in regard the refiftance of bodies is chief¬
ly as their denfity; fo that if the heavens were thus
adequately filled with a medium or matter, how fubtile
foever, they would refift the motion of the planets and
comets much more than quickfilver, ■ or gold.
The late difcoveries in ele&ricity have thrown great
light upon this fubjeft, and rendeted it extremely pro¬
bable, that the ether fo often talked of is no other lhan
the ele&ric fluid, or folar light, which diffufes itfelf
throughout the whole fyftem of nature. See Elec¬
tricity, Fire, Heat, Light, &c.
Ether, in chemiftry, an exceedingly light, volatile,
and inflammable fluid, made by combining ardent fpi-
rits with acids. For
Hthivi Marine. See Chemistry, n° 261.
Ether Nitrous. Ibid. n° 218.
Ether Saccharine. Ibid. n° 305.
Ether Vegetable. Ibid. n° 290.
Ether Vitriolic. Ibid. n° 167.
ETHERIAL, Etherius, fomething that belongs
to, or partakes of, the nature of ether. See Ether.
Thus we fay, the etherial fpace, eiherial regions^ &c.
Some of the ancients divided the univerfe, with re-
fpeft to the matter contained therein, into elemen¬
tary and etherial.
ETHERIDGE (Sir George), a celebrated wit and
comic genius in the reigns of Charles H. and James II.
defcended from an ancient family in Oxfordfliire, and
born in 1636. He travelled in his youth; and, not
being able to confine himfelf to the ftudy of the law,
devoted himfelf to the gayer accompliflunents. His
firft dramatic performance, The Comical Revenge, or
Love in a Tub, appeared in 1664, and introduced him
to the leading wits of the time: in 1668, he produced
a comedy called She mould if Jhe could: and, in 1676,
he publifhed his laft comedy, called The man of mode,
or Sir Fopling Flutter; which is perhaps the moft ele¬
gant comedy, and contains more of the real manners
of high life than any one the Engliflv ftage was ever
adorned with. This piece he dedicated to the beau¬
tiful duchefs of York, in whofe fervice he then was; and
who had fo high a regard for him, that when, on the
acceffion of James II. (he came to be queen, (he pro¬
cured his being fent ambaflador firft; to Hamburg, and
afterwards to Ratifbon, where he continued till after
his majefty quitted the kingdom. Our author being
addi£ted to certain gay extravagances, had greatly im¬
paired his fortune ; to repair which, he paid his ad-
dreffes to a rich widow: but (he, being an ambitious
woman, had determined not to condefcend to a marriage
with any man who could not beftow a title upon her;.
on which account, he was obliged to purchafe a knight¬
hood.
None of the writers have exaftly fixed the period of
Sir George’s death, though all leem to place it not
long after the Revolution. Some fay, that on this event
he followed his mafter king James into France, ^nd
died there; but the authors of the Biographia. Britan-
nica mention a report, that he came to an untimely Ethics,
death by an unlucky accident at Ratifbon; for that af- Ethiopia.
ter having treated feme company with a liberal enter¬
tainment at his houfe there, where he had taken his
glafs too freely, and being, through his great complai-
iance, too forward in waiting on his guefts at their de¬
parture, fiufhed as he was, he tumbled down flairs and
broke his neck, and fo fell a martyr to mirth and jol-T
lity.
As to Sir George’s literary charafler, he certainly
was born a poet, and feems to have been poflefied of a
genius whofe vivacity needed no cultivation ; for we
have no proofs of his having been a fdholar. His
works, however, have not efcaped^cenfure on account
of that licentioufnefs which in general runs through
them, which renders them dangerous to young un¬
guarded minds; and the more fo, for the lively and ge¬
nuine wit with which it is gilded over, and which has
therefore juftly baniftied them from the purity of the
prefent ftage.
ETHICS, the do&rine of manners, or the fcience
of moral philofophy. The word is formed from iS-®',
mores, “ manners;” by reafon the fcope or ob-
jeCl thereof is to form the manners. See Moral Phi¬
lofophy.
ETHIOPIA, a large empire in Africa, formerly
bounded on the north, by Egypt; on the weft, by Li¬
bya Interior; on the eaft, by the Red Sea; and on
the fouth, by a part of Africa unknown to the an¬
cients ; as indeed its boundaries, and the kingdom it¬
felf, are to this day very much unknown to our modern
geographers. This country had various names given
it by the ancients. Sometimes they called it India,
and the inhabitants Indians; which name they applied
to many other remote nations. It was likewife deno¬
minated Atlantia and Etheria, and in very early ages
Cephenia. The moft ufual name, however, was Aba-
fene; a word fomewhat reiembling Abafia, one of the
modern names of Ethiopia. On the other hand, we
find Chaldea, Affyvia, Perfia, &c. ftyled Ethiopia by
fome authors; and it is certain that the ancients called
all thofe countries extending along the Red Sea, indif¬
ferently by the names of India and Ethiopia. By. the
Jews it was called Cujh and Ludim.
The hiftory of this country is almoffi totally un¬
known, except where its kings had wars with fome
other nations, as the Egyptians, Jews, or Romans
for an account of which, fee the articles Egypt, Ju-
daja, Rome, &c. Concerning the manners and cu-
ftoms of its inhabitants, ancient authors give us the’
following information.
They had many laws which were very different from Sic
tbofe of other nations 5 efpecially their laws relating p. I0I) ,03;
to the ele&ion of kings. The priefts chofe the moft
reputable men of their body, and drew a large circle
around them, which they were not to pafs. A prieft
entered the circle, running and jumping like an JE-
gipan or a fatyr. He of thofe that were inclofed in
the circle who firft catched hold of the pried, was im¬
mediately declared king; and all the people paid him
homage, as a perfon entrufted with the government of
the nation by Divine Providence. The new-ele6led
king immediately began to live in the manner which
was preferibed to him by the laws. In all things he
exa&ly followed the cuftoms of. the country ;. he paid
E T H [ 2842 ] E T H
Ethiopia, a mod rigid attention to the rules eftablilhed from the
■ origin of the nation, in difpenfing rewards and punifh-
ments. The king could not order a fubjed to be put
to death, though he had been capitally convi&ed in a
court of juftice. But he fent an officer to him, who
fhowed him the fignal of death. The criminal then
(hut himfelf up in his houfe, and was his own execu¬
tioner. It was not permitted him to fly to a neigh¬
bouring country, and fubftitute banifhment for death;
a relaxation of the rigour of the law, with which cri¬
minals were indulged in Greece.
We have the following extraordinary information
with regard to the death of many of their kings.—The
prietts of Meroe, who had acquired great power there,
when they thought proper, difpatched a courier to the
king to order him to die. The courier was commif-
fioned to tell him, that it was the will of the gods, and
that it would be the moft heinous of crimes to oppofe
an order which came from them. Their firft kings
obeyed thefe groundlefs defpotical fentences, though
they were only conttrained to fuch obedience by their
own fuperftition. Ergamenes, who reigned in the
time of Ptolemy the fecond, and who was inftru&ed in
the philofophy of the Greeks, was the firft who had
the courage to fhake off this iniquitous and facerdotal
yoke. Having formed a refolution which was truly
worthy of a king, he led an army againft Meroe,
where, in more ancient times, was the Ethiopian tem¬
ple of gold. He put all the priefts to the fword, and
inftituted a new worfhip.
The friends of the king had impofed on themfelves
a very Angular law, which was in force in the time of
Diodorus Siculus. When their fovereign had loft the
ufe of any part of his body, by malady, or by any other
accident, they inflifted the fame infirmity on thtm-
felves; deeming it, for inftance, fhameful to walk
ftraight after a lame king. They thought it abfurd
not to fhare with him corporal inconveniencies; fince
we are bound by the ties of mere friendfhip to parti¬
cipate the misfortunes and profperity of our friends.
It was even cuftomary among them to die with their
kings, which they thought a glorious teftimony of their
conftant loyalty. Hence the fubjecls of an Ethiopian
king were very attentive to kis and their common pre-
fervation ; and therefore, it was extremely difficult and
dangerous to form a confpiracy againft him.
The Ethiopians had very particular ceremonies in
their funerals. According to Ctefias, after having
falted the bodies, they put them into a hollow ftatute
of gold which refembled the deceafed; and that fta-
tue was placed in a niche on a pillar which they fet up
for that purpofe. But it was only the remains of the
richeft Ethiopians that were thus honoured. The
bodies of the next clafs were contained in filver fta-
tues; the poor were enflirined in ftatues of earthen
ware.
* Lib. iii. Herodotus * informs us, that the neareft relations of
c-14- the dead kept the body a year in their houfes, and of¬
fered faerifices and firft-fruits during that time to their
deceafed friend? and at the end of the year, they
fixed the niche in a place fet apart for the purpofe,
near their town.
The Ethiopians made ufe of bows and arrows, darts,
lances, and feveral other weapons, in their wars, which
they managed with great ftrength and dexterity. Cir-
cumcifion was a rite obferved amongft them, as well as Ethiopia,
among the Egyptians, from very early antiquity; tno’ —
which of theie nations firft received it, cannot certainly ”
be known. The Ethiopian foldiers tied their arrows c'
round their heads, the feathered part of which touched
their foreheads, temples, &c. and the other projected
out likp fo many rays, which formed a kind of crown.
Thefe arrows were extremely fhort, pointed with (harp
ftones inftead of iron, and dipped in the virus of fer-
pents, or fome other lethiferous poiton, infomuch that
all the wounds given by them were attended with im¬
mediate death. The bows from which they ffiot thefe
arrows were four cubits long; and required fo much
ftrength to manage them, that no other nation could
make ufe of them. The Ethiopians retreated fight¬
ing, in the fame manner as the Parthians; dite bar¬
ging vollies of arrows with fuch dexterity and addrefs
whiltl they were retiring full-fpeed, that they terribly-
galled the enemy. Their lances or darts were of an
immenfe fize, which may be deemed a farther proof of
their vaft bodily ftrength.
Thus far chiefly with regard to the Ethiopians who
lived in the capital, and who inhabited the ifland of
Meroe and that part of Ethiopia which was adjacent
to Egypt.
There were many other Ethiopian nations, fome of
which cultivated the tra&s on each fide of the Nile,
and the iflands in the middle of it ; others inhabited
the provinces bordering on Arabia; and others lived
more towards the centre of Africa. All thefe people,
and among the reft thofe who were born on the banks
of the river, had flat nofes, black ikins, and woolen
hair. They had a very favage and ferocious appear¬
ance ; they were more brutal in their cuftoms than in ^
their nature. They were of a dry aduft temperament; pi 1q1%
their nails in length refembled claws: they were igno¬
rant of the arts which poliffi the mind: their language
was hardly articulate; their voices were thrill and pier¬
cing. As they did not endeavour to render life more
commodious and agreeable, their manners and cuftoms
were very different from thofe of other nations. When
they went to battle, fome were armed with bucklers of
ox’s hide, with little javelins in their hands ; others
carried crooked darts; others ufed the bow, and o-
thers fought with clubs. They took their wives with
them to war, whom they obliged to enter upon mili¬
tary fervice at a certain age. The women wore rings
of copper at their lips.
Some of thefe people went without cloathing.
Sometimes they threw about them what they happen¬
ed to find, to flicker themfelves from the burning rays
of the fun. With regard to their food, fome lived up¬
on a certain fruit, which grew fpontaneoufly in mar-
ffiy places: fome ate the tendereft (hoots of trees, which
were defended by the large branches from the heat
of the fun ; and others fowed Indian corn and lotos.
Some of them lived only on the roots of reeds. Many
fpent a great part of their time in (hooting birds ; and
as they were excellent archers, their bow fupplied them
with plenty. But the greater part of this people were
fuftained by the flefli of their flocks.
The people who inhabited the country above Me¬
roe, made remarkable diftimSlions among their gods.
Some, they faid, were of an eternal and incorruptible
nature, as the fun, the moon, and the univerfe; others,
having
E T M [ 2843 ] E T O
• Ethiopia having been born among men, had acquired divine ho-
il nours by their virtue, and by the good which they had
tan> er' done to mankind. They worfliipped Ifis, Pan, and par-
Diod. Sic. ticulavly Jupiter and Hercules, from whom they fuppo-
j>. 102. fed they had received moil benefits. But fome Ethio¬
pians believed that there were no gods ; and when the
fun rofe, they fled into their marlhes, execrating him
as their cruelleft enemy.
Thefe Ethiopians differed likewife from other na¬
tions in the honours which they paid to their dead.
Some threw their bodies into the river, thinking that
the moft honourable fepulture. Others kept them in
their houfes in niches: thinking that their children
would be ftimulated to virtuous deeds by the fight of
their anceftors; and that grown people, by the fame
obje&s, would retain their parents in their memory.
Others put their dead bodies into coffins of earthen
ware, and buried them near their temples. To fwear
with the hand laid upon a corpfe, was their moft facred
and inviolable oath.
The favage Ethiopians of fome diftri&s gave their
crown to him who of all their nation was beft made.
Their reafon for that preference was, that the twofirft
gifts of heaven were monarchy and a fine perfon. In
other territories, they conferred the fovereignty on the
moft vigilant ftiepherd ; for he, they alleged, would be
the moft careful guardian of his fubje&s. Others chofe
the richeft man for their king; for he, they thought,
would have it moft in his power to do good to his fub-
jefts. Others, again, chofe the ftrongeft ; efteeming
thofe moft worthy of the firft dignity, who were ableft
to defend them in battle.
Some of the moft remarkable of thefe favage na¬
tions the reader may fee more particularly defcribed
(from the above quoted authors), at the words Acri-
dophagi, Hylogones, Hylophagi, Ichthyopha-
gi, Rhizophagi, Struthophagi, and Troglody¬
tes.
The empire of Ethiopia is now called Abyfmia; but
very little either is or can be known concerning it,
becaufe the emperors will not allow any European to
enter their dominions. This is entirely owing to the je-
fuit miffionaries, who for fome time refided in that coun¬
try. They were totally expelled about the middle of
the laft century; no doubt for very good reafons, tho’
they themfelves did not think proper to relate them.
The moft probable accounts of the prefent ftate of E-
thiopia may be feen under the article Abyssinia and
Africa.
ETHIOPS ANT1M0NIAL, MARTIAL, and MINERAL.
See Pharmacy, n° 736, b. 752, 804.
ETHMOIDES os. See Anatomy, n° 16.
ETNA, or Mount jGibella, in Sicily. See
./Etna.
ETMULLER (Michael), a moft eminent phyfi-
cian, born at Leiplic in 1646. After having travelled
through the greateft jSart of Europe, he became pro-
' feffor of botany, chemittry, and anatomy; at Leipfic.
where he died in 1683. He was a very volumnious
writer ; his works making no lefs than 5 vols folio, as
printed at Naples in 1728. His fon Michael Erneft
Etmuller was alfo an ingenious phyfician, who publifti-
ed feveral pieces, and died in 1732.
EPOLIA, a country of ancient Greece, compre¬
hending all that trad now called the Defpotat, ox Little
Greece. It was parted on the eaft by the river Evenus, Etolia.
now the Fidari, from the Locrenfes Ozolae; on the
weft, from Acarnania by the Achelous ; on the north,
it bordered on the country of the Dorians and part
of Epirus; and, on the fouth, extended to the bay of
Corinth.
The Etolians were a reftlefs and turbulent people ;
feldom at peace among themfelves, and ever at war
with their neighbours ; utter ftrangers to all fenfe of
friendfhip, or principles of honour ; ready to betray
their friends upon the leaft profped of reaping any ad¬
vantage from their treachery: in ffiort, they were look¬
ed upon by the other ftates of Greece no otherwife than
as outlaws and public robbers. On the other hand,
they were bold and enterprifing in war; inured to la¬
bour and hardlhips ; undaunted in the greateft dan¬
gers ; jealous defenders of their liberties, for which
they were, on all occafions, willing to venture their
lives, and facrifice all that was moft dear to them.
They diftinguiffied themfelves above all the other na¬
tions of Greece, in oppofing the ambitious defigns of
the Macedonian princes; who, after having reduced
moft of the other ftates, were forced to grant them a
peace upon very honourable terms. The conftitution
of the Etolian republic was copied from that of the
Achaeans, and with a view to form, as it were, a coun¬
ter alliance ; for the Etolians bore an irreconcileable
hatred to the Achasans, and had conceived no fmall
jealoufy at the growing power of that ftate. The Cleo-
menic war, and that of the allies, called the facial war,
were kindled by the Etolians in the heart of Pelopon-
nefus, with no other view but to humble their antago-
nifts the Achasans. In the latter, they held out, with
the affiftance only of the Eleans and Lacedemonians,
for the fpace of three years, againft the united forces
of Achaia and Macedon ; but were obliged at laft to
purchafe a peace, by yielding up to Philip all Acar¬
nania. As they parted with this province much againft
theirwill, they watched all opportunities of wrefting it
again out of the Macedonian’s hands; for which reafon
they entered into an alliance with Rome againft him,
and proved of great fervice to the Romans in their war
with him: but growing infolent upon account of their
fefvices, they made war upon the Romans themfelves.
By that warlike nation they were overcome, and grant¬
ed a peace on the following fevere terms: 1. The ma-
jefty of the Roman people (hall be revered in all E-
tolia. 2. Etolia fliall not fuff'er the armies of fuch as
are at war with Rome to pafs through her territories,
and the enemies of Rome ftiall be likewife the enemies
of Etolia. 3. She lhall, in the fpace of 100 days, put
into the hands of the magiftrates of Corcyra all the
prifoners and deferters (he has, whether of the Romans
or their allies, except fuch as have been taken twice,
or during her alliance wffth Rome. 4. The Etolians
ffiall pay down in ready money, to the Roman general
in Etolia, 200 Euboic talen.s, of the fame value as the
Athenian talents, and engage to pay 50 talents more
within the fix years following. 5. They ftiall put in¬
to the hands of the conful 40 fuch hoftages as he fliall
choofe ; none of whom ffiall be under 12, or above 40,
years of age: the pretor, the general of the horfe, and
fuch as have been already hoftages at Rome, are ex¬
cepted out of this number. 6. Etolia ffiall renounce
all pretenfions to the cities and territories which the
Ro-
E T O [ 2844 ] E T O
Srolia. Romans have conquered, though thofe cities and ter-
ritories had formerly belonged to the Etolians. 7. The
-city of Oenis, and its diftriA, (hall be fubjedt to the
Acarnanians.
After the conqueft of Macedoh by Paulus iEmilius,
they were reduced to a much worfe condition; for not
-only thofe among them, who had openly declared for
Perfeus, but fuch as were only fufpe&ed to have fa¬
voured him in their hearts, were fent to Rome, in or¬
der to clear themfelves before the fenate. There they
were detained^ and never afterwards fuffered to return
into their pativecountry. Five hundred and fifty of the
chief men of the nation were barbaroufly aflaffinated
by the partifans of Rome, for no other crime but that
of being fufpefted to wi(h well to Perfeus. The Eto¬
lians appeared before Paulus ^Emilias in mourning ha¬
bits, and made loud complaints of fuch inhuman treat¬
ment; but could obtain no redrefs: nay, ten commif-
fioners, who had been fent by the fenate to fettle the
affairs of Greece, enadted a decree, declaring, that
thofe who were killed had fuffered juftly, fince it ap¬
peared to them that they had favoured the Macedo¬
nian party. From this time thofe only were raifed to
the chief honours and employments in the Etolian re¬
public, who were known to prefer the interert of Rome
to that of their country; and as thefe alone were
countenanced at Rome, all the magifttates of Etolia
were the creatures and mere tools of the Roman fe¬
nate. In this ftate of fervile fubjedtion they continued
till the deltrudtion of Gorinth, and the diffolution of
the Achaean league ; when Etolia, with the other free
ftates of Greece, was reduced to a Roman province,
commonly called the province of Achaia. Neverthelefs,
each ftate and city was governed by its own laws, un¬
der the fuperintendency of the pretor whom Rome
fent annually into Achaia. The whole nation paid a
certain tribute, and the rich were forbidden to poflefs
lands any-where but in their own country.
In this ftate, with little alteration, Etolia continued
under the emperors, till the reign of Conftantine the
Great, who, in his new partition of the provinces
of the empire, divided the weftern parts of Greece
from the reft, calling them Ne<w Epirus, and fub-
jedling the whole country to the prxfettus prxtorii
for Illyricum. Under the fucceflbrs of Conftantine,
Greece was parcelled out into feveral principalities,
efpecially after the taking of Conftantinople by the
Weftern princes. At that time, Theodoras Ange-
lus, a noble Grecian, of the imperial family, feized
on Etolia and Epirus. The former he left to Michael
his fon; who maintained it againft Michael Palasologus,
the firft emperor of the Greeks, after the expulfion of
the Latins. Charles, the iaft prince of this family,
dying in 1430, without lawful iffue, bequeathed Eto¬
lia to his brother’s fon, named alfo Charles; and Acar-
nania to his natural fons, Memnon, Turnus, and Her¬
cules. But, great difputes arifing about this divifion,
Amurath II. after the redu&ion of Theffalonica, laid
hold of fo favourable an opportunity, and drove them
all out in 1432. The Mahometans were afterwards
difpofiefied of this country by the famous prince of
Epirus, George Caftriot, commonly called Scanderbeg;
who, with a fmall army, oppofed the whole power of
the Ottoman empire, and defeated thofe barbarians
in 22 pitched battles. This hero, at his death, left
great part of Etolia to the Venetians; but, they not Etymology
being able to make head againft fuch a mighty power, ll
the whole country was foon reduced by Mohammed II. Eva£nu^•
whofe fucceflbrs hold it to this day.
ETYMOLOGY, that part of grammar which con-
fiders and explains the origin and derivation of words,
in order to arrive at their firft: and primary fignifica-
tion, whence Quintilian calls it originatio.—The word
is formed of the Greek verus, “ true,” and
Myu, dico, “ I fpeak;” whence *■«>;“*, difcourfe, &c.;
and thence Cicero calls the etymology, notatio, and
veriloquium: though Quintilian choofes rather to call
it originatio.
A judicious inquiry into etymologies, is thought
by feme of confiderable ufe ; becaufe nations, who va¬
lue themfelves upon their antiquity, have always look¬
ed on the antiquity of their language as one of the
beft titles they could plead ; and the etymologift, by
feeking the true and original reafon of the notions and
ideas fixed to each word and expreflion, may often fur-
nifh an argument of antiquity, from the traces remain¬
ing thereof, compared with the ancient ufes. Add,
that etymologies are neceflary for the thorough under-
ftanding of a language. For, Jo explain a term pre-
cifely, there feems a neceflity of recurring to its firft
impofition, in order to fpeak juftly and fatisfa&orily
thereof. The force and extent of a word is generally
batter conceived when a perfon knows its origin and
etymology.
It is objefted, however, that the art is arbitrary,
and built altogether on conje&ures and appearances ;
and the etymologitts are charged with deriving their
words from where they pleafe. And indeed it is no eafy
matter to go back into the ancient Britilh and Gaulilh
ages, and to follow, as it were, by the track, the va¬
rious imperceptible alterations a language has under¬
gone from age to age ; and as thofe alterations have
fometimes been merely owing to caprice, it is eafy to
take a mere imagination or conjecture for a regular a-
nalogy: fo that it is no wonder the public Ihould be
prejudifed againft a fcience which feems to ftand on
fo precarious a footing. It muft certainly be owned,
that etymologies are frequently fo far fetched, that one
can fcarce fee any refemblance or correfpondence there¬
in. Quintilian has fhewn, that the ancient etymolo-
gifts, notwithftanding all their learning, fell into very
ridiculous derivations.
The etymologies of our Englilh words have been de¬
rived from the Saxon, Welch, Walloon, Danilh, La¬
tin, Greek, &c.
In this work the etymologies of terms are generally
noted, where their obvioufnefs does not render it unnef-
fary, or their dubiety or unimportance ufelefs.
EVACUANTS, in pharmacy, are properly fuch
medicines as; diminifti the animal fluids, by throwing
out fome morbid or redundant humour; or fuch as thin,
attenuate, and promote the motion and circulation
thereof.
EVACUATION, in medicine, the art of dimi-
niftiing, emptying, or attenuating, the humours of the
body.
EVAGRIUS scholasticus, a famous hiftorian,
born at Epiphania, about the year 536. He pra&i*
fed the profeflxon of an advocate, from which he was
called Scholiaflicus, which name was then given to the
pleaders
EVA [ 2845 ] EVA
Evarigelift pleaders at the bar. He was alfo tribune and keeper
!!! of the prefeft’s difpatches. He wrote an ecclefiaftical
which begins where Socrates and Theodoret
  1—ended theirs 5 and other works, for which he was re¬
warded by the emperors Tiberius and Mauricius. M.
de Valois publifhed at Paris a good edition of Eva-
grius’s ecclefiaftical hiftory, in folio ; and it was re-
publifhed at Cambridge in 1620, in folio, by Wil¬
liam Reading, with additional notes of various au¬
thors.
EVANGELIST, a general name given to thofe
who write or preach the gofpel of Jefus Chrift.
The word is of Greek origin, fignifying one who
publifhes glad tidings, or is the meflenger of good
news.
According to Hooker, evangelifts were prefbyters
of principal fufficiency, whom the apoftles fent abroad,
and ufed as agents in ecclefiaftical affairs, wherefoever
they faw need.
The term evangelifl, however, is at prefent confined
to the writers of the four gofpels.
EVANID, a name given by fome authors to fuch
colours as are of no long duration, as thofe in the rain¬
bow, in clouds before and after fun-fet, &c.
Evanid colours are alfo calledfantajiical and empha¬
tic ai colours.
EVANDER, a famous Arcadian chief, called the
fon of Mercury, on account of his eloquence, bought
a colony of his people into Italy, about fixty years
before the taking of Troy; when Faunus, who then
reigned over the Aborigines, gave him a large extent
of country, injwhich he fettled with his friends. He
is faid to have taught the Latins the ufie of letters,
and the art of hufbandry.
EVANTES, in antiquity, the priefteffes of Bac¬
chus, thus called, by reafon, that in celebrating the
orgia, they ran about as if diftra&ed, crying, Evan,
evan, ohe evan. See Bacchanalia.
EVAPORATION, in natural philofophy, is the
diffipation of the parts of any fubftance either folid or
fluid into the air, in the form of fmoke, or otherwife,
in an invifible manner, fo that the fubftance evaporated
then forms a fluid of equal fubtilty and tranfparency
with air itfelf.
When any fubftance is diffipated flowly and infen-
fibly by Ample expofure to the atmofphere, as water,
camphor, &c. the evaporation is faid to be fponta-
neous.
Evaporation, in all cafes, is greatly promoted by
heat. Many fubftar.ces may be made to evaporate by
means of a ftrong fire, which otherwife appear abfo-
lutely fixed ; and tfiere are but few which can refift the
violent action of the focus of a large burning mirror,
, without being in great part diffipated.
Degrees of The degree of heat in which different bodies begin
fke'to'make to evaporate is very different. When fluids of
differei t* kinds have been heated to a certain degree, their
fluids boil, evaporation is attended with great inteftine motion call¬
ed boiling: and as then the diffipation becomes much
more fenfible than before, this degree of heat is called
their evaporijic point; but improperly, for they begin
fenfibly to evaporate long before.
The boiling point of all fluids is by no means the
fame; and the degree of heat which would caufe the
moft fufible metal to boil, is prodigioufly greater than
Vol. IV.
what would diffipate the moft fixed and ponderous fluid Evapou-
with the utmoft rapidity. Vitriolic, and efpecially ni- tlon
trous ether, boil with a heat very little greater than
that of our atmofphere in fummer. Spirit of wine re¬
quires Fahrenheit’s thermometer to be raifed 175 de¬
grees above o, before it boils ; water requires 212 of
the fame degrees; oil of vitriol 550, oil of turpen¬
tine 560, quickfilver and linfeed oil 600, before they
boil.
The quantity of any fubftance evaporated is found
to depend fo much on the degree of heat applied to it,
that heat alone is generally reckoned to be the foie caufe
of evaporation. Many perplexing circumftances, how¬
ever, occur, when we attempt to explain the manner
in which a body, water for inftance, naturally 800 times
heavier than air, ftiould become fo much fpecifically
lighter, as to be carried up by it to a very confiderable
height. One of the moft generally received opinions *,
concerning the formation of vapour is that adopted by Dr Halley’s
Dr Halley. He fuppofes that a bubble, compofed of theory <?f «*
a particle of air inclofed by a thin film of water is rare- YaPoratlon*
fied by heat to fuch a degree, that it becomes fpecifi¬
cally lighter than common air; in confequence of
which, fuch particles, whatever be their number, muft
afcend, and be fufpended in the air when they arrive
at fuch an height as to find the atmofphere precifely of
the fame fpecific gravity with themfelves. But many
objections may be made to fuch a theory. For though
a great quantity of air is difperfed in water, it is not
ealy to account for the formation of a bubble diftinft
from the mafs of water; nor, though we could ac¬
count for this, ought it to be taken for granted with¬
out fufficient proof; and it remains to be explained by
what means thefe bubbles would afcend into the air ;
becaufe, by reafon of their extreme fmall fize, the
cold of the external air would almoft inftantly reduce
the rarefied air-bubble to the fame fpecific gravity with
itfelf. The bubble would then become fpecifically
heavier than the atmofphere, and immediatelly fall
down ; fo that vapour, inftead of rifing to the height
of two or three miles, could fcarce rife to the height of
as many feet- 3
Another theory, from the expanfion of water, is Another by
adopted by Dr Defaguliers, who reafons as follows: j^sDe**“u*
“ Water is expanded by heat; and fuppofing it to be liers*
expanded to a bulk more than 800 times greater than
in its ufual ftate, it becomes fpecifically lighter than
common air, and muft confequently rife in it till it meet
with air above its owrt degree of rarefa&ion.” To il-
luftrate this, he obferves, that boiling water, when it
becomes vapour, is expanded to a bulk 14,000 times
greater than when cold ; and to account for evapora¬
tion in the ordinary heat of our atmofphere, he takes it
for granted, that thedegree of expanfion is ftri&ly pro¬
portioned to the degree of heat; from which he cal¬
culates thus. “ In Sir Ifaac Newton’s fcale, the heat of
boiling water is 34; the mean heat of fummer, 5; the
mean heat of fpring and autumn, 3 ; and the mean heat
of winter, 2. Therefore, if the expanfion of water by
34 degrees of heat be 14,000, the expanfion by 5 de¬
grees will be 2,058 ;. by 3 degrees 1,235 » and by 2,
the mean heat of winter, it will be 823 ; which is fuf¬
ficient to raife vapour, the ufual denfity of which is to
that of air as 800 to r.
This theory is liable to the fame objections with the
26 M fo£-
EVA [ 2846
Evapora- former, and indeed to much greater : For if, even by
tlon' the heat of winter, water is expanded fo much that it
becomes fpecifically lighter than air, by what force is it
kept below, contrary to the laws of gravity ? Or, fup-
pofing it once lodged in the air ; how is it to be kept
there ; feeing the fuperior air muft very foon reftore it
to the fame degree of heat with itfeif; upon which it
4, muft immediately defcend ?
Lord To avoid the difficulties to which the abovemention-
Kaimslsand €(j theories are liable, another hath been publiftied by
Hamilton’s ^or(^ bairns and profeffor Hamilton. They account
theory. for evaporation on the principle of eleftive attraction,
and then folve the natural phenomena in the following
manner. 1. “ By an ele&ive attraftion between air
and water, there is always a quantity of air in water
and of water in air. 2. When water is faturated with
air, it will take up no more ; and, in like manner, air
faturated with water attraCls no more. 3. This power
of eleCtive attraftion is augmented by heat ; for alter
air is faturated with water, or water with air, they
will attraCt more by increafiug their heat. 4. The air
with its moifture being rarefied by heat, afeends to a
higher region, giving place to purer air not yet fatu¬
rated, which accordingly attraCts more moifture, and
water by that means is diffufed thro’ the air. 5. The
groffer particles of water, fwimming in the air, being
accumulated by wind, efpecially contrary winds, be¬
come vifible clouds, and fall down in rain by thvforce
of gravity overcoming the eleCtive attraction. 6. Cold
alfo contributes its part, by condenfing the watery par¬
ticles, which fall down in fnow when the cold is vio¬
lent ; and by thefe means a conftant circulation of moi¬
fture is carried on.”
This hypothefis is alfo liable to be overthrown : for,
according to it, evaporation ought not to take place
in vacuo; which is contrary to experience.—The an-
fwer given by lord Kaims to this objection is a de¬
nial of the faCt. Profeffor Hamilton owns the diffipa-
tion of water by heat in vacuo ; but denies that this is
really evaporation, which he maintains to be a true fo-
lution of water in air; and as a proof of this, he put
fome water well purged of air under the exhaufted re¬
ceiver of an air-pump,, and found that it loft only 24
grains in the fame time that an equal quantity expofed
S to the air loft 35 grains.
Mr Watt s That water can be converted into fteatn in vacuo,
concerning cannot denied without the greateft fcepticifm. It
the evapo- is even found much more eafily diffipated in vacuo than
ration of when expofed to the open air, and boils with much lefs
]
EVA
whole was foon filled with fteam, which expelled the Evapora-
air; and upon Hopping the little hole, a pretty perfeCi hon.
vacuum was formed in the retort and condenfing vef- '
fel. The diftiliing veffel being then fet upon the fire,
and the eondenfing veffel plunged in cold water, the
water in the ftiil began to boil, as might be known by
the noife, with a degree of heat very little greater
than that of the human body, and the fleam came
over, and was condenfed in the refrigeratory; but'
Mr Watt obferved that the evaporation was not quicker
in vacuo, than when air was admitted. 6
Thus we fee that water may be converted into Profefibr
fteam by the effeCt of heat alone, without the affiftance Hamilton’s
of air ; and thus the hypothefis of lord Kaims falls to cxPeri‘.
the ground. Profeffor Hamilton's experiment is evi- conciu6v^
dently inconclufive, becaufe it does not appear to have
been fairly made. He put a certain quantity of wa¬
ter under an exhaufted receiver for 24 hours, and expo-
fed an equal quantity to the air in the fame room ; the
firft loft z\ grains, the latter 3^. prom this we can
conclude nothing but that the quantity of fluid, what¬
ever it is, which remains after the receiver of an air-
pump is exhaufted, is capable of taking up 24- grains
of water. As no more of this fluid could be admitted
to the water, than the precife quantity contained in
the receiver, it is plain, that the other quantity of wa¬
ter which was expofed to the open air of a room, ought
to have been included within a receiver of the fame fize
with the firft, from which the air was not exhaufted :
for in the manner wherein this experiment was con-
dnfled, an immenfe quantity of air had accefs to one
veffel, and only as much as could be contained in the re¬
ceiver of an air-pump, of the medium remaining after the
air is exhaufted, had accefs tothe other; fo that it would
have been very abfurd to expeft the fame refult in both
cafes. Even circumftaneed as the experiment is, it
makes direftly againft that hypothefis which the pro¬
feffor is defirous of fupporting ; for, as the air-pump
he made ufe of \yas capable of rarefying the air two
and forty times, had the evaporation depended on the
fmall quantity of air which was left in the receiver,
only the two and fortieth part ought to have been diffi¬
pated of what would have been loft had the water
been placed under a receiver full of air. In Head of
this, a like quantity of water expofed to the air con¬
tained in a large room, loft only 14 times as much.
Had the vacuum of the receiver been as large as the
room, it is impoffible to fay how much would have
been loft 5 and the only conclulion we can draw is,
heat; 92 or 95 degrees being fufficient to make water that the air, however neceffary to the afcent of va-
boil in vacuo, whereas it requires 2120 to make it boil pour, is in reality prejudicial to its firft formation. y
when expofed to the air. Concerning this. Dr Black A very remarkable circumftance concerning the eva- Cold pro-
relates the following experiment. poration of fluids is, that fome degree of cold is al-dnced by e-
Mr Watt of Glafgow, having formed a projeft of ways produced in confequence of it; and by means of vaPol'»tIcm*
performing the evaporation of water in vacuo, with a fome of the more volatile ones, a great degree of cold
view to convert it into fteam with lefs expence of fuel, is produced. If fome vitriolic ether is put into a vial,
communicated his fcheme to the do&or. The expe- fet in a fmall veffel of water, and the whole placed un-
rirr.ent was made with a fmall (till refembling the body der an air-pump, the ether boils violently as foon as
of a retort, with a veffel ferving as a condenfer. The the air is exhaufted, while the water is frozen by the
cold produced in confequence of its evaporation. This
circumftance hath been made ufe of as a proof that
evaporation is not occafioned by heat; and the fenfible
coldnefs of vapour has been thought a demonftration
whole apparatus was clofe, except a little hole at the
extremity of the condenfing veffel. Into this diftil-
ling veffel a quantity of water was put t it was then
exhaufted of air, by taking the condenfing veffel, ^
and holding it up, that the retort might be under- that heat could by no means be concerned in its for-
sapft. Being held over the fire in this pofition, the
mation. Dr Black> however, who treats particular-
ly
EVA [ 2847 ] EVA
E vapor a- ]y 0f the formation of vapour, hath accounted for this
tlon‘ in a very fatisfaftory manner 5 and gives heat, in a
certain degree, as the caufe of evaporation in all cafes
whatever.
8 This gentleman is of opinion, that all fluid fubftan-
Dr Black’s ces, befides the heat contained in them capable of
account of affefting our fenfes or a thermometer, contain a cer-
lenfible and ta;n quantity united to them in fuch a manner as not
atent eat. tQ difcoverable by either of thefe methods ; which,
however, on certain occaflons, is apt to break forth,
and (hew its proper qualities as heat or fire. Thefe
two different ftates of this fluid, he diftinguifhes by
the names of fenfrble and latent heat.—A proof that
heat exifts in this latent flate, he gives from a
mixture of ice with hot water. He obferves, that,
when two equal mafles of the fame matter heated to
different degrees, are mixed together, the heat of the
mixture ought to be an arithmetical mean betwixt the
two extremes. But, on pouring hot water upon ice,
he found the cafe to be confiderably different, and that
a quantity of heat was entirely loft; which he could ac¬
count for in no other manner than by fuppofing, that
it entered into the compofition of the water, in fuch a
manner as to be in a latent ftate, and the invifible caufe
9. of the fluidity of that element. (See Fluid.ty).
Of the for- What happened in this cafe, to a mixture of ice and
mation of waterj the doftor thinks, always happens on the con-
vapour. verf10I1 Gf water into fleam or vapour by means of
heat: a great quantity of the heat thrown into the fluid
enters into it when in the ftate of vapour, and forms
a part of the fluid itfelf; in which ftate it is not difco-
verable either by the thermometer or by the touch,
but yet is ready to appear again in its proper form
when the vapour is condenfed.
The moft conclufive experiments, mentioned by Dr
Black, as a proof of this theory, are, that hot water
put under the exhaufted receiver of an air-pump boils
with great violence, and a part of it is fuddenly dif-
perfed in vapour. During this time the water itfelf
cools remarkably faft, a part of the heat difappears,
and is neither to be found in the fleam nor in the wa¬
ter. What then has become of it ? The dodlor con¬
cludes it flill exifts in the fleam, though in a latent
ftate, and not to be difcovered by the common me¬
thods.
In this manner, likewife, he accounts for the above-
mentioned experiment of the water freezing under an
exhaufted receiver, iu confequence of the evaporation
of the ether.—This fluid being fo extremely volatile
that it went off in vapour when the temperature of
the air was only 50°, abforbed the fenfible heat of the
furronnding water, which entered into the compofition
of the etherial vapour, and there remained in a latent
flate. Certain it is, that, in this experiment, there
was no perceptible increafe of heat either in the ether
or its vapour ; the water indeed loft heat confiderably,
but neither of thefe gained it.
The element of fire, however, is fo exceedingly fub-
tile, and fo much eludes our moft diligent fearch, that
we cannot conclude from its difappearance in one place,,
that it has imperceptibly occupied another; the doftor,
therefore, has yet a llronger argument in favour of his
theory. He maintains, that, in the condenfation of
fleam by the refrigeratory of a common Hill, as much
beat is communicated to the water in the refrigeratory
as would be fufficient to heat the water which comes
over to the heat of red-hot iron, were it all to exift
in it in the form of fenfible heat. Neverthelefs, the
fleam is at no time hotter than the boiling water which
emits it. The excefs of heat, therefore, muft have ex-
ifted in the fleam in a latent ftate, and become fen¬
fible daring the condenfation.
The method of calculating this quantity of heat is
very eafy. For, fuppofing the refrigeratory to contain
100 pounds of water, and that one pound has been
diftilled : If the water in the refrigeratory has received
10 degrees of heat during the diflillation, we know
that the one pound diftilled has parted with 1000. If,
in paffing through the worm of the refrigeratory, it
has been reduced to the temperature of 50° of Fahren¬
heit’s ; having been at 212 when it entered the worm
in form of fleam, it has loft only 162° of fenfible heat j
all the reft of that heat which it communicated to the
refrigeratory, amounting to above 8oo°, was contained
in it while in the form of fleam, in fuch a ftate as not
to be indicated by the thermometer.
By calculating in this manner, the doftor generally
found, that the heat communicated by the fleam was
about 800 degrees ; which would have been fufficient
to render a mafs of iron equal in bulk to the water
which came over, red-hot. In the experiment made by
Mr Watt, no lefs than 1000 degrees were communi¬
cated ; though, all the time, the fleam came over with
a very gentle heat, but little fuperior to what the hand
could bear.
This experiment, no doubt, unanfwerably confirms
the do&or’s theory of heat. It is proper, however, to
take notice, that a deception may very eafily take place
with fuch as repeat the experiment in a carelefs man¬
ner.—The upper part of the water in a refrigeratory
grows very hot, while the under part is quite cold;
and if a thermometer is plunged into it without flirring
the water, a much greater degree of heat will be
thought to be communicated than really there is. To
avoid this miftake, it is neceflary to ftir the water well
about, and then meafure its degree of heat.
This theory, of fenfible and latent heat, fo well efta-
blifhed, cannot but be looked upon as a valuable difco-
very in natural philofophy ; and will enable us to give
a more fatisfa&'ory account of the formation of vapour
when ftrong degrees of heat are applied, as well as in
the common heat of our atmofphere, than any that
hath hitherto been publifhed. We fhall begin with
the converfion of any fluid, water, for inflance, into
vapour, when fuch a degree of heat is applied as to
make it boil.
Here, the water has already received the utmoft de¬
gree of heat which it is capable of containing. When
a larger quantity continues Hill to be thrown in, it
muft either pafs ^through the fubftance of the water
and be diffipated in the air, or combine with the aque¬
ous particles in the form of fleam. That the extreme
agility of heat caufes great part of it to pafs through
the water and be loft, cannot be denied ; but it is alfo
evident, that a very confiderable part combines with the
fubftance of the water, and is converted into vapour.
The a&ion of boiling; confifts in the afcent of a great
number of bubbles from the bottom of the veflel con¬
taining the water. Thefe, growing continually larger
as they afcend, break on the fnrface of the water, and
16 M 2 are
Evapora-
Hovv boil¬
ing water
is converted
into fleam.
EVA [ 2848 ] EVA
Evapora-
* See
Boi/ing.
XI
Spontane¬
ous evapo-
counted for.
* See Con¬
gelation,and
Fluidity.
are found to be compofed of fteam or vapour *. As
they continue till the evaporation'' of the very laft drop
of water, long after it has parted with all its air, this
cannot be fuppofed to have any fhare in their forma¬
tion. Indeed, Dr Boethaave and others have proved,
that there is no air contained in them ; and both Dr
Black and Profeffor Hamilton have ftiewn, that they are
the very fluid which is diffipated in the form of fmoke.
If, therefore, fteam exifts, and appears in its own pro¬
per form, when the air. has no accefs to it, which it
has not till the bubble afcends to the top and breaks
in the air, it is impoffible that air can have a ftiare in
its formation ; though by its fuperior gravity it is the
foie caufe of its afcent.
If we are inclined, then, to call vapour a folution of
water in any thing, it muft be in heat, or lire; feeing,
according to profeffor Hamilton himfelf, it appears in
the proper form of vapour before it has had any con¬
nexion with the air.
Upon the fame principles we may eafily account for
the fpontaneous or infenfible evaporation of water when
a degree of heat much lefs than that requifite to caufe
it boil is applied to it. From Dr Black’s experiments
it appears *, that a certain degree of heat is neceffary
to keep it in a fluid ftate ; and whatfoever degree is
applied to it fuperior to that abfolutely neceffary to
keep it fluid, appears to be but loofely conneXed with
it, fo that the water will very readily part with this
fuperfluous degree of heat to any colder body that
comes in contaX with it. Water in its fluid ftate, then,
we may conftder as a kind of compound, confifting of
the pure element, and a certain quantity of heat fo
loofely combined with it as to affeX the thermometer;
but it is impoffible that two fubftances having a ten¬
dency to mutual union can fail to be united in theclo-
feft manner of which they are capable when brought
very near or in contaX with each other. The water,
therefore, having a conftant tendency to abforb the
fenfible heat, and convert it into latent heat, muft con¬
tinue to do fo more or lefs flowly according to the
quantity contained in it. By this means there is a pro¬
portional quantity of vapour formed; for we muft re¬
member, that when heat and water are combined in
the moft intimate manner, they form a new fubftance
totally different from water in its elementary ftate. The
particles of vapour thus formed, muft neceffarily afcend
to the furface of the water, and thence into the air, for
the reafons already mentioned; and thus there will be
a conftant exhalation from the furface of water, when
the atmofphere is of fuch a temperature as to keep it
gelation.
Why diere I1 now remains to account for the evaporation of wa-
isanevapo-ter from ice; when the atmofphere is of fuch a na-
xation from ture as tD deprive the water of great part of its fen-
*CCSee Con ^eat> anc^ reduce it to a folid form. From a very
curious experiment*, Dr Black hath (hewn, that, in
the aX of freezing, the latent heat of the water is call¬
ed forth, and becomes fenfible. The ice, therefore,
during the procefs of congelation, is always a little
warmer than the external air. In this cafe then, with
regard to the external atmofphere, it may be confider-
ed as fimilar to w’ater having a fmall fire under it, fo
as to make it a degree or two warmer than the fur-
rounding atmofphere. The confequence of this would
be, that the freezing water would communicate part of
its fenfible heat to the air, and another part would in- Evapora*
timately combine with the aqueous particles, and form tlon'
a vapour which would be carried up into the atmo¬
fphere. In like manner, the ; iece of ice, having a de¬
gree of fenfible heat fuperior to that of the air, will
communicate to it part of that heat; while another part,
from its ftrong tendency to unite with the water, wdll
undoubtedly do fo in its paffage from the ice into the
air, and carry off part of the aqueous particles in an im¬
perceptible vapour.
Thus, according to Dr Black’s theory, whether the
degree of heat contained in the atmofphere is greater
or lefs than that of water, there muft be a continual
evaporation of that fluid. There is only one cafe, upon
his principles, where the evaporation muft be little or
nothing; and that is, when a piece of ice is in the aXibn
of melting. Here the water indeed receives heat from
the atmofphere: but as faft as it is received, it paffes
from a fenfible into a latent ftate ; and, till the water is
fatnrated with latent heat, very little fenfible heat can
combine with the aqueous particles, fo as to form them
into fteam. In this inftance likewife, the DoXor’s
theory is verified by experience ; for profeffor Hamil¬
ton having inclofed a piece of ice, while thawing, in
an exhanfted receiver, and likewife in one full of air,
found that it loft nothing by evaporation in 24 hours.
From fome experiments made by the Abbe Nollet, EVapora.
it appears, that evaporation is promoted by eleXri- tion pro¬
city. The confequences of his experiments are as fol- moted by
]ow. eleftricity.
r. EleXricity augments the natural evaporation of
fluids ; all that were tried, except mercury and oil,
were found to fuffer a diminution greater than what
could be afcribed to any other Caufe.
2. EleXricity augments the evaporation of thofe
fluids the moft, which are moft fubjeX to evaporate of
themfelves; the volatile fpirit of fal ammoniac, fuffer-
ing a greater lofs than fpirit of wine or oil of turpentine,
thefe two more than common water, and water more
than vinegar or the folution of nitre.
3. 7'he effeXs feemed always to be greater when
the veffels containing the fluids were non-eleXrics.
4. The increafed evaporation was more confiderable
when the veffel which contained the liquor was more
open; but the effeXs did not increafe in proportion
to the apertures.
5. EleXricity was alfo found to increafe the evapo¬
ration of moifture from folid bodies, and of confequence
to increafe the infenfible perfpiration of animals *. * .s.®e
As the eleXric fluid is generally thought to be the
fame with the element of fire, it cannot be thought that
this difcovery can be any objeXion to Dr Black’s
theory of the formation of vapour, but muft rather
tend to confirm it; as the phenomena of eleXricity pre-
fent us with fire in a ftate wherein it has no fenfible
heat, and which, agreeable to the DqXor’s mode of
expreffion, may very properly be called its latent Jlate.
The very great readinefs which this fluid (hews to be
converted into aXual fire, fo as even to fufe metals,
may alfo be reckoned a kind of demonftration of the
facility wherewith the fenfible heat of any body may
become latent, or the latent heat fenfible.
Evaporation by means of heat, is one of the capital
operations in chemiftry ; and where very great quanti¬
ties of water are to be diffipated, as in the making of
com-
EVA [ 2849 ] EVA
Evapora- common fait and green vitriol, it is a matter of no fmall
tl01i• confequence to contrive the evaporating vefiels in fuch
a manner as to diflipate a large quantity of liquid in a
Ihort time, and with little fuel. In the warmer coun¬
tries, fait is made by the heat of the fun alone ; and
even in the fouthern parts of England, the heat of the
folar rays is advantageoufly ufed to concentrate the
J See Salt, brine This, however, can be but very feldom prac-
tifed, and artificial evaporation is almoft the only kind
Methods ofmade u^e ‘n t^'s country- tw0 great requifites
evaporating f°r promoting this, are, a fufficient degree of heat to
great quan- form a large quantity of fieam, and a current of air to
tities of li- carry it off; for, though the vapour is always formed
fliort time ^7 th6 heat, yet if the air Magnates on the furface of
lor ime. ^ tgat; part next furface ;s heated to fuch a
degree, and fo loaded with fmoke, that the fucceeding
quantities of vapour are very coniiderably retarded in
their afcent. For this reafon, evaporation is greatly
promoted, by having as large a furface of fluid expofed
to the air as poffible, that the afcent may be very
quick; and where it is poflible to procure a conlider-
able blaft of air along the furface of the veffel contain¬
ing the fluid, it will very much accelerate the diflipation
of it. On the fame account, blowing air through the
water while evaporating, increafes the quantity of va¬
pour to a furprifing degree. It is obvious, however,
that, by either of thefe methods, only time can be fa-
ved: for as the blaft of cold air, whether direded along
the furface of the fluid, or into its fnbftance, will di-
minifh the heat confiderably; though the evaporation
goes on very fall, yet a proportionable quantity of
fuel will be required; and it is doubful whether this
method might in the end be attended with all the ad¬
vantages promifed by it at firft view.
Broad ftiallow veffels have likewife been found great¬
ly to contribute to the quicknefs of evaporation, and
thought to leffen the expence of fuel. That they do
accelerate the afcent of the vapour is certain, becaufe
the air has more free accefs to the fluid than in a
deeper veffel; but it is by no means clear that the
quantity of fuel is thusleffened: on the contrary, there
is great reafon to fufped, that a confiderably larger
proportion of fuel mult be employed to evaporate an
equal quantity of fluid in a wide /hallow veffel, than in
a deeper one. They have moreover this great inconve¬
nience, that, if their fize be very large, it is in a man¬
ner impofiible to make the fire ad equally on the bot¬
tom of them ; and the great expence attending the ma¬
king of thefe kind of veffels, together with the danger
of the fluid being mixed with accidental impurities
from their wide-extended furface, forbids their ufe, ex-
*5 cept on particular occafions.
Salts diffi- One great objedion, however, to quick evaporation
pated by jn any k;ncj Qf veffg] js> that this procefs is carried on
evapora-C ^or therefiduum; and if the liquor is made
tion. to boil with great violence, part of this refiduum will be
carried away and diffipated in the air: what remains al-
fo will often be confiderably different from what it would
have been had the procefs been condudedin a flow and
gentle manner. Vitriolated tartar is remarkably affeded
by quick evaporation. Neuman relates, that by ftrong
continued boiling, it may be almoft entirely diffipated
along with the fteam; and yet this fait, the moft pon¬
derous of all others, is compofed of a very fixed acid,
viz. the vitriolic, and a fixed alkali.
To obviate this inconvenience, chemical evaporations Evapors-
are generally ordered to be performed with a very gentle tion*
heat; by which means the diffipation of the faline mat- ’
ter is in a great meafure, though not totally, prevent¬
ed ; for this feems fomehow to depend on the adion
of the air. The great length of time, however, which
this takes up, and the difficulty of preferving the li¬
quid from accidental impurities, render evaporations in
this manner fufficiently difagreeable.
A very ftrange difficulty occurs in attempting eva¬
porations in this manner. If a faline folution is put
into any kind of veffel wider at top than at bottom,
and fet to evaporate with a heat below what is fuffi¬
cient to make it boil, the fait feems to difengage itfelf
from the water, and afcends along the fides of the eva¬
porating veffel in the form of a ring, which grows gra¬
dually higher and higher, till it comes to the top: it
will then defcend on the other fide of the veffel, till it
has got low enough to form a kind of fyphon, from
whence a great part of the folution will be infenfibly
drained off and loft: neither is there a poffibility of pre¬
venting this faline concretion ; for though you put it
down ever fo often, it very foon forms again. To re¬
medy this inconvenience, Dr Black recommends the
ufe of evaporating veffels wider at bottom than at
the top ; where fome quantity of vapour would always
be condenfing and running down their fides, fo as to
diffolve the faline ring as foon as it began to form. It
is evident, however, that by this method the evapora¬
tion would be rendered ftill flower than before. 1(J
On many accounts, diilillation feems to be the moft Diftillation
advantageous method of evaporating fluids, parti-tbebeft me-
cularly as it both prevents any of the falts they may th<,d?feva*
contain from being diffipated, and feems to be the pora<:in£'
method by which the largeft quantities of liquid
can be evaporated in the ftiorteft time, and with leaft
fuel. It is well known, that water in a ftill, or any co¬
vered veffel, can be kept boiling with much lefs heat than
an equal quantity in an uncovered veffel. As the quan¬
tity of fteam is the fame that arifes from an equal fur¬
face of water where the heat is the fame, whether the
the veffel is covered or uncovered; it follows, that if
proper vent is given to the fteam in a covered vef¬
fel, an equal quantity will be raifed in a clofe veffel with
lefs fuel than in an open one; and, with an equal quan¬
tity of fuel, much more might be evaporated, in the
fame time, in a clofe than in an open veffel. This
feems confirmed by what Dr Hales has advanced in his
experiments concerning the fre/hening of fea-water.
He has found, that, by blowing air through the water
contained in a ftill, it is made to yield double the
quantity which it otherwife would do. By this me¬
thod, he obferves, a ftill which holds 20 gallons,
will yield, in 20 hours, 240 gallons of diftilled water;
and one which holds only five gallons, may be made to-
diftil 64, in the fame time. Thefe are prodigious
quantities ; and which, we believe, could not be made
to arife in an equal time from open veflels of the fame
fize,by any manoeuvre whatever. Even dedufting one
half for the adtion of the bellows, the quantity is ex¬
ceedingly great, being upwards of a gallon and an half
per hour from a veffel holding only five gallons; and
how difficult it would be to make this quantity arife
from an open veffel of fuch a fize, thofe who are much
concerned in evaporation will eafily know. See Di-
Jlillation,
E U C [ 2850 ] E U D
TSvates JlHlaiion under Chemistry, n° 75.
Euclid EVATES, a branch or divifion of the druids, or
 Ll_ ancient Celtic philofophers. Strabo divides the Britifh
and Gauliih philofophers into three fe&s; bards, evates,
and druids. He adds, that the bards were the poets
and nmficians ; the evates, the priefts and naturalifts;
and the druids were moralifts as well as naturalifts:
But Marcellos and Hornius reduce them all to two
feds, viz. the Bards and Druids.
EUBAGES, an order of priefts, or philofophers,
among the ancient Cehte or Gauls : fame will have
the eubages to be the fame with the druids and faro-
riidas of Diodorus; and others, that they were the
. fame with what Strabo calls Evates.
EUCHARIST, the facrament of the Lord’s flip¬
per, properly fignifies giving thanks.—The word in
its original Greek, Ev^apiria^ literally imports thankf-
giving;, being formed of tv, bene, “ well,” and
gratia, “ thanks.”'
This facrament was inftituted by Chrift himfelf, and
the participation of it is called communion.
As to the manner of celebrating the eucharift a-
mongthe ancient Chriftians, after the cuftomary obla¬
tions were made, the deacon brought water to the bi-
ihops and prelbyters, Handing round the table, to walh
their hands; according to that of the pfalmift, “ I will
wa(h my hands in innocency, and fo will I compafs
tby altar, O Lord.” Then the deacon cried out aloud,
“ Mutually embrace and kifs each other ;” which be¬
ing done, the whole congregation prayed for the uni-
verfal peace and welfare of the church, for the tran¬
quillity and repofe of the world, for the profperity of
the age, for wholefome weather, and for all ranks and
degrees of men. After this followed mutual faluta-
tions of the minifter and people ; and then the bifhop
or preftiyter having fan&ifted the elements by afolemn
benediflion, he brake the bread, and delivered it to
the deacon, who diftributed it to the communicants,
and after that the cup. Their facramental wine was
ufually diluted or mixed with water. During the time
of adminiftration, they fang hymns and pfalms; and,
having concluded with prayer and thankfgiving, the
people faluted each other with a kifs of peace, and fo
the affembly broke up,
EUCLID i^Megara, a celebrated philofopher and
logician, fiouriftied about 400 B. C. The Athenians
having prohibited the Megarians from entering their
city on pain of death, this philofopher difguifed him¬
felf in womens clothes to attend the le&ures of So¬
crates. After the death of Socrates, Plato and other
philofophers went to Euclid at Megara, to Ihelter
themfelves from the tyrants who governed Athens.
Euclid admitted but one chief good; which he fome-
times called God, fometimes Spirit, and fometimes
Providence.
Euclid of Alexandria, the celebrated mathemati¬
cian, flourilhed in the reign of Ptolemy Lagus, about
277 B. C. He reduced all the fundamental principles
of pure mathematics, which had been delivered down
by Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and other mathe¬
maticians before him, into regularity and order, and
added many others of his own difeovering ; on which
account he is faid to be the firft who reduced arithme-
tick and geometry into the form of a fcience. He like-
wife applied himfelf to the ftudy of mixed mathema¬
tics, and efpecially to aftronomy, ih which he alfo ex- Eudronwtfr
celled. The moft celebrated of his works is his Ele- *
ments of Geometry, of which there have been a great
number of editions in all languages ; and a fine edition
of all his works was printed in 1705, by David Gre¬
gory, Savilian profeffor of aftronomy at Oxford.
EUDIOMETER, an inftrument for trying the fa-
lubrity of air, founded on a fa<ft difeovered by Dr Prieft-
ley; namely, that nitrous air diminifhes the bulk of com¬
mon atmofpherical air in proportion to the falubrity of
the latter*.—The Abbe Fontana and Chevalier Lan- * See A\r,
driani, were the firft, as it feems, who availed them- 1,0 37.
felves of this difeovery. Both propofed to the public
an inftrument for meafuring the falubrity of the air we
breathe. They gave to thefe inllruments, called eudio¬
meters, different forms, as appears by the printed de-
feriptions that each of them has feparately publifhed:
and the chevalier Landriani tranfmitted to England,
as a prefent to Dr Prieftley, the very inftrument he
had made ufe of to eftimate the refpe£tive falubrity of ,
the air in different parts of Italy. This eudiometer con- Landriani’s
fifts of a glafs tube, ground to a cylindrical veffel, with eudiometer,
two glafs cocks, and a fmall bafon, all fitted in a wooden
frame. Qm'ckfilver is there ufed inftead of water; and
that part of it which replaces the bulk loft by the di¬
minution of the two mixed airs, is conduced either
through a kind of glafs fiphon, or through the capil¬
lary holes of a glafs funnel : fo that, by its fall, the
whole mixture of the two kinds of air is more readily
made. Dr Falconer of Bath fent, fame time ago, to Dr Falcon-
the royal fociety of London, a glafs tube, neatly di- er’s*
vided; by means of which one may be enabled to know
the quantity of diminution produced in a certain bulk
of the mixture of nitrous air with another air, in order
to judge of its falubrity, which D'r Prieftley has ftiewn
to be in proportion to the diminution fuffered in the
fum of their original bulk, after they are mixed toge¬
ther. This method is the readieft of all, when no
real nicety is required in obfervations of this kind;
ut, inorderto determine this matter with thegreateft
exaAnefs, others have been contrived by J. H. De Ma¬
gellan, F. R. S. of which he gives the following de-
feription in his letter to Dr Prieftley. “ Of the three
eudiometers I have contrived, which are reprefented
fig. 8. 15. and 16 *. I think the latter is the eajieft in * See
its application, and the moft exadt in its refults. It plate CI*
is reprefented alfo (fig. 12. 14. and 17.) in diffe- 3
rent pofitions, for the better underftanding of its ap-
plication: and it confifts of the following parts, viz. eU(jiometer.
a glafs tube tnned, fig. 16. about 12 or 15 inches
long, and of an equal diameter; with a ground glafs-
ftopple m; a veffel c, the neck of which is ground air¬
tight to the lower end d of the tube; and two equal
phials a and b, whofe necks are alfo ground air-tight
to the refpeftive mouths of the veffel c. Both thefe
phials contain nearly as much as the whole tube mn e
d. There is, moreover, a Hiding brafs-ring, marked z,
which Hides in the tube n d„ and may be made tight
at pleafure by a finger-ferew; and, laftly, a ruler, ei¬
ther of brafs or of wood, reprefented fig. M. which is
divided into equal parts, and indicates the contents of
both the phials.<7 and b, when thrown into the tube, by
the number of parts which is engraved or ftamped
about the middle of it. The two bent pieces of brafs
zt ferve to hold it eafily by the fide of the tube n d
Eudiometer
Water mod
proper for
conftroc-
»ing eudio*
meters.
Method of
ufing this
indrutnent.
E U D
t 2851
by the
fig. 14. and 17. keeping it clofe to its neck
notch /.
Experiments with thefe eudiometers, which are eafily
conftru&ed, may be made either with water or with
quickfilver ; with this difference, that when the lafl is
made ufe of, the eudiometers (particularly the third,
1
E U D
the phial is filled with air, I take it fidewife, rubbing its Eudiometer
mouth along the furface of the (helf, fo that the redun-
dant air adhering to the mouth of the phial be got off;
and I put it into the mouth of the eudiometer belong¬
ing to it. But as the heat of the hand muft expand the
air contained in the phial, which of courfe will then
reprefented fig. 8. which feems the fitteft to Be ufed contain lefs air than its real meafure in the temperature
with quickfilver) will be more convenient if made of a of the furrounding water, I handle the phial with a kind
ftill fmallerfize. Mercury, however, is a fluid that, I of pliers or tongs of wood, reprefented fig. 2t. till the
think, never ought to be ufed preferably to water, in
the infide of eudiometers ; becaufe it fuffers a fenfible
neck enters into the proper place of the veflel c, where
I fecure it with the other hand: and, laying afide the
aftion from the contaft with nitrous air, as yourfelf wooden tongs, I make it properly tight. But if the
have obferved: and this muft have an influence on the
refult of the experiments. Water, on the'contrary,
feems lefs liable to miftakes, although it imbibes fome
part of the nitrous air. In fa<ft, this tffeft only takes
place in 0 long time, or with much agitation: and af¬
ter duly weighing the queftion on both fides, I fhould
think water might be generally ufed, without the fear
of any fenfible error. The weight and the dearnefs of
quickfilver, are likewife two other conflderations to
give the preference to water in thefe experiments.
“ The Procefs. In the firft place there muft be ei¬
ther a trough, as reprefented fig. 17.; or at leaft a com¬
mon tub, nearly filled up with water, unlefs the tall glafs
receiver, of which I fhall afterwards fpeak, be at hand.
I take out the ftopple m (fig. 16.) and fill the eudiome¬
ter entirely with water, keeping it in the pofition repre¬
fented fig. 16. and 17. I then fhut it with the ftop¬
ple m, without leaving any bubble of air in the infide;
and put the lower part c under the furface of the wa¬
ter in the tub (fig. 17.) in an ereft pofition as it is
therein feen. I take the phial <?, filled with water; and
keeping its mouth downwards under the furface of the
water, I fill it with that air, the falubrity of which I
want toafeertain (a). This is done either by putting the
phial a on the fhelf of the tub (fig. 17.) and throw¬
ing the air into the glafs-funnel t, which is there ce¬
mented to the ftielf; or by holding in the left hand the
fame phial a, together with the glafs funnel 5 (which
is reprefented fig. 18. and has no pipe at all) applied
to the mouth of the phial, whilft I pour the air with my
right hand into it. But left the heat of my hand ftiould
produce any confiderable expanfion in ’.his air, I ge¬
nerally'ufe in hot weather the wooden tongs reprefent¬
ed fig. 21. with two bent wires xx, in order to hold the
glafs funnel x clofe to the mouth of the phials; unlefs
they are made with a folid lump at their bottoms, as
reprefented in the plate.—There are fome niceties to
be obferved in order to fill up exa&ly any phial intend¬
ed to ferve as a meafure of air. The eafieft method
to fucceed is the following: Let a glafs funnel t (fig.
17.) be cemented under the hole « of the fhelf » 0 in
the trough. In this cafe I hold the phial a, filled with
water, with its mouth downwards over the hole n of
the funnel t: I throw the air into the funnel; and, when
phials have a folid knob at their bottoms, as reprefent¬
ed in the plate, it will then be enough to handle them
by it only, fince the heat of the hand cannot be com¬
municated in fo fhort a time to the air in the infide.
If I have not the convenience of a trough, prepa¬
red with a fhelf, and its fixed funnel, as above-men¬
tioned, an afiiftant holds the funnel under the water in
a common tub, whilft I fill up the phial with air:
and I take care to hold the phial in fuch a manner
that the end of the funnel be out of the infide of the
phial at the laft moment, that the air may rufh out
after it is totally filled ; otherwife that part of the
phial, occupied by the end of the funnel, will not be
totally filled with the air. Even without any afiiftant
but with a little care, a perfon may hold both the
phial and the funnel in the left hand, whilft he throws
the air into it with the other ; as I have myfelf fre¬
quently done in experiments of this kind: and when
I make ufe of the wooden tongs, I add to it the two.
bent pieces of wire xx (fig. 21.), by means of which
the funnel is kept clofe to the mouth of the phial?
“ The phial a being filled with that air, the falu¬
brity of which I am to examine, I put it into the mouth
of the veflel c, making it rather tight: which muft be
done with fome care; for if the phials a b are not tight
enough to the refpedtive mouths of the veflel c, they
will flip out, when turned downwards, and of courfe
will be broken ; and, if they are too tight, the veflel
c will be eafily cracked, and become unfit for ufe. The
better to avoid thefe accidents, and to judge of the
proper degree of tightnefs, let the necks of the phials
a b, and of the veffel c, as well as the glafs ftopple m,
be always rubbed with tallow, previoufly to every ex¬
periment. When I have done with the phial a, I take
the other phial b, filled with water: by the fame me¬
thod I throw into it as much nitrous air as to be
perfedlly filled up with it: and I then replace this;
phial b in the other mouth of the veflel e.
“ No pains or trouble ought to be (pared, in order
to obtain, at any time, a nitrous air perfe&ly alike in
its contraftive power, when mixed with common air.
In order to come the neared to this, I take a phial Z>
(fig. 19.) tike thofe you have deferibed in the fecond
volume of your work On different Kinds of Air ; to the
mouth
(a) “ The cafe I am fpeaking of, is when I have a bottle of air, which has been taken at any diftant place, and
fent for trial. If a glafs-bottle, with a ground glafs-ftopple, is filled with water or with mercury, and emptied in the
place whofe atmofpherical air is intended for being examined, it will, of courfe, be filled with that air; and, being
clofely fhut with the glafs-ftopple, may be carried to any diftant place for a trial. By this means the atmofpherical
air of any part of a country may be fent to any diftant one, in order to afeertain its comparative falubrity; and many
ufeful inquiries and difeoveries may be made hereafter on this fubjed, with great eafe, and at very fmall expence..
But if I only want to try the air of the room, where I have the eudiometer, I then only pour out of the phial a the
water it contains. I find that, however, after fome trials with nitrous air, the atmofphere about me is loaded with
phlogiftic miaftna; and for that reafon I always empty the phial a out of the window of the room, in order to havi.
nearly the fame kind of air in all the experiments.”
E U D [ 2852 ] E U D
Eudiometer mouth of which is ground air-tight the crooked tube
» z in the fliape of an S. I fill the half of this phial
with thin brafs wire, the thicknefs of which is equal to
of an Englifh inch, nicely cut by a pin-maker to
this length. I fill the three quarters of the phial with
common water; and the remainder with llrong nitrous
acid. I put the crooked tube » z to the phial: and,
as foon 'as the effervefcence caufes the liquor to rife to
the end z of the tube, I pafs it under water into the
mouth of the bottle E (fig. 20.) which is filled with
water, and inverted with its mouth downwards upon
the hole of the (helf n 0, which appears covered with
water within the trough or pan, (fig. 17.) This fi¬
gure reprefents the mod commodious fliape a trough
muft have for any experiments on different kinds of
air. It is made with ftraight boards of elm-wood one
inch thick. The infide dimenfions are 25 inches long,
134-wide, and 11 deep, Englifh meafure. The two
end boards, c d and e f, are fitted into a groove cut in
the other three boards ; this is daubed with thick white
painting, as a cement, to keep well the water in: and
the whole is faftened with nails from the outfide. The
fhelf •iu rt » 0 is eight inches wide, and two inches thick.
It has three holes of three tenths of an inch diameter,
with as many feparate cavities underneath, fo as to ferve
as fo many funnels. The figure, however, reprefents
a glafs funnel /, cemented to the middle hole 11; which
is equally convenient. This fhelf is fupported by four
metallic hooks V eixj z z, which may be railed or low¬
ered at pleafure by the wooden w7edges there repre-
fented. When the bottle F is entirely filled by the
nitrous air, I fliut it up with its (topple x (fig. 20.)
which I pafs under the furface of the water, to avoid
any communication with the external air: and I pufh
\ this bottle under the fhelf, where I let it remain for a
quarter of an hour, to acquire the fame temperature of
the furfounding water: and the fame I always obferve
with the bottle, containing that atmofperical air which
1 defire to try, before I put it into the phial h. I mud
acknowledge, however, that, notwithflanding thefe
precautions, I cannot fay that all the refults of my ex¬
periments, even when made upon the fame atmofpherical
air, have as yet agreed fo exadfly as I flattered myfelf
they would. Perhaps there was fome difference in the
ftrength of the nitrous air, the denfity of which I
thought might eafily be brought to a fettled ftandard,
to be determined by means of a glafs hydrometer.
Perhaps there was fome other little variety in the cir-
cumftances of the experiments, the influence of which
I was not aware of. But let it be as it may, I very
willingly leave this problem to be refolved by abler
chemifts than I can pretend to be: and I heartily wifh
they may fucceed better than I have done; for, with¬
out being affured of getting every where a certain Jiand-
ardnitrous air, by which the fame atmofpherical air may
be equally affedled, we cannot draw with certainty any Eudiometer
general decifive conclufions from eudiometrical expe-
riments made in diftant times or places (b).
“ I take afterwards the eudiometer with my left
hand, holding it near the lower part d, over the fur-
face of the water in the trough, to avoid breaking any
of the phials, if it chances to fall; and, with my right
hand, I turn the vefiel c upwards, fo that the two phials
may be downwards, as reprefented fig. 14. By this
operation the two kinds of air come up to x, from the
phials and there they mix together in the beft
poflible manner; the particles of each having a large
room to come into contaft with each other; fince the
foremoft ones do not detain thofe which are behind, as
it happens when this mixture is made in a narrow vef-
fel. This being done, I immediately dip the eudio¬
meter in the water of the trough, (fig. 17.) leaving
the mouth of the inftrument above its furface; fo that
no more water may enter into it than what it had at
firft. I then obferve with attention the moment when
the mixture x (fig. 14.) of the two kinds of air comes
to its greateft diminution, after which its bulk will begin
to increafe again. In order to catch this moment with
certainty, I Aide down the brafs ring z of the inltrnment,
as the furface of the water in the tube falls. This point
of the greatefl: diminution will be eafily perceived, by
obferving when that infide furface is ftationary: which
will happen in a few minutes, if the nitrous air has a
proper ftrength. The bulk of the mixed air will de-
creafe to a certain degree, within a few minutes, ac¬
cording to the ftrength of the nitrous air. Afterwards
it will begin to expand again : but this it will do to a
very (hort limit, much below its former bulk. This is
a phenomenon which, I think, I have obferved the firft
on thefe experiments; having made a very great num¬
ber of them with nice eudiometers, of the kind I am
now deferibing. It certainly deferves the attention of
philofophers : and, although I have communicated it
to fome of my acquaintance, none have as yet, in my
humble opinion, given a fatisfadtory folution of this
phenomenon.
“ As ^oon as the diminution of the two kinds of air
appears to be ftationary, I fill up the whole tube of the
eudiometer with water: I (hut it up with the ftopple
m; and incline the top of the inftrument forwards, till
the air comes from x (fig. 14.) up to the top n of the
tube. I then keep the lower part of the inftrument
dipped in the water; take off the glafs vefiel c with the
two phials a h, and raife or lower the tube of the eudio¬
meter, fo as to fee the furface of the water, in the in¬
fide, even with that in the outfide; which I mark by
Hiding to it the brafs ring z. Otherwife I apply the
ruler, fig. 11.( without making any ufe now of the brafs
ring) to the fide of the eudiometer, whilft it is immer-
fed in the water of the trough: and there I fee the
true
(b) Two ftriking circumftances relating to deferve to be remarked. The firft is the great quantity
produced by the a<5tion of nitrous acid on metals; which may ftili be carried to a greater extent, if helped by bring¬
ing the flame of a candle to the phial, which contains the folution, when rt feems to be nearly done with emitting air.
The fecond is the antifeptic power of nitrous air to preferve animal-matters from corruption. A beef-ftake, almoft
entirely putrid, and with an infupportable ftench, being put into a jar of nitrous air, in lefs than two days was perfectly
reftored, and very eatable when drefied. A pigeon was very well preferved above fix weeks by the fame treatment;
and, when roafted, was found fo good as to be eat without any diflike. T wo other pigeons were kept in it full fix months
without corruption : they were ftill very firm and of a good colour; but the flefh had loft aft its flavour, and was far
from being eatable when drefled. But the nitrous air for thefe oeconomical purpofes, which may be of a great ad¬
vantage at fea as well as at home, muft be made out of nitrous acid with iron, or other metal lefs exceptionable than
brafs or copper, the effluvia of which are pernicious to animals.
E U D
[ 2853 ]
E U D
Eudiometer true dimenfion of the remaining hulk of the two kinds procefs, as I have already defcribed. Eudiometer
w "" of ai>"> already diminiihed. Perhaps the beft method “ I muft, however, warn the operator, that, unlefs " "
for this obfervation would be to allow time enough, every trial, and even almoft every part of the procefs,
that the mixed air may take its fettled bulk : but this be made in the fame temperature, or at lead unlefs
requires fometimes 24 hours. I leave, however, [the the varieties arifing from this caufe be accounted for,
choice of thefe two methods to the obferver, who no reliance can be had on the refult of fuch experi-
may ufe both if he pleafes, provided he keeps diftinttly ments; it being well known, that air is apt to increafe
the refult of each method in his account of the expe- or diminifh very confiderably in its bulk, by the influ-
riment. ence of heat and cold. It is for this reafon that I con-
“ The number marked about the middle of this ftantly keep a good thermometer K, which hangs by
ruler (fig. ii.), as for inftance, * * =96, means that the wire r, and is immerfed in the water of the glafs
the contents of both phials a and b are equal to 96 di-
vifions of the ruler, when put into the tube of that eu¬
diometer: that is to fay, they are equal to a foil'd cy¬
linder as thick as the inlide of the glafs tube, and whofe
length is 96 divifions of the ruler, which has been di¬
vided into tenths of an Englifh inch.
“ Now if, for inftance, this remaining bulk of mixed
air correfponds to the 56th divilion of the ruler, it
fhews that, out of 96 parts, only 40 (=96—56)
veflel fig. 14. or in the trough fig. 17. whenever 1 make
any of thefe experiments. For the fame reafon, I take
care to leave the eudiometer and the veflels of air, im¬
merfed in water time enough, as above-mentioned, to
get the fame temperature: and I make ufe of the
wooden tongs mentioned p. 2051. par. 2. whenever I
handle the phials a l filled with air, chiefly if they
have not the folidlumpat their bottoms, as reprefented
in the plate; unlefs I feel the heat of my hands to be
have been loft or contraded : and, in this cafe, the the fame as that of the water, in the trough, I make
wholefomenefs of that air, which I call A, will be ufe of.
If another equal quantity of different air, which I (hall
call B, had alfo been tried by the fame eudiometer,
and its refiduum was equal to 60 parts of the fame ru¬
ler, the refpe&ive falubrity of the air B will then be to
that of the air A, as 36 (=96—60) to 40.
“ But if the air B had been tried by another eudi¬
ometer, whofe proportional dimenfions, marked a-
bout the middle of its ruler, were * * = 108, then
The eudiometer, reprefented fig. ij. confifts of a Second eu-
glafs tube t c, two or three feet long, and of an uniform diometer
diameter: the end c iVbent forwards; and the other <lelcri e<i'
end t is wide open, as a funnel, unlefs a feparate one
is made ufe of: this tube is fattened, by two loops, to
the brafs fcale out V. There is a glafs phial n, the
neck V of which is ground air-tight to the end t of the
tube; and contains only half of the whole infide capa-
the refpe&ive falubrity of thefe two kinds of air A city of the divided tube ct. It has, at the other end r,
and B, would be in the compound ratio of tp a large round phial a b c, containing three or four
^36X96 to 40 X 108 r ^ times the bulk of the phial » .• its neck is alfo ground
108X96 ■ ^ ^ 54 7> 5- air-tight to the mouth c of the tube. The brafs fcale
that is to fay, the wholefomenefs of the air 5 would be C’wtV is divided into 128 equal parts: this being a
to that of the air A, as 54 to 674- (c). number that can be divided to unity in a fubduplicate
“ Nearly the fame refults wmuld be found, if the ratio without frafl.ion, by continual bife&ions; on
ruler (fig. it.) was applied to the fide of the eudio- which account it is one of the numbers the late famous
meter, as foon as the inclofed mixture of air came to
its utmoft diminution, as above-mentioned; becaufe as
much water muft fall in the tube ?i d, as correfponds to
the diminution fuffered by the two mixed airs in x.
But there are fome varieties, which arife from the dif¬
ferent preflure of the column of water, which preffes
Mr Bird had adopted for his dividing mathematical in-
ftxuments with the utmoft accuracy. Thefe numbers
are fet out in the fcale from t towards c. The contents
Or capacity of the tube till the number 128 is the
double of the capacity of the phial n. Befides this
there is a tin veffel xsdtro (fig. 15.) which may
more or lefs upon the air at x (fig. 14.) as it is longer ferve as a packing-cafe for the whole inftrument, and
or ftlorter: and thefe varieties
looked in nice experiments.
“ Whenever I have at hand a tall glafs receiver, like
that reprefented fig. 14. the whole procefs is then more
ight not to be over- its neceffary appendages; and alfo as a trough, when
experiments are made, it being then filled with water.
Both the glafs tube reprefented fig. 22. and the glafs
ftopple m (fig. 15.), belong to this eudiometer; and
eafily performed: for in this cafe I dip the eudiometer, both are fitted in, air-tight, to its mouth V. ^
inverted as it appears fig. 12. into the water contained “ Let the inftrument be immerfed under the water Method of
in the veffel V S q l: I then put the two kinds of air z z of the tin veffel fig. 15 : and let the phial n, filled ufingit.
into the phials a and £, as above faid : I turn the in- with water, be put in the infide focket e e dot the tin
ftrument upright, as reprefented fig. 14. and finifti the veffel. Let it be filled with nitrous air, as above-di-
Vol. IV. 16 N refled :
(c) “ It is fuppofed that the infide of the tube is of an uniform diameter; but it often happens, that there are
fome varieties in different parts of its whole length. When they are not very confiderable, we may negiedt their in¬
fluence in the refult of thele eudiometrical experiments; but, when the contrary happens, it will be very eafy to make
a proper allowance for them in the calculation. It is for this reafon, that 1 have always ordered that the contents of
one Angle phial be marked alfo upon the fcale of each eudiometer, as well as the contents ot both phials; for in¬
ftance, as in this manner: * # = 96
* = 47
Which means, firft, that the contents of both phials a and b are equal to a cylinder, whofe diameter is the fame as that
of the inlide bore of the tube n d (fig. 16.), and whofe height is equal to 96 equal divifions of the ruler: fecondly,
that the contents of a fingle phial are equal 1047 divifions in the upper part of the fame tube mn d \ and, of courfe, to
49 divifions (=96—47) of its lower part. By this difference it appears, that the tube of fuch eudiometer is wider in
the top than at the bottom, by ^ of the whole.
E U D [ 2854 1 E U D
- Eudiometer refted : and let this quantity of air be thrown into the
phial a b c, ns dire&ed above, which I fisc a little tight
to the mouth c of the eudiometer. I afterwards fill
the fame phial n with the air I want to try: and rai-
fing the end c of the inftrument, I put it into its
mouth V: when this is done, I fet the inftrument up¬
right, as reprefented fig. 15. hanging it on the hook
•w; and, as foon as this laft air goes up to the phial
a b c, l take off the phial n, that the diminution of the
two mixed airs may be fupplied from the water in the
tin vefle! ; which muft be the cafe, as the mouth V of
the eudiometer is then under the furface of the water.
I then put to the lower end V of the eudiometer, the
bent tube fig. 22. to which is fitted the brafs ring K,
and is filled with water. It is by obferving the furface
of the water in this fmall tube (which then forms a
true fiphon with the tube of the inftrument), and by
means of the brafs ring K, that I can diftinguifh the
llationary ftate of the diminiftiing bulk of the two mix¬
ed airs, above-mentioned: which being perceived, I
take off the fmall tube g h from the eudiometer, and
lay down, for fome minutes, the whole inftrument, in
an horizontal pofition, under the water of the tin vef-
fel: I fhut up the mouth V with the glafs ftopple m ;
and, reverfing the inftrument, I hang it up by the end F,
on the hook w. By this pofition the whole diminilhed
air of the veffel a b c goes up to the top, where its
real bulk is fhewn by the number of the fcale, facing
the infide furface of water. This number being de¬
duced from 128, gives the comparative wholfome-
nefs of the air already tried, without any further cal¬
culation.
“ But this procefs will be ftill eafier, when the laft
diminutioo of the two mixed kinds of air, is only re¬
quired in the obfervation: becaufe no ufe will be then
made of the fiphon (fig. 22.) In fuch a cafe, the in¬
ftrument is left hanging on the hook w for 48 hours :
after which it is laid down under the water of the
trough (fig. 15.) in an horizontal pofition, for 8 or
12 minutes, in order to acquire the fame temperature
of the water: the mouth V is then fhut up with the
ftopple wz; the inftrument is hung by the end Fin a
contrary pofition, and the laft real bulk of the good
mixed air will be then fhown by the number of the
brafs fcale anfwering to the infide furface of the water.
This number being fubtrafted from 128, will give the
comparative falubrity of the air employed in the trial,
without any further calculation. 1 need not fay that
all the circumftances already mentioned for the better
obtaining exaft refults in thefe experiments, are to be
carefully obferved, when this fecond or the third eu¬
diometers are ufed : but chiefly that circumftance
ought never to be omitted. The thermometer is to be
kept dipped in the water of the tin vefiel; and the eu¬
diometer muft be kept there immerfed fome minutes,
as I have faid juft now, before it is raifed for the laft
time, to read off the quantity of the total diminu¬
tion of the mixed air. The fame method muft be
applied to the third new eudiometer I am going to de-
fcribe ; and even the firft eudiometer, already defcri-
bed, may be treated in the fame manner: for if it be
laid down in an horizontal pofition under the water in
the tub, before it be fhut up with the ftopple, there
will be no variation produced by the expanfion of the
air in the infide : becaufe the proper quantity of wa¬
ter is then fhut up within the glafs veffel c of the in- Eudiometer
ftrument: fo that railing it up, as it is, together with ————
the veffel c, and its phials a b (fig. 14.) the weight
of the column of water will prefs totally upon them,
without expanding the inclofed air, orcaufing any va¬
riation beyond the trifling one which may proceed from
the natural elafticity of the fides of the glafs tube and
veffels.
“ I muft, however, acknowledge, that the long way
through which the air paffes, in going at firft to the
large phial a b c, m this fecond eudiometer, muft leave
fome doubt whether it has not then fuffered fome fen-
fible change in its quality before it is mixed with the
nitrous air; fincei as you have obferved, the air that
has been long agitated in water, changes for the bet¬
ter from its bad qualities : and this objection muft be
ftill greater in the ufe of the third eudiometer. It is
on this account that I have mentioned the firft eudio¬
meter, as the leaft exceptionable of all that we know
till the prefent; and perhaps the nature of the thing is
not capable of a further perfection. Indeed that in¬
ftrument, I mean my firft eudiometer, has not only the
advantage of offering a very fmall way through the wa¬
ter to the two kinds of air, on their going to mix at
x in the veffel c (fig. 14.), but they are kept feparate
till that moment, in the two refpetftive phials a and
b, without any other contact with the water, but
only in the narrow diameter of the necks of thefe
phials. s
“ The third eudiometer confifts of a ftrait glafs-'piird ea*
tube e n (fig. 8.) of an uniform diameter, about one deferibed
or two feet long, with a large ball /, and a glafs
floppier, fitted air-tight to the mouth », which ought
to be wide open, as a funnel, unlefs a feparate one is
made ufe of. There is alfo a fmall fiphon (fig. 23.)
with a brafs ring x .• a fmall phial z (fig. 9.) the con¬
tents of which may be received in the third part of the
ball j-j; and, when put into the glafs tube n s, muft
take there no more than the half of its length. Laft-
ly, this inftrument has a ruler (fig. 13.) which is divid¬
ed and ftamped like that other already deferibed above;
and a glafs funnel, which is ground to the mouth n of
the inftrument, when this is not wide open, as already
faid. 9
“ The ufe of this inftrument is eafily underftood by Method of
what I have already faid of the two preceding ones, ufing it-
Firft, it is filled with water, and fet in a vertical po¬
fition, with the mouth n under the furface of the wa¬
ter in a tub, or in a trough, (fig. 17.) Secondly, the
phial z (fig. 9.) is filled, as above, with nitrous air}
and thrown into the tube by means of the glafs fun¬
nel/ (fig> lo.) which is ground to the mouth w of the
eudiometer ; unlefs it be wide enough not to be in
need of any funnel. Thirdly, the fame phial z is again
filled with the air to be tried ; and thrown into the
fame. Fourthly, the fiphon (fig. 23.) is added im¬
mediately to the mouth n of the eudiometer, under the
furface of the water ; fome of which is to be poured in¬
to it. Fifthly, the ftationary moment of the greateft
diminution of the mixed air at/, is watched by mean*
of the ring x, as above-mentioned. Sixthly, when
that moment arrives, the fiphon KL (fig. 23.) is taken
off; the eudiometer is laid for fome minutes under the
water, in an horizontal pofition, or nearly fo, but in
fuch a manner that no part of the inclofed air may get
out;
E U D [ 2855 ] EVE
Eud'ometer out ; the mouth n is (hut up with the glafs ftopple w,
T" and the inftrument is inverted with the mouth n up*
wards. Laftly, the fpace occupied by the refiduum
of the diminifhed air, is meafured by applying to its
fide the divided ruler or fcale (fig. 13.) and the re-
fult is eftimated after the manner already explained.
“ When I want only to know the laft diminu¬
tion of the mixed air, the procefs then becomes eafier,
as no ufe is made of the fiphon (fig. 23.) The me¬
thod of conducting the procefs in fuch a cafe being re-
fpeCtively the fame as that already defcribed, it is
unneceffary to defcribe it here again. The fame pre¬
cautions I have fpoken off, mud be obferved when
this eudiometer is made ufe of, in order to form a true
judgment concerning thofe places, where people will
be able to live without danger of hurting their confti-
tutions by breathing and being continually furrounded
by noxious air ; which they have not yet been able to
diftinguilh from the mod wholefome, except by a long
and too late experience.
“ The eudiometers already defcribed are the fitted
indruments for philofophical experiments on the bulk
of air and other fluids, when mixed together ; and
even when mixed with feme folid fubdances, which can
be introduced into the lower veflel c of the firfl of the
three eudiometers. It will be better, however, to have
them made purpofely for fuch objeCis, with a tube two
or three times longer than I have indicated above.
Whenever dephlogidicated air is to be tried by thefe
indruments, proper care is to be taken to obferve the
10 precife point of its full faturation, which is that of its
t0 greated diminution by the addition of nitrous air. In
precife1 ^ or^er to make this experiment with great accuracy, let
point of a narrow glafs tube of an uniform diameter (fig. 24.)
faturation. be provided : let one of the two phials a or b (fig. 16.)
filled with quickfilver, be thrown into it, and the tube
cut exa&ly to that fize, fo as to contain neither more
nor lefs. Let its whole length be divided into fome
number of equal parts, by which number the value
marked on the ruler (fig. 11.) of this eudiometer, can
be divided without any fra£Hon : for indance, the
number :* * = 108, marked in the ruler, means,
that the contents of the two phials a and b, are equal to
a cylinder of 108 divifions long, as thofe of the ruler:
and, of courfe, it (hews that a fingle phial a or b con¬
tains but 54 of thefe parts. In this cafe, this tube
(fig. 24.) may be divided either into 27 parts, each
containing two of the ruler ; or into 54, into 108, &c.
N. B. If the top of the tube is not very fiat in the
the infide, it will be more exa£, to divide the weight
of the quickfilver in two parts; to put one of them
into the tube; to mark the fpace occupied by it; to
divide the part of it which was empty, into half the
number intended for this tube; and afterwards to di¬
vide the other half into fimilar equal parts, as the firft
half, carrying them towards the clofed end.
If the deplogifiicated air is very pure, it will require
almod double the quantity of nitrous air to be com¬
pletely faturated. In order to do this without exceed¬
ing the neceflary quantity, I throw into the tube » d
(fig. 17.) a fecond meafure £ or a of nitrous air, af¬
ter I have brought the procefs to the moment above-
mentioned ; in this cafe the whole volume or bulk of
the dephlogifticated and nitrous air will be 162 [=108
X54:] I obferve where the furface of the infide water
in the tube flops, and I mark it by the Aiding brafs Eudiometer
ring 2. I then fill up the divided tube (fig. 24.) with ^ ^
nitrous air: I throw a fmall quantity into the eudio- ve }r'
meter tube n d; and, ff it becomes of a reddilh colour,
the inclofed air will diminifh: I then pufli up the ring
2; and by this means, I goon throwing in the nitrous
air, by little and little, till I fee that the whole dimi-
niflies no more; which (hews me that it is fully fatura-
rated. Let us fuppofe, for example, that the tube
(fig. 24.) was divided only into 27 equal parts; and
that the faturation of the dephlogifiicated air was com¬
pleted at the eighth divifion of it: this {hews that 19
parts [27—8=19], equal to 38 of thofe marked in
the ruler, have been thrown into the eudiometer; that
is to fay, that the whole bulk of both kinds of air is
equal to 200 [=162+38] fuch meafures as thofe
marked by the divifions of the ruler (fig. 11.) Now
if the remaining quantity of air within the eudiometri-
cal tube is only equal to two meafures or numbers of
the ruler, it is clear that fuch dephlogifticated air is 99
r fzoo—2 198 99HI . c
times of too I = - - = I pure air; fince
L 200 200 tooj
its bulk is reduced, by the combination of nitrous air,
to the of the whole.
EUDOSIA, (Athenia, before her converfion to
Chriftianity), a celebrated lady, the daughter of Leon¬
tius, philofopher of Athens; who gave her fuch a
learned education, that at his death, he left her only a
fmall legacy, faying (he was capable to make her own
fortune: but pleading at Athens without fuccefs againft
her two brothers, for a (hare in her father’s eftate, file
carried her caufe perfonally by appeal to Conftanti-
nople; recommended herfelf to Pulcheria, the fifter of
the emperor Theodofius the younger; embraced Chri¬
ftianity ; was baptized by the name of Eudofia, and
foon after married to the emperor. Their Union lafted a
confiderable time: but a difference at laft taking place,
on account of the emperor’s jealoufy excited by Chry-
fapius the eunuch, {he retired to Jerufalem, where {he
fpent many years in building and adorning churches,
and in relieving the poor. Dupin fays, that file did not
return thence till after the emperor’s death: but Cave
tells us that fhe was reconciled to him, returned to
Conftantinople, and continued with him till his death;
after which rtie went again to Paleftine, where {he fpent
the remainder of her life in pious works. She died in
the year 460, according to Dupin; or 459, according
to Cave: the latter obferves, that on her death-bed fhe
took a folemn oath, by which fhe declared herfelf en¬
tirely free from any ftains of unchaftity. She was the
author of a paraphrafe on the eight firft books of the
Old Teftament, in heroic verfe; and of a great number
of poems, which are loft.
EVE, the mother of all mankind; who being delu¬
ded by the ferpent, occafioned the fall, and all its dif-
mal confequences. See Adam.
EVELYN (John), a moft learned and ingenious
writer and natural philofopher, was born at Wotton in
Surry, the feat of his father, in 1620. After making
the tour of Europe, he returned to England about the
year 1651, and lived very retired at his rural retreat.
Say’s Court, near Deptford in Kent ; where his difgufl:
at the violence and confufion of the times, operated fo
far upon his ftudious difpofitfon, that he aAually propo-
fed to Mr Boyle, the eftablilhing a kind of college for
16 N 2 perfons
E U G [ 2856 ] E V I
Evelyn, perfons of the fame turn of mind, where they might
^ugc'ne’ aflbciate together without care or interruption. It was
owing to Mr Evelyn’s gratitude to the place of his
education, that Oxford became poflefled of the famous
Arundelian Marbles ; which he perfuaded the Lord
Henry Howard to bellow on that univerfity. He was
very afliduous in tranfmitting to the royal fociety what¬
ever fell within the cotnpafs of his inquiries; and ufed
humbly to ftyk himfelf “ a pioneer in the fervice.”
When the number of books he publifhed is confidered,
the fnany he left behind him unfinilhed and unpublilh-
ed, and the variety of fubjefts bn which he employed
his time, his indullry and application are aftonilhing.
** His life, (fays the honourable Mr Walpole), was a
COiirfe of inquiry, ftudy, curiofity, inltruftion, and be¬
nevolence. The works of the Creator, and the mimic
labours of the creature, were all objefts of his purfuit.
He unfolded the perfedlions of the one, and afiifted the
imperfeflions of the other. He adored from examina¬
tion ; Was a courtier that flattered only by informing
his prince, and by pointing out what was worthy for
him to countenance; and was really the neighbour of
the Gofpel, for there was no man that might not have
been the better for him. He was one of the firft pro¬
moters of the royal fociety, a patron of the ingenious
and indigent, and peculiarly ferviceable to the lettered
World; for befideS his writings and difeoveries, he ob¬
tained the Arundelian marbles for the univerfity of Ox¬
ford, and the Arundelian library for the royal fociety;
fior is it the lead part of his praife, that he who pro-
pofed to Mr Boyle the ereftion of a philofophic col¬
lege for retired and fpeculative perfons, had the honefty
to write in defence of active life againll Sir George
Mackenzie’s Effay on Solitude. He knew that retire¬
ment in his own hands was induftry and benefit to man¬
kind; but in thofe of others, lazinefs and inutility.”
There are five final] prints of this gentleman’s journey
from Rome to Naples, drawn and etched by him; and
among his publifhed works are, 1. A Character of
England; 2. The State of France; 3. An Effay on
the firft book of Lucretius de Rerum Natura; 4. The
French gardener; 5. A Panegyric on king Charles
the Second’s coronation; 6. Fumifugum, or the incon¬
veniences of the air and fmoke of London diffipated ;
7. The hiftory and art of engraving on copper; 8. A
parallel between the ancient archite&ure and the mo¬
dern; 9. Sylva, or a difeourfe of foreft-trees; and fe-
veral others. This amiable gentleman died, full of age
and honour, in 1706.—His fon John Evelyn, born in
1654, diftinguifhed himfelf by his elegant tranfiations
and poems: He was one of the commiffionersof the re¬
venue in Ireland; but died early in life, in 1698.
EUGENE (Francis), prince of Savoy, defeended
from Carignan, one of the three branches of the houfe
of Savoy, and fon of Eugene Maurice, general of the
Swifs and Grifons, governor of Champagne, and earl
of Soiffons,was born in 1663. Lewis XIV. to whom
he became afterwards fo formidable an enemy, thought
him fo unpromifing a youth, that he refoled him pre¬
ferment both in the church and the date, thinking him
too much addidted to pleafure to be ufeful in either.
Prince Eugene, in difguft, quitted France ; and, reti¬
ring to Vienna, devoted himfelf to the imperial fervice-
The war between the emperor and the Turks afforded
the firft opportunity of exerting his military talents j
and every campaign proved a new ftep in his advancer Evergreen
ment to the higheft offices in the army. He gave the If
Turks a memorable defeat at Zenta; commanded the EYi1,
German forces in Italy, where he foiled marlhal Vil-
leroy in every engagement, and at length took him
prifoner. Our limits do not allow a detail of his cam¬
paigns ; but prince Engene diftinguiffied himfelfigreat-
ly, when the emperor and queen Anne united againft
the exorbitant power of Lewis XIV.' He died at Vi¬
enna in the year 1736 ; and was as remarkable for his
modefty and liberality, as for his abilities in the field
and the cabinet.
EVERGREEN, in gardening, a fpecies of peren¬
nials, which continue their verdure, leaves, &c. all the
year: fuch are hollies, pbillyrea’s, lauruftinus’s, bays,
pines, firs, cedars of Lebanon, &c.
- EVES-droppers. See 'EwEs-Drsppers.
EVERLASTING pea, a genus of plants, other-
wife called lathyrus. See Lathyrus.
EVESHAM, a borough-town of Worcefterfliire,
feated on a gentle afeent from the river Avon, over
which there is a bridge of feven arches. W. Lon. 2. o.
N. Lat. 52. 10.
EUGENIA, the yamboo, or ; a genus
of the monogynia order, belonging to the icofandria
clafs of plants. There are two fpecies, both natives of
the hot parts of Afia. They rife from 20 to 30 feet
high; and bear plumb-fhaped fruit, inclofing one nut.
They are too tender to live in this country, unlefs they
are conftantly kept in a ftove.
EVICTION, in law, fignifies a recovery of lands,
or tenements, by law.
EVIDENCE, that perception of truth which arifes
either from the teftimony of the fenfes, or from an in-
duftion of reafon.
Evidence, in law, fignifies fome proof, by teftimony
of men upon oath, or by writings or records. It is
called evidence, becaufe thereby the point in iffue in a
caufe to be tried, is to be made evident to the jury;
for “ probationes debent effe evidentes et perfpicuse.”
The fyftem of evidence, as now eftablifhed in our courts
of common law, is very full, comprehenfive, and refi¬
ned ; far different from, and fuperior to, any thing
known in the middle ages ;—as far fuperior in that as
in all other improvements and refinements in fcience,
arts, and manners. Wid. Blackji. Comment, id. 367,—-
375. iv. 350,-360.
The nature of evidence during the ages of ignorance
was extremely imperfeft, and the people were inca¬
pable of making any rational improvement. Thus it
was the imperfedlion of human reafon that caufed the
invention and introduftion of the ordeal, as an appeal
to the Supreme Being. As men are unable to compre¬
hend the manner in which the Deity carries on the go¬
vernment of the univerfe, by equal, fixed, and general
laws, they are apt to imagine, that,in every cafe which
their paffions or intereft render important in their own
eyes, the Supreme Ruler of all ought vifibly to difplay
his power in vindicating innocence and punifhing vice.
See Robertfon's Charles V. vol. i. p. 48, &c.
EVIL, in philofophy, &c. is either moral or natu¬
ral. Moral evil is the difagreemeent between the adlions
of a moral agent, and the rule of thofe aclions what¬
ever it is *.—Natural evil, is whatever deftroysor any * See Mural
way diftrubs the perfection of natural beings: fuch as mlofopby.
blind-
E U N [ 2857 ] E V O
Evil blindnds, difeafes, death, &c. See thefe articles.
II . King’s Evil, in medicine, the fame with the Scro-
Eunomms. pHULA>
EULOGY, in church-hiftory, a name by which the
Greeks call the pctnis benedittm, or bread over which a
bleffing is pronounced, and which is diftributed to thofe
who are unqualified to communicate.
' EUMENES, the moft worthy of Alexander’s fuc-
Cefibrs and generals; was bafely delivered up by his
own troops to his rival Antigonus, and by him put to
death, 315 B. C.
Eumenes II. king of Pergatims, a Valiant general,
patron of learning, and founder of the famous library
at Pergamos, on the model of that at Alexandria. He
died 159 B. C. after a reign of 39 years.
EUMENIDES, in antiquity, the fame with the
Furies.
EUNAPIUS, a native of Sardis in Lydia, a cele¬
brated fophiit, phyfician, and hiftorian, who flourifhed
in the 4th century, under the. emperors Valentinian,
Valens, and Gratian. He wrote “ The lives of the
Philofophers and Sophifts,”in which he frequently (hews
himfelf a bitter enemy to the Chriftians : alfo a hiitory
of the Cefars, which he deduced from the reign of
Claudius, where Herodian left off, down to that of Ar-
cadius and Honorius. The hiftory is loft ; but we
have the fubftance of it in Zofimus, who is fuppofed
to have done little more than copy it.
EUNGMIANS, in church-hiftory, Chriftian here¬
tics in the 4th century. They were a branch of A-
rians, and took their name from Eunomius bifliop of
Cyzicus ; whofe confeflion of faith here follows, ex-
tradled from Cave’s Hiftoria Literafia, vol. i. p. 223.
“ There is one God uncreate and without beginning ;
who has nothing exifting before him, for nothing can
exift before what is incarnate; nor with him, for what
is uncreate muft be one; nor in him, for God is a
Ample and uncompounded being. This one Ample and
eternal being is God, the creator and ordainer of all
things: firit indeed and principally of his only begot¬
ten Son ; and then, through him, of all other things.
For God begot, created, and made, the Son, only by
his direft operation and power, before all things, and
every other creature; not producing, however, any be¬
ing like himfelf, or imparting any of his own proper
fubftance to the Son: for God is immortal, uniform,
indivifible ; and therefore cannot communicate any part
of his own proper fubftance to another. He alone is
unbegotten ; and it is impofiible that any other being
Ihould be formed of an unbegotten fubftance. He did
not ufe his own fubftance in begetting the Son, but
his will only: nor did he beget him in the likenefs of
his fubftance, but according to his own good pleaftire.
He then created the Holy Spirit, the firft and great-
eft of all fpirits, by his own power indeed and opera¬
tion mediately, yet by the immediate power and ope¬
ration of the Son. After the Holy Spirit he created
all other things in heaven and in earth, viftble and in-
vifible, corporeal and incorporeal, mediately by him¬
felf, by the power and operation of the Son, &c.
EUNOMIUS, a famous herefiarch of the 4th cen¬
tury, the difciple of Elius, but abundantly more fub-
til than his mafter, as well as more Bold in propaga¬
ting the opinions ofhisfeft, who after him are called
Eunomians. He was ordained biftiop of Cyzicus; but
gave fo much difturbance by the intemperance of his Eunuch
zeal, that he was depofed more than once : and, tired j7vo|jjt;or
at length with being tofled about, he petitioned to re-  
treat to the place of his birth, Dacora in Cappadocia;
where he died very old about the year 394, after ex¬
periencing a variety of fufferings. The greateft part
of his works are loft. There is, however, befides two
or three frnall pieces, a confeflion of his faith remain¬
ing, which Cave inferted in his Hiftoria Liter aria, from-
a manfeript in archbifhopTennifon’s library. See the
preceding article.
EUNUCH, a caftrated perfon. See the article
CastrationI—The word is formed from twn*
q. d. lefii curam hahet, “ guardian or keeper of the
bed.”
In Britain, France, &c. eunuchs are never made
but upon occafion of fome difeafe, which renders fuch
an operation neceflary : but in Italy, they make great
numbers of children, from one to three years of age,
eunuchs, every year, to fupply the operas and thea¬
tres of all Europe with Angers; though it is not one
in three, that, after having loft his virility, has a
good voice for a recompenfe. In the eaftern parts of
the world, they make eunuchs in order to be guards
or attendants on their women. The feraglio of the
eaftern emperors are chiefly ferved and guarded by eu¬
nuchs ; and yet, from good authority, we learn, that
the rich eunuchs in Perfia and other countries keep fe-
raglios for their own ufe. Thofe who, out of an im¬
prudent zeal to guard themfelvCs from fenfual pleafures,
made themfelves eunuchs, were, by the council of Nice,
condemned and excluded from holy orders. There
are feveral fevere prohibitions in Germany againft the
making of eunuchs; and in France an eunuch muft not
marry, not even with the confent of the woman.
Eunuchs, in church-hiftory, a feft of heretics, in
the third century, who were mad enough to caftrate,
not only thofe of their own perfuafion, but even all
others they could lay hold of. They took their rife
from the example of Origen, who, mifunderftanding
the following words of our Saviour, “ and eunuchs
who made themfelves eunuchs for the kingdom of hea¬
ven,” caftrated himfelf.
EVOCATI, among the Romans, foldiers who ha¬
ving ferved their time in the army, went afterwards vo¬
lunteers at the requeft of fome favourite general.
EVOCATION {Evocatio,) among the Romans, a
religious ceremony always obferved by them at the un¬
dertaking a Aege, wherein they folemnly called upon
the gods and goddefles of the place to forfake it and
come over to them. Without the performance of this
ceremony, they either thought that the place could
not be taken, or that it would be a facrilege to take
the gods prifoners. They always took it for granted
that their prayer was heard, and that the gods had de-
ferted the place and come over to them, provided they
were able to make themfelves mafters of it.
EVOLUTION, in algebra. See Algebra, n° 9.
Evolution, in the art of war, the motion made by
a body of troops, when they are obliged to change
their form and difpofition, in order to preferve a. poft,
Or occupy another, to attack an enemy with more ad¬
vantage, or to be in a condition of defending them¬
felves the better.
It confifts in doublings, counter-marches, conver-
tionj
Euony-
imis
it
Euphorbia
E U E [ 2858 ] E U P
flons, &c. A battalion doubles the ranks, when attack¬
ed in front or rear, to prevent its being flanked dr
furrounded; for then a battalion fights with a larger
.front. The files are doubled, either to accommodate
themfelves to the neceflity of a narrow ground, or to
refill an enemy that attacks them in flank. But if the
ground will allow it, converfion is much preferable ; be-
caufe, after converfion, the battalion is in its firft form,
and oppofes the file-leaders, which are generally the
belt men, to the enemy ; and likewife, beeaufe doubling
the files in a new or not well-difciplined regiment, they
may happen to fall into diforder. See Doubling.
EUONYMUS, the spindle-tree ; a genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria
clafs of plants. There are two fpecies. 1. The euro-
pasus, hath an upright woody Item 10 or 15 feet high,
garnilhed with oblong oppdfite leaves : from the fides
of the branches proceed fmall bunches of greenilh qua-
drifid flowers, fucceeded by pentagonous capfules, diT
clofing their feeds in a beautiful manner in autumn.
2. The americanus, or evergreen fpindle-tree, hath a
(hrubby Hem,. dividing into many oppofite branches,
rifing fix or eight feet high, garnilhed with fpearlhaped
evergreen leaves growing oppofite, and from the fides
and ends of the branches. The flowers are quinque-
fid and whitilh, and come out in fmall bunches, fuc¬
ceeded by roundifh, rough, and protuberant capfules,
which rarely perfect their feeds in this country. Both
thefe fpecies are hardy, and will fucceed in any foil or
fituation.—The berries of the firlt fort vomit and purge
very violently, and are fatal to Iheep. If powdered
and fprinkled upon hair, they dellroy lice. If the wood
is cut when the plant is in bloffom, it is tough and not
eafily broken ; and in that Hate it is ufed by watch¬
makers for cleaning watches, and for making Ikewers
and tooth-pickers. Cows, goats, and Iheep, eat this
plant; horfes refufe it.
EUPATORIUM, hemp-agrimony ; a genus of
the polygamia asqualis order, belonging to the fynge-
nefia clafs of plants. There are 13 fpecies, many of
them herbaceous flowery perennials, producing annual
flalks, from two to three or five feet high, terminated
by clulters of compound flowers of a red, purple, or
white colour. They are eafily propagated by feeds, or
parting the roots in autumn or fpring. One fpecies,
viz. the cannabinum, or water hemp-agrimony, is a
native of Britain. It grows by the banks of rivers and
brooks, and has pale-red bloflbms. The whole plant
hath a very bitter tafle. A decoftion of the roots o-
perates as a violent emetic and cathartic ; and is fome-
times taken by the lower clafs of people, to cure the
jaundice, dropfy, &c. Dr Boerhaave ufed an infu-
fion of this plant to foment ulcers and putrid fores.
Tournefort informs us, that the Turks cure the fcurvy
with it. An ounce of the juice or a dram of the ex-
trad is a dofe.
EUPHYMISM. See Oratory, n° 56.
EUPHORBIA, spurge; a genus of the trigynia
order, belonging to the dodecandria clafs of plants.
There are 62 fpecies, fix of which are natives of Great
Britain. They are moltly fhrubby and herbaceous
fucculents, frequently armed with thorns, having ftalks
from 10 or 12 inches to as many feet in height, with
quadripetalous flowers of a whitilh or yellow colour.
They are eafily propagated by cuttings; but the fo¬
reign kinds mult be always kept in pots in a ftove.
If kept dry, they may be preferred for feveral months
out ot the ground, and then planted; when they will
as readily take root as though they had been frelh.
The juice of all the fpecies is fo acrid, that it cor¬
rodes and ulcerates the body wherever it is applied;
fo that phyficians have feldom ventured to prefcribe
it internally. Warts, or corns, anointed with the
juice, prefently difappear. A drop of it put into
the hollow of an aching tooth, gives relief, like other
corrofives, by deftroying the nerve. Some people rub
it behind the ears, that it may bhfter. One of the fo¬
reign fpecies, named efula, is fuch a violent corrolive,
that, if applied to any part of the body, it produces a
violent inflammation, which is foon fucceeded by a
(welling that degenerates into a gangrene, and proves
mortal. Ipecacuanha is the root of another fpecies.
A third hath obtained the name ofJierculia, or dirt-
wood, from its fmell, which is faid exactly to referable
human excrements.
EUPHORBIUM, in the materia medica; a gum re¬
fin, brought us always in loofe, fmooth, and gloffy gold-
coloured drops or granules. It is the produce of the
euphorbium antiquorum verum, which grows to 10 or
12 feet high. Its principal ufe is externally in fina-
pifms, and plafters applied to the feet, which are in¬
tended to ftimulate, but not abfolutely toraife blilters:
for it is obferved by Avifenna, that, when taken inter¬
nally in large doles, it has been found to e^ulcerate the
inteltines, and bring on death itfelf after the moft ter¬
rible fymptoms.
EUPHORION c/’Chalcis, a poet and hiftorian,
born in the 126th Olympiad. Suetonius fays that Ti¬
berius compofed verfes in imitation of Euphorion, Ri-
anius, and Parthenius; with whom he was charmed to
fuch a degree, that he ordered their writings and their
pictures to be kept in all the public libraries, among
the ancient and celebrated authors.
EUPHRASIA, eye-bright; a genus of the an-
giofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants. There are feven fpecies ; two of which, viz. the
officinalis and odontites, are natives of Britain. The
firft of thefe, which hath blue flowers, is a weak aftrin-
gent, and was formerly much celebrated in diforders of
the eyes; but the prefent practice hath not only difre-
garded its internal, but alfo its external ufe. This
plant will not grow but when furrounded by others
taller than itfelf. Cows, horfes, goats, and Iheep, eat
it; fwine refufe it.
EUPHRATES, a river univerfally allowed to take
its rife in Armenia Major; but in what particular fpot,
or in what direction it afterwards ffiapes its courfe,
there is the greateft difagreement. Strabo fays, that
the Euphrates rifes in mount Abus, which he joins with,
or accounts a part of, mount Taurus; that its begin¬
ning is on the north fide of mount Taurus; and that
running, firft weftward, through Armenia, then ftri-
king off to the fouth, it forces its way through that
mountain : and thus it rifes in the fouth of Armenia,
mount Taurus being the boundary on that fide ; and
runs through its fouth part, quite to Cappadocia, con¬
terminal with Armenia Minor; or quite to this laft, or
to its fouth limit; to reach which, it muft bend its weft
courfe a little north; becaufe the Taurus, from which
it rofe, lies lower, or more to the fouth, and almoft
parallel
Euphor*
bium
II
Euphrates.
E V R F 28 co 1 EUR
Etiphrates parallel with Melitene: and that then It turns to the
EvremonrJ. in order to break through the Taurus, and efcape
   ■ — to Syria, and then take a new bend to Babylonia. To
this account of Strabo, Pliny runs quite counter; ad¬
ducing eye-witnefles, who carry the Euphrates from
north to fouth in a right line, till it meets mount Tau¬
rus ; placing the fprings together with mount Abus,
or Aba, which inclines to the weft, to the north of
Taurus, all counter to Strabo. Ptolemy ftrikes a
middle courfe between both, placing the fprings to the
eaft, as Strabo does; whence, he fays, it runs in a long
courfe weftward, before it bends fouth; and that it rifes
not from mount Taurus, but far to the north of it; and
he makes it run ftraight weft from its rife, then turn
fouth fpontaneoufly, without any interpofing obftacle,
in a manner quite different from Strabo, Mela, and
others, who make the Taurus the caufe of this turn.
No wonder then that the fprings of the Nile are un¬
known, if a river almoft at the door is fo little under-
ftood. The Euphrates naturally divides into two chan¬
nels, one through Babylon, and the other through Se-
leucia, befides the feveral artificial cuts made between
it and the Tigris about Babylon : and thefe cuts or
trenches are what the Pfalmift calls the rivers of Ba¬
bylon, on the willows of which the captives hung their
harps. It is probable, that the Euphrates naturally
poured into the fea at one particular mouth, before
thefe cuts were made. A thing appearing fo evident
to the ancients, that Pliny has fet down the diftance
between the mouths of the Euphrates and the Tigris:
and he fays, fame made it 25, and others 7, miles; but
that the Euphrates being for a long time back inter¬
cepted in its courfe by cuts, made for watering the
fields, only the branch called the Pafitigris fell into
the fea, the reft of it into the Tigris, and both toge¬
ther into the Perfian Gulf. Overflowing the country
through which it runs, at ftated times of the year, like
the Nile, it renders it fertile.
EUPOLIS, an Athenian comic poet,flouri(hed about
the 85th Olympiad. He took the freedom of the ancient
comedy in lathing the vices of the people. He loft his
life in a fea-fight between the Athenians and Lacede¬
monians; and his fate was fo much lamented, that,
after his death, it was ena&ed, that ho poet fhould
ferve in the wars. Some fay Alcibiades put him to
death for his fatirical freedom.
EVREMOND (CharlesdeStDenis),bornat St De¬
nis leGuaftin Lower Normandy in 1613, was deiigned
for the gown, and entered on the ftudy of the law; but he
foon quitted that, and was made an enfign before he
was 16. A military life did not hinder him from cul¬
tivating polite literature ; and he fignalized himfelf by
his politenefs and wit as much as by his bravery. The
king made him a marefchal de camp, and gave him a
penfion of 3000 livres per annum. He ferved under
the duke of Candale in the war of Guienne; and in
Flanders, till the fufpenfion of arms was agreed on be¬
tween France and Spain : he afterwards accompanied
cardinal Mazarine when he went to conclude the peace
with Don Lewis de Haro, the king of Spain’s firft
minifter. He wrote, as he had prornifed, a long let¬
ter to the marquis de Crequi, of this negociation; in
which he fhewed, that the cardinal had facrificed the
honour of France to his own private intereft, and ral¬
lied him in a very fatirical manner. This letter falling
into the hands of the cardinal’s creatures fome time Evremomf,
after his death, was reprefented as a ftate-crime, and EuriPidcs-
he was obliged to fly to Holland. He had too many
friends in England, (whither he had taken a tour the
year before, with the count de Soiffons, fent to com¬
pliment Charles II. upon his reftoration) to make any
long ftay in Holland ; and therefore paffed over into
England, where he was received with great refpedt, and
admitted into intimate friendftiip with feveral perfons
of diftin&ion. The king gave him a penfion of 300!.
a-year. He had a great defire to return to his native
country; and, after the peace of Nimeguen, wrote a
letter in verfe to the king of France to afk leave, but
in vain. Upon the death of king Charles, he loft his
penfion. He did not rely much on king James, though
that prince had fhewn himfelf extremely kind to him.
The revolution was advantageous him. King William,
who had known him in Holland, gave him fubftantial
marks of his favour. He died of a ftranguary in 1703,
aged 90; and was interred in Weftminfter-abbey,
where a monument is ere&ed to his memory. His be¬
haviour was engaging, his humour cheerful, and he had
a ftrong difpofition to fatire: he profeffed the Romifh
religion, in which he was born; but at the bottom was
certainly a freethinker. He always fpoke of his dif-
race with the refolution of a gentleman; and whatever
rong defire he had to return to his country, he never
folicited the favour with meannefs: therefore, when
this leave was fignified to him unexpeaedly in the de¬
cline of his life, he replied, that the infirmities of age
did not permit him to leave a country where he lived
agreeably. There have been many editions of his
works : but the beft is that of Amflerftam in 1726,
in 5 vols 12mo, to which is prefixed his life by Doftor
Des Maizeaux; who has alfo given an accurate Eng-
lifti tranflation of them in 3 vols 8vo.
EURIPIDES, one of the Greek poets who excel¬
led in tragedy, was born about 486 B. C. in the ifle
of Salamis, whither his father and mother had retired
a little before Xerxes entered Attica. He learnt rhe¬
toric under Prodicus, morality under Socrates, and na¬
tural philofophy under Anaxagoras ; but at 18 years
of age abandoned philofophy, in order to apply him¬
felf to dramatic poetry. He ufed to ftiut himfelf up
in a cave to compofe his tragedies, which were ex¬
tremely applauded by the Greeks. The Athenian
army, commanded by Nicias, being defeated in Sicily,
the foldiers purchafed their lives and liberties by re¬
citing the verfes of Euripides ; fuch efteem and vene¬
ration had the Sicilians for the pieces wrote by this
excellent poet. Socrates, the wifeft of the phiiofo-
phers, fet fuch a value upon them, that they were the
only tragedies he went to fee afted ; and yet his per¬
formances feldom gained the prize. Euripides fre¬
quently interfperfes through them moral fentences, and
fevere reflections on the fair-fex; whence he was called
the Wo7)ian-hater. He was, neverthelefs, married: but
the fcandalous lives of bis two wives drew upon him the
raillery of Ariftophanes, and other comic poets ; which
occafioned his retiring to the court of Archelaus, king
of Macedon, where he was well received. That prince
was fond of learned men, and drew them to him by his
liberality. If we may believe Solinus, he made Euri¬
pides his minifter of ftate, and gave him other extra¬
ordinary proofs of his efteem. He had, however.
■EiiripuJ
Europe.
EUR [ 2860 ] E U S
paffed but a few years there, when an unhappy acci¬
dent put an end to his life. He was walking in a
wood, and, according to his ufual manner, in deep me¬
ditation ; when, unfortunately happening upon Arche-
laus’s hounds, he was by them torn in pieces. It is
not certain whether his death happened by chance, or
through envy of fome of the great courtiers. How¬
ever, Archelaus buried him with great magnificence ;
and the Athenians were fo much affli&ed at his death,
that the whole city went into mourning. Of 92 tra¬
gedies which he compofed, only 19 are remaining: the
moft valuable editions of which are thofe of Aldus, in
1503, 8vo; ofPlantin, in 1570, fexefimo; ofComme-
lin, in I5'97, 8vo; of Paul Stevens, in 1604, 410; and
of Jofhua Barnes, in 1694, folio. ,
EURIPUS, now the Negropont, a canal or (trait
which divides the ifland of Euboea from the continent
of Greece. In one place it is fo narrow, that a galley
can fcarce pafs through it. The agitations of the Eu-
ripus were much fpoken of by the ancients. .Some fay
that the canal has a flux and reflux fix times in 24 hours;
others, that it ebbs and flows feven times a day; but
Livy does not allow this flux and reflux to be fo re¬
gular. Father Babin, a Jefuit of great learning, who
made many obfervations on the fpot during his long
abode in the ifland of Negropont, tells us, that the
Euripus is regular in its ebbing and flowing the firft
eight days of the moon : the fame regularity he ob-
ferved from the 14th to the 20th day inclufive, and
in the three laft days* but in the other days of the
lunar month, it is not fo regular; for it fometimes ebbs
and flows n, 12, 13, and 14 times in the fpace of a
natural day.
EUROPA, in fabulous hiftory, daughter of Age-
nor, king of Phoenicia; with whom Jupiter being in
love, transformed himfelf into a boll, and ran away
with her into this part of the world, which from her is
called Europe.
EUROPE, one of the quarters of the world,
bounded on the north by the Frozen Ocean, on the
weft by the Weftern Ocean, on the fouth by the Me¬
diterranean, which leparates it from Africa, and by the
Archipelago, which divides it in part from Alia, as
alfo by the Black Sea, then by the river Don, till it
comes near the river Volga or Wolga, and then it is
parted from Afia by this laft, and afterwards by the
river Oby. Europe is lituated between Long. 9. 35.
W. and 72. 25. E. and Lat. 350 and 720 N. It is
about 3300 miles in length, from Cape St Vincent in
Portugal, to the river Oby in Ruflia ; and 2200 miles
in breadth, from Cape Matapan, in the Mores, to the
North Cape of Norway. We may judge by this, that
it is much lefs than Afia and Africa; but it is in many
things more confiderable than both.
Europe, excepting a fmall part of Lapland and
Mufcovy, is fituated in the temperate zone; infomuch,
that we neither feel the extremities of heat nor cold.
We cannot boaft of rich mines of gold, filver, and pre¬
cious ftones; nor does it produce fugar or fpices, nor
yet elephants, camels, &c. which we can do without; but
produces abundance of corn, pulfe, fruits, animals, &c.
the moft neceffary for the ufe of mankind. In general,
it is better peopled and better cultivated than the other
quarters; it is more full of cities, towns, and villages,
great and fmall, and its buildings are more folid and
more commodious than thofe of Africa and Afia. The Europe-
inhabitants are all white; and incomparably more hand- !l
fome than the Africans, and even than moft of the A- Eufclcn'
fiatics. The Europeans furpafs both in arts and fci-
ences, efpecially in thofe called the liberal; in trade,
navigation, and in military and civil affairs; being, at
the fame time, more prudent, more valiant, more ge¬
nerous, more polite, and more fociable than they : and
though we are divided into various feds, yet, as Chri-
ftians, we have infinitely the advantage over the reft of
mankind. There are but few places in Europe where
they fell each other for flaves ; and none where rob¬
bery is a profefiion, as it is in Afia and Africa.
There are feveral forts of governments in Europe; as
the two empires of Germany and Rnffia, the kingdoms
of England, France, Spain, Portugal, Denmark, Swe¬
den, Poland, Prufiia, Sardinia, and the Two Sicilies.
The commonwealths are Holland, Swiflerland, Venice,
Genoa, Ragufa, Lucca, and Geneva. The duke¬
doms,, Tufcany, Savoy, Modena, Mantua, Parma, and
Courland, &c.
There are five forts of religions in Europe, viz. the
Mahommedan, which is profefied in Turkey in Eu¬
rope; the Greek, of which there are many in the fame
parts, in all Mufcovy, and in feveral parts of Polifh
Ruflia; the Roman Catholic in Spain, Portugal,
France, and Italy; the Proteftant, though with a con¬
fiderable difference, in Great Britain, Denmark, Swe¬
den, and Norway. There is a mixture of both the laft,
in Ireland, Swifferland, Germany, Poland, Hungary,
and the Low Countries: befides many Jews, and fome
idolaters in Lapland and the northern parts of Muf¬
covy.
There are three general languages in Europe : the
Latin, of which the Italian, the French, and the Spa-
nifh, are dialefts; the Teutonic, which is fpoken, tho’
differently, in Germany, Hungary, Denmark, Sweden,
and Great Britain ; the Sclavonic, which is fpoken, thp’
greatly difguifed, in Mufcovy, Poland, Bohemia, and
Turky in Europe. There are fome of lefs extent: as,
the Greek; the Proper Hungarian; the Bafque; the
Britifti, which is fpoken in Wales and Bretagne in
France; the Irifli; and the Laponic.
Europe may be divided into 11 great parts, inclu¬
ding their dependencies: 1. Sweden ; 2. Denmark
and Norway; 3..Ruflia; 4. Poland; 5. Germany;
6. France; 7. Spain; 8. Italy; 9. Turky in Europe;
10. Little Tartary ; and, 11. The European iflands,
of which the chief are Great Britain and Ireland. The
greateft cities in Europe are, London, Paris, Amfter-
dam, Conftantinople, Mofcow, and Rome.
EURYDICE, the wife of Orpheus. See Orpheus.
EURYTHYMI, in archite&ure, painting, and
fculpture, is a certain majefty, elegance, and eafinefs,
appearing in the compofition of divers members, or
parts of a body, painting, or fculpture, and refulting
from the fine proportion of it.
EUSDEN (Laurence), an Irifli clergyman, re&or
of Conefby in Lincolnfhire, and poet laureat after the
death of Mr Rowe. His firft patron was the eminent
lord Halifax; whofe poem, on the battle of the Boyne,
he tranflated into Latin, and dedicated to his lordftrip.
He was efteemed by the duke of Newcaftle, who re¬
warded an epithalamium he wrote on his marriage, with
the place of poet laureat. He was the author of many
poetical
E U S [ 2861 ] E U T
Eiiftbitjs poetical pieces, though but little known before his pre-
!1 ferment: he died in 1730.
u at nans EUSEBIUS, furnamed Pamphilus, a celebrated
bifhop of Csefarea in Paleftine, and one of the mod
learned men of his time, was born in Paleftine about
the latter end of the reign of Gallienus. He was the
intimate friend of Pamphilus the Martyr; and, after
his death, took his name in honour to his memory. He
was ordained bifhop of Csefarea in 313. He had a con-
fiderable (hare in the conteft relating to Arius; whofe
caufe he, as well as feveral other bifhops of Paleftine,
defended, being perfuaded that Arius had been un-
juftly perfecuted by Alexander bifhop of Alexandria.
He aflifted at the council of Nice in 325 ; when he
made a fpeech to the emperor Conftantine on his coming
to the council, and was placed next him on his right
hand. He was prefent at the council of Antioch, in
which Euftathius biftiop of that city was depofed ; but
though he was chofen by the biftiop and people of
Antioch to fucceed him, he abfolutely refufed it. In
335, he afiifted at the council of Tyre, held againft
Athanafius; and at the affc-mbly of biftiops at Jerufa-
lem, at the time of the dedication of the church there.
By thefe biftiops he was fent to the emperor Conftan¬
tine to defend what they had done againft Athanafius;
when he pronounced the panegyric made on that em¬
peror during the public rejoicings in the beginning of
the 30th year of his reign, which was the laft of his
life. Eufebius furvived the emperor but a ftiort time,
for he died in 338. He wrote, 1. An Ecclefiaftical
Hiftory, of which Valetius has given a good edition in
Greek and Latin. 2. The life of Conftantine. 3. A
treatife againft Hierocles. 4. Chronicon. 5. Prepa-
rationes Evangelic#. 6. De demonjiratione Evange¬
lical of which there are but 10 books extant out of 20;
and feveral other works, fome of which are loft.
EUSTACHIUS (Bartholomew), phyfician and
anatomift at Rome, flouriftied about the year 1550.
His Anatomical Plates were difcovered there in 17 J 2,
and publifhed in 1714.
EUSTATHIANS, a name give to the Catholics of
Antioch in the 4th century, on occafion of their re-
fufal to acknowledge any other biftiop befide S. Eufta¬
thius, depofed by the Arlans.
The denomination was given them during the epif-
copate of Paulinus, whom the Arians fubftituted to S.
Euftathius, about the year 330, when they began to
hold their aflemblies apart. About the year 350,
Leontius of Phrygia, called the eunuch, who was
an Arian, and was put in the fee of Antioch, de-
fired the Euftathians to perform their fervice in his
church; which they accepting, the church of Antioch
ferved indifferently both the Arians and Catholics.
This, we are told, gave occafion to two inftitutions,
which have fubfifted in the church ever fince. The firft
was pfalmody in two choirs; though M. Baillet thinks,
that if they inftituted an alternate pfalmody between
two choirs, it was between two Catholic choirs, and
not by way of refponfe to an Arian choir. The fe-
cond was the doxology, Glory be to the Father, and the-
Son, and the Holy Ghoft. See Doxology.
This conduft, which feemed to imply a kind of com¬
munion with the Arians, gave great offence to abun¬
dance of Catholics, who began to hold feparate meet¬
ings ; and thus formed the fchifm of Antioch. Upon
V-ol. IV.
this, the reft, who continued to meet in the church, Enfijthirs
ceafed to be called Eujlathians, and that appellation R .
became reftrained to the diffenting party. S. Flavia- roplu*J ■
nus, bifhop of Antioch in 381, and one of his fnccef-
fors, Alexander, in 482, brought to pafs a coalition, or
reunion, between the Euftathians and the body of the
church of Antioch, defcribed with much folemnity by
Theodoret, Eccl. I. iii. c. 2.
EUSTATHIUS, biftiop of Theffalonica, in the
12th century, under the reigns of the emperors Ema¬
nuel, Alexander, and Andronicus Comnenus. He was
a very eminent grammarian ; and wrote commentaries
upon Homer, and Dionyfius the geographer. The
beft edition of his Commentaries on Homer is that of
Rome, printed in Greek, in 1542, in four volumes,
folio. His Commentaries on the Periegefis of Diony¬
fius were printed by Mr Hudfon, at Oxford, in 1697,
8vo. Euftathius appears to have been alive in the
year 1194.
EUSTATIA, or Sr Eustatia, one of the Ca-
ribbee iflands, belonging to the Dutch, and fituated in
W. Long. 62. 56. N. Lat. 17. 29. It is about 15
miles in compafs; and is little,elfe than a huge moun¬
tain, which formerly has, in all probability, been a
volcano. Its fituation is fo ftrong, that it has but one
landing place; and that is fortified in fuch a manner
as to be almoft impregnable. Tobacco is the chief
produtft of the ifland, and that is cultivated to the very
top of the pyramid, which terminates in a large plain
fhrrounded with woods; but having a hollow in the
middle, which ferves as a large den for wild beafts.
No fewer than 5000 white people, and 15,000 ne¬
groes, fubfift on this fpot, where they rear hogs, kids,
rabbits, and all kinds of poultry, in fuch abundance,
that they can fupply their neighbours, after having
ferved themfelves.
The firft Dutch colony fent to this ifland confifted
of about 1600 people. They were difpoffeffed by the
Englifh from Jamaica in 1665. Soon after, the Dutch
and French becoming confederates, the Englifti were
expelled in their turn. The French continued to hold
a garrifon in the ifland till the treaty of Breda, when
it was reftored to the Dutch. Soon after the revolu¬
tion, the French drove out the Dutch, and were in
their turn driven out by the Englifti under Sir Timo¬
thy Thornhill, with the lofs of no more than eight men
killed and wounded, though the fort they took mount¬
ed 16 guns, and was in every other refpedt very ftrong.
Sir Timothy found it neceffary, for the prote&ion of
the Dutch, to leave a fmall Englifti garrifon in the
fort; but he granted the French no terms of capitu¬
lation, except for their lives and baggage. By the
peace of Ryfwic, the entire property of this ifland was
reftored to the Dutch, who have ever fince remained
undifturbed mafters of it.
EUSTYLE, in architefture, a fort of building in
which the pillars are placed at the molt convenient di-
ftance one from another, the intercolumniations being
juft two diameters and a quarter of the column, except
thofe in the middle of the face, before and behind,
which are three diameters diftant.
EUTROPIUS (Flavius), a Latin author, in the
4th century, was fecretary to Conftantine the Great,
and afterwards bore arms under the emperor Julian,
and followed that prince in his expedition againft the
16 O Per-
Eutroplos
* See Ovis.
EXP
[
Perfians. He wrote an Abridgment of the Roman
Hiftory, from the foundation of Rome to the reign
of Valens; the beft edition of which is that of Mifs
Le Fevre, afterwards Madam Dacier, publifhed at
Paris for the ufe of the Dauphin, in 4to, in the year
1683,
2862 ] E X A
may ex officio, at his difcretion, take furety of the
peace, without complaint made by any perfon what*
foever.
There was formerly an oath ex officio, whereby a fup-
pofed offender was compelled in the ecclefiaftical court
to confefs., accufe, or clear himfelf of a crime; but this
fterrpiece of eloquence. Eutropius was afterwards
banifhed to the ifjand of Cyprus, and was beheaded at
Chalcedon in 399.
EUTYCHES, a Conftinopolitan abbot, who, con¬
tending with Neftprips, feH into a new herefy, affirming
Chrift to be one thing, and the Word another. His.
followers were called Eutycbians, Being condemned in
the fynod of Conftantinople, convened by Flavianus the
bifhop, he appealed to the emperor. After which, by
* t affiftanpe of Diofcurus bifhop of Alexandria, and
in he got his herefy to be approved. However, in the
fecoqd oecumenical council of Chalcedon, under Mar¬
tian, his errors were a fecond time condemned.
EUTYCHIANS, in church-hiftory, heretics in the
5th century, who embraced the errors of the monk
Eutyches. See EutVChes.
EUTYCHIUS, patriarch of Alexandria,lived about
the ninth age; and wrote annals in the Arabic lan¬
guage, printed at Oxford in 1658, with a Latin ver-
fipn by
within bounds, and formed the two channels of the
Bofphorus Thracius and Hellefpont, now the Darda¬
nelles.—It was anciently called the Axenus, fuppofed
to be frotp Afhkenaz the fpn of Corner, who is faid to
have fettled near it. This original being forgot in
length of time, the Greeks explained it by inbofpit able,
which the word Axe ms literally lignifies; and there¬
fore, when they came to confider the inhabitants of emperors of the eaft into Italy, in quality of vicar, or
thefe coafts as more civilized and hofpitable, they
changed the name into Euxinus, which it ftill retains.
EWE, the Enghffi name of a female ffieep*.
fwers after dinner.
EX officio, among lawyers, fignifies the power
9 perfon has, by virtue of his office, to do certain a£ts
without being applied t0!» Thus a juftice of peace
Eutropius, a famous eunuch, who, ip the reign of law is repealed.
Arcadius, was raifed to the moft ddfinguiffied polls, Ex Pojl Fafto, in law, fomething done after ano-
and even to the confuhhip; but rendered himfelf odi- ther; thus an eftate granted may be good by mat-
pus by his crimes and debaucheries, and had even the ter ex poji faHo, that was not fo at firft, as in cafe of
infplence to threaten the emprefs Eudoxia witheaufing eledtion.
her to be divorced : but Gajnas having demanded his EXACERBATION. See Paroxysm.
head, he took fandtuary in a church, which he had de- EXACTION, in law, a wrong done-by an officer,
priyed of its immunities; when St Chryfoftom faved or a perfon in pretended authority, in taking a reward
liim from the fury of the populace, and pronounced on or fee that is not allowed by law.
that occaiion a fermon, which is juftly efteemed a ma.- A perfon guilty of exadtion may be fined and im-
prifoned. It is often confounded with Extortion.
EXiERESIS, in forgery, the operation of extrac¬
ting or taking away fomething that is hurtful to the
human body.
EXAGGERATION, in rhetoric, a kind of hy¬
perbole, whereby things are augmented or amplified,
by faying more than the truth, either as to good or
bad.
Exaggeration, in painting, a method by which
the artift, in reprefenting things, changes them too
Chryfaphius, he obtained a fynod at Epheffis, called much, or makes them too ftrong, either in refpedl of
jPaftrica, or the Affirnbly of Thieves and Robbers, where- the defign or colouring. It differs from caricaturing.
that the latter perverts or gives a turn to the features
of a face, &c. which they had not; whereas exagge¬
ration only heightens or improves what they had,
EXAMINERS, in chancery, two officers of that
court, who examine, upon oath, witneffes produced in
caufes depending there, by either the complainant or
defendant, where the witneffes live in London or
near it, Sometimes parties themftlves, by particular
_ _ _ _ order, are e'xamined. In the country, above twenty
fion by Mr Pocock, §eldep had printed fomething of miles from London, on the parties joining in com-
his before. miffion, witneffes are examined by commiffioners, be-
EUXINE or Black Sea, forms part of the boun- ing ufually counfellors or attornies not concerned in the
dary betwixt Europe and Alia. It receives the Nie- caufe.
per, the Danube, and other large rivers; and extends EXAMPLE, in rhetpric, denotes an imperfedl
from 28 to 40 degrees of E. Long, and from 40 to kind of indu&ion, or argumentation ; whereby it is
46 of N- Eat. The ancients imagined this fea to have proved, that a thing which has happened on fame
been originally only a lake or Handing pool, which other pccafion will happen again on the prefent one,
broke firft into the Propontis, and then into the Egean, from the fimilitude of the cafes. As, “ The war
walhing away by degrees the earth which firft kept it of the Thebans, againft their neighbours the Pho-
cians, was ruinous; confequently, that of the A-
thenians againft their neighbours, will likewife be
fatal.”
EXANTHEMA, among phyficians, denotes any
kind of efflorefcence or eruption, as the mealies, purple
fpots in the plague, or malignant fevers, &c.
EXARCH, in antiquity, an officer fent by the
rather prefeft, to defend that part of Italy which was
yet under their obedience, and particularly the city*
of Ravenna, againft the Lombards. The exarch re-
EWRY, in the Britiffi cuftoms, an office in the fided at Ravenna; which place, with Rome, was all
king’s hpuffiold, to which belongs the care of the table- that was left to the emperors of their Italian domi-
linen, of laying the cloth, andferving up water in filver nions. The firft exarch was under Juftin the young¬
er, in the year 567, after Belifarius and Narfes had
driven the barbarians out of Italy. The laft was Eu-
tychius, defeated by Adolphus king of the Lombards
in 752.
EX.
Exealeea-
tion
tl
Exchange
E X C [ 2863 ] E X C
EXC ALCEATION, among the Hebrews, was a
particular law, whereby a widow, whom her hufband’s
brother refufed to marry, had a right to fummon him
1 to a court of juftice ; and, upon his refufal, might ex-
calceate him, that is, pull off one of his flioes, and fpit
in his face ; both of them actions of great ignominy,
EXCELLENCY, a title anciently given to kings
and emperors, but now to embaffadors and other
perfons who are. not qualified for that of highnefs,
and yet are to be elevated above the other inferior dig¬
nities.
EXCENTR1C, in geometry, a term applied to
circles and fpheres which have not the fame centre,
and confequently are not parallel ; in oppofition to
concentric, where they are parallel, having one com¬
mon centre.
EXCENTRICITY, in aftronomy, is the diftance
of the centre of the orbit of a planet from the centre
of the fun ; that is, the diftance between the centre
of the ellipfis and the focus thereof.
EXCEPTION, fomething referved, or fet afide,
and not included in a rule.
It is become proverbial, that there is no rule with¬
out an exception; intimating, that it is impoffible to
comprehend all the particular cafes, under one and
the fame maxim. But it is dangerous following the ex¬
ception, preferably to the rule.
Exception, in law, denotes a flop or ftay to an
aftion; and is either dilatory or peremptory, in pro¬
ceedings at common law; but in chancery it is what
the plaintiff alleges againft the fufRcieney of an an-
fwer, &c.
An exception is no more than the denial of what
is taken to be good by the other party, either in
point of law or pleading. The counfel in a caufe
are to take all their exceptions to the record at one
time, and before the court has delivered any opinion
of it.
EXCERPTA, in matters of literature. See Ex¬
tract.
EXCESS, in arithmetic and geometry, is the dif¬
ference between any two unequal numbers or quanti¬
ties, or that which is left after the leffer is taken from
or out of the greater.
EXCHANGE, in a general fenfe, a contraft or
agreement, whereby one thing is given or exchanged
for another.
Exchange, in commerce, is the receiving or pay¬
ing of money in one country for the like fome in ano¬
ther, by means of bills of exchange.
The fecurity which merchants commonly take from
one another when they circulate their bufinefs, is a bill
of exchange, or a note of hand: thefe are looked up¬
on as payment. See Bill, and Mercantile Laws,
The punctuality of acquitting thefe obligations is ef-
fential to commerce ; and no fooner is a merchant’s
accepted bill protefted, than he is confidered as a
bankrupt. For this reafon, the laws of moft nations
have given very extraordinary privileges to bills of ex¬
change. The fecurity of trade is effential to every fo-
ciety ; and were the claims of merchants to linger un¬
der the formalities of courts of law when liquidated by
bills of exchange, faith, confidence, and punctuality,
would quickly difappear, and the great engine of com¬
merce would be totally deftroyed.
A regular bill of exchange is a mercantile contraft, Estcht
in which four perfons are concerned, viz. 1. The
drawer, who receives the value : 2. His debtor, in a
diftant place, upon whom the bill is drawn, and who
muft accept and pay it: 3. The perfon who gives va¬
lue for the bill, to whofe order it is to be paid : and,
4. The perfon to whom it is ordered to be paid, cre¬
ditor to the third.
By this operation, reciprocal debts, due in two di¬
ftant parts, are paid by a fort of transfer, or permu¬
tation of debtors and creditors.
(A) in London is Creditor to (B) in Paris, value
look (C) again in London is debtor to (D) in Paris
for a like fum. By the operation of the bill of ex¬
change, the London creditor is paid by the London
debtor, and the Paris creditor is paid by the Paris
debtor; confequently, the two debts are paid, and no
money is fent from London to Paris, nor from Paris
to London.
In this example, (A) is the drawer, (B) is the ac¬
cepter, (C) is the purchafer of the bill, and (D) re¬
ceives the money. Two perfons here receive the mo¬
ney, (A) and (D) ; and two pay the money, (B) and
(C) ; which is juft what muft be done when two deb¬
tors and two creditors clear accounts.
This is the plain principle of a bill of exchange.
From which it appears, that reciprocal and equal debts
only can be acquitted by them.
When it therefore happens, that the reciprocal
debts of London and Paris (to ufe the fame example)
are not equal, there arifes a balance on one fide. Sup-
pofe London to owe Paris a balance, value 1001. How1
can this be paid ? Anfwer, It may either be done with
or without the intervention of a bill.
With a bill, if an exchanger, finding a demand for
a bill upon Paris for the value of tool, when Paris
owes no more to London, fends tool, to his corre-
fpondent at Paris in coin, at the expence (fuppofe) of
1 1. and then, having become creditor on Paris, he
can give a bill for the value of 1601. upon his being
repaid his expence, and paid for his rilk and trouble.
Or it may be paid without a bill, if the London
debtor fends the coin himfelf to his Paris creditor, with¬
out employing an exchanger.
This laft example (hews of what little ufe bills are in
the payment of balances. As far as the debts are e»
qual, nothing can be more ufeful than bills of exchange;
but the more they are ufeful in this eafy way of bufinefs*
the lefs profit there is to any perfon to make a trade
of exchange, when he is not himfelf concerned either
as debtor or creditor.
When merchants have occafion to draw and remit
bills for the liquidation of their own debts, a&ive and
paflive, in diftant parts, they meet upon ’Change;
where, to purfue the former example, the Creditors up¬
on Paris, when they want money for bills, look out for
thofe who are debtors to it. The debtors to Paris a-
gain, when they want bills for money, feek for thofe
who are creditors upon it.
This market is conftantiy attended by brokers, who
relieve the merchant of the trouble of fearching for
thofe he wants. To the broker every one communi¬
cates his wants, fo far as he finds it prudent; and by
going about among all the merchants, the broker dif-
covers the fide upon which the greater demand lies,
16 O 2 for
E X C [ 2864 ] E X C
Exchange. f0r money, or for bills.
" He who is the demander in any bargain, has con-
ftantly the difadvantage in dealing with him of whom
he demands. This is no where fo much the cafe as in
exchange, and renders fecrecy very eflential to indivi¬
duals among the merchants. If the London merchants
want to pay their debts to Paris, when there is a ba¬
lance again ft London, it is their intereft to conceal
their debts, and efpecially the neceffity they may be
under to pay them ; from the fear that thofe who are
creditors upon Paris would demand too high a price
for the exchange over and above par.
On.the other hand, thofe who are creditors upon
Paris, when Paris owes a balance to London, are as
careful in concealing what is owing to them by Paris,
from the fear that thofe who are debtors to Paris
•would avail themfelves of the competition among the
Paris creditors, in order to obtain bills for their money,
below the value of them, when at par. A creditor
upon Paris, who is greatly prefled for money at Lon¬
don, will willingly abate fomething of his debt, in or¬
der to get one who will give him money for it.
From the operation carried on among merchants up¬
on ’Change, we may difcover the confequence of their
feparate and jarring interefts. They are conftantly in-
terefted in the ftate of the balance. Thofe who are
creditors on Paris, fear the balance due to London ;
thofe who are debtors to Paris, dread a balance due
to Paris. The intereft of the firft is to diflemble what
they fear ; that of the laft, to exaggerete what they
wifh. The brokers are thofe who determine the courfe
of the day ; and the moft intelligent merchants are
thofe who difpatch their bufinefs before the fa& is
known.
Now, how is trade in general interefted in the que-
ftion, Who ftiall outwit, and who ftiall be outwitted,
in this complicated operation of exchange among mer¬
chants ?
The intereft of trade and of the nation is principal¬
ly concerned in the proper method of paying and re¬
ceiving the balances. It is alfo concerned in prefer-
ving a juft equality of profit and lofs among all the
merchants, relative to the real ftate of the balance.
Unequal competition among men engaged in the fame
purfuit, eonftantly draws along with it bad confequen-
ces to the general undertaking ; and fecrecy in trade
will be found, upon examination, to be much more ufe-
ful ta merchants in their private capacity, than to the
trade they are carrying on.
Merchants endeavour to fimplify their bufinefs as
much as pofiible; and commit to brokers many opera¬
tions which require no peculiar talents to execute. This
of exchange is of fuch a nature, that it is hardly pof¬
iible for a merchant to carry on the bufinefs of his bills,
without their affiftance, upon many occafions. When
merchants come upon Change, they are fo full of fear
and jealoufies, that they will not open themfelves to one
another, left they ftiould difcover what they want to
conceal. The broker is a confidential man, in fome
degree, between parties, and brings them together.
. Befides the merchants who circulate among them¬
felves their reciprocal debts and credits arifing from Exchange,
their importation and exportation of goods, there is
another fet of merchants who deal in exchange; which
is the importation and exportation of money and bills.
Were there never any balance on the trade of na¬
tions, exchangers and brokers would find little em¬
ployment : reciprocal and equal debts would eafily be
tranfa&ed openly between the parties themfelves. No
man feigns and diflembles, except when he thinks he
has an intereft in fo doing.
But when balances come to be paid, exchange be¬
comes intricate; and merchants are fo much employed
in particular branches of bufinefs, that they are obli-
6ed to leave the liquidation of their debts to a particu-
ir fet of men, who make it turn out to the belt ad¬
vantage to themfelves.
Whenever a balance is to be paid, that payment cofts,
as we have feen, an additional expence to thofe of the
place who owe it, over and above the value of the debt.
If, therefore, this expence be a lofs to the trading
man, he muft either be repaid this lofs by thofe whom
he ferves, that is, by the nation ; or the trade he car¬
ries on will become lefs profitable.
Every one will agree, that the expence of high ex¬
change upon paying a balance, is a lofs to a people,
no way to be compenfated by the advantages they reap
from enriching the few individuals among them who
gain by contriving methods to pay it off; and if an ar¬
gument is neceflary to prove this propofition, it may
be drawn from this principle, viz. whatever renders the
profit upon trade precarious or uncertain, is a lofs to
trade in general: this lofs is the confequence of high
exchange; and although a profit does refult from it
upon one branch of trade, the exchange-bufinefs, yet
that cannot compenfate the lofs upon every other.
We may, therefore, here repeat what we have faid
above, that the more difficulty is found in paying a ba¬
lance, the greater is the lofs to a nation.
The Courfe of Exchange.
The courfe of exchange is the current price betwixt
two place, which is always fluftuating and unfettled,
being fometimes above and fometimes below par, ac¬
cording to the circumftances of trade.
When the courfe of exchange rifes above par, the
country where it rifes may conclude for certain, that
the balance of trade runs againft them. The truth of
this will appear, if we fuppofe Britain to import from
any foreign place goods to the value of ioo,oool. at
par, and export only to the value of 80,0001. In thiV
cafe, bills on the faid foreign place will be fcarce in
Britain, and confequently will rife.in value; and after
the 8o,oool. is paid, bills muft be procured from other
places at a high rate to pay the remainder, fo that per¬
haps 120,0001. may be paid for bills to difeharge a
debt of toojoool.
Though the courfe of exchange be in a perpetual
flux, and rifes or falls according to the circumftances of
trade; yet the exchanges of London, Holland, Ham¬
burgh, and Venice, in a great meafure regulate thofe
of all other places in Europe.
I. Ex-
Exchange,
E X C
[ 2865 ]
E X C
Exchange,
I. Exchange 'with Holland.
M O N E Y-T AB L E.
8 Pennings, or 2 duytes,
2 Groats, or 16 pennings,
6 Stivers, or 12 pence,
20 Schillings,
20 Stivers, or 40 pence,
6 Guilders, or florins,
2-rGuilders, or florins,
Par in Sterling. s. d.
f 1 groat or penny = o 0.54
1 ftiver = o 1.09
1 fchilling = o 6.56
< 1 pound Flemilh = 10 11.18
1 guilder or florin = 1 9.86
1 pound Flemilh = 10 Ii.t8
1 rixdollar = 4 6.66
In Holland there are two forts of money, bank and
current. The bank is reckoned good fecurity; de¬
mands on the bank are readily anfwered; and hence
bank-money is generally rated from 3 to 6 per cent.
better than the current. The diflerence between the
bank and current money is called the agio.
Bills on Holland are always drawn in bank-money;
and if accounts be fent over from Holland to Britain
in current money, the Britilh merchant pays thefe ac¬
counts by bills, and in this cafe has the benefit of the
agio.
Prob. I. To reduce lank-money to current money.
Rule. As 100 to 100+agio, fo the given guilders
to the anfwer,
Example. What will 2210 guilders in bank-mondy
amount to in Holland currency, the agio being 3-5- per
cent. ?
Guild.
As 100 : ro3-|- :: 2210
8 8 825
SOO 825 4loyo
4420
I7680
 Guild. Jl. pen.
8|oo) 18232150(2279 1 4 cur.
16 • ••20
If the agio only be required, make the agio the
middle term, thus:
Guil. Jl. pen.
As too : 3-g-:: 2210: 69 1 4 agio. Or, work
by practice, as above.
Prob. II. To reduce current money to hank-money.
Rule. As xoo+agio to 100, fo the given guilders
to the anfwer.
Example. What will 2279 guilders 1 (liver 4 pen¬
nings, Holland currency, amount to in bank-money,
the agio being 3-|- per cent?
Guild. Guild. Guild. Jl. pen.
As 103^ : 100:: 2279 1 4
8 8 20
825 800 45581
20 16
16500 273490
16 45581
990 729300
165 80a
8)264)000 8)583440)000
3)33 s)l293°Guild.
11 11)24310(2210 bank.
22 io|oo(
16 8
63
56
2
16
72 3.2
72 32
Or, by pradtice,
50)2210
44.2 = 2 per cent.
22.1 =1 per cent.
2.7625 = ^ per cent.
2279.0625
In Amfterdam, Rotterdam, Middleburgh, &c. books
and accounts are kept by fome in guilders (livers and
pennings, and by others in pounds (hillings and pence
Flemifh.
Britain gives 1 1. Sterling for an uncertain number
of (hillings and pence Flemiih. The par is 1 1. Ster¬
ling for 36.59 s. Flemilh ; that is, 1 1. 16 s. 7.08 d.
Flemifli.
When the Flemiffi rate rifes above par, Britain gains
and Holland lofes by the exchange, and vice'verfa.
Sterling money is changed into Flemilh, by faying.
As 1 1. Sterling to the given rate.
So is the given Sterling to the Flemifli fought.
Or, the Flemilh money may be cad up by pradlice.
Dutch money, whether pounds,- (hillings, pence Fle-
mi(h, or guilders, (livers, pennings, may be changed
into Sterling, by faying,
As the given rate to 11. Sterling,
So the given Dutch to the Sterling fought.
Exchange.
E X C [ 2866 ]
Example, i. A merchant in Britain draws on Am-
fterdam for 7821. Sterling: How many pounds Fle-
mifh, and how many guilders, will that amount to, ex¬
change at 34s. 8d. per pound Sterling?
L. s. d.
If x : 34 8
12
Decimally.
L. L. t. L.
782 If 1 : 34-0 :: 782
782
E X G
if
Decimally.
S)L. L. S) L.
1.875 : x :: 591.25
5) -375 s)l'*-2S
5) '°15 5) 23.65
.015 .015) 4-73(3I3-2
45
Exchange.
416
782
832
3328
29x2
12)325312 ^
2|o) 2710I94
1355 9 4 Flem'
69^
«7733
242666
2|o)27io|9.3
^•1355 9 4 Flem.
By praAice.
782
391
156 8
26 1
4
1355 9 4^-
14s.
8d.
Or thus:
L. s. d.
782
547 8
26 1 4
1 1355 9 4^
Multiply the Flemilh pounds and (hillings by 6, and
the product will be guilders and ftivers; and if there
be any pence, multiply them by 8 for pennings; or,
divide the Flemilh pence by 40, and the quot will be
guilders, and the half of the remainder, if there be any,
will be ftivers, and one penny odd will be half a ftiver,
or 8 pennings, as follows,
L. s. d.
1355 94 Flem. pence.
6 4|0)32531!2(32 revu
Xjuild.%\$2 16Jiiv. Guild. 8132 16 Jliv.
23
*5
80
75
50
45
* 5
Holland exchanges with other nations as follows, viz.
with
Flem. d.
Hamburgh, on the dollar, = 66f-
France, on the crown, = 54
Spain, on the ducat, = 109^
Portugal, on the crufade,. = 50
Venice, on the ducat, = 93
Genoa, on the pezzo, = 100
Leghorn, on the piaftre, =100
Florence, on the crown, =120
Naples, on the ducat, = 744.
Rome, on the crown, = 136
Milan, on the ducat, =102
Bologna, on the dollar, = 94^
Exchange between Britain and Antwerp, as alfo the
Auftrian Netherlands, is negociated the fame way as
with Holland; only the par is fomewhar different, as
will be defcribed in article 2d, following.
II. Exchange with Hamburgh.
MONEY-TABLE.
2. Change 59 il. 5 s. Flemilh into Sterling money,
exchange at 37s. 6d. Flemilhper 1. Sterling?
•*. Flem..
. L. s.
:: 591 5
s. d.
If 37 6 :
2 20
5)75 1102S
— 2
4)15 r“7—
— 5)2365o
5) 473°
3) 946
L. s. d.
Anf. 31558 Ster.
3»5t
Par in Sterling. s.
fchilling-lub = o
= 46
= 9 4l
Books and accounts are kept at the bank, and by
moft people in the city, in marks, fchilling-lubs, and
phennings; but fome keep them in pounds, fchillings,
and groots Flemilh.
The agio at Hamburgh runs between 20 and 40
per cent. All bills are paid in bank-money.
Hamburgh exchanges with Britain by giving an un¬
certain number of fchillings and groots Flemilh for the
pound Sterling. The groot or penny Flemilh here, as
alfo at Antwerp, is v^orth ^4 of a penny Sterling; and
fo fomething better than in Holland, where it is only
Tpod. Sterling.
6. Phen-
Exchange.
E X C
[ *867 ]
Exchange.
Flemifb,
6 Phennings - 1 groot or penny
6 Schilling-lubs J V I fchilling
1 Schilling-lub make < 2 pence or groots
1 Mark N f 32 pence or groota
7iMarks 1 pound.
The par with Hamburgh, and a]fo with Antwerp,
is 35 s. 6-fd. Flemiftx for x 1. Sterling.
Examples, i. How many marks muft be received at
Hamburgh for 3001. Sterling, exchange at 35s. 3d.
Flemifh per 1. Sterling.
L. s. d. L.
If- * : 35 3 - 3°°
12
423
300
 M. fch.
32)126900(3965 10
96 ’ * •
309
288
210
192
180
160
(20)
16
)32Q
32
Ip)
Decimally.
Fiem. /. Marks. Flem. jv
If 20 : 7.5 :: 35.25
4 : 1.5 :: 35.25
1.5
17625,
J525
4)52.875
Marks in ll. Sterling 13.21875
300
Marks in 3001. Sterling 3965.62500
16
375°
625
Schilling-lubs 10.000
2. Flaw much Sterling money will a bill of
mark 1 o fchilling-lnbs amount to, exchange at 35 s. 3d..
Flemifli per 1. Sterling ?
E X C
FIs. d. L.St. Mku fch.
If 35 3:1:: 3965 10
12 32 2
423 7930 zod.
11897
423)126900(300!. fter.
1269
Decimally.
4 : 1.5 :: 35.25
M
17625
2525
4)52-875(i3-2i875
13.21875)3965.62500(300!. fter.
3965625-
III. Exchange •with France.
MONEY-TABLE.
Par in Ster. s. d.
12 deniers^ (1 fol =0 o|4
20 fols > make s 1 livre = o 9^
3 livres j C1 crown = 2 5^
At Paris, Rouen, Lyons, &c. books and accounts
are kept in livres, fols, and deniers; and the exchange
with Britain is on the crown, or ecu, of 3 livres, or 60
fols Tourjiois. Britain gives for the crown an uncer¬
tain number of pence, commonly between 30 and 34,,
the par, as mentioned above, being 29^.
Examp. r. What Sterling money muft be paid in
London to receive in Paris 1978 crowns 25 fols,, ex¬
change at 31-yd. per crown!
Sols. d. Cr. fols.
If 60 : 3i|- :: 1978 25
  60
253   
II8705
253
356i ^
593525
237410
6(0)300323615 Rem.
8)500539 3
12)62567 it
2|o)52i|3 13
L.260 13 u-^ Anf.
Exchange,
E X C
By Pra&ice.
Cr. Sols.
1978 25, at 3i|d.
[ 2868 ]
Sols 20 = \
5 = \
247
5 o
7 3
°
o ioi
o 2i
260 13 11^
If you work decimally, fay,
Cr. d. Ster. Cr. d. Ster.
As 1 : 31.625 :: 1978.41(3 : 62567.42708^
2. How many French Kvres will L. 121 : 18 : 6 Ster¬
ling amount to, exchange at 32^d. per crown?
d. Liv.
3
8
1^32^
263
121 18 6
2438
d.
60 = ^
3 = To
E X C
By Pra&ice.
Rees.
827.160, at 63-J-d.
Exchange.1
206.790
*0-3395
.861625
.4308x25
_ 218.4219375
ihe rees being thoufandth-parts of the millrees, are
annexed to the integer, and the operation proceeds ex¬
actly as in decimals.
2. How many rees of Portugal will 5001. Sterling
amount to, exchange at 5 s. 4id. per millree?
d. Rees. L.
If 644- : 1000 :: 500
  8 20
5*7   
29262
24
117048
58524
 Liv. fols. den.
263)702288(2670 5 11 Anf.
Rem. (78 = 5 fols 11 deniers.
IV. Exchange 'with Portugal.
MO NE Y-TAB L E.
Par in Ster. s. d. f.
1 ree =00 0.27
4°° rees 7 , C 1 crufade = 23
1000 rees 5 £* m*Hree = 5 74-
In Lilbon, Oporto, &c. books and accounts are ge¬
nerally kept in rees and millrees; and the millrees are
diftinguiflied from the rees by a mark fet between them
thus, 485 'F 372 ; that is, 485 millrees and 372 rees.
Britain, as well as other nations, exchanges with Por¬
tugal on the millree; the par, as in the table, being
674-d. Sterling. The courfe with Britain runs from
63 d. to 68 d. Sterling/w millree.
Epamples. 1. How much Sterling money will pay
a bill of 827't' 160 rees, exchange at 634-d. Sterling
per millree?
Rees. d. Rees.
If 1000 : 634 :: 827.160
8 507
8000 507 579012
413580
8000)419370.120 2
*2) 5242* — 5d.
20) 4368 — 8s.
L. 218 8 54 Anf.
120000
8000
Rees.
517 )96ooooooo( 1856.866 Anf.
V. Exchange •with Spain.
MONEY-TABLE.
Par in Ster.
34 mervadies} " ' '
8 rials C make
375 mervadies
Ti rial
< 1 piaftre
^1 du—‘
ducat =
d.
° Si
3 7
4 **i
In Madrid, Bilboa, Cadiz, Malaga, Seville, and moft
of the principal places, book and accounts are kept in
piaftres, called alfo rials, and mervadies; and
they exchange with Britain generally on the piaftre, and
fometimes on the ducat. The courfe runs from 35 d. to
45 d. Sterling for a piaftre or dollar of 8 rials.
Examp. i. London imports from Cadiz, goods to
the value of 2163 piaftres and 4 rials: How much
Sterling will this amount to, exchange at 38^. Ster¬
ling per piattre ?
I Piajl. Rials.
2163 4, at 38|d.
Rials.
24 = -i
12 =
2 =
216
108
d.
384 each.
*9tV
6
64
*4
7 tv
345 ,*8 S-rg- Anf.
2. London remits to Cadiz 3451. 18 s. 8-^-d. How
much Spanifh money will this amount to, exchange at
38^. Sterling/>«* piaftre?
■Exchange,
JfsH
3°7
2
614
E X C [ 2869 ] E X C
d. Piaft. L. s. d. 2* How many ducats at Venice are equal to 3851. Exchange,
1 :: 345 18 8,^ 12 8* 6d. Sterling, exchange at 4 s. per ducat?
20 L. Due. JL.
  6i4)i328389(2i63 piaftres. If .210 : 1 :: 385.625
6918
83024
16
498149
83024
Carried up 1328389
Piaft. Rials.
Anf. 2163 4
1003
614
3898
36.84
2149
1842
614)2456(4 rials.
2456
.210)385.625
2i 385625
 Due.
*95)347062.5(1779.8 Anf.
*95
1520
1365
1556
1365
VI. Exchange •with Venice.
MONEY-TABLE.
24^ Gros | ma^e { 1 ducat = yo^d. Sterling.
The money of Venice is of three forts, viz. two of
bank money, and the picoli money. One of the banks
deals in banco money, and the other in banco current.
The bank money is 20 per cent, better than the banco
current, and the banco current 20 per cent, better than
the picoli money. Exchanges are always negociated
by the ducat banco, the par being 4 s. 2^d. Sterling,
as in the table.
Though the ducat be commonly divided into 24 gros,
yet bankers and negotiators, for facility of computa¬
tion, ufually divide it as follows, and keep their books
and accounts accordingly.
12 Deniers d’or 7 , C 1 fol d’or
20 Sols d’or 3 m C 1 ducat = 50|:d. Sterling.
The courfe of exchange is from 45 d. to yyd. Ster¬
ling per ducat.
Examp. 1. How much Sterling money is equal to
1459 ducats 18 fols 1 denier, bank money of Venice,
exchange at 52^6. Sterling/w ducat?
Due. d. Due. fol. den.
If 1 : 52^ :: 1459 18 1
5H
2918
7295
d.
52^ rate.
264-
*3t
5t
1912
*755
*575
1560
(*5)
Bank money is reduced to current money, by allow¬
ing for the agio, as was done in exchange with Hol¬
land; viz. fay, As too to 120, or as 10 to 12, or as
5 to 6, fo the given bank money to the current fought.
And current money is reduced to bank money by re-
verfing the operation. And in like manner may picoli
money be reduced to current or to bank money, and
the contrary.
too ducats banco of Venice.
InLeghorn=93 pezzos I In Lucca = 77 crowns
In Rome =684-crowns | In Francfott =1394 florins
, VII. Exchange •with Genoa.
MONEY-TABLE.
12 Denari 7 i. 5 1 f°Hi s. d.
20 Soldi £ 1113 1 pezzo = 4 6 Sterling.
Books and accounts are generally kept in pezzos,
foldi, and denari: but fome keep them in lires, foldi,
and denari; and 12 fuch denari make 1 foldi, and 20
foldi make 1 lire.
The pezzo of exchange is equal to 5^ lires; and,
confequently, exchange money is 54 times better than
the lire money. The eburfe of exchange runs from
47 d. to ySd. Sterling/er pezzo.
Examp. How much Sterling money is equivalent to
3390 pezzos 16 foldi, of Genoa, exchange at yj^-d.
Sterling per pezzo ?
Soldi, d. Fez. foldi.
If 20 : 51-4 : 3390 16
47?
d. 75868
4 = 739f
4 = 3647
769624
47t^
i2.)77qio(6d.
2I°)64'|7(*7s.
L. 320 17 6 Sterling. Anf.
Vol. IV.
4*5
67816
4*5
339080
67816
271264
 d. L. ,s. d.
■ 160)28143640(1758974=732 18 14
If Sterling money be given, it may be reduced or
changed into pezzos of Genoa, by reverfmg the former
operation.
16 P Es-
Exchange.
E X C [ 2870
Exchange money is reduced to lire money, by be-
' ing multiplied by 5^, as follows :
Pez. foldi. Decimally.
3390 16 3390.8
5-75
E X C
16954 o
I = 1695 8
7 = 847 H
169540
237356
169540.
Lires 19497 2 Lires 19497.100
And lire money is reduced to exchange money by
dividing it by 5^
In Milan, 1 crown = 80
In Naples, 1 ducat = 86
In Leghorn, i piaftre = 20
. In Sicily, 1 crown =
VIII. Exchange ’with Leghorn.
MONEY-TABLE.
12 Denari 7 e. 5 1 s‘
20 Soldi 5ma CcI piaftre = 4 6 Ster.
Books and accounts are kept in piaftres, fold!, and
denari. The piaftre here conlifts of 6 lires, and the
lire contains 20 foldi, and the foldi 12 denari, and
confequently exchange money is 6 times better than
lire money. The courfe of exchange is from 47 d. to
58 ft. Sterling/er piaftre.
Example. What is the Sterling value of 731 pia¬
ftres, at 55T<h each.
731 piaftres, at 55^ d.
4 or 48 = y
6 = i
146
18
4
L. 169 o io|- Anf.
Sterling money is reduced to money of Leghorn, by
reverfing the former operation; and exchange money
is reduced to lire money by multiplying by:6, and lire
money to exchange money by dividing by 6.
100 piaftres of Leghorn are
In Naples = 134 ducats. I In Geneva = iSyj- crowns.
Soldi of Leghorn.
In Sicily, 1 crown = !33t
In Sardinia, 1 dollar = 95!-
The above are the chief places in Europe with which
Britain exchanges dire&ly; the exchanges with other
places are generally made by bills on Hamburgh, Hol¬
land, or Venice. We fhall here, however, fubjoin the
par of exchange betwixt Britain andmoft of the other
places in Europe with which (he has any commercial
intercourfe.
Par in Sterling L. s- d.
Rome
Naples,
Florence,
Milan,
Bologna
Sicily,
Vienna •
Attfburgh,
Francfort,
Bremen
Breflau,
crown
ducat =
crown =
ducat =
dollar ,==
crown =
rixdollar =?
florin . =7
florin =:
rixdollar r=
rixdollar =
6 1
3 4t
5 4?
4 7
4 3
5 °
4 8
3 if
3 °
3 6
3 3
Par in Sterling L. s. d. E
Berlin, 1 rixdollar = 40
Stetin, x mark = 16
Embden 1 rixdollar = 36
Bolfenna 1 rixdollar = 38
Dantzic, 134 florins =100
Stockholm, 34^ dollars =100
Ruflia, 1 ruble = 45
Turkey, 1 afper = 46
The following places, viz. Switzerland, Nurem-
burgh, Leipfic, Drefden, Ofnabnrgh, Brunfwic, Co-
logn, Leige, Strafburgh, Cracow, Denmark, Norway,
Riga, Revil, Narva, exchange with Britain, when di-
re<& exchange is made, upon the rixdollar, the par be¬
ing 4 s. 6 d. Sterling.
IX. Exchange ’with America and the Wejl Indies.
In North America and the Weft Indies, accounts,
as in Britain, are kept in pounds, (hillings, and pence.
In North America they have few coins circulating
among them, and on that account have been obliged
to fubftitute a paper-currency for a medium of their
commerce; which having no intrinfic value, is fubjec-
ted to many difadvantages, and generally fuffers a great
difcount. In the Weft Indies coins are more frequent,
owing to their commercial intercourfe with the Spa-
nifh fettlements.
Exchange betwixt Britain and America, or the Weft
Indies, may be computed as in the following examples:
X. The neat proceeds of a cargo from Britain to
Bofton amount to 845I. 17s. 6d. currency: How
much is that in Sterling money, exchange at 80 y>er
cent. ?
If 180 : 100
18 : 10 L. s. d.
9 : 5 :: 845 17 6
5
9)4229 7 6
L. 469 18 Ster. Anf.
2. Bofton remits to Britain a bill of 4691. 18 s.
7^- d. Sterling : How much currency was paid for the
bill at Bofton, exchange at 80 per cent. ?
If 100 : 180 L. s. d.
5 : 9 :: 469 18 7-f
9
5)4229 7 6
845 17 6 currency. Anf.
3. How much Sterling money will -1780I. Jamaica
currency amount to, exchange at 40 per cent.?
If 140 : 100
14 : 10 L.
7 : 5 :: 1780
5
7)8900
  /. d.
1271 8 6J Ster. Anf.
Bills of exchange from America, the rate being
high, is an expenfive way of remitting money to Bri¬
tain ; and therefore merchants in Britain generally
choofe to have the debts due to them remitted home in
fugar, rum, or other produce.
Exchange.
E X C [ 2871 ] E X C
X. Exchange ’with Ireland.
At Dublin, and all over Ireland, books and accounts
arejeept in pounds, (billings, and pence, as in Britain;
and they exchange on the tool. Sterling.
The par of one (hilling Sterling is one (hilling and
one penny Irilh: and fo the par of tool. Sterling is
108 1. 6 s. 8d. irifh. The courfe of exchange runs
from 6 to 15 per cent.
Examp. 1. London remits to Dublin 586I. 10s.
Sterling : How much Iri(h money will that amount to,
exchange at 9^ per cent. ?
If too : 109!- :: 586,5
8 877
800 : 877 4«o55
41055
46920
800)514360.5
To avoid paying the premium, it is an ufual prac- Exchange,
tice to take the bill payable at London a certain num- ' '
ber of days after date ; and in this way of doing, 73
days is equivalent to 1 per cent.
XII. Arbitration of Exchanges.
The courfe of exchange betwixt nation and nation
naturally rifes or falls according as the circumftances
and balance of trade happen to vary. Now to draw up¬
on and remit to foreign places, in this fluctuating flats
of exchange, in the way that will turn out molt pro¬
fitable, is the defign of arbitration. Which is either
Ample or compound.
I. Simple Arbitration.
In Ample arbitration the rates or prices of exchange
from one place to other two are given; whereby is
found the correfpondent price between the faid two
places, called the arbitrated price, or par of arbitra¬
tion : and hence is derived a method of drawing and
remitting to the belt advantage.
642.950625
Anf. 6421. 19 s. Irifti.
By pradtice.
586.5
p. cent. 
10 = 58.65
2 = f 11.73 fub.
46.92
5.865
2.9325
•733*25
9^
56.450625 add.
642.950625
2. How much Sterling will 6251. Irilh amount to,
exchange at 1 o|- per cent. ?
If 1 io^- : too : : 625
8 800
883 800 883)500000(566 5 o£ Ster. Anf.
XI. Exchange betnvixt London and other places in
Britain.
The feveral towns in Britain exchange with London
for a fmall premium in favour of London; fuch as, 1,
* Per cent- The premium is more or lefs, ac¬
cording to the demand for Bills?
Examp. Edinburgh draws on London for 8601. ex¬
change at i\per cent.: How much money muft be paid
at Edinburgh for the bill ?
860
per cent. 
1 — TUo 8 12
? = i 23
T — T 116
11 16 6 premium.
817 16 6 paid for the bill.
Examp. 1. If exchange from London to Amfter-
dam be 33 s. 9 d. per 1. Sterling; and if exchange
from London to Paris be 32 d. per crown; what muft
be the rate of exchange from Amfterdam to Paris, ia
order to be on a par with the other two ?
Ster. Flem. Ster.
s. s. d. d.
If 20 : 33 9 32
12 12
240 405
S2
810
1215
240) 12960(54 d. Flem. per crown. Anf.
2. If exchange from Paris to London be 32 d. Ster-
ling per crown ; and if exchange from Paris to Am¬
fterdam be 54d. Flemifh per crown ; what muft be the
rate of exchange between London and Amfterdam, in
order to be on a par with the other two ?
Ster. Flem. Ster.
d. d. d.
If 32 : 54 : : 240
240
216
108
 12) /. d.
32)12960(405 (33 9 Flem. per 1. Sin. Anf
From thefe operations it appears, that if any fum of
money be remitted, at the rates of exchange mention¬
ed, from any one of the three places to the fecond, and
from the fecond to the third, and again from the third
to the firft, the fum fo remitted will come home entire,
without increafe or diminution.
From the par of arbitration thus found, and the
courfe of exchange given, is deduced a method of draw¬
ing and remitting to advantage, as in the following ex¬
ample.
16 P 2 3. If
E X C [ 2872 ] E X C
Exchange. 3. If exchange from London to Paris be 33 d. Ster-
Jfng/w crown, and to Amfterdam 405 d. Fiemi(h/>er 1.
rhng; and if, by advice from Holland to France,
‘the couric,of exchange between Paris and Amfterdam
is' fallen to 52 d. Flemilh per crown ; what may be
gained per cent, by drawing on Paris, and remitting to
Amfterdam ?
The par of arbitration between Paris and Amfter¬
dam in this cafe, by £x. I. is 54 d. Flemifh/w crown.
Work as under.
d. St. Cr. L. St. Cr.
If 32 : 1 : : 100 : 750 debit at Paris
Cr.d.Fl. Cr. d.Fl.
If 1 : 52 :: 750 : 39000 credit at Amfterdam.
d.Fl.L.St. d.Fl. L. s.d.Ster.
If 405 : 1 :: 39000 : 96 5 11^-to be remitted.
ICO
3 *4
pen to be equal or the fame in both columns, may be Exchange,
dropped or rejected, and other terms may be abridged. '
VI. Multiply the antecedents continually for a di-
vifor, and the confequents continually for a dividend,
and the quot will be the anfwer or antecedent re¬
quired.
Examp. 1. If Londoet remit 10061. Sterling to
Spain, by way of Holland, at 35 s. Flemifh per 1..Ster¬
ling ; thence to France, at yS.d. Flemiih per crown ;
thence to Venice, at 100 crowns/>er 60 ducats j and
thence to Spain, at 360 mervadies /w ducat; how ma¬
ny piaftres, of 272 mervadies, will the 10001. Ster¬
ling amount to in Spain ?
' Antecedents. Confequents.
1 1. Sterling = 35 s. or 420 d. FI.
ySd. Flemifh = 1 crown France
100crowns France = 60 ditcats Venice
i ducat Venice = 360 mervadies Spain
272 mervadies = 1 piaftre
How manypiaftres=iooo 1. Sterling
Abridged.
l:-2IO
29^ I
I 30
I- 45
17= 1
= IO
But if the courfe of exchange between Paris and
Amfterdam, inftead of falling below, rife above the
par of arbitration, fuppofe to 56 d. Flemifh per crown;
in this cafe, if you propofe to gain by the negotiation,
you muft draw on Amfterdam, and remit to Pans.
The computation follows.
L. St. d. FI. L. St. d. FI.
If 1 : 405 :: 100 : 40500 debit at Amfterdam.
d.Fl. Cr. d.F. Cr.
If 56 : 1 :: 40500 : 723^ credit at Paris.
Cr. d.St. Cr. L. s. d. Ster.
If 1 : 32 :; 723x3: : 96 8 6,- to be remitted.
100
In order to abridge the terms, divide 58 and 420
by 2, and you have the new antecedent 29, and the
new confequent 210; reje£l two ciphers in 100 and
1000; divide 272 and 360 by 8, and you have 34
and 45 ; divide 34 and 60 by 2, and you have 17 and
30 ; and the whole will ftand abridged as above.
Then, 29 X 17=493 divifor; and 210 X 30 X 45
X 10=2835000 dividend; and, 493)2835000(5750?-
piaftres. Anf.
Or, the confequents may be connefted withthefign
of multiplication, and placed over a line by way of nu¬
merator ; and the antecedents, connedled in the fame
manner, may be placed under the line, by way of de¬
nominator ; and then abridged, as follows :
3 11 5-x gained/>er £•(?»/.
In negotiations of this fort, a fum for remittance is
afforded out of the fum you receive for the draught ;
and your credit at the one foreign place pays your debt
at the other.
II. Compound Arbitration.
In compound arbitration the rate or price of ex¬
change between three, four, or more places, is given,
in order to find how much a remittance palling through
them all will amount to at the laft pace ; or to find
the arbitrated price, or par of arbitration, between the
firft place and the laft. And this may be done by the
following
Rules. I. Diftinguifh the given rates or prices in¬
to antecedents and confequents ; place the antecedents
in one column, and the confequents in another on the
right, fronting one another by way of equation.
II. The firft antecedent, and the laft confequent to
which an antecedent is required, muft always be of the
fame kind.
III. The fecond antecedent muft be of the fame
kind with the firft confequent, and the third ante¬
cedent of the fame kind with the fecond confequent,
&c.
IV. If to any of the numbers a fra&ion be annexed,
both the antecedent and its confequent muft be multi¬
plied into the denbminator.
V. To facilitate the operation, terms that hap-
42oX6oX36oXioo_2 10X60X360X10
~5 8X100X272 29X1X272
 2 t OX60X45XlO _2 I OX30X45XIO
“29X34” “ 29X17
_2835000,
_ 493
And, 493)2835000(57504 piaftres. Anf.
The placing the terms by way of antecedent and
confequent, and working as the rules direeft, fave fo
many ftatings of the rule of three, and greatly fhorten-s
the operation. The proportions at large for the above
queftion would ftand as under.
L.St. d.Fl.
If 1 : 420 ::
d. FI. Cr.
If 58 : 1 ::
Cr. Due.
If 100 : 60 :
L.St.
1000
d.Fl.
420000
Cr.
724'44
d.Fl.
: 420000
Cr.
: 724I44-
Duc.
■ 434444
Due. Mer. Due. Mer.
If 1 : 360 :: 434444 : 156413744
Mer. Piajl. Mer. Piajl.
If 272 : 1 :: 156413744 - 575°44t
If we fuppofe the courfe of direct exchange to Spain
to be 424d. Sterling per piaftre, the 1000I. remitted
would only amount to 56474 piaftres; and, confe-
quently, 103 piaftres are gained by the negociation;
that is, about 2 per cent.
2. A
Exchange.
E X C [ 2873 ] E X C
2. A banker in Amfterdam remits to London 4001.
Flemifh ; firft to France at ^6d. Flemith per crown ;
from France to Venice, at 100 crowns/ier 60 ducats;
from Venice to Hamburgh, at lood. Flemifh per ducat;
from Hamburgh to Lifbon, at 50d. Flemifh per crufade
of 400 rees; and, laftly, from Lifbon to London at
64d. Sterling/er millree: How much Sterling money-
will the remittance amount to? and how much will be
ined or faved, fuppo§ng the dired exchange from
olland to London 31363. tod. Flem./wl. Sterling?
Antecedents. Confequents.
56 d. Flem. = 1 crown
xoo crowns = 60 ducats.
1 ducat = 'ioo d. Flem. '
50 d. Flem. — 400 rees.
1000 rees = 64d. Sterling.
Howmanyd. Ster = 400I. or 96oood. Flemifh?
This, in the fra&ional form, will ftand as follows.
60X1 ooX4ooX64X96ooo_ 368640
” 56^:100X50X1000 7 ’
7)36864o(52662^.d. Ster. =219!. 8s. 6£d. St. Anf.
To find how much the exchange from Amfterdam
dire&ly to London, at 363. lod. Flemifh per 1. Ster¬
ling, will amount to, fay,
j. d. d.Fl.L.St. d.Fl L. s. d. St.
36 10 If 442 : x :: 96000 : 217 3 xo4-
12 219 8 6|
442 Gained or faved, 24
In the above example, the par of arbitration, or the
arbitrated price, between London and Amfterdam, viz.
the number of Flemifh pence given for 11. Sterling,
may be found thus:
Make 64 d. Sterling, the price of the millree, the
firft antecedent; then all the former confequents will
become antecedents, and all the antecedents will be¬
come confequents. Place 240, the pence in 11. Sterling,
as the laft confequent, ahd then proceed as taught a-
bove, viz.
Antecedents. Confequents.
64 d. Ster = 1060 rees.
400 rees = 50 d. Flem.
xood. Flem. = 1 ducat.
60 ducats r= 100 crowns.
1 crown = 56ft. Flem.
Howmanyd. Flem. = 24od. Ster.?
ioooX5oXiooX56X240_875 an(j
64X400X100X60 T”’
2)875)4374<i- = 36s. 54 d. Flem./><?/• 1. Ster. Anf.
Or the arbitrated price may be found from the an-
fwer to the queftion, by faying
d. Ster. d. Flem. d. St.
If : 96000 :: 240
7
672000
240
2688
134+
 d. s. d. Flem.
368640)161280000(4374-= 36 54 as before.
The work maybe proved by the arbitrated price thus: Exchan g#,
As 11. Sterling to 36s. 54-d. Flemifh, fo 219I. 8s. 6ffd. *clleqlief'
Sterling to 4001. Flemifh.
The arbitrated price compared with the direft courfe-.
(hows whether the dired or circular remittance will bte
moft advantageous, and how much. Thus the baifker „
at Amfterdam will think it better exchange to receive
11. Sterling for 36s 54 d. Flemifh, than for 36 s. 10d;
Flemifh.
Exchange fignifies alfo a place in moft confiderable
trading cities, wherein the merchants, negociants, a-
gents, bankers, brokers, interpreters, and other perfons
concerned in commerce, meet on certain days, and at
certain times thereof, to confer and treat together of
matters relating to exchanges, remittances, payments,
adventures, affurances, freightments, and other mercan¬
tile negociations, both by fea and land.
EXCHEQUER, in the British jurifprudence, an
ancient court of record, in which all caufes concern¬
ing the revenues and rights of the crown are heard
and determined, and where the crown revenues are re¬
ceived.
It took this name from the cloth that covered the
table of the court, which was party-coloured, or che¬
quered.
This court is faid to have been erefted by William
the conqueror, its model being taken from alike court
eftablifhed in Normandy long before that time. An¬
ciently its authority was fo great, that it was held in
the king’s palace, and the afts thereof were not to be
examined or controuled in any other of the king’s
courts ; but, atprefent, it is the laft of the four courts
at Weftminfter.
In the exchequer, fome reckon feven courts, viz.
thofe of pleas, accounts, receipts, exchequer-chamber
(which-is an aflembly of all the judges on difficult mat¬
ters in law), errors in the exchequer, errors in the
king’s bench, and, laftly, the court of equity in the
exchequer.
But the exchequer, for the difpatch of bufinefs, is
generally divided into two parts; one of which is chief¬
ly converfant in the judicial hearing and deciding of all
caufes relating to the king’s coffers, formerly termed
the exchequer of accounts : the other is called the receipt
of the exchequer, as being principally employed in re¬
ceiving and paying of money.
Officers of the receipt may take one penny in the
pound, as their fee for fums iffued out; and they are
obliged, without delay, to receive the money brought
thither; and the money received is to be put into cherts
under three different locks and keys, kept by three fe-
veral officers. All flieriffs, bailifft, &c. are to account
in the exchequer; and in the lower part, termed the
receipt, the debtors of the king, and perfons in debt to
them, the king’s tenants, and the officers and minifters
of the court, are privileged to fue one. another, or any
ftranger, and to be fued in the like aft ions as are brought
in the courts of king’s bench and common-pleas.
The judicial part of the exchequer, is a court both
of law and equity. The court of law is held in the
office of pleas, according to the courfe of common
law, before the barons : in this court, the plaintiff
ought to be a debtor or accountant to the king ; and
the leading procefs is either a writ of fubpcena, or quo
minus, which laft goes into Wales, where no procefs
out
E X C
Exchequer, out of ourts of law ought to run, except a capias utla-
Exeife. gatum.
The court of equity is held in the exchequer cham-
t>er before the treafurer, chancellor, and barons; but,
generally, before the barons only ; the lord chief ba¬
ron being the chief judge to hear and determine all
caufes. The proceedings in this part of the exche-
ejuer are by Englilh bill and anfwer, according to the
practice of the court of chancery ; with this difference,
that the plaintiff here mud fet forth, that he is a deb-
ter to the king, whether he be fo or not. It is in this
court of equity that the clergy exhibit bills for the re¬
covery of their tythes, &c. Here too the attorney-
general exhibits bills for any matters concerning the
crown ; and a bill may be exhibited againft the king’s
attorney by any perfon aggrieved in any caufe profe-
cuted againft him on behalf of the king, to be relieved
therein : in which cafe, the plaintiff is to attend on the
attorney-genei al, with a copy of the bill, and procure
him to give in an anfwer thereto ", in the making of
which he may call in any perfon interefted in the caufe,
or any officer, or others, to inftrudl him, that the king
be not prejudiced thereby, and his anfwer is to be put
in without oath.
But, befides the bufinefs relating to debtors, far¬
mers, receivers, accountants, &c, all penal puniffi-
ments, intrufion, and forfeitures upon popular actions,
are -matters likewife cognizable by this court; where
there alfo fits a puifne-baron, who adminitters the oaths
to high ftieriffs, bailiffs, auditors, receivers, collectors,
comptrollers, furveyors, and fearchers of all the cu-
ftoms, &c.
The exchequer in Scotland has the fame privileges
andjurifdidtion as that of England; and all matters
competent to the one, are likewife competent to the
other.
Black Book of the Exchequer, a book containing a
defeription of the court of England in 1175, and its of¬
ficers, with their ranks, wages, privileges, perquifites,
eke. alfo the revenues of the crown, both in money
and cattle.
Exchequer-2?/'///. By ftatute 5 Ann c. 13. the
lord-treafurers may caufe exchequer bills to be made of
any fums not exceeding 1,500,000/. for the ufeofthe
war; and the duties upon houfes were made charge¬
able with 4I. 10 s. psr cent, per annum to the bank
for circulating them. The bank not paying the bills,
adlions to be brought againfl: the company, and the
money and damages recovered : and if any exchequer-
bills be loft, upon affidavit of it before a baron of the
exchequer, and certificate from fuch baron, and fecu-
rity to pay the fame if found, duplicates are to be made
out: alfo when bills are defaced, new ones ftiall be de¬
livered. The king, or his officers in the exchequer,
by former ftatutes, might borrow money upon the cre¬
dit of bills, payable on demand, with intereft after the
rate of 3 d. per diem for every tool. bill. And by
8 & 9 W. 3. c. 20. an intereft of 5 d. a-day was al¬
lowed for every tool. But 12 W. 3* c. X. lowered
the intereft on thefe bills to 4d. a-day per cent. And
by 12 Ann. c. 11. it is funk to 2d. a-day.—Forging
exchequer bills, or the indorfements thereof, is fe-
Jony.
EXCISE, (from the Belgic accujfe, tributum,
“ tribute,” an inland duty or impofition, paid fome-
E X C
times upon the confumption of the commodity, or fre- Excifc.
quently upon the wholefale, which is the laft ftage
before the confumption. This is doubtlefs, impartial¬
ly fpeaking, the moft ceconomical way of taxing the
fubjedft; the charges of levying, colle&ing, and ma¬
naging the excife-duties, being confiderably lefs in
proportion, than in other branches of the revenue. It
alfo renders the commodity cheaper to the confumer,
than charging it with cuftoms to the fame amount
would do; for the re a fon juft now given, becaufe ge¬
nerally paid in a much later ftage of it. But, at the
fame time, the rigour and arbitrary proceedings ofex-
cife-laws feem hardly compatible with the temper of a
free nation. For the frauds that might be committed
in this branch of the revenue, unlefs a ftritft watch is
kept, make it neceffary, wherever it is eftabliftied, to
give the officers a power of entering and fearching the
houfes of fuch as deal in excifeable commodities, at any
hour of the day, and, in many cafes, of the night like¬
wife. And the proceedings, in cafe of tranfgreffions,
are fo fommary and fudden, that a man may be con-
vi&ed in two days time in the penalty of many thou-
fand pounds, by two commiffioners or juftices of the
peace ; to the total exclufion of the trial by jury, and
difregard of the common law. For which reafon, tho’ B/ackJf.
lord Clarendon tells us, that to his knowledge the earl Comment.
of Bedford (who was made lord treaforer by king
Charles I. to oblige his parliament) intended to have
fet up the excife in England, yet it never made a part
of that unfortunate prince’s revenue ; being firft intro¬
duced, on the model of the Dutch prototype, by the
parliament itfelf after its rupture with the crown. Yet
fuch was the opinion of its general unpopularity, that
when in 1642 “ afperfions were call by malignant per-
fons upon the houfe of commons, that they intended to
introduce excifes, the houfe for its vindication therein
did declare, that thefe rumours were falfe and fcanda-
lous, and that their authors ftiould be apprehended and
brought to condign puniftiment.” It original efta-
bliftiment was in 1643, audits progrefs was gradual ;
being at firft laid upon thofe perfons and commodities
where it was fuppofed the hardfhip would be leaft per¬
ceivable, viz. the makers and venders of beer, ale, cy¬
der, and perry; and the royalifts at Oxford foon fol¬
lowed the example of their brethren at Weftminfter, by
impofing a fimilar duty: both fides protefting, that it
fliould be continued no longer than to the end of the
war, and then be utterly aboliftied. But the parlia¬
ment at Weftminfter foon after impofed it on fleffi,
wine, tobacco, fugar, and fuch a multitude of other
commodities, that it might be fairly denominated
ral: in purfoance of the plain laid down by Mr Pymme
(who feems to have been the father of the excife) in his
letter to Sir John Hotham, fignifying, “ that they
had proceeded in the excife to many particulars, and
intended to go on farther; but that it would be ne¬
ceffary to ufe the people to it by little and little.” And
afterwards, when the nation had been accuftomed to it
for a feries of years, the fucceeding champions of li¬
berty boldly and openly declared “ the impoft of ex¬
cife to be the moft eafy and indifferent levy that could
be laid upon the people ;” and accordingly continued
it during the whole ufurpation. Upon king Charles’s
return, it having then been long eftabliftied and its
produce well known, fome part of it was given to the
crown
[ 2874 ]
E X C [ 2875 ] E X C
lixcife. crown, in L2 Car. II. by way of purchafe for the feudal
 tenures and other oppreffive parts of the hereditary reve¬
nue. But, from itsfirft original to the prefent time, its
very name has been odious to the people. It has, never-
thelefs,been impofed on abundance of other commodities
in the reigns of king William III. and every fucceeding
rince, to fupport the enormous expenfes occafioned
y our wars on the continent. Thus brandies and o-
ther fpirits are now excifed at the diftillery ; printed
lilks and linens, at the printer’s ; itarch and hair pow¬
der, at the maker’s ; gold and filver wire, at the
wiredrawer’s; all plate whatfoever, hrft in the hands
of the vendor, who pays yearly for a licenfe to fell it,
and afterwards in the bands of the occupier, who alfo
pays an annual duty for having it in his cuftody ; and
coaches and other wheel-carriages, for which the occu¬
pier is excifed ; tho* not with the fame circumftances of
arbitrary ftriftnefs with regard to plate and coaches, as
in the other inftances. To tbefe we may add coffee
and tea, chocolate and cocoa parte, for which the du¬
ty is paid by the retailer; all artificial wines, common¬
ly called fnueets ; paper and pafteboard, firft when
made, and again if ftained or printed ; malt, as before-
mentioned ; vinegars; and the manufafture of glafs ;
for all which the duty is paid by the manufafturer ;
hops, for which the perfon that gathers them is an-
fwerable ; candles and foap, which are paid for at the
maker’s ; malt liquors brewed for fale, which are ex¬
cifed at the brewery; cyder and perry, at the ven¬
der’s ; and leather and fkins, at the tanner’s. A lift,
which no friend to his country would wifh to fee farther
encreafed.
The excife was formerly farmed out; but is now
managed for the king by commiffioners in both king¬
doms, who receive the whole produft of the excife,
and pay it into the exchequer. Thefe commiffioners
are nine in number in England, and four in Scotland.
The former have a falary of 10001. a-year, the latter
5001. They are obliged by oath to take no fee or re¬
ward but from the king himfelf; and from them there
lies an appeal to five other commiffioners called
Jionen of appeals.
If any brewers do not make true entries of their li¬
quors brewed once a-week at the excife office, they
forfeit lol. but this isfubjed to mitigation, fo as not
to be lefs than double the duty; and the retailers of
beer and ale and ftrong waters, negle&ing to make
their entries once a-month of what liquors they retail,
are liable to 40 s. penalty. In cafe any brewer erefts
or alters any back, copper, cooler, &c. or keeps a
private ftore-houfe, or if any malfter keeps any private
veffel for fteeping barley, without giving proper no¬
tice to the officers of excife, fuch brewer or malfter
forfeits 50 1. and where they bribe a gauger, it is 10 1.
The officers of excife maygo on board (hips, and fearch
for any excifeable liquors, as officers of the cufloms
do, and feize commodities forfeited, &c. and com¬
plaints made at the chief office of excife are to be
heard by three or mpre commiffioners ; but two jufti-
ces of the peace have the power to determine in fei-
zures out of the limits of the excife-office in London.
See further, Table to the quarto edition of the Sta¬
tutes at Large ; alfo an account of the method of char¬
ging the duties of excife, &c. at the end of Gilb. Exch.
edit. 1758, p. 293,
EXCLAMATION. See Oratory, n° 8e. Extlama-
EXCLUSION, or Bill of Exclusion, a bill pro- t:"n
pofed about the clofe of the reign of king Charles II. ExcoI^mu.
for excluding the duke of York, the king’s brother, nication.
from the throne, on account of his being a Papift.  —
EXCLUSIVE, is fometimes ufed adje&ively, thus;
A patent carries ’with it an exclti/ive privilege : and
fometimes adverbially ; as, he fent him all the numbers
from n° 145 to n® 247 exclufive; that is, all between
thefe two numbers, which themfelves were excepted.
EXCOMMUNICATION, an ecclefiaftical penal¬
ty or cenfure, whereby fuch perfons as are guilty of
any noforious crime or offence, are feparated from the
communion of the church, and deprived of all fpiritual
advantages.
Excommunication among the Jews, according to
Elias, a German rabbin, was diftinguilhed into three
kinds: 1. Niddui, which was a feparation of but a
few days ; 2. Cherem, a feparation attended wib. ex¬
ecration and maledi&ion; and, 3. Shammatha, which
was the laft and greater excommunication. But Sel-
den fays, that niddui and (hammatha are the fame
thing ; and therefore that there were but two kinds of
excommunication among the Jews, viz. the greater and
the leffer. They made alfo another diftindlion in ex-
communication, into total or univerfal, by which a
man was excommunicated with regard to all men ; and
partial, by which a man was excommunicated in one
city, and with regard to certain perfons, and not
others.
It is obfervable, that not only the judges had the
power of excommunicating, but that each particular
perfon in converfation might excommunicate another,
and himfelf likewife; and this excommunication, if
well grounded, was of force : nay, if a man dreamed
that he was excommunicated by himfelf or by another,
he was confidered as an excommunicated perfon, -be-
caufe this dream was fuppofed to be fent from God.
As to the effe&s of the Jewifh excommunication,
the leffer excluded the excommunicated perfon from the
fociety of men ; that is, he was not to come nearer
them than four cubits, neither he, his wife, children,
or domeftics, according to Buxtorf. The greater ab-
folutely fequeftered the perfon from the converfation of
others; and fometimes he was (hut up in a fmall cham¬
ber or prifon, where he lived alone. Baronius and
Beza pretend, that the greater excommunication ex¬
cluded men from the ufe offacred things. Selden, 00
the contrary, affirms that they were allowed to be pre¬
fent in the temple, and partake of the public worfhip.
Buxtorf, who is of the fame opinion, adds, that where¬
as others came into the temple at the right hand, and
went out at the left, the excommunicated were obliged
both to go in and out at the left.
Excommunication, among the modern Jews, is at¬
tended with the moft terrible confequences. The ex¬
communicated perfon is refufed all human affiftance :
if there be a corpfe in his houfe, or a child to be cir-
cumcifed, none muft help him. He is curfed by the
book of the law, by the curfe of Jofhua againft Jericho,
by that of Elifha againft the children, by heaven and
earth, and God is befought that a whirlwind may dalh
him to pieces. He is pelted with (tones if he appear
in the ftreets : and if he obtains abfolution, it is upon
the moft mortifying conditions; for he is publicly tied
to
E X C [ 2876 ] E X C
Excommu- t0 a p0{^ an^ whipped, after which he lays himfelf
• ^_down at the door of the fynagogue, and all thofe who
go out pafs over him. This was the very cafe of the
famous Jew Acofta.
In the ancient Chriftian church, the power of ex-
communication, as well as other ads of ecclefiaflical
difcipline, was lodged in the hands of the clergy, who
diftinguilhed it into the greater and lejfer. The lefler
excommunication, limply called aphorifrnos, feparation
or fufpenfion, confifted in excluding men from the par¬
ticipation of the eucharift, and the prayers of the faith¬
ful. But they were not expelled the church; for they
had the privilege of being prefent at the reading of
the Scriptures, the fermons, and the prayers of the ca¬
techumens and penitents. This excommunication was
inflidled for lefler crimes; fuch as neglecting to attend
the fervice of the church, milbehaviour in it, and the
like.
The greater excommunication, called panteles apho-
rifmosy total feparation and anathema, conlifted in an
abfolute and entire exeluiion from the church and the
participation of all its rites. When any perfon was
thus excommunicated, notice was given of it by circu¬
lar letters to the moll eminent churches all over the
world, that they might all confirm this ad of difcipline,
by refufing to admit the delinquent to their commu¬
nion. The confequences of this latter excommunication
were very terrible. The excommunicated perfon was
avoided in civil commerce and outward converfation.
No one was to receive him into his houfe, nor eat at
the fame^table with him ; and when dead, he was de¬
nied the fqlemn rites of burial. It has been a quellion,
whether the ancient church ufed to add execration to
her cenfures. Grotius thinks this was done, though
very feldom, as in the cafe of Julian the apoftate, for
jvhofe deftru&ion, he fays, the ancient Chriftians abfo-.
.lutely prayed to God. St Chryfoftom was utterly
againft this pradice, affirming that we ought not to
prayagainft the finner, but againft his opinions.or ac¬
tions.
The Romilh pontifical takes notice of three kinds of
excommunication. 1. The minor, incurred by thofe
who have any correfpondence with an excommunica¬
ted perfon. 2. The major, which falls upon thofe who
difobey the commands of the holy fee, or refufe to fub-
mit to certain points of difcipline ; in confequence of
which they are excluded from the church militant and
triumphant, and delivered over to the devil and his an¬
gels. 3. Anathema, which is properly that pronoun¬
ced by the pope againft heretical princes and countries.
In former ages, thefe papal fulminations were moft
terrible things; but at prefent, they are formidable to
none but a few petty ftates of Italy.
Excommunication, in the Greek church, cuts off the
offender from all communion with the 318 fathers of
the firft council of Nice, and with the faints; configns
him over to the devil, and the traitor Judas; and con¬
demns his body to remain after death as hard as a flint
or piece of Heel, unlefs he humbles himfelf and makes
atonement for his fins by a fincere repentance. The
form abounds with dreadful imprecations ; and the
Greeks affert, that if a perfon dies excommunicated,
the devil enters into the lifelefs corpfe; and therefore,
in order to prevent it, the relations of the deceafed cut
his body in pieces, and boil them in wine. It is a cu-
ftom for the patriarch of Jerufalem annually to excom- Excommu-
municate the pope and the church of Rome; on which "'cation,
occafion, together with a great deal of idle ceremony, Excoriatlon
he drives a nail into the ground with a hammer, as a
mark of maledidtion.
The form of excommunication in the church of Eng¬
land anciently ran thus: “ By the authority of God
the Father Almighty, the Son and Holy Ghoft, and
of Mary the bleffed mother of God, we excommuni¬
cate, anathematize, and fequefter from the pale of ho¬
ly mother church, &c.” The caufes of excommuni¬
cation in England are, contempt of the bifliop’s court,
herefy, negledt of public worfliip and the facraments,
incontinency, adultery, fimony, &c. It is defcribed to
be twofold. The lefs is an ecclefiaftical cenfure, ex¬
cluding the party from the participation of the facra¬
ments: the greater proceeds farther, and excludes him
not only from thefe, but from the company of all Chri¬
ftians. But, if the judge of any fpiritual court excom¬
municates a man for a caufe of which he hath not the
legal cognizance, the party may have an adlion againft
him at common law, and he is alfo liable to be indided
at the fuit of the king.
Heavy as the penalty of excommunication is, confi-
dered in a ferious light, there are, notwithftanding,
many obftinate or profligate men, who would defpife
the brutum fulmen of mere ecelefiaftical cenfures, efpe-
cially when pronounced by a petty furrogate in the
country, for railing or contumelious words, for non¬
payment of fees or cofts, or other trivial caufe. The
common law, therefore, compaffionately fteps in to
their aid, and kindly lends a fupporting hand to an
otherwife tottering authority. Imitating herein the
policy of the ancient Britons, among whom, according
to Cefar, whoever were interdidled by the druids from
their facrifices, “ In numero impiorum ac fceleratorum
habentur: ab iis omnes decedunt, aditum eorum fermo-
nemque defugiunt, ne quid ex contagione incommodi
accipiant: neque iis petentibus jus redditur, neque ho-
nos ullus communicatur.” And fo with us, by the com¬
mon law, an excommunicated perfon is difabled to do
any ad that is required to be done by one that is probus
et legalis homo. He cannot ferve upon juries; cannot be
a witnefs in any court; and, which is the worft of all,
cannot bring an adion, either real or perfonal, to reco¬
ver lands or money due to him. Nor is this the whole:
for if, within 40 days after the fentence has been pub-
lifhed in the church, the offender does not fubmit and
abide by the fentence of the fpiritual court, the bilhop
may certify fuch contempt to the king in chancery.
Upon which there iffues out a writ to the iheriff of the
county, called from the bilhop’s certificate a Jignifica-
vit; or from its effed, a writ c/e excommunicato caps-
endoi and the Iheriff (hall thereup.on take the offender
ard imprifon him in the County jail, till he is reconciled
to the church, and fuch reconciliation certified by the
bifhop ; upon which another writ de excommunicato de¬
liberandi, iffues out of chancery to deliver and releafe
him.
EXCORIATION, in medicine and furgery, the
galling, or rubbing off of the cuticle, efpecially of the
parts between the thighs and about the anus. In adults,
it is occalioned by riding, much walking, or other ve¬
hement exercife, and may be cured by vulnerary ap¬
plications. In children there is often an excoriation,
not
E X C [ 2877 ] EXE
Excremenf. not only of the parts near the pudenda, chiefly of the
groin and fcrotum, but likewife in the wrinkles of the
neck, under the arms, and in other places; proceeding
from the acrimony of urine and fweat; and occaflen-
ing itching, pains, crying, watching, reftleflhefs, &c\
To remedy this, the parts affefted may be often waih-
ed with warm water, and fprinkled with drying powders,
as chalk, hartftiorn, but efpecially tutty, lapis calami-
naris, and cerufs, which may be tied loofely in a rag,
and the powder (hook out on the difordered places. If
the parts tend to a real ulceration, it will be proper to
add a little fugar of lead to the powder, or to anoint
the place with unguent, alb. camphoratt
EXCREMENT, whatever is difeharged out of the
body of animals after digeftion ; or the fibrous part of
the alimentj mixed with the bile, faliva, and other fluids.
. Urine and the feces are the grofs excrements^ that are
difeharged out of the bladder or belly. Other excre¬
ments are the various humours that are fecreted from
the blood through the different ftrainers in the body,
and which ferve for feveral ufes; fuch as the fitliva, fweat,
bile, the pancreatic juice, lymph, the femen, nails, the
hair, the horns and hoofs of animals.
Alchemitts who have fought every where for their
great •work, as they called it, have particularly opera¬
ted much on the excrements of men and other animals;
but philofophical chemiftry has acquired no know¬
ledge from all thefe alchemical labours, from the ob-
feurity with which their authors have deferibed them.
The philofophic chemifts have not much examined ani¬
mal excrements. Of thefe, Homberg is the only one
who has particularly analyfed and examined human or¬
dure ; and this was done to fatisfy an alchemical pro¬
ject of one of his friends, who pretended that from this
matter a white oil could be obtained, without fmell,
and capable of fixing mercury into filver. The oil was
found by Homberg, but mercury was not fixed by it.
The labours of this able chemift were not however
ufelefs, like thofe of the alchemifts; becaufe he has
clearly related the experiments he made on this matter,
in the memoirs of the academy of fciences. Thefe ex¬
periments are curious, and teach feveral eflential things
concerning the nature of excrements. The refult of
thefe experiments is as follows. Frelh human feces,
being diltilled to drynefs in a water bath, furniflr a
clear, watery, infipid liquor, of a difagreeable fmell,
but which contains no volatile alkali; which is a proof
that this matter, although nearly in a putrefaftive date,
is not however putrefied ; for all fubftances really pu¬
trid furnifh with this degree of heat a manifeft vola-
•Sec Vuirt- tj]e alkali*.—rfl,e dry refiduum of the foregoing ex-
Ja ion. periment, being dill died in a retort with a graduated
fire, furnilhes a volatile alkaline fpirit and fait,'a fetid
oil, and leaves a refiduous coal. Thefe are the fame fub¬
ftances which are obtained from all animal matters.
Human feces, diluted and lixiviated in water, fur¬
nifh by filtration and evaporation of the water an oily
fait of a nitrous nature, which deflagrates like nitre
upon ardent coals, and which inflames in clofe veflels
when heated to a certain degree.—This fame matter
yielded to Homberg, who treated it 'by a complete
fermentation or putrefaftion, excited by a digeftion
during 40 days in a gentle water-bath heat, and who
afterwards diftilled it, an oil without colour, and with¬
out bad fmell, and fuch as he endeavoured to find; but
, Vol. IV. ♦
which did not, as we faid before, fix mercury ipto fll- Excrefcencc
ver. !!
EXCRESCENCE, in furgery, denotes every pre- Exccutlon-
ternatural tumour which arifes upon the fkin, either in
the form of a wart or tubercle. If they are born with
a perfon, as they frequently are, they are called navi
materni, or marks from the mother; but if the tumour
is large, fo as to depend from the fkin, like a flefhy
mafs, it is then called a farcoma. See Surgery.
EXCRETION, or Secretion, in medicine, a fe-
paration of fome fluid, mixed with the blood, by means
of the glands. Excretions, by which we mean thofe that
evacuate fuperfluous and heterogeneous humours, pu¬
rify the mafs of blood: the humours which are genera¬
ted in the blood are excreted by the glands, and are
replaced by a fufficient quantity of aliment.
EXCRETORY, in anatomy, a term applied to cer¬
tain little du£ts or veflels, deftined for the reception of
a fluid, fecreted in certain glandules, and other vifeera,
for the excretion of it in the appropriated places.
Letters of EXCULPATION, in Scots law, a
writ or fummons iffued by authority of the court of
jufticiary, at the inftance of a pannel, for citing wit-
ntffes to prove his defences, or his objedions to any of
the jury or witnefles cited againft him.
EXCURSION, in aftronomy, is ufed in a fynoni-
mous fenfe with Elongation.
EXECRATION, in antiquity, a kind of punifh-
ment, confifting of direful curfes and marks of infamy:
fuch was that ufed againft Philip king of Macedon,
by the Athenians. A general affembly of the people
being called, they made a decree, that all the ftatues
and images of that king, and of all hisanceftors, fhould
be demolilhed, and their very names razed; that all
the feftivals, facred rites, priefts, and whatever elfe had
been inftituted in honour of him, fhould beprophaned;
that the very places where there had been any monu¬
ment or infeription to his honour, fhould bedeteftable;
that nothing fhould be fet up, or dedicated in them,
which could be done in clean places: and, laftly, that
the priefts, as often as they prayed for the Athenian
people, allies, armies, and fleets, fhould as many times
deteft and execrate Philip, his children, kingdom, land
and fea forces, and the whole race and name of the Ma¬
cedonians.
EXECUTION, in a general fenfe, the a& of ac-
complifhing, finifhing, or atchieving any thing.
Execution, in law', the completing or finifhing
fome adt, as of judgment., deed. See. and it ufually fig-
nifies the obtaining pofleffion of any thing recovered
by judgment of law.
Sir Edward Coke obferves, that there are two forts
of executions: the one final; and the other a quoufque,
that tends to an end. An execution final, is that which
makes money of the defendant’s goods ; or extends ta
his lands, and delivers them to the plaintiff, who ac¬
cepts the fame in fatisfaftion ; and this is the end of
the fuit, and the whole that the king’s writ requires ta
be done. The writ of execution with a quoufque, tho*
it tends to an end, yet is not final, as in the cafe of a
capias adfatisfac. where the defendant’s body is to be
taken, in order that the plaintiff may be fatisfied for
his debt. See Capias.
Executions are either .in perfonal, real, or mixed ac¬
tions. In a perfonal adtion, the execution may be made
16 three
Execution.
• See Ha-
iere.
i S« Judg¬
ment.
Blacijh
Comment.
EXE [ 28
three ways, viz. by the writ of capias ad fatisfacien-
dum, againft the body of the defendant; fieri facias,
agaihft his goods 5 or elegit, againft his lands. See
Fieri facias, and Elegit.
In a real and mixed aftion, the execution is by writ
of habere facias feifmam, and habere pofiejfionevi*. Writs
of execution bind the property of goods only from the
time of delivery of the writ to the fheriff; but the
land is bound from the day of the judgment obtained:
and here the fale of any goods for valuable confidera-
tion, after a judgment, and before the execution award¬
ed, will be good. It is otherwife as to lands of which
execution may be made, even on a purchafe after the
judgment, though the defendant fell fuch land before
execution. Likewife, (heriffs may deliver in execution
all the lands whereof others lhall be feifed in truft for
him, againft whom execution is had on a judgment,
&c.
When any judgment is figned, the execution may
be taken out immediately thereon; but if it be not if-
ftied within a year and a day after, where there is no
fault in the defendant, as in the cafe of an injun&ion,
writ of error, &c. there mu ft be a fcire facias, to re¬
vive the judgment; though, if the plaintiff fues out any
writ of execution within the year, he may continue it
after the year is expired. After judgment againft the
defendant, in an aiftion wherein fpecial bail is given,
the plaintiff is at liberty to have execution againft fuch
defendant, or againft his bail: but this is underftood
where the defendant does not render himfelf, accord¬
ing to law, in fafeguard of the bail: and execution
may not regularly be fued forth againft a bail, till a
default is returned againft the principal: alfo if the
plaintiff takes the bail, he (hall never take the principal.
It is held that an execution may be executed after the
death of the defendant: for his executor, being privy
thereto, is liable, as well as the teftator. The execu¬
tion is an entire thing, fo that he who begins muft end
it: therefore, a new' (heriff may diftrain an old one, to
fell the goods feifed on a diftringas, and to bring the
money into court.
Execution, in criminal cafes, the completion of
human punifhment. This follows judgment j:; and
muft in all cafes, capital as well as otherwife, be
performed by the legal officer, the (heriff or his de¬
puty ; whofe warrant for fo doing was anciently by
precept under the hand and feal of the judge, as it is
ftill pradtifed in the court of the lord high fteward,
upon the execution of a peer: though, in the court of
the peers in parliament, it is done by writ from the
king. Afterwards it was eftablifhed, that, in cafe of
life, the judge may command execution to be done
without any writ. And now the ufage is, for the judge
to (ign the calendar or lift of all the prifoners names,
with their feparate judgments in the margin, w’hich is
left with the (heriff. As, for a capital felony, it is
written oppofite to the prifoner’s name, “ let him be
hanged by the neckformerly, in the days of Latin
and abbreviation, “ fuf per coll.,, for “ fufpendatur
fer collumJ" And this is the only warrant that the
fheriff has, for fo material an aft as taking away the
fife of another. It may certainly afford matter of fpe-
culation, that in civil caufes there (hould be fuch a va¬
riety of writs of execution to recover a trifling debt,
iffued in the king’s name, and under the feal of^he
78 ] E X E
court, without which the fheriff cannot legally ftir otie Execution,
ftep; and yet that the execution of a man, the moft
important and terrible talk of any, (hould depend upon
a marginal note.
The (heriff, upon receipt of his warrant, is to do
execution within a convenient time; which in the coun¬
try is alfo left at large. In London, indeed, a more fo-
lemn and becoming -exaftnefs is ufed, both as to the
warrant of execution, and the time of executing there¬
of: for the recorder, after reporting to the king in
perfon the cafe of the feveral prifoners, and receiving
his royal pleafure, that the law muft take its courfe,
iffues his warrant to the (heriffs, direfting them to do
execution on the day and at the place afligned. And
in the court of king’s bench, if the prifoner be tried
at the bar, or brought there by habeas corpus, a rule
is made for his execution ; either fpecifying the time
and place, or leaving it to the diferetion of the (heriff.
And, throughout the kingdom, by ftatute 25 Geo. II*
c. 37. it is enafted that, in cafe ©f murder, the judge
(hall in his fentence direft execution to be performed
on the next day but one after fentence paffed. But,
otherwife, the time and place of execution are by law
no part of the judgment. It has been well obferved,
that it is of great importance, that the puniftiment
(hould follow the crime as early as poffible; that the
profpeft of gratification or advantage, which tempts a
man to commit the crime, (hould inftantly awake the
attendant idea of punifhment. Delay of execution
ferves only to feparate thefe ideas: and then the exe¬
cution itfelf affefts the minds of the fpeftators rather
as a terrible fight, than as the neceffary confequence
of tranfgreffion.
The (heriff cannot alter the manner of the execution,
by fubftituting one death for another, without being
guilty of felony himfelf. It is held alfo by Sir
Edward Coke and Sir Matthew Hale, that even
the king cannot change the punilhment of the law,
by altering the - hanging or burning into behead¬
ing; though, when beheading is part of the fen¬
tence, the king may remit the reft. And, notwith-
ftanding fome examples to the contrary, Sir Edward
Coke ftoutly maintains, that judicandum eji legibus,
non exempli;. But others have thought, and more juft-
ly, that this prerogative, being founded in mercy,
and immemorially exercifed by the crown, is part of
the common law. For hitherto, in every inftance, all
thefe exchanges have been for more merciful kinds of
death; and how' far this may alfo fall within the
king’s pow’er of granting conditional pardons, [viz.
by remitting a fevere kind of death, on condition that
the criminal fubmits to a milder) is a matter that may-
bear confideration. It is obfervable, that when Lord
Stafford vvas executed for the popi(h plot in the reign
of king Charles II. the then (heriffs of London, having
received the king’s writ for beheading him, petitioned
the houfe of lords, for a command or order from their
lordfhips, how the faid judgment (hould be executed:
for, he being profecuted by impeachment, they enter¬
tained a notion (which is faid to have been countenan¬
ced by Lord Ruffel), that the king could not pardon
any part of the fentence. The lords refolved, that the
fcruples of the (heriffs were unneceffary; and declared,
that the king’s writ ought to be obeyed. Difappoint-
ed of raifing a flame in that affembly, they immediate-
EXE [ 2879 ] EXE
Execution
Exemplar.
ly fignified to the houfe of commons by one of the
members, that they were not fatisfied as to the power
. of the faid writ. That houfe took two days to confi-
der of it; and then fullenly refolved, that the houfe
was content that the flieriff do execute Lord Stafford
by fevering his head from his body. It is farther re¬
lated, that when afterwards the fame Lord Ruffel was
condemned for high treafon upon indi&ment, the king,
while he remitted the ignominious part of the fentence,
obferved, “ that his Lordfhip would now find he was
poffeffed of that prerogative, which in the cafe of Lord
Stafford he had denied him.” One can hardly deter¬
mine (at this diftance from thofe turbulent times), which
molt to difapprove of, the indecent and fanguinary zeal
of the fubjeft, or the cool and cruel farcafm of the fo-
V£ reign.
To conclude: it is clear, that if, upon judgment to
be hanged by the neck till he is dead, the criminal be
not thoroughly killed, but revives, the fheriff muft
hang him again. For the former hanging was no ex¬
ecution of the fentence; and, if a falfe tendernefs were
to be indulged in fuch cafes, a multitude of collufions
might enfue. Nay, even while abjurations were in
force, fuch a criminal, fo reviving, was not allowed to
take fanftuary and abjure the realm; but his fleeing to
fandUiary was held an efcape in the officer.
Execution, in the law of Scotland. See Law,
Part III. n° clxxxv. 52. clxxxvi. 15.
EXECUTIVE power. The fupreme executive
power of thefe kingdoms is veiled by our laws in a
fingle perfon, the king or queen for the time be¬
ing. See the article King.
The executive power, in this ftate, hath a right to
a negative in parliament, i. e. to refufe aflent to any
adts offered; otherwife the other two branches of le-
giflative power would, or might, become defpotic.
EXECUTOR, in Scots law, fignifies either the
perfon intitled to fucceed to the moveable eftate of one
deceafed, or who by law or fpecial appointment is in¬
truded with the adminiftration of it.
EXECUTORY, in law, is where an eflate in fee,
that is made by deed or fine, is to be executed after¬
wards by entry, livery, or writ. Leafes for years, an¬
nuities, conditions, &c. are termed inheritances exe¬
cutory.
EXECUTRY, in Scots law, is the moveable eftate
falling to the executor. Under executry, or moveables,
is comprehended every thing that moves itfelf, or can
be moved; fuch as corns, cattle, furniture, ready mo¬
ney, &c.
EXEDRiE, in antiquity, a general name for fuch
buildings as were diftindt from the main body of the
churches, and yet within the limits of the church taken
in its larged fenfe. Among the exedras the chief was
the Baptistery.
EXEGESIS, a difcourfe by way of explanation or
comment upon any fubjed. In the Scotch univerfi-
ties, there is an exercife among the dudentsin divinity,
called an exegejis, in which a quedion is dated by the
refpondent, who is then oppofed by two or three other
Undents in their turns; during which time the profef-
for moderates, and folves the difficulties which the re¬
fpondent cannot overcome.
EXEMPLAR, denotes much the fame with mo¬
del. See Model.
EXEMPLIFICATION of Letters-patent, a
tranfcript or duplicate of them, made from the inroll-
ment thereof, and fealed with the great feal.
EXEMPTION, in law, a privilege to. be free from
fome fervice or appearance: thus, barons and peers of
the realm are, on account of their dignity, exempted,
from being fworn uponinqueds; and knights, clergy¬
men, and others, from appearing at the (herifPs turn.
Perfons of 70 years of age, apothecaries, &c. are alfo
by law exempted from ferving on juries; and juftices
of the peace, attorneys, &c. from paridi-offices.
EXERCISE, among phyficians, fuch an agitation
of the body as produces falutary effedls in the animal
ceconomy.
Exercife may be faid to be either aflive or paffive.
The a&ive is walking, hunting, dancing, playing at
bowls, and the like; as alfo fpeaking, and other labour
of the body and mind. The paffive is riding in a coach,
on horfeback, or in any other manner. Exercife may
be continued to a beginning of wearinefs, and ought to
be ufed before dinner in a pure light air; for which
reafon, journeys, and going into the country, contri¬
bute greatly to preferve and re-cdablidi health.
Exercife increafes the circulation of the blood, atte¬
nuates and divides the fluids, and promotes a regular
perfpiration, as well as a dne fecretion of all the hu¬
mours; for it accelerates the animal-fpirits, and facili¬
tates their diftribution into all the fibres of the body,
fllengthens the parts, creates an appetite, and helps
digestion. Whence it arifes, that thofe who accuftom
themfelves to exercife are generally very robuft, and
feldom fubjeft to difeafes.
Boerhaave recommends bodily exercife in difeafes
of a weak and lax fibre. By riding on horfeback,
fays his commentator, the pendulous vifeera of the ab¬
domen are fhaken every moment, and gently rubbed as
it were one againft another, while in the mean time the
pure air adls on the lungs with greater force. But it
is to be obferved, that a weak man fhould not ride with
a full ftomach, but either before dinner, or after the
digeftion is near finifhed ; for when the ftomach is dif-
tended, weak people do not bear thefe concuffions of
the horfe without difficulty; but when the primae vise
are near empty, the remaining feces are difeharged by
this conculfion. Sailing in a fhip is alfo an exercife of
great ufe to weak people. If the veflel mores with an
even motion, by increafing perfpiration it ufually ex¬
cites a wonderful alacrity, creates an appetite, and pro¬
motes digeftion. Thefe exereifes are more efpecially
ferviceable to weak people; but, in order to ftrength-
en the body by mufcular motion, running, and bo¬
dily exercifes, are to be ufed. In thefe we fliould be¬
gin with the mod gentle, fuch as walking, and increafe
it by degrees till we come to running. Thofe exercifes
of the body are more efpecially ferviceable which give
delight to the mind at the fame time, as tennis, fen¬
cing, &c.; for which reafon, the wifdom of antiquity
appointed rewards for thofe who excelled in thefe gym-
nailic exercifes, that by this means the bodies of their
youth might be hardened for warlike toils.
As nothing is more conducive to health than mode¬
rate exercife, fo violent exercife diffipates the fpirits,
weakens the body, deftroys the elallicity of the fibres,
and exhaulls the fluid parts of the blood. No wonder,
then, that acute and mortal fevers often arife from too
16 Q^2 violent
Exemplifi¬
cation
Exercife.
E X E
[ 2880 ]
EXE
Exercife. violent exercife of the body ; for the motion of the
venous blood towards the heart being quickened by the
contraftion of the mufcles, and the veins being thus
depleted, the arteries more eafily propel their contained
humours through the fmalleft extremities into the now
lefs refilling veins; and therefore the velocity of the
circulation will be increafed through all the vefiels.
But this cannot be performed without applying the
humours oftener, or in a greater quantity, to the fe-
cretory organs in the fame time, whence the more fluid
parts of the blood will be diffipated, and what remains
will be infpiflated; and by the greater a£lion of the vef-
fels upon their contained fluids, and of the rea&ing
fluids upon the veffcls, the blood acquires an inflam¬
matory denfity. Add to this, that by the violent at¬
trition of the folids and fluids, together with the heat
thence arifing, all the humours will incline to a greater
acrimony, and the falls and oils of the blood will be¬
come more acrid and volatile. Hence, fays Boerhaave,
thofe fevers which arife from too much exercife or mo¬
tion, are cured by reft of body and mind, with fuch
aliments and medicines as moiften, dilute, and foften
or allay acrimony.
The exercife of a foldierin camp, confidered as con¬
ducive to health, Dr Pringle diftinguilhes into three
heads; the firlt relating to his duty, the fecond to his
living more commodioufly, and the third to his diver-
fions. The firft, confiftifig chiefly in the exercife of
his arms, will be no lefs the means of preferving health,
than of making him expert in his duty: and frequent
returns of this, early, and before the fun grows hot, will
be made more advantageous than repeating it feldom,
and ftaying out long at a time; for a camp affording
little convenience for refrelhment, all unneceffary fa¬
tigue is to be avoided. As to the fecond article, cut¬
ting boughs for fliading the tents, making trenches
round them for carrying off the water, airing the ftraw,
cleaning their cloaths and accoutrements, and affifting
in the bufinefs of the mefs, ought to be no difagreeable
cxercife to the men for fome part of the day. Daft¬
ly, as to diverfions, the men mull be encouraged to
them either by the example of tljeir officers, or by
fmall premiums to thofe who (hall excel in any kind of
fports as lhall be judged moll conducive to health: but
herein great caution is neceffary, not to allow them to
fatigue themfelves too much, efpecially in hot weather,
or fickly times ; but above all, that their cloaths be
kept dry, wet cloaths beirig the moll frequent caufes
of camp-difeafes.
Exercise, in military affairs, is the ranging a body
of foldiers in form of battle, and making them perform
the feveral motions and military evolutions with diffe¬
rent management of their arms, in order to make them
expert therein.
Exercise, in the royal navy, is the preparatory
pradlice of managing the artillery and fmall-arms, in
order to make the fhip’s crew perfedlly fkilled there¬
in, fo as to direct its execution fuccefsfully in the time
of battle.
The exercife of the great guns has, till the late war,
been very complicated, and abounding with fuperftui-
ties, in our navy, as well as all others. The following
method was then fuccefsfully introduced by an officer
•f diftinguilhed abilities.
ill, Silence.
2d, Call loofe your guns.
3d, Level your guns.
4th, Take out your tompions.
5th, Run out your guns.
6th, Prime.
7th, Point your guns.
8th, Fire.
9th, Spunge your guns.
10th, Load with cartridge.
1 tth, Shot your guns.
12th, Putin your tompions.
13th, Houfe your guns.
14th, Secure your guns.
Upon beat-to-arms (everybody having immediately
repaired to their quarters) the midlhipman command¬
ing a number of guns, is to fee that they are not with¬
out every neceffary article, as (at every gun) a fpunge,
powder-horn, with its priming wires, and a fufficient
quantity of powder, crow, hand-fpike, bed, quoin,
train-tackle, &c. fending without delay for a fupply
of any thing that may be amilfing ; and, for the greater
certainty of not overlooking any deficiency, he is to give
ftri<5l orders to each captain under him, to make the
like examination at his refpe&ive gun, and to take care
that every requilite is in a ferviceable condition, which
he is to report accordingly. And (belides the other
advantages of this regulation) for the Hill more certain
and fpeedy account being taken upon thefe Occafions,
the midlhipman is to give each man his charge at quar¬
ters (as expreffed in the form of the monthly report),
who is to fearch for his particular implements, and,
not finding them, is immediately to acquaint his cap¬
tain, that, upon his report to the midlhipman, they
may be replaced.
The man who takes care of the powder, is to place
himfelf on the oppofite fide of the deck from that where
we engage, except when fighting both fides at once,
when he is to be amid-lhips. He is not to fuffer any
other man to take a cartridge from him, but he who is
appointed to ferve the gun with that article, either in
time of a real engagement, or at exercife.
Lanthrons are not to be brought to quarters in the
night, until the midlhipman gives his orders for fo do¬
ing to the perfon he charges with that article. Every
thing being in its place, and not the leaft lumber in the
way of the guns, the exercife begins with,
1. “ Silence.” At this word every one is to ob-
ferve a filent attention to the officers.
2. “ Call loofe your guns.” The muzzle lalhing is
to be taken off from the guns, and (being coiled up
in a fmall compafs) is to be made fall to the eye-bolt
above the port. The lalhing-tackles at the fame time
to be call loofe, and the middle of the breeching feized
to the thimble of the pommillion. The fpunge to be?
taken down, and, with the crow, hand-fpike, &c. laid
upon the deck by the gun. N. B. When prepared
for engaging an enemy, the feizing within the clinch
of the breeching is to be cut, that the gun may come
fufficiently within-board for loading, and that the
force of the recoil may be more fpent before its ads
upon the breeching.
3. “ Level your guns.” The breech of your me¬
tal is to be raifed fo as to admit the foot of the bed’s
being placed upon the axle-tree of the carriage, with
the
Exercife.
EXE [ 2881 ] E X E
Exercife. the quoin upon the bed, both their ends being even one
■ with the other. N. B. When levelled for firing, the
bed is to be lalhed to the bolt which fupports the in¬
ner end of it, that it may not be thrown out of its place
by the violence of the gun’s motion, when hot with
frequent difcharges.
4. “ Take out your tompions.” The tompion is
to be taken out of the gun’s mouth, and left hanging
by its laniard.
5. “ Run out your guns.” With the tackles
hooked to the upper bolts of the carriage, the gun is
to be bowfed out as clofe as pofiible, without the af-
fiitance of crows or hand-fpikes ; taking care at the
fame time to keep the breeching clear of the trucks,
by hauling it through the rings ; it is then to be bent
fo as to run clear when the gun is fired. When the
gun is out, the tackle-falls are to belaid along-fide the
carriages in neat fakes, that, when the gun by recoil¬
ing overhauls them, they may not be fubjedt to get
foul, as they would if in a common coil.
6. “ Prime.” If the cartridge is to be pierced
with the priming-wire, and the vent filled with pow¬
der, the pan alfo is to be filled; and the flat fpace,
having a fcore through it at the end of the pan, is to
be covered, and this part of the priming is to be brui-
fed with the round part of the horn. The apron is to
be laid over, and the horn hung up out of danger from
the flalh of the priming.
7. “ Point your guns. ’ At this command the gun
is, in the firft place, to be elevated to the height of
the objedt, by means of the fide-fights; and then
the perfon pointing is to diredl his fire by the upper
fight, having a crow on one fide and a hand-fpike on
the other, to heave the gun by his diredtion till he
catches the objedt.
N. B. The men who heave the gun for pointing are
to ftand between the fhip’s fide and their crows or
hand-fpikes, to efcape the injury they might otherwife
receive from their being firuck againft them, or fplin-
tered by a Ihot; and the man who attends the captain
with a match is to bring it at the word, “ Point your
guns,’’ and kneeling upon one kneeoppofite the train-
truck of the carriage, and at fuch a diftance as to be
able to touch the priming, is to turn his head from
the gun, and keep blowing gently upon the lighted
match to keep it clear from alhes. And as the miffing
of an enemy in adlion, by negledt or want of coolnefs,
is moll inexcufable, it is particularly recommended to
have the people thoroughly inftrudted in pointing
well, and taught to know the ill confequences of not
taking proper means to hit their mark; wherefore
they ffiould be made to elevate their guns to the ut-
moft nicety, and then to point with the fame exadt-
neft, having caught the objedl thro’ the upper-fight.
At the word,
8. “ Fire,” the match is inftantly to be put to the
bruifed part of the priming ; and when the gun is dif-
charged the vent is to be clofed, in order to fmother
any fpark of fire that may remain in the chamber of
the gun ; and the man who fpunges is immediately to
place himfelf by the muzzle of the gun in readinefs-;
when, at the next word,
9. “ Spunge your gun,” the fpunge is to be ram¬
med down to the bottom of the chamber, and then
twilled round, to extinguilh effectually any remains of
fire; and, when drawn out, to be llruck againft the Exerci e.
out-fide of the muzzle, to lhake off any fparks or fcraps
of the cartridge that may have come out with it; and
next, its end is to be fhifted ready for loading ; and
while this is doing, the man appointed to provide a
cartridge is to go to the box, and by the time the
fpunge is out of the gun, he is to have it ready ; and
at the word,
10. “ Load with cartridge,” the cartridge (with
the bottom end firft, feam downwards, and a wad
after it) is to be put into the gun, and thruft a little
way within the mouth, when the rammer is to be en¬
tered : the cartridge is then to be forcibly rammed
down ; and the captain at the fame time is to keep his
priming-wire in the vent, and, feeling the cartridge,
is to give the word home, when the rammer is to be
drawn, and not before. While this is doing, the man
appointed to provide a Ihot is to provide one (or two,
according to the order at that time) ready at the
muzzle, with a wad likewife; and when the rammer is
drawn, at the word,
11. “ Shot your guns,” the Ihot and wad upon it
are to be put into the gun, and thruft a little way
down, when the rammer is to be entered as before.
The Ihot and wad are to be rammed down to the car¬
tridge, and there have a couple of forcible ftrokes;
when the rammer is to be drawn, and laid out of the
way of the guns and tackles, if the exercife or aClion
is continued ; but if it is over, the fpunge is to be fe-
cured in the place it is at all times kept in.
12. “ Put in your tompions.” The tompions to be
put into the muzzle of the cannon.
13. “ Houfe your guns.” The feizing is to be put
on again upon the clinched end of the breeching, lea¬
ving it no flacker than to admit of the guns being hoo¬
fed with eafe. The quoin is to be taken from under
the breech of the gun, and the bed, Hill refting upon
the bolt, within the carriage, thruft under, till the
foot of it falls off the axle-tree, leaving it to reft upon
the end which proje&s out from the foot. The metal
is to be let down upon this. The gun is to be placed
exactly fquare; and the muzzle is to be clofe to the-
wood, in its proper place for paffing the muzzle-lalh-
ings.
14. “ Secure your guns.” The muzzle-la filings
muft firft: be made fecure, and then with one tackle
(having all its parts equally taught with the breech¬
ing) the gun is to be lafhed. The other tackle is to
be bowfed taught, and by itfelf made fefl, that it
may be ready to call off for lafhing a fecond breech¬
ing. N. B. Care mud be taken to hook the firft
tackle to the upper bolt of the carriage, that it may
not otherwife obftruft the reeving of the fecond breech¬
ing, and to give the greater length to the end part of
the fall. No pains muft be fpared in bowling the lafh¬
ing very taught, that the gun may have the lead play
that is poffible, as their being loofe may be productive
of very dangerous confequences. The quoin, crow,
and hand-fpike, are to be put under the gun, the pow¬
der-horn hung up in its place, &e.
Being engaged at any time when there is a large
fweli, a rough fea, or in fqually weather, &c. as the
fhip may be liable to be fuddenly much heeled, the
port-tackle fall is to be kept clear, and (wheneverthe
working of the gun will admit of it) the man charged
witk
EXE [ 2882 ] E X I
Exercife with that office is to keep it in his hand; at the fame
!! time the muzzle laihing is to be kept faft to the ring of
xetcr' the port, and, being hauled taught, is to be fattened to
the eye-bolt over the port-hole, fo as to be out of the
gun’s way in firing, in order to haul it in at any time
of danger.
This precaution is not to be omitted, when enga¬
ging to the windward, any more than when to the lee¬
ward, thofe fituations being very fubject to alter at too
fhort a warning.
A train-tackle is always to be made ufe of with
the lee-guns, and the man ttationed to attend it is to
be very careful in preventing the gun’s running out at
an improper time.
Exercise, may alfo be applied with propriety to
the forming our fleets into orders of failing, lines of
battle, &c. an art which the French have termed evo¬
lutions, or tattiques. In this fenfe exercife may be de¬
fined, the execution of the movements which the dif¬
ferent orders and difpofition of fleets occafionally re¬
quire, and which the feveral (hips are directed to per¬
form by means of fignais. See Tactics.
Exercises, are alfo uuderftood of what young gen¬
tlemen learn in the academies and riding-fchools, fuch
as fencing, drawing, riding the great horfe, &c.
How ufeful, how agreeable foever, ftudy may be to
the mind, it is very far from being equally falutary to
the body. Every one obferves, that the Creator has
formed an intimate connexion between the body and
the mind ; a perpetual action and read ion, by which
the body inftantly feels the diforders of the mind, and
the mind thofe of the body. The delicate fprings of
our frail machines lofe their a&ivity and become ener¬
vated, and the veffels are choked by obftrudtions when
we totally defift from exercife, and the confequences
neceffarily affedl: the brain : a more ftudious and fe-
dentary life is therefore equally prejudicial to the bo¬
dy and the mind. The limbs likewife become ttiff;
we contraft an aukward con (trained manner ; a certain
difguftful air attends all our adtions, and we are very
near being as difagreeable to ourfelves as to others. An
inclination to ftudy is highly commendable ; but it
ought not, however, to infpire us with an averfion to
fociety. The natural lot of man is to live among his
fellows : and whatever may be the condition of our
birth, or our fituation in life, there are a thoufand 00
cafions where a man mutt naturally defire to render
himfelf agreeable ; to be adlive and adroit; to dance
with a grace ; to command the fiery fteed; to defend
himfelf againft a brutal enemy ; to preferve his life by
dexterity; as by leaping, fwimming, &c. Many ra¬
tional caufes have therefore given rife to the pradtice of
particular exercifes, and the moft fagacious and bene¬
volent legiflators have inftituted, in their academies and
univerfities, proper methods of enabling youth, who
devote themfelves to ftudy, to become expert alfo in
laudable exercifes.
EXERCITOR, in Scots law, he who employs a
fhip in trade, whether he be owner, or only freights
her from the owner.
EXERGESIA. See Oratory, n° 90.
EXERGUM, among antiquarians, a little fpace
around or wit hout the figures of a medal, left for the in-
feription, cipher, device, date, &c.
EXETER, the capital city of Devonfliire, fituated
on the river Ex, ten miles north of the Britifh chan- Exfoliation
nel: W. Long. 3. 40. N. Lat. 50. 44. Anciently II
the name of this city was Ifex, and Ifia Dnmnoniorum. X1 cnce'
The prefent name is a contradfion of Excejler, that is,
a city upon the Ex. It is large, populous, and weal¬
thy, with gates, walls, and fuburbs: the circumfe¬
rence of the whole is about two miles, being well fup-
pliedwith water brought in pipes from the neighbour¬
hood. The city is a county of itfelf; and the magi-
ftrates have extenfive powers with refpedt to the admi-
ftration of ju (lice, both in civil and criminal cafes.
Formerly the fea flowed up to the city-walls, and drips
loaded and unloaded at the water-gate ; but the navi¬
gation of the river was fo obftrudted by the wears made
in it by Hugh Courtenay earl of Devon, that the mer¬
chants brought their goods from Topfham by land. A
channel, however, hath been lince cut through the
dams, and velTels of 150 tons now come up to the key.
There is a prodigious woollen manufadlure in this city,
of ferges, perpetuanas, long ells, druggets, and ker-
feys. A large market is kept here once a-week, in
which goods are fometimes fold to the amount of
L. 60,000.
EXFOLIATION, a term ufed by furgeons for the
fealing of a bone, or its rifing and feparating into thin
laminae or feales.
EXHALATION, a general term for all effluvia or
fleams raifed from the furface of the earth in form of
vapour.
EXHIBIT, in law, is where a deed, or other wri¬
ting, being produced in a chancery fuit to be proved
by witnefles, the examiner, or commiffioner appointed
for the examination of any fuch, certifies on the back
of the deed or writing, that the fame was fnewn to the
witnefs at the time of his examination, and by him
fworn to.
EXIGENT, in law, a writ which lies where the de¬
fendant in a perfonal attion cannot be found, nor any
effedls of his w'ithin the county, by which he may be
attached or diftrained.
EXIGENTERS, four officers in the court of com¬
mon-pleas, who make all exigents and proclamations,
in all a&ions where procefsof outlawry lies. Writs of
fuperfedeas, as well as the prothonotaries upon exi¬
gents, were likewife drawn up in their office.
EXILE. See Banishment.
Among the Romans, the word exile, exiliutn, pro¬
perly fignified an interdi&ion, or exclufion from water
and fire ; the neceflary confequence of which was, that
the interdi&ed perfon mutt betake himfelf into fome
other country, fince there was no living without fire
and water.—Thus, Cicero ad Herenn. obferves, that the
form of the fentence did not exprefs exile, but only
aquse is ignis interdiftio. The fame author remarks,
that exile was not properly a punifhment; but a volun¬
tarily flying, or avoiding the puniftrment decreed : Ex¬
ilium non ejfe fupplicium, fed perfugium, partufque fup-
plicii. He adds, that there was no crime among the
Romans, as among other nations, punilhed with exile;
but exile was a recourfe people flew voluntarily to, in
order to avoid chains, ignominy, ftarving, &c.
The Athenians frequently fent their generals and
great men into exile, out of envy of their merits, or
diftruft of their too great authority *. * ®ec
EXISTENCE, that whereby any thing has an ac-0-'”*'
tual
E X I [ 2883 ] E X I
, Exotoetus tual eflence, or is faid to be. Sec Metaphysics,
!l n° 220, &c.
-Exorclfm- EXOCOETUS, or the Flying-Fish, in ichthyo¬
logy, a genus belonging to the order of abdominaies.
The head.is fcaly, and it has no teeth. It has 10 radii
in the branchioflege membrane ; the body is whitifh,
and the belly is angular : the peftoral fins, the inftru-
ments of flight, are very large. When purfued by any
other fifh, it raifes itfelf from the water by means of
thefe long fins, and flies in the air to a confiderable di-
See PI CII ftance> tl16 fins dry, and then it falls down into the
£g_ 7< ’ water. It is a fifh that fetms to lead a moft miferable
life. In its own element, it is perpetullay ha raffed by
the dorados and other fifh of prey. If it endeavours to
avoid them by having recourfe to the air, it either
meets its fate from the gulls, or the albatrofs, or is
forced down again into the mouth of the inhabitants
of the water, who, below, keep pace with its aerial
excurfion. Neither is it unfrequent that whole fhoals
of them fall on board of fhips that navigate the feas in
warm climates. It is therefore apparent, that nature
in this creature hath fupplied it with intlruments which
frequently bring it into the deftrudlion it ftrives to
avoid, by having recourfe to an element unnatural toil.
EXODIARY, in the ancient Roman tragedy, was
the perfon who, after the drama or play was ended,
fung the Exodium.
EXODIUM, in the ancient Greek drama, one of
the four parts or divifions of tragedy, being fo much
of the piece as included the cataftrophe and unravel¬
ling of the plot, and anfwering nearly to our fourth
and fifth a£s.
Exodium, among the Romans, confifted of certain
humorous verfes rehearfed by the exediary at the end
of the Fabulas Atellanx.
Exodium, in the Septuagint, fignifies the end or
conclufion of a feaft. Particularly it is ufed for the
eighth day of the feafl of tabernacles, which, it is faid,
had a fpecial view to the commemoration of the exo¬
dus or departure out of Egypt.
EXODUS, a canonical book of the Old Tefta-
ment; being the fecond of the pentateuch, or five
books of Mofes.
It is fo called from the Greek [exodos], the “ go¬
ing out” or departure of the children of Ifrael from the
land of Egypt; thehiftory of which is delivered in this
book, together with the many miracles wrought on
that occafion.
EXOMPHALUS, in furgery, called alfo ow/Ws-
cele, and hernia umbilicalis, is a preternatural tumour
of the abdomen, at the navel, from a rupture or dif-
* See Sur- tenfion of the parts which inveft that cavity *.
jery. EXORCISM, among ecclefiaftical writers, the ex¬
pelling devils from perfons poffeffed, by means of con¬
jurations and prayers.
Exorcifm makes a confiderable part of the fuper- Exorcllh
flition of the church of Rome, the rituals of which II
forbid the exorcifing any perfon without the bifhop’s
leave.  
The ceremony is performed at the lower end of the
church, towards the door. The exorcift firll figns the
pofleffed perfon with the fign of the crofs, makes him
kneel, and fprinkles him with holy water. Then fol¬
low the litanies, pfalms, and prayer; after which the
exorciil afks the devil his name, and adjures him by
the myfteries of the Chriftian religion not to afflidf the
perfon any more : then, laying his right hand on the
dsemoniac’s head, he repeats the form of exorcifm,
which is this : “ I exorcife thee, unclean fpirit, in the
name of Jefus Chrift : tremble, O Satan ! thou enemy
of the faith, thou foe of mankind, who haft brought
death into the world, who haft deprived men of life,
and haft rebelled againft juftice ; thou feducerof man¬
kind, thou root of evil, thou fource of avarice, difcord,
and envy.”
The Romanifts likewife exorcife houfes and other
places, fuppofed to be haunted by unclean fpirits; and
the ceremony is much the fame with that for perfons
poflefled.
EXORCISTS, in church-hiftory, an order of men,
in the ancient church, whofe employment it was to ex¬
orcife or caft out devils. See the preceding article.
EXORDIUM, in oratory, is the preamble or be¬
ginning, ferving to prepare the audience for the reft of
the difcourfe.
Exordiums are of two kinds, either juft and form¬
al, or vehement and abrupt. The laft are moft fuit-
able on occafions of extraordinary joy, indignation, or
the like. See Oratory, n° 26.
EXOTIC, an appellation denoting a thing to be
the produce of foreign countries.
EXPANSION, among metaphyficians, denotes the
idea we have of lafting diftance, all whofe parts exift
together.
Expansion, in phyfiology, the fwelling or increafe
of the bulk of bodies when heated. See Fire and
Heat.
EXPECTORANTS, in pharmacy, medicines which
promote Expectoration.
EXPECTORATION, the aft of evacuating or
bringing up phlegm or other matters out of the tra¬
chea, lungs, &c. by coughing, hacking, fpitting, &c.
EXPERIENCE, a kind of knowledge acquired by
long ufe, without any teacher. See Metaphysics,
n° 26, 28.
EXPERIMENT, in philofophy, is the trial of the
refult or effeft of the applications and motions of cer¬
tain natural bodies, in order to difcover fomething of
their motions and relations, whereby to afcertain fome
of their phaenomena, or caufes.
EXPERIMENTAL philosophy;
r | 1 HAT philofophy which proceeds on experi-
ments, which deduces the laws of nature, and
the properties and powers of bodies, and their aftions
upon each other, from fenfiblc experiments and obfer-
vations.
I. It is not very long fince this fcience has been-
known to the world, or, to fpeak more properly, fince
it was firft reduced into a fyftem. Natural philofophy
has been, for thefe 50 centuries, nothing more than a
confufed heap of fyftems laid one upon another, and
very
2884
EXPERIMENTA
very frequently the one claftiing againft the other. Each
philofopher thought, that he had an equal right to e-
re&a fimilar edifice to his own memory. They adop¬
ted barbarous terms and expreffions, that conveyed
confufed ideas only. For explications/they gave cer¬
tain unintelligible or unmeaning words, which had
been introduced by the authority of fome celebrated
name, but from which a man of underftanding could
not receive the lead information. At length, the true
phyfics was brought to light ; it was drawn from the
obfcurity of the fchools, where it had grown old un¬
der the authority of Ariftotle, and fcarce any thing
been fuffered to remain of it but the name. This re¬
formation proceeded principally from the manner of
ftudying it. Inftead of guefiing at it, they" began to
inveftigate it by experiments ; and whereas they for¬
merly confined themfelves to fpeculations, and vague
refearches concerning phenomena and their caufes, that
were always merely conje&ural, they now gave ocular
demonftrations of caufes and effedts by means of ex¬
periments ; and this is what they call experimentalpbi-
bfophy.
II. The principles of this philofophy are as follow.
All the material fubftances, whofe affemblage compo-
fes the univerfe, are called natural bodies. What we
perceive in thefe fubftances that is uniform and inva¬
riable, and of which we do not know the caufe, is call¬
ed x\\e\rproperties. Phyfics fets out with this, as from
a fixed point, in order to explain the different pheno¬
mena that are perceived on the earth, in the water, the
air, or fire, and in all that thefe elements contain.
For though it does not pretend to know all that bodies
have in common among themfelves, or all that is pecu¬
liar to each one of them; yet it knows a certain num¬
ber of their properties, which it regards as primary,
till it dlfcovers a precedent caufe of which they may
be the effedt; and which properties are general, and
in a manner infeparable from all matter, as for ex¬
ample, extenjion. There are likewife properties of an
inferior order, which do not appertain to all bodies
but as they are in certain ftates, or under certain cir-
cumftances: thefe, in general, are nothing more than
combinations of the primary properties; and form a fe-
cond clafs, as for example, fluidity. Laftly, thefe pro¬
perties of the firft and fecond order combine more and
ijiore, and become common to a ftill fmaller number
of bodies : and here they are no longer extended to all
bodies, as the firft ; nor are peculiar to certain ftates,
as the fecond; but are confined to genders, fpecies, or
even individuals. Such are feveral properties of the
air, fire, light, metals, the magnet, &c. Thefe three
orders of properties are the fubjedt of the inquiries of
experimental philofophy, which proves by experiments
thofe that are already known, and frequently difeovers
others that were unknown.
III. It is neceffary here to defeend to fome particu¬
lars. The firft property of bodies, which prefents itfelf
to our ideas and our fenfes, is their extenfion ; which is
a limited bulk of any form whatever, of which we can
Conceive parts that may be diftinguifhed from each
other. This material extenfion has three dimenfions,
which are length, breadth, and depth. Every body,
whoie extenfion is large enough to be feen or felt, may
be divided into feveral parts, and which muft confe-
quently decreafe in proportion as the divifion is increa-
L PHILOSOPHY. Se&. IV.
fecL: from hence comes the infinite divifibility of mat¬
ter, at leaft in idea; for in the fmalleft particle we can
ftill imagine two halves, though the fa<ft has never
been proved by experiment; for nature does not at all
times conform to imagination, feeing that the minuteft
particles, and their decompofition, efcape our obfer-
vation even in the moft accurate experiments. How¬
ever, we ftiould never have believed, without having
made the trial, to what degree experimental philofo¬
phy is capable of dividing bodies, and of reducing them
to particles that are almoft indivifible.
IV. The order, or arrangement, which the furfaces
of bodies take among themfelves, is called xhdrflgures.
As thefe furfaces cannot be confounded, but are al¬
ways diftinguilhable by their fitnations, it is evident
that figure is a common and neceffary property of all
bodies. The experiments by which this truth is de-
monftrated by the aid of the microfcope, are equally
curious and convincing: and from hence it is alfo pro¬
ved, that there are no two bodies that are abfolutely
fimilar. The folidity of a body is nothing more than
the quantity of matter that is contained within its.
bulk: this property is effential to all bodies, and the
moft certain fign of their exiftence. Reliftance is a ne¬
ceffary confequence of the foregoing property; and
every phyfical refiftance proves a real folidity in a
greater or lefs degree. Fluids being the only bodies in
which folidity is in any manner neceffary to be proved,
it has been there demonllrated by numberiefs experi¬
ments. The porofity of bodies is, on the contrary,
nothing but that fpace which is found between their
folid parts. This fpace has its degrees. When a dry
fponge is plunged into water, a quantity of air comes
out of it, in proportion to the water that penetrates it:
and when moift bodies are dried, they become more
light in proportion as they lofe by evaporation what
their porofity had admitted. This is the firft fort of
fpace or vacuum. Light, or the matter of fire that we
fee pafs through bodies impenetrable to air and water,
fuppofes pores more delicate, and a fpace more fubtile.
It is almoft indubitable, that after thefe firft kinds of
vacuum, and which indeed are improperly fo called,
as they are filled with other matter, there are others
ftill fmaller, and which are fo in a literal fenfe. That
freedom, which is requifite to motion, feems to prove
it: for though we may fay, matter being diviiible al¬
moft ad infinitum, that a body or fubftance more folid
may move in another fubftance that is more fubtile,
and that will give way to its motion, we muft never-
thelefshave recourfe to a laft refort, and admit of an ul¬
timate vacuum, which will give room fufficient to the
leaft corpufcle, that its part A may take the place of
its part B, without the leaft refiftance: befides, it is
not to be imagined, that nature, in fad, admits of that
infinite divifibility which our imagination can conceive,
and that every thing which is poffible in idea is at all
times pradicable. All thnt exifts is poffible, but all
that is poffible does not however exift. The air-pump
is of very great ufe in proving thefe three forts of va¬
cuums. By denfity, is undeiftood the proportion be¬
tween the extenfion and folidity of a body: one body
therefore is more denfe than another, when, under the
fame degree of extenfion, it contains more foiid mat¬
ter : and this quality arifes from condenfation and com-
preffion. Elafticity is nothing more than that effort
Sea. VII. EXPERIMENTAL philosophy.
by which certain bodies, when comprefled, endeavour
to reftore themfelves to their former ftate; and this
property fuppofes them compreffible. As all thefe na¬
tural properties of bodies are of great utility in ex¬
plaining the principles of phyfics, and in applying
them to all the arts, experimental philofophy proves
their reality by a thoufand examples.
V. We difcover ftill other properties in bodies; fuch
as mobility, which we muft not here confound with
motion. This mobility arifes from certain difpofitions
which are not in an equal degree in all bodies; from
whence it comes that fome are more eafily moved than
others: and this proceeds from the refiftance to mo¬
tion which is perceived in all bodies, having regard
merely to their mafles; and this refiftance is called vis
^inertia, or inert force. A body is faid to be in mo¬
tion, when it is aAually moving from one place to an¬
other; or, whenever a body changes its fituation with
regard to the objedts that furround it, either nearly or
remotely, it is faid to be in motion. There are three
principal matters to be confidered in a moving body;
its diredtion, its velocity, and the quantity of its mo¬
tion : and here phyfics explains the force or moving
power; it likewife diilinguifhes between Ample and
compound motion. Simple motion is that which arifes
from only one force, or which tends to only one point.
It defcribes the laws, and explains the refiftance, of
mediums; the refiftance of fridtion ; the difficulties of
a perpetual motion; the alteration of diredtion, occa-
fioned by the oppofition of a fluid matter; refledted or
reverberated motion; the communication of motion by
the ihock of bodies, &c. Compound motion is that
of a body impelled to move by fevera! caufes or powers
which adt according to their different diredtions. Phy¬
fics here likewife inveftigates the laws of motion; and
is particularly applied to the explaining, under this
head, what are called the central forces, which pro¬
duce a motion that is either circular or in a curve line,
and which inceffantly urge the moving body either to
approach or recede from the centre. To diftinguifh
thefe from each other, the former is called the centripe¬
tal force, and the latter the centrifugal force.
VI. By gravity, or ponderofity, is to be underftood
that force which occafions bodies to pafs from a higher
to a lower place, when nothing oppofes their courfe,
or when the obftacles are not fufficient to flop them.
Speculative philofophy inveftigates its caufe, and per¬
haps in vain. Experimental philofophy contents itfelf
with defcribing the phenomena, and teaching the laws
of gravity, which are thoroughly eftabliihed by a thou¬
fand reiterated experiments. In order properly to un¬
derhand this fubjedt, we muft take care not to confound
the term gravity with that of •weight. By the former,
we underhand that force which urges bodies to defcend
through a certain fpace in a given time. By the latter,
is meant the quantity of a heavy body that is contain¬
ed under the fame bulk. The phenomena are explain¬
ed by the experiments themfelves, and by inferences
deduced from them.
VII. Hydroftatics is a fcience whofe object is the
gravity and equilibrium of fluids in particular. Tho’
the gravity of thefe bodies is the fame with that of
others, and is fubjedt to the fame laws, yet their ftate
of fluidity gives rife to particular phenomena, which it
is of confequence to know. But as hydroftatics can-
Vol. IV.
not be fuccefsfully treated on without the affiftance of
calculation, it has been ranged among the mathemati¬
cal fciences. See Mathematics.
VIII. We fay the fame with regard to mechanics;
which is the art of employing, by the aid of machines,
the motion of bodies, in conformity to its properties
and laws, as well with regard to folids as fluids, either
more commodioufly or more advantageoufly.
IX. After it has made the moft accurate experi¬
ments, and the moft judicious obfervations, on all thefe
different fubjedts, and the properties of bodies in par¬
ticular, experimental philofophy paffes to the exami¬
nation of the air, the water, fire, the wind, colours,
&c. The air is a fluid with which we are furioumled
from the inftant of our birth, and without which we
cannot exift. It is by the properties and the influences
of the air, that nature gives increafe and perfedtion to
all that it produces for our wants and conveniencies;
it is the fpirit of navigation: found, voice, fpeech it¬
felf, are nothing .more than percuffions of the air:
this globe that we inhabit is completely furrounded by
air; and this kind of coverture, which is commonly
called the atmofphere, has fuch remarkable fundtions,
that it evidently appears to concur to the mechanifm
of nature. Experimental phyfics, therefore, confiders
the air, i. Of itfelf, independent of its bulk, and the
figure of its whole body: it examines its effential pro¬
perties ; as its gravity, denfity, fpring, &c. The air-
pump is here of indifpenfable ufe; and by this ma¬
chine phyfics examines in what manner fpace, or a va¬
cuum, is made. It likewife fhows the necgffity of air to
the prefervation of animal-life; the effedl it nas on found,
fire, and gunpowder, in vacuo ; and a hundred other
experiments of various degrees of curiofity. 2. It con¬
fiders the air as the terrellrial atmofphere, fometimes
as a fluid at reft, and fometimes as in motion. And
by thefe means it accounts for the variation of the mer¬
cury in the barometer, and why it finks in proportion
as the height of the atmofphere diminiihes; as alfo for
the figure, the extent, and weight of the atmofphere: it
fhews the method of determining the height of moun¬
tains, the nature of found in general, of its propaga¬
tion, and of fonorous bodies.
IX. It is here alfo, that experimental philofophy
confiders the nature of the wind ; which is nothing
more than agitated air, a portion of the atmofphere
that moves like a current, with a certain velocity and
determinate diredlion. This fluid, with regard to
its diredlion, takes different names according to the
different points of the horizon from whence it comes,
as eaft, weft, north, and fouth. Winds are likewife
diftinguifhed into three forts; one of which is call¬
ed general or eonftant, as the trade-winds, which con¬
tinually blow between the tropics: another is the pe¬
riodical, which always begin and end within a certaia
time of the year, or a certain hour of the day, as the
monfoons, the land-breezes and fea breezes, which
rife conftantly in the morning and evening; and laftly,
fuch as are variable, as well with regard to their direc¬
tion as their velocity and duration.
M. Mariotte computes the velocity of the moft im¬
petuous wind, to be at the rate of 32 feet in a fecond,
and Mr Derham makes it 66 feet in the fame time.
The firft, doubtlefs, meant the wind of the greateft ve¬
locity that had then come to his knowledge.
16 R X. The
2885
2886
EXPERIMENTAL philosophy. Se&. XVT
X. The force of the wind, like that of other bodies,
depends on its velocity and mafs; that is, the quan¬
tity of air which is in motion: fo the fame wind has
more or lefs force on any obftacle that oppofes it, in
proportion as that obftacle prefents a greater or a lefs
furface: for which reafon it is that they fpread the fails
of a veffel more or lefs, and place the wings of a wind¬
mill in different diredtions. The machines, by which
the winds are meafured, are called anemometers. They
fhew the direction, the velocity, and the duration of
winds. It is by the agitations of the wind, that the air
is purified ; that the feeds of trees and herbs are con¬
veyed to the forefts and fields; that fhips are driven
from one pole to the other; that our mills turn upon _
their axes, &c.; and art, by imitating nature, fometimes
procures us artificial winds, by which we refrelh our
bodies, invigorate our fires, purify our corn, &c.
XL Water is an univerfal agent, which nature em¬
ploys in all her productions. It may be confidered as
in three ftates, x. Asaliquid; 2.Asavapour; 3. As
ice. Thefe three different ftates do not in any man¬
ner changd its effence, but make it proper to anfwer
different ends. The natural ftate of water would be
that of a folid body, as fat, wax, and all thofe other
bodies which are only fluid when heated to a certain
degree: for water would be conftantly ice, if the par-
. ticks of fire, by which it is penetrated in the tempe¬
rate climates, did not render it fluid, by producing a
reciprocal motion among its parts; and, in a country
where the cold is continually ftrong enough to main¬
tain the congelation, the afliftanee of art is neceffary to
make it fluid in the fame manner as we do lead, &c.
Water, when not in ice, is a fluid that is infipid, tranfpa-
rent, without colour, and without fmell, and that eafily
adheres to the furface of fome bodies, that penetrates
many, and extinguilhes fire. Experimental philofophy
inveftigates the origin of fountains; the caufe of the
faltnefs of the fea ; the means of purifying water;
what is its weight, and what are its effedls when heat¬
ed, &c. It likewife examines this fluid in the ftate of
vapour; and, finds that a drop of water, when in va¬
pour, occupies a fpace vaftly greater than it did be¬
fore. It explains the ceolipile and its effedfs ; fire en¬
gines ; and the force of vapours that give motion to
immenfe machines in mines and elfewhere, &c. and
laftly, it confiders water in the ftate of ice. Ice con-
fequently is more cold than water; and its coldnefs in-
creafes if it continue to lofe that matter, already too
rare, or too little aftive, to render it fluid. Experi¬
mental phyfics endeavours to inveftigate the caufes of
the congelation of water, and why ice is lighter than
water; from whence it derives that expanfive force by
which it breaks the containing veffel; the difference
there is between the congelation of rivers and that of
Handing waters; why ice becomes more cold by the
mixture of falls; and many other fimilar phenomena.
XII. The nature of fire is yet very much unknown
to the moft learned philofophers. As objefts when at a
great diftance are not perceptible to our fenfes, fo when
we examine them too nearly, we difeern them but con-
fiifedly. It is ftill difputed whether fire be a homogene,
unalterable matter, defigned, by its prefence, or by its
a&ion, to produce heat, inflammation, and diffolution,
in bodies ; or if its effence confifts in motion only, or
in the fermentation of thofe particles which we call in¬
flammable, and which enter as principles, in greater or
lefs quantities, in the compofition of mixed bodies.
The moft learned inquirers into nature incline to the
former opinion; and to have recourfe to a matter,
which they regard as the principle of fire. They fup-
pofe that there is in nature a fluid adapted to this pur-
pofe, created fuch from the beginning, and that no¬
thing more is neceffary than to put it in action. The
numberlefs experiments which are daily made in elec¬
tricity, feem to favour this opinion, and to prove that
this matter, this fluid, this elementary fire, is diffufed
through all nature, and in all bodies, even ice itfelf.
We cannot fay to what important knowledge this great
difeovery of ele&ricity may lead if we continue our in¬
quiries concerning it. It appears, however, that we
may believe, without any inconvenience or abfurdity,
that fire and light, confidered in their firft principle,
are one and the fame fubftance differently modified.
XIII. Be this matter however as it may, experi¬
mental philofophy is employed in making the moft in¬
genious and moft ufeful refearches concerning the na¬
ture of fire, its propagation, and the means by which
its power may be excited or augmented ; concerning
the phofphorous and its inflammation; fire excited by
the reflefition of the fun’s rays from a mirror; and on
the effefts of fire in general; concerning lightning and
its effedts; the fufion of metals; gunpowder and its ex-
plofion; flame, and the aliments of fire; and an infinity
of like objedts which it explains, or concerning which
it makes new difeoveries, by the aid of experiments.
XIV. By the word light, we underftand that agent
by which nature affedts the eye with that lively, and
almoft conftantly pleafing fenfation, which we call fee¬
ing, and by which we difeern the fize, figure, colour,
and fituation of objedls, when at a convenient diftance.
All philofophers agree, that the light, which is diffufed
in any place, is a real body. But what this body is,
and by what means it enters that place where it is per¬
ceived, is a queftion about which philofophers are di¬
vided.
XV. Experimental philofophy is applied in difeo-
vering or proving, by an infinity of experiments, what
is the nature of light, in what manner it is propagated,
what its velocity and progrefiive motion. It alfo inve¬
ftigates and explains the principles of optics, properly
fo called, and fliows the diredtions which light ob-
ferves in its motions. From thence its proceeds to the
examen of the principles of catoptrics, and deferibes
the laws and effedts of refledled light. It next treats
of the principles of dioptrics, and explains the laws of
refradted light; and laftly, it teaches, from the princi¬
ples of natural and artificial vifion, the conftrudlion of
optical inftruments, as lenfes, concave mirrors, prifms,.
telefcopes, &c. &c. and the ufes to which they are ap¬
plied.
XVI. By refolving or feparating the rays of light,
philofophy has obtained true and clear difeoveries of the
nature of colours. We are naturally led to imagine that
Colours, and their different degrees, make a part of the
bodies that prefent them to our fight; that white is
inherent in fnow, green in leaves and grafs, and red in
a ftuff dyed of that colour. But this is far from being
true. If an objedf, which prefents any colour to our
fight, be not illuminated, it prefents no colour what-
foever. In the night all is black. Colours, therefore,
depend
2887
Sea.XVI. EXPERIMENTAL philosophy.
depend on light; for without that we could form no and by which we are enabled to diftinguifti them.'
idea of them : but they depend alfo on bodies; for of It is unneceffary in this place to fay more either on
feveral obje&s prefented to the fame light, fome appear colour in particular, or experimental philofophy in ge-
white, others red, blue, &c. But all thefe matters ral. The different fubje&s of this collective article are
being feparate from our own bodies, we fliould neve;- particularly treated under their proper names, in the
acquire any ideas of them, if the light, tranfmitted or order of the alphabet: the reader will therefore turn,
reflected by thefe objeCts, did not make them fenfible as he has occafion, to Acoustics, Catoptrics,
to us, by ftriking upon the organs of our fight, and Chromatics, Dioptrics, Hydrostatics, Mecha-
if thefe impreffions did not revive in us thofe ideas which nics, Optics, Pneumatics, Electricity, Mag-
we have been ufed to exprefs by certain terms.. For netism, isc.  Alfo Air, Atmosphere,
thefe reafons philofophy confiders colours from three Burning-G7#/r, Cold, Colour, Congelation, E-
points of view, i. As in the light; 2. In bodies, as vaporation, Fire, Flame, Fluidty, Heat, Ig-
being coloured; and, 3. From the relation they have nition, Light, Sound, Steam, Water, Wind,
to our vifual faculties, which they particularly aflfeCt, &c.
EXP
Expert- EXPERIMENTUM crucis, a capital, leading,
memum 0r decifive experiment; thus termed, either on account
(1 of its being like a crofs, or dire&ion-poft, placed in the
xponen . meet;ng Qf feveral roads, guiding men to the true
knowledge of the nature of that thing they are inqui¬
ring after ; or, on account of its being a kind of tor¬
ture, whereby the nature of the thing is as it were ex¬
torted by force.
EXPHORESIS. See Oratory, n° 85.
- EXPIATION, a religious aft, by which fatisfac-
tion, atonement, or amends, is made for the commif-
lion of fome crime, the guilt done away, and the obli¬
gation to punifhment cancelled.
The method of expiation among the Jews was chief¬
ly by facrifice, whether for fins of ignorance, or to pu¬
rify themfelves from certain pollutions.
GreatDaj/ 0/~Expiation, an annual folemnity of the
Jews, upon the tenth day of the month Tifri, which
anfwers to our September. On this occafion, the high-
prieft laid afide his breaft-plate and embroidered ephod,
as being a day of humiliation. He firft offered a bul¬
lock and a ram for his own fins, and thofe of the
priefts; then he received from the heads of the peo¬
ple two goats for a fin-offering, and a ram for a
burnt-offering, to be offered in the name of the whole
multitude. It was determined by lot which of the
goats fhould be facrificed, and which fet at liberty.
After this he perfumed the fanftuary with incenfe, and
fprinkled it with blood : then, coming out, he facri¬
ficed the goat upon which the lot had fallen. This
done, the goat which was to be fet at liberty being
brought to him, he laid his hands upon its head, con-
feffed his fins and the fins of the people, and then fent
it away into fome defert place: it was called azazel,
or the fcape-goat.
As to the expiations among the heathens, they
were of feveral kinds; as facrifices, and religious wafh-
ings-
Expiation, in a figurative fenfe, is applied by di¬
vines to the pardon procured to mens fins, by the me¬
rits of Chrift’s death. See the article Christianity,
n° 12.
EXPLICITE, in the fchools, fomething clear, di-
ftinft, formal, and unfolded.
EXPLOSION, in phyfics, is properly applied to the
going off of gun-powder and the report made thereby.
Hence it is ufed to exprefs fuch fudden aftions of bo¬
dies as generate ak inftantaneoufly.
EXPONENT, in algebra, the fame with index.
EXP
See Algebra, n° 9.
Exponent is alfo ufed in arithmetic, in the fame Exporta-
fenfe as index or logarithm.
EXPORTATION, the fhipping and carrying out „ ^ ^
of the kingdom wares and commodities for other coun- p 1 !
tries. See the articles Commerce, Trade, and Ship¬
ping.
EXPOSING o/" Children, among the ancients, a
barbarous cuftom of laying down children by the fides
of the highways, and other places moft frequented, where
they were left at the mercy of the public, and where it
behoved them to perilh unlefs taken up and educated
by charitable and compaffionate perfons. Many ex-
pofed their children, merely becaufe th^were not in
a condition to educate them; and as fo|fcofe who ex-
pofed them for other reafons, they commonly did it
with jewels, with a view no doubt to encourage thofe
who found them to take care of their education if alive,
or give them human burial if dead.
EXPOSITION, in general, denotes the fetting a
thing open to public view: thus it is the Romanifts fay,
the hoft is expefed, when fhewn to the people.
Exposition, in a literary fenfe, the explaining an
author, paffage, writing, or the like, and fetting their
meaning in an obvious and clear light.
EXPOSITOR, or Expository, a title given to
fmall diftionaries, ferving to explain the hard words of
a language.
EXPOSTULATION, in rhetoric, a warm addrefs
to a perfon, who has done another fome injury, repre-
fenting the wrong in the ffrongeft terms., and demand¬
ing redrefs.
EXPOSURE, in gardening, the fituation of a gar¬
den-wall, or the like, with refpeft to the points of the
compafs, as fouth or eaft. See Gardening.
EXPRESSED oils, in chemiftry, fuch oils as are
obtained from bodies only by preffing. See Oil.
EXPRESSION, in rhetoric, the elocution, dic¬
tion, or choice of words in a difcourfe. See Language,
Oratory, and Poetry.
Expression, in mufic. See Composition.
Expression, in painting, a natural and lively repre-
fentation of the fubjeft, or of the feveral objefts in¬
tended to be fhewn.
The exprefilon confifts chiefly in reprefenting the hu¬
man body and all its parts, in the aftion fuitable to it:
in exhibiting in the face the feveral paflions proper to
the figures, and obferving the motions they imprefs on
the external parts. See Painting, n° 15.
16 R 2 Ex-
Expreffion
1
Extortion.
* See Mc-
taphyfics,
n0 i6.
EXT [ 2888 ] EXT
Expression, in reading. See Reading, N° ix. x. ful ufury, winning by unlawful games, and taking Extraft
Expression Theatrical. See Declamation, ar- more than is due under pretence of right, as exceffive II
. tide iv. _ tolls in millers, &c. Extnllfic-
Expression, in pharmacy. See Pharmacy,n° 221. At the common law, extortion is punilhable by fine
EXPULSION1, in a general fenfe, the ad of vio- • and imprifonment ; and the ftatute of 3 Eliz. x. c. 30.
lently driving a perfon out of any city, fociety, &c. • has enaded, that officers ofjullice guilty of extortion
Expulsion, in medicine, the ad whereby any thing for the expedition of bufinefs. Sec. ffiall render to the
is forcibly driven out of the place in which it is : thus party treble value. There are likewife divers other fta-
we fay, the expulfion of the fetus in deliver)'. tutes for punifhing extortions of fheriffs, bailiffs, goal-
EXSICCATION, in pharmacy. See Pharmacy, ers, clerks of the affife and of the peace, attornies, fo¬
il0 226. licitors, &c.
EXSPIRATION, in phyfic, that part of refpira- EXTRACT, in pharmacy, is a folution of thepu-
tion by which the air is expelled or driven out of the rer parts of a mixed body infpiffated, by diftillation or
lungs. See Anatomy, n° 381. and Respiration, evaporation, nearly to the confiftence of honey *. * See
EXTASY, a tranfport which fufpends the fundion $ Extract, in matters of literature, is fomething co- Pharmacy
of the fenfes, by the intenfe contemplation of fome ex- pied or colleded from a book or paper. n C*
traordinary or fupernatural objed. EXTRACTION, in chemiftry and pharmacy, the
Extasy, in medicine, a fpecies of catelepfy, when operation by which effences, tindures, &c. are drawn
a perfon perfedly remembers, after the paroxyfm is from natural bodies. See Extract.
over, the ideas he conceived during the time it lafted. Extraction, in furgery, is the drawing any fo-
EXTENSION, in philofophy, one of the common reign matter out of the body by the hand, or by the
and elTential properties of body; or that by which it help ofinflruments. See Surgery.
poffefies or takes up fome part of univerfal fpace, which Extraction, in genealogy, implies the flock or fa-
is called the place of that body *. mily from which a perfon is defcended.
EXTENSOR, an appellation given to feveral Extraction of Roots, in algebra and arithmetic,
mufcles, from their extending or ftretching the parts See Algebra, and Arithmetic.
to which they belong. See Anatomy, Table of the EXTRACTOR, in midwifery, an inftrument or
Mufcles. forceps, for extrading children by the head. See Mid-
EXTENT, in law, is ufed in a double fenfe. Some- wifery.
times it figi^fes a writ or command to the fheriff for EXTRAVAGANTES, thofe decretal epiftles
the valuingJpands or tenements; and fometimes the which were publifhed after the Clementines.
ad of the meriff, or other commiffioner, upon this They were fo called, becaufe, at firft, they were not
writ. digefted, or ranged, with the other papal conftitutions,
Old and New Extent, in Scots law. See Law, but feemed to be, as it were, detached from the ca-
N° clxvi. 6. non law. They continued to be called by the fame
EXTERIOR, or External. See External. name when they were afterwards inferted in the body
EXTERMINATION, in general, the extirpating of the canon law. The firft extravagantes are thofe of
or deftroying fomething. John XXII. fucceffor of Clement V. The laft colledion
Extermination, in algebra. See Algebra, was brought down to the year 1483, and was called
n° 19. 20. \\\e common extravagantes, notwithftanding that they
EXTERNAL, a term of relation applied to the were likewife incorporated with the reft of the canon
furface or outfide of a body, or that part which ap- law.
pears or prefents itfelf to the eye, touch, &c. in con- EXTRAVASATION, in contufions, fiffures, de-
tradiftindion to internal. preffions, fradures, and other accidents of the cra-
External is alfo ufed to fignify any thing that is nium, is when one or more of the blood-veflels, that
without-fide a man, or that is not within himfelf, par- are diftributed in the dura mater, is broke or divided,
ticularly in his mind ; in which fenfe we fay, external whereby there is fuch a difcharge of blood as greatly
objeds, &c. oppreffes the brain, and difturbs its office ; frequently
EXTINCTION, in general, denotes the putting bringing on violent pains, and other mifchiefs; and at
out or deftroying fomething, as a fire or flame. See length death itfelf, unlefs the patient is timely relie-
Extinguijhing of Fire. ved. See Surgery and Medicine.
EXTINGUISHMENT, inlaw, is a confolidation EXTREMES, in logic, the terms expreffing the
or union, as where one has due to him a yearly rent two ideas whofe relation we inquire after in a fyllo-
out of lands, and afterwards purchafes the lands out of gifm.
which the rent arifes; in this cafe, both the property Extreme UnMon. See Unction.
and the rent being united in one poffeflbr, the rent is EXTRINSIC, among metaphyficians, is taken in
faid to be extinguiftied. various fenfes. Sometimes it fignifies a thing’s not be-
EXTIRPATION, the fame with extermination, longing to the eflence of another ; in which fenfe, the
See Extermination. efficient caufe and end of a thing are faid to be extrin-
EXTISPEX, in antiquity, the perfon who drew fic. Sometimes it fignifies a thing's not being contain-
pre^g-s from viewing the intrails of animals offered in ed within the capacity of another; in which fenfe,
facnfice. thofe caufes are called extrinfic which introduce fome-
EXTORTION, in law, is an illegal manner of thing into a fubjedl from without, as when a fire intro-
wrefting any thing from a man, either by force, me- duces heat. Sometimes it fignifies# thing added, or
uace, oy authority. It is alfo the exattion of unlaw- applied, to another ; in which fenfe accidents and ad¬
herents
E Y R [ 2889 ] E Z R
herents are faid to be extrinfic to the fubje&s to which
they adhere. Sometimes the vifion is faid to be extrin¬
fic from fomeform which does notexiil in that thing,
-but is adjacent to it, or by fome means or other with¬
out it.
EXULCERATION, in Surgery. See Ulcer.
EXUVIiE, among naturalifts, denote the caft-ofF
parts or coverings of animals, as the fkins of ferpents,
caterpillars, and other infefls.
EYE, in anatomy. See Anatomy, n° 406.
5«//V Eye, in aftronomy. See Aldebaran.
Eye of a Block, in naval affairs, that part of the
rope-ftrop which is fattened to fome neceffary place in
the ftiip : the ftrop is a fort of wreath or rope formed
into a ring, and fixed round the block for the double
convenience of ftrengthening the block, and fattening
it in any place wliere it is wanted.
Eye, in agriculture and gardening, fignifies a little
bud or fhoot, inferted into a tree by way of graft. See
Engrafting.
Eye of a Tree, a fmall pointed knot to which the
leaves flick, and from which the fhoots or fprigs pro¬
ceed. See Gemma.
'E.ys,-Bright. See Euphrasia.
EYRAC, or Irac, Arabia, a province of Turky
in Afia, 345 miles in length, and 190 in breadth; of
which Bagdad is the capital.
Eyrac jigemi, the principal province of Perfia, an¬
ciently called Parthia.
EYRE, or Eire, in law, the court of itinerant ju*
ftices. See Assize.
EYRIE, in falconry, a brood or nett, a place where
hawks build and hatch their young.
EZEKIEL, a canonical book of the Old Tefta-
ment, referring chiefly to the degenerate manners and
corruptions of the Jews of thofe times.
It abounds with fine fentences and rich comparifons,
and difcovers a good deal of learning in profane mat¬
ters.
Ezekiel was carried captive to Babylon with Jecho-
niah, and began his prophecies in the fifth year of the
captivity. He was cotemporary with Jeremiah, who
prophefied at the fame time in Judea. He foretold
many events, particularly the deftrudlion of the temple,
the fata! cataftrophe of thofe who revolted from Baby¬
lon to Egypt, and the happy return of the Jews to
their own land.
EZRA, a canonical book of the Old Teftament ;
comprehending the hiftory of the Jews frdm the time
of Cyrus’s edift for their return, to the 20th year of
Artaxerxes Longimanus. It fpecifies the number of
Jews who returned, and Cyrus’s proclamation for the
rebuilding the temple, together with the laying its
foundation, the abttru&ion .it met with, and the finiftt-
ing thereof in the reign of Darius.
The illuftrious author of this book was alfo the
reftorer and publifher of the canon of the Old Tefta¬
ment. See Bible. ju
Eyrie
II
Fabian.
A
F-
FT H E fourth confonant, and fixth letter of the
’ alphabet. The letter F is borrowed from the
digamma or double gamma of the zElians, as is evi¬
dent from the infcription on the pedeftal of the Colof-
fus at Delos ; and was undoubtedly formed from the
old Hebrew vau : and tho’ this letter is not found in
the modern Greek alphabet, yet it was in the ancient
one, from whence the Latins received it, and tranfmit-
ted it to us.
It is formed by a ftrong expreffion of the breath,
and joining at the fame time the upper-teeth and un¬
der-lip. It has but one fort of found, which has a
great affinity with v and ph, the latter being written
for it by us in all Greek words, asphilofophy, &c. tho’
the Italians write it filofofia.
The Romans for fome time ufed an inverted F, if,
inftead of V confonant, which had no peculiar figure in
their alphabet. Thus, in infcriptions we meet with
TERMINAalT, Dial, &c. Lipfius and others fay,
that it was the emperor Claudius who introduced the
ufe of the inverted digamma, or j : but it did not long
fubfift after his death ; for Quintilian obferves, that it
was not ufed in his time.
F, or fa, in mufic, is the fourth note in rifing in
this order of the gamut, ut, re, mi, fa. It likewife
denotes one of the Greek keys in mufic, deftined for
the bafs.
F, in phyfical prefcriptions ftands for Fiat, or “ Let
it be done.” Thus f. s. a. fignifies fiat fecundum artem.
F was alfo a numeral letter, fignifying 40; accord¬
ing to the verfe,
Sexta quaterdenos gerit qua difiat ah alpha.
And when a dalh was added at top, thus f, it figni-
fied forty thoufand.
F, in the civil law. Two f's joined together thus jf,
fignify the pande&s. See Pandects.
F, in criminal law, a ftigma or brand put upon
felons with a hot iron, on their being admitted to the
benefit of clergy ; by flat. 4 H. 7. c. 13.
FABA, in botany. See Vicia.
Faba Santti Jgnatii. See Ignatius’/ Bean.
FABAGO, in botany. See Sygophyllum.
FABER, in ichthyology. See Zeus.
FABIAN (Robert), an alderman of the city of
London, and fheriff in the year 1494; was a perfon
of learning for the time he lived in, a good poet, and
author of a Chronicle of England and France, intitled
The Concordaunce of Stories, in two volumes folio,
beginning with Brute, and ending with the 20th of
Henry VII. 1504. It contains feveral curious par¬
ticulars relative to the city of London, not elfewhere
to be found. Stowe calls it “ a painful labour, to the
great honouriof the city and of the whole realm.” We
are told that Cardinal Wolfey caufed as many copies
FAB [ 2896 ] FAB
Fainas of this book, as he could procure, to be burned, be¬
ll, caufe the author had made too clear a difcovery of the
Fabric. revenues of the clergy. Fabian died in 1512.
Fabius Maximus (Quintus), one of the greateft
generals of his time, was furnamed Cunttator, becaufe
being created diftator, after the battle of Trafimene,
in the 217th year before the Chn'ftian sera, he found
means to weary out Hannibal without fighting, by
encamping in the moft advantageous manner, and in-
ceffantly harraffing him. Hannibal fent him word,
that “ If he was as great a captain as he would be
thought, he ought to come into the plain and give
him battle.” But Fabius coldly replied, “ That if
he was as great a captain as he would be thought, he
would do well to force him to fight.” Fabius was
five times conful; and performed fuch great fervices
for his country, that he was called The Buckler, of
the Republic. See (Hi/lory of) Rome.
Fabius, ftyled Piftor, a Roman general and hifto-
rian. He firft introduced painting at Rome ; and
having caufed the walls of the temple of Health to be
painted, fome authors have erroneoufly reckoned him
a painter. Died about 216 B. C.
FABLE, a tale, or feigned narration, defigned
either to inftrudt or divert, difguifed under the alle¬
gory of an a£tion, &c.
Fables were the firft pieces of wit that made their ap¬
pearance in the world; and have continued to be high¬
ly valued, not only in times of the greateft fimpli-
city, but in the moft polite ages of the world. Jo-
tham’s fable of the trees is the oldeft that is extant,
and as beautiful as any that have been made fince.
Nathan’s fable of the poor man is next in antiquity.
We find iEfop in the moft diftant ages of Greece;
and in the early days of the Roman commonwealth,
we read of a mutiny appealed by the fable of the belly
and the members. As fables had their rife in the very
infancy of learning, they never flourifhed more than
when learning was at its greateft height; witnefs Ho¬
race, Boileau, and Fontaine.
Fable is the fineft way of giving counfel, and moft
univerfally pleafing, becaufe leaft fhocking ; for, in
the reading of a fable, a man thinks he is diredting
himfelf, whilft he is following the didtates of another,
and confequently is not fenfible of that which is the
moft unpleafing circumftance in advice. Befides, the
mind is never fo much pleafed as when flie exerts her-
felf in any adtion that gives her an idea of her own
abilities; this natural pride of the foul is very much
gratified in the reading of fable.
Fable, is alfo ufed for the plot of an epic or dra¬
matic poem ; and fs, according to Ariftotle, the prin-
*_Sce cipal part, and, as it were, the foul of the poem *.
oetr-y. FABRI (Honorius), a laborious jefuit born in the
diocefe of Bellay, diftinguilhed himfelf by his Ikill in
philofophy and the mathematics, and by writing a
great number of books. The moft curious of which
treat of geometry, optics, the loadftone, the motion
of the earth, the ebbing and flowing of the fea, &c.
He died at Rome, in 1688.
FABRIC, in general, denotes the ftrudture or con-
ftrudtion of any thing ; but particularly of buildings,
as a church, hall, houfe, &c. See Architecture.
Ya.%k\c-Lands, thofe formerly given towards re¬
building or repairing of cathedrals and other churches;
for anciently almoft everybody gave more or lefs, byhis Fabrieius.
will, to the fabric of the parilh-church where he dwelt.   
FABRICIUS, the celebrated Roman conful and
general ; not lefs memorable for his incorruptible.in¬
tegrity, in rejedting immenfe bribes proffered to in¬
duce him to betray or quit the fervice of his country.
Neither would he give bribes to take off his enemy by
bafe means. Hiflory of) Rome.
Fabricius (George), a learned German, born at
Chenmitz in Mifnia, in 1516. After a liberal edu¬
cation, he vifited Italy in quality of a tutor to a young
nobleman ; and, examining all the remains of antiquity
with great accuracy, compared them with their deferip-
tions in Latin writers. The refult of thefe obfervations
was his work intitled Rswztf, containing a defeription of
that city. He afterwards -fettled at Mifenum, where
he condudled a great fchool to the time of his death
in 1571. Hexwas alfo the author of a great number
of facred Latin poems, wrote feven books of the An¬
nals of Mifnia, three of the Annals of Meijfen, and
Travels.
Fabricius (Jerom), a celebrated phyfician in the
latter end of the j6th century (furnamed Aquapendesste,
from the place of his birth) was the difciple and fuc-
ceffor of Fallopius. He chiefly applied himfelf to
furgery and anatomy, which he profeffed at Padua for
forty years with extraordinary reputation. The re¬
public of Venice fettled a large penfion upon him, and
honoured him with a gold chain and a ftatue. He
died in 1603; leaving behind him feveral works which
are much efteemed.
Fabricius (John Albert), one of the moft learned
and laborious men of his age, was born at Leipfic in
1668. He was chofen profeffor of eloquence at Ham¬
burgh in 1699, and was made doftor of divinity at
Kiel. His works are numerous; and he died at Ham- ^
burgh in 1736, after a life (pent in the fevereft literary
application to colleft and publifti valuable remains of
ancient learning.
Fabricius (Vincent), born at Hamburgh in 1613,
was a good poet, a great orator, an able phyfician,
and a learned civilian. He was for fome time counfel-
lor to the bifhop of Lubec, and afterward burgomafter
and fyndic of the city of Dantzic; from whence he
was 13 times fent deputy into Poland, where he died
at Warfavv in 1657, during the diet of that kingdom.
The moft complete edition of Fabricius’s poems and
other works was publifhed at Leipfic in 1685, under
the direftion of his fon Frederic Fabricius.
Fabricius (Baron), one of the fineft gentlemen of
his time, and known to the public by his letters re¬
lating to the tranfa&ions of Charles XII of Sweden
during his refidence in the Ottoman empire, was de-
feended from a good family in Germany. He was
taken early into the fervice of the Court of Holftein ;
and was fent in a public chara6ter to the king of Swe¬
den whilft he was at Bender; where he foon acquired
the good graces of that prince. He accompanied him
in his exercifes; gave him a turn for reading; and it
was out of his hand Charles fnatched Boileau’s fatires,
when he tore out thofe that reprefented Alexander
the Great as a madman. Fabricius was alfo in favour
with Staniflaus, and with our king George I. whom
he accompanied in his laft journey to Hanover, and
was with him when he died. A tranflation of his
letters
Pabrot
II
Faftion.
FAC [ 2891 ] FAC
letters was publifhed in London, 1.761..
FABROT (Charles Hannibal), one of the moll
celebrated civilians of his time, was born at Aix in
1681 ; and acquired an extraordinary Ikill in the civil
and canon law, and in the belles lettres. He pub¬
lifhed the Bafilka;, or Conftitutions of the Emperors
of the Eaft, in Greek and Latin, with learned notes,
in feven vols folio ; and editions of Cedrenus, Nicetas,
Nnajiajius, Bibliothecarius, Conjiantine Manajfes, and
Cujas, with learned and curious notes.
FABULOUS, fomething confiding of, or con-
nefted with, a fable.
Fabulous a4ge, among ancient hiftorians. See
Age.
FACE, the furface, or firfl: fide which a body pre-
fents to the eye: See Surface. We fay, the face
of the earth, of the waters, &c. Polyhedrons have
feveral faces : See Polyhedron. A die, or cube, has
iidfaces: See Cube.
Face, is particularly ufed for the vifage of an ani¬
mal, and efpecially of man ; and comprehends, in
the latter, all that part of the head which is not co¬
vered with the common long hair. The Latins call
it facies, vultus, os. See.
The human face is called the image of the foul, as
being the feat of the principal organs of fenfe ; and
the place where the ideas, emotions, &c. of the foul
are chiefly fet to view. Pride and difdain are fhewn
in the eye-brows, modefty on the cheeks, majefty in
the forehead, &c. It is the face fhews the fex, age,
temperament, health, or difeafe, &c.
The face, confidered.as the index of the paffions,
habits, &c. of the perfon, makes the fubjeft of phy-
fiognomy. See Physiognomy and Metoposcopy.
Anatomifts ufually divide the face into two parts,
the upper and lower : The upper is the front, or fore¬
head ; the lower includes the eyes, nofe, ears, mouth,
and chin. See Anatomy, n° 17, &c. 366. 404.
405. 406.
Foul or Pimpled Face. See Gutta Rofacea.
Hippocratic Face,, is when the nofe is fliarp, the eyes
hollow, the temples funk, the ears cold and contraded,
and their lobes inverted ; the flein about the forehead is
hard, tenfe, and dry; the countenance is pale, green-
ilh, or blackiih. Some call this a cadaverous face. If
it appears within three days after theonfet of an acute
difeafe, it indicates death.
Face, in the military art, a word of command, in¬
timating to turn about: thus, face to the right, is to
turn upon the left heel a quarter-round to the right ;
and, face to the left, is to turn upon the right heel a
quarter-round to the left.
FACET, or Facette, among jewellers, is the name
of the little faces Or planes to be found in brilliant and
rofe diamonds.
FACIES HippocRATicA. See Hippocratic Face.
Facies Rubra, red, fiery, or foul face. See Gutta
Rofacea.
FACTION, a cabal or party formed in a date, city,
or company.
Faction, in antiquity, a name given to the diffe¬
rent companies of combatants in the circus. They
were four, viz. the white, the red, the green, and the
blue ; to which Domitian added another of purple co¬
lour. They were fo denominated from the colour of
the liveries they wore; and were dedicated, according
to M. Aur. Cafilodorus, to the four feafons pf the year;
the green being confecrated to fpring, the blue to win¬
ter, the red to fummer, and the white to autumn. It
appears from ancient inferiptions, that each fa ft ion had
its procurators and phyfician; and from hiftory, that
party-rage ran fo high among them, that in a diflen-
fion between two faftions, in the time of Juftinian, al-
molt 40,000 men loit their lives in the quarrel.
FACTITIOUS, any thing made by art, in oppo-
fition to what is the produce of nature. Thus, fafti-
tious cinnabar is oppofed to native cinnabar.
FACTOR, in commerce, is an agent employed by
merchants refiding at other places, to buy or fell goods,
or negotiate bills, or tranfaft any kind of bufinefs on
their account; and entitled to a certain allowance foir
his trouble.
A fupercargo differs from a faftor in this. The bufi¬
nefs of the former is limited to the care of a particular
cargo; he goes along with it, and generally returns
when his bufinefs is completed: the latter has a fixed
refidence abroad, and executes bufinefs for different
merchants. But their duties, and the circumftances for
which they are accountable, are the fame.
The duty of a faftor is to procure the bed intelli¬
gence of the ftate of trade at his place of refidence; of
the courfe of exchange; of the quantity and quality of
goods at market, their prefent price, and the probabi¬
lity that it may rife or fall; to pay exaft obedience to
the orders of his employers; to confult thehvadvantage
in matters referred to his direftion ; to execute their
bufinefs with all the difpatch that circumftances admit;;
to be early in his intelligence, diftinft in his accounts^
and punftual in his correfpondence.
A faftor’s- power is either abfolute or limited. Tho’
intruded with ample diferetionary powers, he is not
warranted to take unreafonable or unufual meafures, or
do any thing contrary to his employer’s intereft ; but
it is incumbent on the employer, if he challenge his
proceedings, to prove that he could have done better,,
and was guilty of wilful mifmanagement.
When a faftor’s power is limited, he muft adhere
ftriftly to his orders. If he exceeds his power, though
with a view to his employer’s intereft, he is liable for
the confequence. For example, if he gives credit when
not empowered, or longer credit if not empowered, for
the'fake of a better price, and the buyer proves infol-
vent, he is liable for the debt. A faftor has no power
to give credit, unlefs authorifed : But, if the goods
configned be generally fold on credit at the place of
confignation, the faftor will be vindicated for felling at
the ufual credit, unlefs exprefsly reftrifted.
Although opinion will never juftify the faftor for’
departing from orders, neceffity fometimes will. If he
be limited not to fell goods under a certain price, and
the goods be perilhable, and not in a fituation for be¬
ing kept, he may fell them, to prevent their deftruc*
tion, even under the price limited.
A faftor is never warranted to deal on truft, except
with perfons in good credit at the time. If the em¬
ployer challenge the debtors, it is incumbent on him to
prove that their bad circumftances was known at the
time of fale; and the faftor will be vindicated, if he
trufted them at the fame time for goods of his own.
If the faftor fells his employer’s goods on truft, and,
aftet
FafUtiovrS,
Faftor.
Faftor,
Fattorage.
FAC [ 2892 ] F A E
after the day of payment is elapfed, receive payment
from the purchafer for a debt of his own, he becomes
liable in equity for the debt.
> In cafe of bankruptcy, the faftor ought immedi¬
ately to lay attachments, and advife his employers; and
he cannot withdraw his attachments, nor compound
debts, without orders.
If a fadlor fells goods belonging to different mer¬
chants to the fame perfon, and the buyer proves infol-
vent, they {hall bear the lofs in equal proportions; and,
if the buyer has paid part before his infolvency, with¬
out fpecifying for which, the payment ought to be di-
ftributed in equal proportions ; but, if the days of pay¬
ment be fixed, and part of the debts only due, the pay¬
ment ought to be applied, in the firfl place, to fuch
debts as were due.
If he makes a wrong entry at the cuftom-houfe, and
the goods be feized in confequence thereof, he mult
bear the lofs, unlefs the error be occafioned by a mif-
take in the invoice, or letter of advice.
The owner bears the lofs of goods feized when at¬
tempted to be fmuggled by his orders; but the factor
complying with an unlawful order is liable in fuch pe¬
nalties as the laws exadts.
If a fadtor faves the duty of goods due to a foreign
rince, he fliall have the benefit; for, if detedted, he
ears the lofs.
If a fadtor fells goods bought by his employer’s or¬
ders for his own advantage, the employer may recover
the benefit, and the faftor {hall be amerced for the
fame.
If a faftor receives bad money in payment, he bears
the lofs; but if the value of the money be leffened by
the government, the employer bears the lofs.
A fadtor is not liable for goods fpoiled, robbed, or
deftroyed, by fire.
If a fadtor receives counterfeit jewels from his em¬
ployer, and fells them, the employer is liable to indem¬
nify him for any penalties he may incur.
If a fadtor be ordered to make infurance, and ne-
gledt it, and the fubjedt be loft, he is liable to make it
good, providing he had effedts in his hands.
If a fadtor buys goods for his employer, his bargain
fhall be binding on the employer.
In cafe of a fadtor’s infolvency, the owner may re¬
claim his goods; and, if they be fold on truft, the
owner (and not the fadtor’s creditors) {hall recover
payment of the debts.
Factor, in multiplication, a name given to the mul¬
tiplier and multiplicand, becaufe they conftitute the
produdt. See Arithmetic.
FACTORAGE, called alfo commiffion, is the al¬
lowance given to fadtors by the merchant who employs
them.
A fadtor’s commiffion in Britain, om moft kinds of
goods, is per cent.; on lead, and fome other ar¬
ticles, 2 percent.-, in Italy, 2^ per cent.-, in France,
Holland, Spain, Portugal, Hamburgh, andDantzick,
2 per cent.-, in Turkey, 3 per cent.-, in North Ameri¬
ca, 5 per cent, on fales, and 5 per cent, in returns; in
the Weft Indies, 8 per cent, for commiflion and ftorage.
In fome places, it is cuftomary for the fadtors to infure
the debts for an additional allowance, generally per
ce-it. In that cafe, they are accountable for the debt
when the ufual term of credit is expired.
Fadtsrage on goods is fometimes charged at a cer¬
tain rate per caik, or other package, meafure, or weight,
efpecially when the fadtor is only employed to receive
or deliver them.
FACTORY is a place where a confiderable number
of fadtors refide, to negotiate for their mafters or em¬
ployers. See Factor.
The moft confiderable fadtories belonging to the
Britifti are thofe eftablifhed in the Eaft-Indies, Portu¬
gal, Turky, &c.
FACTUM, in arithmetic, the produdt of two quan¬
tities multiplied by each other.
FACULiE, in aftronomy, certain bright and fiiining
parts, which the modern aftronomers have, by means of
telefcopes, obferved upon or about the furface of the
fun : they are but very feldom feen.—The word is pure
Latin; being a diminutive of/«x, “ torch;” andfuppofed
to be here applied from their appearing and difappear-
ing by turns.
The faculee or bright fpots differ very confiderably
from the macula or dark fpots, both in light, colour,
figure, magnitude, and duration. See Macula;; and
Astron. n° 14—-18. 33—39.
FACULTY, in law, a privilege granted to a per¬
fon, by favour and indulgence, of doing what, by law,
he ought not to do.
For granting thefe privileges, there is a court under
the archbifliop of Canterbury, called the court of the
faculties. The chief officer of this court is ftyled mafer
of the faculties, and has a power of granting difpenfa-
tions in divers cafes; as, to marry without the bans be¬
ing firft publifhed, to eat flefti on days prohibited, to
ordain a deacon under age, for a fon to fucceed his
father in his benefice, a clerk to hold two or more
livings, &c.
Faculty, in the fchools, a term applied to the dif-
fereni members of an univerfity, divided according to
the arts and fciences taught there: thus in moft uni-
verfities there are four faculties, viz. 1. Of arts, which
include humanity and philofophy. 2. Of theology.
3. Of phyfic. And, 4. Of civil law.
Faculty of Advocates. See Advocates.
Faculty is alfo ufed to denote the powers of the
human mind, viz. underftanding, will, memory, and
imagination. See Metaphysics.
FAECES, in chemiftry, the grofs matter, or fedi-
ment, that fettles at the bottom after diftillation, fer¬
mentation, and the like.—The fasces of wine are com¬
monly called lees.
Faxes, in medicine, the excrements voided by ftool.
See Excrements.
FjECULENT, in general, is applied to things
abounding with feces, or dregs: thus the blood and
other humours of the human body, are faid to be fe¬
culent, when without that purity which is neceflary to
health.
FAENZA, a city of Romania in Italy with a bi-
ffiop’s fee. It is an ancient place, and has undergone
various revolutions. The river Amona wafties its walls,
and pafles between the city and the fuburbs, which are
joined by a ftone bridge defended by two good towers.
The city is remarkable for its earthen ware, which is
the bell in all Italy.
FAERNUS (Gabriel), a native of Cremona in Ita¬
ly, was an excellent Latin poet and critic of the 16th
cen-
Faftory
!l
Faernus.
Fagara
Fagius.
FAG [ 2893 ] FAG
century. He was fo fkilled in all parts of polite lite- 1504. He was a fchoolmailer at Ifna; but afterwards Fagopy'^m
rature, that the cardinal de Medicis, afterward pope became a zealous preacher, and wrote many books.. *agus. ^
Pius IV. was particularly fond of him. He was the The perfecution in Germany menacing danger to all
author of fome Latin elegies; of 100 Latin fables, fe- who did not profefs the Romilh do&rines, he and Bu-
lefted from the ancients, written in iambic verfe; and cer came over to England in I549> at ^lc invitation of
of feveral pieces of criticifm, as Cenfura emendationum archbilhop Cranmer, to perfect a new tranflation of the
Livianarum, De Metres Comitis, &c. He was re- fcriptures. Fagius took the Old Teftament, and Bu-
markably happy in decyphering manufcripts, and re- cer the New, for their refpe&ive parts ; but the defign
ftoring ancient authors to their purity: he took fuch was at that time frullrated by the hidden deaths of
pains with Terence in particular, that Bentley has both the profefibrs. He died in I55°j and Bucer did
adopted all his notes in the edition he gave of that not live above a year after. Both their bodies were
writer. He died at Rome in 1561; and Thuanus, dug up and burned in the reign of queen Mary,
who wrote his eloge, fays, that the learned world was FAGOPYRUM, or Buck-wheat. See Polygo-
’greatly obliged to him, yet had been itill more fo, if, num.
inftead of fuppreffing the then unknown fables of Phse- FAGUS, the beech-tree, a genus of the polyati-
drus, for fear of leffening the value of his own Latin dria order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of plants,
fables, written in imitation of iEfop, he had been con- There are three fpecies. 1. The fylvaticus, or beech-
tent with imitating them. M. Perault, however, who tree, rifes 60 or 70 feet high, and hath a proportion-
tranflated Faernus’s fables into French, has defended able thieknefs, branching, upward into a fine regular
him from this imputation, by affirming that the firft head, garnilhed with oval ferrated leaves, with flowers
MS. of Phesdrus’s fables, found in the dull of an old in globular catkins, fucceeded by angular fruit called
library, was not difcovered till about-30 years after maft. 2. The caftanea, or cheftnut-tree, hath a large
Faernus’s death. upright trunk growing 40 or 50 feet high, branching
FAGARA, Iron-wood, a genus of the monogynia regularly round into a fine fpreading head, garnifhed
order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants. There with large fpear-fhaped acutely ferrated leaves naked
are two fpecies, both natives of the warm parts of A- on the under fide, having flowers in long amentums,
merica, riling with woody Hems more than 20 feet high, fncceeded by round prickly fruit, containing two or
They are propagated by feeds ; but in this country more nuts. 3. The pumila, dwarf cheftnut-tree, or
muft be kept continually in a ftove. chinkapin, rifes eight or ten feet high, with a branch-
FAGE (Raimond de la), an excellent defignerand ing (lirubby Item, and oval, fpear-lhaped, and acutely
engraver, highly efteemed by Carlo Maratti, was born ferrated leaves, hoary on the under fide,
at Touloufe in 1648; He applied himfelf to defign- Culture. The firft is very eafily raifed from the mall
ing, through inclination, in fpite of his parents ; and or feed, which ripens in September, and may either be
had no mailer, nor any affiftance: but his fuperior ta- fown then, or in a month or two after, or towards the
lents fupplied the want of them, and he became one of fpring. For this purpofe, beds are to be prepared four
the belt defigners in Europe; but his performances feet wide. The earth is then to be raked evenly from
on licentious fubjefts are the moll efteemed. It is re- the furface, about an inch deep ; then fbw the maft,
ported of this artift, that he never made ufe of money, and beat it gently down with the back of the fpade,
but contra£led debts ; and when the accounts were afterwards covering it up with earth to the above-
brought him, he drew upon the back of the bills, and mentioned depth. Many of the plants will come up
bid the owners fell the drawings to connoifleurs for the in the fpring, but others not till a year after; and
amount, by which they were generally great gainers, when they are two years old, they mull be planted out
Several of thofe drawings are in the cabinets of the in nurfery-rows two feet and a half afunder, there to
curious. He died in 1690. remain till they are four or five feet high, when they
FAENSA, a city and biftiop’s fee of Italy, fituated are to be tranfplanted to thofe places where they are
in the pope’s territories, about 30 miles call of Bo- to continue.—The fecond and third forts are alfo pro-
logna : E. Long. 12. 38. and N. Lat. 44. 30. pagated by feeds or nuts fown in drills. The nuts
FAGARA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria' fometimes ripen perfectly in this country ; but in de-
monogynia clafs. The calix confifts of four fegments, fault of this, there are vaft quantities imported from
and the corolla of four petals ; and the capfule has four Spain or Portugal. Thefe lait are reckoned preferable
cells, two valves, and contains one feed. There are even to the bell ripened cheftnuts of this country,
three fpecies, none of them natives of Britain. Properties. The firft fpecies fpreads its'branches
FAGGOT, in times of popery here, was a badge very wide, and affords a grateful ftiade ; but no verdure
worn on the fleeve of the upper garment of fuch per- will thrive under it. The maft, or feeds, yield a good
fons as had recanted or abjured what was then termed oil for lamps; and are a very agreeable food to fquir-
herefy; being put on after the perfon had carried a fag- rels, mice, and fwine. The fat of fwine fed with them,
got, by way of penance, to fome appointed place of however, is foft, and boils away unlefs hardened by
folemnity. The leaving off the wear of this badge was fome other food. The wood is brittle; very fiffile ; du-
fometimes interpreted a fign of apoftacy. rable in water, but not in the open air : it is the bell
Faggots, among military men, perfons hired by of all woods for fuel, and is fometimes ufed by the
officers, whofe companies are not full, to mufter and wheelwright and turner to make axes, fpokes, bowls,
hide' the deficiencies of the company; by which means &c. Sword fcabbards are alfo made of it, and fhoema-
they cheat the king of fo much money. kers lafts, and formerly book-binders ufed it in ma-
FAGIUS (Paul), alias Buchlin, a learned prote- king covers for books. The leaves gathered in autumn,
ftant minifter, born at Rheinzabem in Germany in before they are much injured by the frofts, make much
Vol. IV. 16 S better
F A I [ 2894 ] F A I
Faint better matrafles than draw or chaff; and lafl: for feven
l[ or eight years. The nuts, when eaten by the human
'Fair‘ fpecies, occafion giddinefs and headach; but when well
dried and powdered, they make wholefome bread. They
are fometimes roafted, and fubllituted for coffee. The
poor people in Silefia ufe the expreffed oil inftead of
butter. The cheftnut tree fometimes grows to an im-
menfe fize. The largeft in the known world are thofe
* Sec JEtna. which grow upon Mount iEtna in Sicily *. At Tort-
worth in Glocefterfhire, is a cheftnut tree 52 feet round.
It is proved to have ftood there ever fince the year
1150, and was then fo remarkable that it was called
the great chejlnut of Tort‘worth. It fixes the boundary
of the manor, and is probably near 1000 years old.
The wood of the cheftnut tree is applicable to the fame
purpofes with the oak. If the bark is not taken off,
it makes poles for efpaliers, dead fences, and hop-
yards; and pipes to convey water under ground, which
will laft longer than elm or oak. Some of the oldeft
buildings in London are faid to be conftru&ed with
this wood. The nuts are ufed for whitening linen
cloth, and for making ftarch.
FAINT-action, in law, a feigned adtion, or fuch
as, although the words of the writ are true, yet, for
certain caufes, the plaintiff has no title to recover
thereby.
YMm-Pleader, in law, a covinous, falfe, or collu-
fory manner of pleading, to the deceit of a third perfon.
FAINTING. See (the ladex fubjoined to) Me¬
dicine.
FAINTS, in the diftillery, the weak fpirituous li¬
quor that runs from the ftill in redlifying the low wines
after the proof-fpirit is taken off.
Faints, is alfo the laft runnings of all fpirits diftil-
led by the alembic. The clearing the worm of thefe
is fo effential a point in order to the obtaining a pure
fpirit by the Jubfequent diftillation, that all others are
fruitlefs without it.
FAIR, a greater kind of market, granted to a town,
by privilege, for the more fpeedy and commodious pro¬
viding of fuch things as the place Hands in need of.
The word fair, is formed from the French fire,
which fignifies the fame thing: and fire is by fome
derived from the Latin forum, “ market;” by others
from the Latin fence, becaufe anciently fairs were al¬
ways held in the places where the wakes, or feafts of
* See Penx. ^ dedications of churches, called feriee, were held*.
It is incident to a fair, that perfons fhall be free from
being arrefted in it for any other debt or contradt than
what was contradled in the fame; or, at leaft, promi-
fed to be paid there. Thefe fairs are generally kept
once or twice a-year; and, by ftatute, they ftiall not be
held longer than they ought, by the lords thereof, on
pain of their being feized into the king’s hands, &c.
Alfo proclamation is to be made, how long they are
to continue; and no perfon fhall fell any goods after
the time of the fair is ended, on forfeiture of double
the value, one fourth to the profecutor, and the reft to
the king. There is a toll ufually paid in fairs on the
fale of things, and for ftallage, picage, &c. See the
article Toll.
Fairs abroad are either free, or charged with toll
and impofition. The privileges of free fairs confift
chiefly, firft, in that all traders, &c. whether natives
©r foreigners, are allowed to enter the kingdom, and
are under the royal protedtion, exempt from duties, im- Fair.
pofitions, tolls, &c. Secondly, that merchants, in go-   
ing or returning, cannot be molefted or arrefted, or
their goods flopped. They are eftablifhed by letters-
patent from the prince. Fairs, particularly free fairs,
make a very confiderable article in the' commerce of
Europe, efpecially that of the Mediterranean, and in¬
land parts of Germany, &c.
The moft celebrated fairs in Europe are thofe,
1. Of Francfort, held twice a-year, in fpring and
autumn: the firft commencing the Sunday before
Palm-Sunday, and the other on the Sunday before
the eighth of September. Each lafts 14 days, or two
weeks; the firft of which is called the week of accep¬
tance, and the fecond the week of payment. They are
famous for the fale of all kinds of commodities; but
particularly for the immenfe quantity of curious books
no where elfe to be found, and whence the bookfellers
throughout all Europe ufed to furnifh themfelves. Be¬
fore each fair, there is a catalogue of all the books to
be fold thereat, printed and difperfed, to call together
purchafers : though the learned complain of divers un¬
fair pradlices therein; as fi&itious titles, names of
books purely imaginary, &c. befide great faults in the
names of the authors, and the titles of the real books.
—2. The fairs of Leipfick, which are held thrice a-
year; one beginning on the firft of January ; another
three weeks after Eafter ; and a third after Michael¬
mas. They hold 12 days a piece; and are at leaft
as confiderable as thofe of Francfort. 3. The fairs
of Novi, a little city in the Milanefe, under the do¬
minion of the Republic of Genoa. There are four in
the year, commencing on the fecond of February, the
fecond of May, the firft of Auguft, and fecond of
September. Though the commodities bought and
fold here be very confiderable ; yet, what chiefly con¬
tributes to render them fo famous, is the vaft con-
courfe of the moft confiderable merchants and nego-
ciants of the neighbouring kingdoms, for the tranfaA-
ing of affairs, and fettling accounts. 4. The fairs of
Riga, whereof there are two in the year; one in May,
and the other in September. They are much fre¬
quented by the Englifh, Dutch, and French (hips, as
alfo from all parts of the Baltic. The beft time for
the fale of goods at Riga, is during the fairs. Since
the building of the famous city of Peterfburg, thefe
fairs have fuffered fome diminution, 5. Fair of Arch¬
angel, during which all the trade foreigners have with
that city is managed. It holds a month, or fix weeks
at moft, commencing from the middle of Auguft.
The Mufcovite merchants attend here from all parts
of that vaft empire ; and the Englilh, Dutch, French,
Swedifh, Danifh, and other (hips in the port of that
city, on this occafion, ordinarily amount to 300. But
this is no free fair, as the reft are : The duties of ex¬
portation and importation are very ftriftly paid, and
on a very high footing. 6. The fair of St Germain,
one of the fuburbs of Paris, commencing on the third
of February, and holding till Eafter ; though it is
only free for the firft 15 days. 7. The fairs of-Lyons,
which Monf. du Chefne, in his antiquity of cities,
would infinuate, from a paffage in Strabo, were efta-
bliftied by the Romans : though it is certain, the fairs,
as they now ftand, are of a much later date. There
are three in the year, each lafting 20 days, and free
F A I [ 2895 ] F A I
Fair. for ever. They begin on Eafter Monday, the 26th
of July, and the firft of December. 8. Fair of Gui-
bray, a fuburb of the city of Falaife, in the Lower
Normandy. It is faid to have been eftablifhed by our
William the Conqueror, in confideration of his being
born at Falaife. It commences on the 16th of Auguft;
and holds 15 days free by charter, and longer by
cuftom. 9. Fair of Beancaire, held partly in a city
of that name, in Languedoc, and partly in the open
country, under tents, &c. It commences on the Z2d
of July, and only holds for three days ; yet it is the
greateft and moft celebrated of all the fairs in that part
of Europe, both for the concourfe of ftrangers from
all parts of the world, and for the traffic of all kind
of goods: the money returned in thefe three days
amounting fometimes to above fix millions of livres.
The fairs of Porto-bello, Vera Crux, and the Ha¬
vana, are the moft confiderable of all thofe in Ame¬
rica. The two firft laft as long as the flota and gal-
lions continue in thofe parts ; and the laft is opened
as foon as the flota or galhons arrive there upon their
return for Spain ; this being the place where the two
fleets join. See Flota, and Gallions.
The principal Britilh fairs are, 1. Sturbridge-fair,
near Cambridge, by far the greateft in Britain, and
perhaps in the world. 2. Briftol has two fairs, very
near as great as that of Sturbridge. 3. Exeter.
4. Weft Chefter. 5. Edinburgh. 6. Wheyhill ;
and, 7. Burford-fair; both for Iheep. 8. Fancras
fair, in Staffordfliire, for faddle-horfes. 9. Bartho¬
lomew fair, at London, for lean and Welch black
cattle. 10. St Faith’s, in Norfolk, for Scotch runts.
11. Yarmouth fifliing-fair for herrings, the only filh-
ing fair in Great Britain. 12. Ipfwich batter-fair.
13. Woodborough-hill, in Dorfetlhire, for weft-coun¬
try manufafiures, as kerfeys, druggits, &c. 14. Two
cheefe fairs at Chipping Norton: with innumerable
other fairs, befides weekly markets, for all forts of
goods, as well our own as of foreign growth.
Fair (Me), a fmall ifland lying between Orkney
and Shetland, twelve or ten leagues E. N. E. from the
former; and feven, eight, or ten leagues, S. W. from
the latter. It is three miles long, and fcarce half a
mile broad, very craggy, with three high rocks which
are vifible both from Orkney and Shetland. There
is in this ifland a fmall quantity of arable land, which
is very fruitful and well manured ; and there might
be confiderably more, but the inhabitants are obliged
to referve it for peat and pafturage. They have for
the fize of the ifland a great many ftieep, and thofe
very good and fat: but they have no kind of motfr-
fowl or other game ; but there is great plenty of fea
and water fowl, and all kinds of filh upon their coafts.
There is in effeft no port, though they have two
that are nominally fo: one at the fouth end, which is
full of rocks, where only fmall boats can lie, and that
but indifferently ; the other at the north-eaft end,
larger and fafer in fummer, fo that it ferves commo-
dioufly enough for their fifliery. The duke of Medina
Sidonia, when commander of the famous Spanifli ar¬
mada in 1588, was wrecked on the eaft coaft of this
ifland. The (hip broke to pieces, but the duke and
200 men made their efcape. They lived here fo long,
that both they and the inhabitants were almoft famifti-
cd. At length the duke and the poor remains of
his people were carried over to the main land of Shet- Fairfax,
land, and then to Dunkirk, by one Andrew Hum- Fairfoi‘cl*
phry, far which fervice Andrew was rewarded with
3000 merks. This ifland produced to its fomer pro¬
prietor between 501. and 60 1. Sterling. It was fold
at Edinburgh on the 20th of June 1766, for about
850 1. to James Stewart of Burgh, Efq.
FAIRFAX (Edward), natural fon of Sir Thomas
Fairfax, was an Englilh poet who lived in the reigns
of Elizabeth and James I. and dedicated a tranflation
of Taffo to the former. The laft account we have of
him is in the year 1631, but the time of his death is
uncertain. He wrote feveral poetical pieces, and was
an accompliftied genius. Dryden introduces Fairfax
with Spencer, as the leading writers of the times; and
even feems to give the preference to the former in the
way of harmony, when he obferves that Waller owned
himfelf indebted for the harmony of his numbers to
Fairfax’s Godfrey of Boulogne.
Fairfax (Sir Thomas), general of the parliamen¬
tary forces againft Charles I. in 1644. See (Hijlory
of) Britain n° 127 etfeq. He refigned in 1650;
after which he lived privately, till he was invited by
general Monk to affift him againft Lambert’s army.
He cheerfully embraced the occafion ; and, on the
third of December 1659, appeared at the head of a
body of gentlemen of Yorklhire ; when, upon the
.reputation of his name, a body of 12,000 men for-
fook Lambert and joined him. He was at the head
of the committee appointed by the Houfe of Commons
to attend king Charles II. at the Hague, to defire
him fpeedily to return to England ; and having rea¬
dily affifted in his reftoration, returned again to his
feat in the country; where he lived in a private man¬
ner, till his death, which happened in 1671, in the
60th year of his age.—He wrote, fays Mr Walpole,
memorials of Thomas lord Fairfax, printed in 1699 ;
and was not only an hiftorian, but a poet. In Mr
Thorefb'y’s mufeum were preferved in manufcript the
following pieces : The Pfalms of David, the Can¬
ticles, the fongs of Mofes, and other parts of Scrip¬
ture, verfified ; a poem on Solitude ; Notes of fer-
mons by his lordfhip, by his lady daughter of Ho¬
race lord Vere, and by their daughter Mary the wife
of George fecond duke of Buckingham ; and a trea-
tife on the ftiortnefs of life. But of all lord Fairfax’s
works, fays Mr Walpole, the moft remarkable were
the verfes he wrote on the horfe on which Charles II.
rode to his coronation ; and which had been bred and
prefented to the king by his lordfliip- Howmuft that
merry monarch, unapt to keep his countenance on
more ferious occafions, have fmiled at this aukward
homage from the old vi&orious hero of republicanifm
and the covenant! He gave a colledticn of manufcripts
to the Bodleian library.
FAIRFORD, a town in Gloucefterftiire, with a
market on Thurfdays. It is remarkable for the church,
which has curious painted glafs-windows. They are
faid to have been taken in a fhip by John Tame,
Efq. towards the end of the 15th century, who built
the church for their fake. They are preferved en¬
tire, and the figures are extremely well drawn and
coloured. They reprefent the moft remarkable hi-
ftories in the Old and New Teftament. They are
frequently vifited by travellers, and many go on pur-
16 S 2 pofc
F A I [ 2898 ] F A K
Fauy. ^ppfe to view them, as one of the greateft curiofitiesin
England. The painter was Albert Durer. W. Long.
1. 46. N. Lat. 51. 42.
FAIRY, in ancient traditions and romances, fig-
nifies a fort of deity, or imaginary genius, converfant
on the earth, and diftinguilhed by a variety of fantaf-
tical actions either good or bad.
They were moil ufually imagined to be women of
an order fuperior to human nature, yet fubjeft to
wants, paffions, accidents, and even death ; fprightly
and benevolent while young and handfome ; morofe,
peevilh, and malignant, if ugly, or in the decline of
their beauty ; fond of appearing in white, whence
they are often called the ’white ladies.
Concerning thefe imaginary beings, no lefs a perfon
than Jervaife of Tilleberry, marfhal of the kingdom
of Arles, who lived in the beginning of the 13th cen¬
tury, writes thus in a work infcribed to the emperor
Otho IV. “ It has been afferted by perfons of un¬
exceptionable credit, that fairies ufed to choofe them-
felves gallants from among men, and rewarded their
attachment with an affluence of worldly gtibds; but
if they married, or boalted of a fairy’s favours, they
as feverely fmarted for fuch indifcretion.” The like
tales dill go current in Languedoc; and, throughout
the whole province, there is not village without fome
ancient feat or cavern which had the honour of being
a fairy’s refidence, or at lead fome fpring where a
fairy ufed to bathe. This idea of fairies has a near
affinity with that of the Greeks and Romans, concern¬
ing the nymphs of the woods, mountains, and fprings;
and an ancient fcholiad on Theocritus fays, “ The
nymphs are demons which appear on the mountains
in the figure of women and what is more lurpri-
fing, the Arabs and other orientals have their^/»« and
feri, of whom they entertain the like notions.
But fairies have been likewife defcribed as of either
fex, and generally as of minute dature, though capable
of affuming various forms and dimenfions. The mod
charming reprefentation imaginable of thefe children
of romantic fancy, is in the Midfummer-night’s Dream
of Shakefpear; in referring to which, we will no doubt
have been anticipated by the recolle&ion of almod
every reader.
Spenfer’s Fairy Queen is an epic poem, nnder the
perfons and characters of fairies. This fort of poetry
raifes a pleafing kind of horror in the mind of the rea¬
der, and amufes his imagination with the drangenefs
and novelty of the perfons who are reprefented in it;
but, as a vehicle of indru&ion, the judicious objeCt to
it, as not having probability enough to make any moral
impreffion.
The belief of fairies dill fubfids in many parts of
our own country. The
“ Sw?.rt fairy of the mine,”
(of German extraction), has fcarce yet quitted our fnb-
terraneous works; next article.) Puck, or Ro¬
bin Good-Fellcrw, dills haunts many of our villages.
And in the Highlands of Scotland, new-born children
are watched till the chridening is over, led they Ihould
be dolen or changed by fome of thefe phantadical
exidences-
Fairy of the Mine; an imaginary being,an inhabitant
of mines. The Germans believed in two fpecies; one
fierce and malevolent j the other a gentle race, appear¬
ing like little old men drefled like the miners, and not Fairy
much above two feet high. Thefe wander about the Jl
drifts and chambers of the works; feem perpetually
employed, yet do nothing; fome feem to cut the ore,
or fling what is cut into veflels, or turn the windlafs;
but never do any harm to the miners, unlefs provoked;
as the fenfible Agricola, in this point credulous, relates
in his book de Animantibus Subterraneis.
Fairy Circle or Ring, a phenomenon pretty fre¬
quent in the fields, &c. fuppofed by the vulgar to be
traced by the fairies in their dances. There are two
kinds of it; one of about feven yards in diameter, con¬
taining a round bare path, a foot broad, with green
grafs in the middle of it. The other is of different
bignefs, encompaffed with a circumference of grafs.
Meff. Jeffop and Walker, in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, afcribe them to lightning; which is thought to
be confirmed by their being moft frequently produ¬
ced after dorms of that kind, as well as by the colour
and brittlenefs of the grafs-roots when fird obferved.
Lightning, like all other fires, moves round, and
burns more in the extremity than in the middle : the
fecond circle arifes from the fird, the grafs burnt up
growing very plentifully afterwards. Others maintain
that thefe circles are made by ants, which are fre¬
quently found in great numbers therein.—Mr Cavallo,
who hath publifhed an edeemed treatife on ele&ricity,
does not think that lightning is at all concerned in the
formation of them: “ They are not, (fays he), always
of a circular figure; and, as I am informed, they feem
to be rather beds of muflirooms, than the effe&s o£
lightning.”
FAITH, in divinity and philofophy, the firm be¬
lief of certain truths upon the tedimony of the perfon
who reveals them. See Metaphysics, n° 265.
The grounds of a rational faith are, 1. That the
things revealed be not contrary to, though they may
be above, natural reafon. 2. That the revealer be well
acquainted with the things he reveals. 3. That he be
above all fufpicion of deceiving us.
Where thefe criterions are found, no reafonable per¬
fon will deny his affent : thus, we may as well doubt
of our own exidence, as of the truth of a revelation
coming from God, who can neither be deceived him-
felf, nor deceive others by propoiing things to be be¬
lieved that are contradiftory to the faculties he has
given us. Whatever propofitions, therefore, are be¬
yond reafon, but not contrary to it, are, when reveal¬
ed, the proper matter of faith.
Faith, or Fidelity, (Fides), was deified by the an¬
cient Romans, and had a temple in the Capitol confe-
crated to her by Attilius Calatinus. Her prieds wore
white veils : unbloody facrifices were offered to her,
and the greated oaths were taken in her name. Ho¬
race clothes her in white, places her in the retinue of
Fortune, and makes her the fider of Judice, Od. 24,
35. /. 1. Public Faith is reprefented in a great number
of medals ; fometimes with a balket of fruit in one
hand, and fome ears of corn in the other; and fome-
times holding a turtle-dove. But the mod ufual fym-
bol is two hands joined together. The inferiptions are
generally, Fides Augufli, Fides Exercitus, or Fides Mi-
lit urn, &c.
FAITHFUL, an appellation affumed by the Ma¬
hometans. See Mahometans.
FA I-
Faithorn,
Fakirs.
F A K [ 2897 I F A L
FAITHORN (William), an ingenious Englilh
painter of the 17th century, who, when the civil wars
broke out, went into the army; but being made pri-
foner in Bafinghoufe, and refufing to take the oaths to
Oliver, he was baniMd to France. He was as great
a proficient in engraving as in painting; and there are
many fpecimens of his performance extant in England.
He died in Blackfriars, about the beginning of king
William’s reign; and wrote a book Upon Drawings
Graving, and Etching, for which he was celebrated
by his friend Thomas Flatman the pbet.
FAKIRS, Indian monks or friars. They out-do
the feverity and mortification of the ancient Anchorets
or Solitaries. Some of them make a vow of continu¬
ing all their life-time in one poiture, and keep it ef¬
fectually. Others never lie down; but continue in a
Handing pofture all their lives, fupported only by a
Hick, or rope under their arm-pits. Some mangle
their bodies with fcourges and knives. They look up¬
on themfelves to have conquered every paffion, and
triumphed over the world ; and accordingly fcruple
not, as if in a Hate of innocence, to appear entirely na¬
ked in public.
The common people of Eaft-India are thoroughly
perfuaded of the virtue and innocence of the fakirs;
notwithllanding which, they are accufed of commit¬
ting the molt enormous crimes in private.
They have plfo another kind of fakirs, who do not
praftife fuch feverities : thefe flock together in com¬
panies, and go from village to village, prophefying,
and telling fortunes. They are wicked villains, and it
is dangerous for a man to meet them in a lone place:
neverthelefs the Indian idolaters have them in the ut-
moft veneration. They make ufe of drums, trumpets,
and other mufical inftruments, to roufe their fouls, and
work themfelves up to an artificial ecltafy, the better
to publifh their pretended prophecies.
Some of the votaries of thefe fages moft devoutly
kifs their privy-parts ; and they receive this monftrous
declaration of refped with a kind of ecftatic pleafure.
The molt fober and difcreet Indians confult them in
this prepofterous attitude ; and their female votaries
converfe with them a confiderable time, with the molt
indecent freedom.
The fire they burn is made of cow’s dung, dried in
the fun. When they are difpofed to fleep, they repofe
themfelves on cow’s dung, and fometimes on ordure
itfelf. They are fo indulgent towards every living
creature, that they fuller themfelves to be over-run
with vermin, or flung by infedts, without the lealt re-
luctancy or complaint.
It is more than probable, thefe Indian friars have
fome fecret art to lull their fenfes afleep, in order to
render themfelves, in a great meafure, infenfible of the
exceflive torments they voluntarily undergo. Oving-*
ton aflures us, that “ as he was one day in an affembly
of fakirs, he obferved, that they drank opiates infufed
in water; the intoxicating virtue whereof was enough
to turn their brain.”
The garment of the chief fakirs confifls of three or
four yards of orange-coloured linen, which they tie
round them, and a tyger’slkin, which hangs over their
fhoujders. Their hair is woven in trefl'es, and forms a
kind of turban. The fuperior of the fakirs is diftin-
guilhed from the reft by having a greater number of
pieces in his garment, and by a chain of iron, two yards Falcade
long, tied to his leg. When he defigns to reft in any lj^
lace, a garment is fpread upon the ground; on which f
e fits and gives audience, whilft his difciples publilh
his virtues.
Some perfons of quality in India have become fa¬
kirs : among others, five great lords belonging to the
court of Cha-gehan, Mogul of the Indies. It is faid,
there are about two millions of fakirs in the Eaft-
Indies.
FALCADE, in the menage, the motion of a horfe
when he throws himfelf upon his haunches two or three
times, as in very quick curvets; which is done in
forming a Hop and half flop. See Stop.
FALCATED, fomething in the form of a fickle :
thus, the moon is faid to be falcated when Ihe appears
horned.
FALCO, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the
order of accipitres, the charafters of which are thefe : Plate CIV,
The beak is crooked, and furnilhed with wax at the CY.
bafe ; the head is thick-fet vvith feathers, and the
tongue is cloven. The principal fpecies are, viz.
1. The coronatus, or crowned eagle of Edwards,
with alh-coloured wax; the legs are covered with
white downy feathers, interfperfed with black fpots ;
the breaft is reddiflt; and there are black belts on the
fides. It is a native of Guinea.
2. The melar.aeetus, or black eagle of Ray, has
yellowifh-wax on the beak; the legs are half covered
with feathers; and the body is afh-coloured and ftrea-
ked with yellow. It is a native of Europe.
3. The leucocephalus, or white-headed eagle of
Catelby, is alh-coloured, with the head and tail white;
the iris of the eye is white, over which is a prominence
covered with a yellow flein ; the bill and the fear or
wax are yellow, as are likewife the legs and feet; and
the talons are black. Though it is an eagle of fmall
iize, it weighs nine pounds, is ftrong and full of fpirit,.
preying on lambs, pigs, and fawns. They always
make their nefts near the fea, or great rivers, and ufually
upon old, dead pine or cyprefs trees, continuing to
build annually on the fame tree till it falls. Though
he is fo formidable to all birds, yet he fuffers them'to
build near his royal neft without moleflation; particu¬
larly the fifiling hawk, herons, &c. which all build on
high trees, and in fome places are fo near one another,
that they appear.like a rookery. It is a native both
of Europe and America.
4. The offitragus, or fea-eagle, with yellow wax, and
half-feathered legs; it is about the fize of a peacock; Sea-eagle:
the feathers are white at the bafe, iron-coloured in the
middle, and black at the points ; and the legs are yel¬
low. It is found in feveral parts of Great Britain and
Ireland. Mr Willoughby tells us, that there was an
aery of them in Whinfield Park, WeftmoreJand ; and
the bird foaring in the air with a cat in its talons,
(which Barlow drew from the very fad which he faw
in Scotland), is of this kind. The cat’s reliflance
brought both animals to the ground, when Barlow
took them up; and afterwards caufed the event to be
engraved in the 36th plate of his Colle&ion of Prints.
Turner fays, that in his days this bird was too well
known in England; for it made horrible deftrudion
among the fifh. All authors indeed agree, that it feeds
principally on fifli; which it takes, as they are fwim-
Fako.
F A L [ 2898 ] F A L
ming near the furface, by darting itfelf down upon
them; not by diving or fwimming, as fome authors
have pretended, who furnifh it for that purpofe with
one webbed foot to fwim with, and another divided
foot to take its prey with. Martin, fpeakingof what
he calls the great eagles of the Weftern Ifles, fays,
that they fallen their talons in the back of the filh,
commonly of falmon, which are often above the water,
or very near the furface. Thofe of Greenland will
even take a young feal out of the water.—Turner,
above-mentioned, fays, that the fifhermen were fond of
anointing their baits with the fat of this bird, imagi¬
ning that it had a peculiar alluring quality: they were
even fuperftitious enough to believe, that whenever the
fea-eagle hovered over a piece of water, the filh (as if
charmed) would rife to the furface with their bellies
upwards; and in that manner prefent themfelves to
him. It alfo preys on waterTowi.
5. The chryfaetos, or golden eagle, weighs about 12
pounds, and is in length about three feet, the wings,
when extended, meafuring about feven feet four inches.
eagle.60 The fight and fenfe of fmelling are very acute: the
head and neck are clothed with narrow, Iharp-point-
ed feathers, of a deep brown colour bordered with
tawney ; the hind part of the head in particular is of a
bright ru ft-col our—Thefe birds are very deftruftive to
fawns, lambs, kids, and all kinds of game; particularly
in the breeding feafon, when they bring a vaft quan¬
tity of prey to their young. Smith, in his hiftory of
Kerry, relates, that a poor man in that country got a
comfortable fubfiftence for his family, during a fummer
of famine, out of an eagle’s neft, by robbing the ea¬
glets of the food the old ones brought; whofe attend¬
ance he protrafted beyond the natural time, by clip¬
ping the wings and retarding the flight of the former.
It is very unfafe to leave infants in places where eagles
frequent; there being inftances in Scotland of two be¬
ing carried off by them; but, fortunately, the theft
was difcovered in time, and the children were reftored
unhurt out of the eagles nefts. In order to extirpate
thefe pernicious birds, there is a law in the Orkney
ifles, which entitles every perfon that kills an eagle to
a hen out of every houfe in the parifti where it was
killed.—Eagles feem to give the preference to the car-
cafes of dogs and cats. People who make it their
bufinefs to kill thofe birds, lay one or other of thefe
carcafee by way of bait; and then conceal themfelves
within gunftiot. They fire the inftant the eagle a-
lights; for {he, that moment, looks about before file
begins to prey. Yet, quick as her fight may be, her
fenfe of hearing feems (till more exquilite. If hooded
crows or ravens happen to be nearer the carrion, and
refort to it firft, and give a fingle croak, the eagle is
certain of inftantly repairing to the Tpot.
Eagles are remarkable for their longevity, and for
their power of fuftaining a long abftinence from food.
Mr Keyfler relates, that an eagle died at Vienna after a
confinement of 104 years. This pre-eminent length of
days probably gave occafion to the faying of the Pfal-
mift, “ Thy youth is renewed like the eagle’s.” One
of this fpecies, which was nine years in the poffeflion
of Owen Holland, Efq. of Conway, lived 32 years with
the gentleman who made him a prefent of it; but what
its age was when the latter received it from Ireland, is
unknown. The fame bird alfo furnilhes us with a
proof of the truth of the other remark; having once, Fako.
through the negleft of fervants, endured hunger for 2 1 
days without any fuftenance whatever.
6. The fulvus, is common to the northern parts of
Europe and America; that figured by Mr Edwards
differing from our fpecies only in having fome white
fpots on the breaft. It is frequent in Scotland ; where Bbck eagk.
it is called the black eagle, from the dark colour of its
plumage. It is very deftru&ive to deer, which it will
feize between the horns 5 and, by inceffantly beating
it about the eyes with its wings, foon makes a prey
of the harraffed animal. The eagles in the ifle of Rum
have nearly extirpated the ftags that ufed to abound
there. This fpecies generally builds in clefts of rocks
near the deer-forefts; and makes great havock not only
among them, but alfo among the white hares and ptar¬
migans. It is of equal fize with the preceding, and
is eafily diftinguilhed from all the other fpecies by a
band of white on the upper part of the tail; the end
only being of a deep brown. The legs are feathered
to the feet, the toes yellow, the claws black. Mr
Willoughby gives the following curious account of the
neft of this fpecies. “ In the year of our Lord 1668,
in the woodlands near the river Darwent, in the peak
of Derbyfhire, was found an eagle’s neft made of great
fticks, reftiog one end in the edge of a rock, the other
on two birch trees; upon which was a layer of ruflies,
and over them a layer of heath, and upon the heath
rulhes again : upon which lay one young one and an
addle egg ; and by them a lamb, a hare, and three
heath-poults. The neft was about two yards fquare,
and had no hollow in it. The young eagle was black
as a hobby, of the fliape of a goftiawk, almoft of
the weight of a goofe, rough-footed, or feathered
down to the foot : having a white ring about the
tail.”
7. The rufticolus, with a yellow wax, yellow ring
round the eyes, and yellow legs; the body is afh-co-
loured undulated with white, and a white ring round
the neck : it is a native of Sweden.
8. The barbarus, with yellow wax, and yellow
legs ; the body is bluifh, and fpotted with brown : it ,
is a native of Barbary.
9. The caerulefcens, with yellow wax, a yellow
ring round the eyes, and the feet yellow underneath;
the back is of a blackifh blue colour ; and the temples
are furrounded with a white line. This is the fmalleft
bird of the genus, and is a native of AGa.
10. The cyaneus, or hen-harrier, with white wax, Hen-har-
yellow legs, a whitifti blue body, and a white ring rier.
round the eyes and throat. It is the blue hawk of
Edwards, and is a native of Europe and Africa. Thefe
birds are extremely deftrudlive to young poultry and
to the feathered game: they fly near the ground,
Ikimming the furface in fearch of prey. They breed
on the ground, and never are obferved to fettle on
trees.
11. The albiulla, or cinereous eagle, is inferior in
fize to the golden eagle ; the head and neck are of a
pale afti-colour: the body and wings cinereous, clouded
with brown ; the quill-feathers very dark ; the tail
white ; the legs feathered but little below the knees,
and of a very bright yellow. The male is of a darker
colour than the female. The bill of this fpecies is
rather ftraighter than is ufual in the eagle; which
feems
F A L [ 2899 ] F A L
Falco. feems to have induced Linnaeus to place it among the
* vultures. But it can have no title to be ranked with
that genus: for the pygargus is wholly feathered;
whereas the chara&eriftical mark of the vulture is,
that the head and neck are either quite bare, or only
covered with down. It inhabits Scotland and the
Orkneys; and feeds on fifh, as well as on land animals.
12. The milvus, or kite, is a native of Europe, Afia,
and Africa. Bellonius relates, that, about the end of
Kite. April, incredible numbers of them are feen flying over
the Black Sea into Afia. This fpecies generally breeds
in large forefts, or woody mountainous countries. Its
neft is compofed of flicks, lined with feveral odd ma¬
terials, fuch as rags, bits of flannel, rope, and paper.
It lays two, or at moft three, eggs ; which, like thofe
of other birds of prey, are much rounded and blunt
at the fmaller end. They are white, fpotted with
dirty yellow. Its motion in the air diftinguiflies it
from all other birds, being fo fmooth and even that it
is fcarce perceptible. Sometimes it will remain quite
motionlefs for a confiderable fpace; at others, glide
through the Iky, without the leaft apparent a&ion of
its wings ; from thence deriving the old name of glead
or glede, from the Saxon The tail of this bird,
as being forked, is fufficient to diftinguifh it from moft
other birds of prey. The kites vary in their colours.
Mr Pennant mentions abeautiful variety fhot in Lincoln-
flure, that was entirely of a tawny colour. Some
have fuppofed them to be birds of paflage, but in Bri¬
tain they certainly continue the whole year. Lord
Bacon obferves, that when kites fly high, it portends
fair and dry weather.
Falcon- I3- The gentilis, or gentil falcon, inhabits the
gentil. north of Scotland, and was in high efteem as a bold
and fpirited bird in the days of falconry. It makes
its neft in rocks : it is larger than the golhawk ; the
head of a light ruft colour, with oblong black fpots;
the whole under-fide from chin to tail white, tinged
with yellow ; the back of a brown colour ; the tail
barred with four or five bars of black, and as many
of alh-colour; the very tips of all the tail-feathers
white.
14. The fubbuteo, or hobby, was ufed like the kef-
trel in the humbler kind of falconry ; particularly in
what was called daring of Jarks: the hawk was call
off; the larks, aware of their moft inveterate enemy,
Hobby. were fixed to the ground for fear; by which means
they became a ready prey to the fowler by drawing
a net over them. The back of this bird is brown ;
the nape of the neck white ; and the belly pale, with
oblong brown fpots. It is a bird of paffage; but
breeds in Britain, and migrates in O&ober.
Buzzard. 15. The buteo, or buzzard, is the moft common
of the hawk kind in England. It breeds in large
woods; and ufually builds on an old crow’s neft, which
it enlarges, and lines with wool and other foft mate¬
rials. It lays two or three eggs, which are fometimes
perfe&ly white, fometimes fpotted with yellow. The
cock buzzard will hatch and bring np the young if
the hen is killed. The young keep company with the
old ones for fome little time after they quit the neft ;
which is not ufual with other birds of prey, who al¬
ways drive away their brood as foon as they can fly.
This fpecies is very fluggilh and inadtive, and is much
lefs in motion than other hawks ; remaining perched
on the fame bough for the greateft part of the day, Falco.
and is found at moft times near the fame place. It
feeds on birds, rabbits, moles, and mice ; it will alfo
eat frogs-, earthworms, and infedls. This bird is fub-
jedt to fome variety in its colours. Some have their
breaft and belly of a brown colour, and are only marked
crofs the craw with a large wlnte crefcent; but ufually
the breaft is of a ycllowifti white, fpotted with oblong
ruft-coloured fpots, pointing downwards : the back of
the head, neck, and coverts of the wings, are of a
deep brown, edged with a pale ruft-colour : the middle
of the back covered only with a thick white down.
The tail is barred with black, and alh-colour, and
fometimes with ferruginous.
16. The tinnunculus, or keftrel, breeds in the hoi- Keftrel,
lows of trees, in the holes of high rocks, towers, and
ruined buildings. It feeds on field-mice, fmall birds,
and infe&s 5 which it will difeover at a great diftance.
This is the hawk that we fo frequently fee in the air
fixed in one place ; and, as it were, fanning it with
its wings ; at which time it is watching for its prey.
When falconry was in ufe in Great Britain, this bird
was trained for catching fmall birds and young par¬
tridges. It is eafily diftinguilhed from all other hawks
by its colours. The crown of the head and the greater
part of the tail are of a fine light grey ; the back and
coverts of the wings of a brick-red, elegantly fpotted
with black : the whole under fide of the bird, of a pale
ruft-colour fpotted with black.
17. The fufflaior, with yellowifh wax and legs;
the body is of a brownifh white colour ; and the covers Laughing-
of the eyes are bony. He has a flefhy lobe between hawk,
the noftrils; which, when angry or terrified, he in¬
flates till his head becomes as big as his whole body.
He is a native of Surinam.
18. The cachinnans, or laughing hawk, has yel-
lowiftt legs and wax, and white eye-brows ; the body
is variegated with brown and white ; and it has a black
ring round the top of the head. It makes a laughing
kind of noife when it obferves any perfon, and is a
native of America.
19. The columbarius, or pigeon-hawk of Catelby, Pigeon-
weighs about fix ounces. The bill is black at the hawk,
point, and whitifh at tjie bafe; the iris of the eye is
yellow ; the bafe of ttfe^tipper mandible is covered with
a yellow cere or wax; all the upper part of the body,
wings, and tail, are brown. The interior vanes of
the quill-feathers have large red fpots. The tail is
marked with large regular tranfverfe white lines ; the
throat, breaft, and belly, are white, mixed with
brown ; the fmall feathers that cover the thighs reach
within half an inch of the feet, and are white, with a
tindlure of red, befet with long fpots of brown ; the
legs and feet are yellow. It is a very fwift and bold,
hawk, preying on pigeons, young turkeys, &c. and
is a native of Carolina.
20. The vefpertinus, is about the fize of a pigeon
the body is of a blueifh brown colour; and the bill is
yellow, and brown at the point. It is a native of In-
gria, and flies both in the day and in the night.
21. The furcatus, or fwallow-tailed hawk, weighs
about 14 ounces; the bill is black ; the eyes are large
and black, with a red iris; the head, neck, breaft, and
belly, are white ; the upper part of the back and wings
a dark purple; but more dulky towards the lower
parts,.
Fifliing-
hawk, or
ofprey.
Gyrfalcon.
Honey-
tuzzard-
Moor-
buzzard.
F A L [ 2900 ] F A L
parts, witTia tin&ure of green. The wings are long in
proportion to the body, and, when extended, meafure
four feet. The tail is dark purple mixed with green,
and remarkably forked. Like fwallows, they conti¬
nue long on the wing ; catching, as they fly, beetles,
flies, and other infe&s. They are faid to prey upon
lizards and ferpents, and are found in America.
22. Halitetus, the fifhing-hawk of Catefby, or the
ofpray, weighs three pounds and a quarter ; it mea-
fures, from one end of the wing to the other, five feet
and a half. The bill is black, with a blue cere or
wax ; the iris of the eye is yellow, and the crown of
the head brown, with'a mixture of white feathers;
from each eye, backwards, runs a brown ft ripe: the
back, wings, and tail, are of a dark brown ; the
throat, neck, and belly, white ; tire legs and feet are
rough and fcaly, and of a pale blue colour ; the talons
are black, and nearly of an equal fize; the feathers of
the thighs are fhort, and adhere clofe to them, contrary
to others of the hawk kind, which nature feems to
havedefigned for the moreeafily penetrating the water.
Their manner of fifhing is, after hovering a while over
the water, to precipitate into it with prodigious fwift-
nefs; where they remain for fome minutes, and feldora
rife without a fifh. The white-headed eagle, who is
generally on the watch, no fooner Tpies him with his
fifh, than he flies furioufly upon him : the hawk im¬
mediately mounts, and fcreams out; but the eagle al¬
ways foars above him, and compels him to let the fifh
fall: the eagle inftantly darts down upon the fifh, and
feldom fails to catch it before it reaches the water. It
is remarkable, that, whenever the hawk catches a fifh,
he calls out, as if it were to give warning to his enemy
the eagle, who always obeys the call, if within hear¬
ing. The lower parts of the rivers and creeks near the
fea in America, abound with thefe eagles and hawks,
where fuch diverting cqntefts are often feen.
23. The gyrfalco, or gyrfalcon, with blue wax on
the beak, yellow legs, a brown body marked with afh-
coloured ftreaks underneath, and the fides of the tail
white. It is the gyrfalco of all the ornithologifts ex¬
cept Linnaeus, whofe bird is unknown to the reft. It
is a native of Europe; and feeds upon cranes, pigeons,
&c.
24. The aviporus, with black wax, yellow legs,
half naked, the head of an afh colour, and having an
afh-coloured ftripe on the tail which is white at the
end. It is the honey-buzzard of Ray, and had its
name from the combs of wafps being found in its
neft. It is a native of Europe, and feeds on mice,
lizards, frogs, bees, &c. It runs very fwiftly, like a
hen.
25. The aeruginofus, or moor-buzzard, with greenifh
wax, a greyifh body, the top of the head, nape of the
neck, and legs, yellowifh ; is a native of Europe, and
frequents moors, marfhy places, and heaths: it never
foars like other hawks; but commonly fits on the
ground, or on fmall bufhes. It makes its neft in the
midft of a tuft of grafs or nifties. It is a very fierce and
voracious bird ; and is a great deftroyer of rabbits,,
young wild-ducks, and other water-fowl. It preys, like
the ofprey, on fifti.
26. The palumbarius, with black wax edged with
yellow; yellow legs, a brown body, and the prime
feathers of the tail marked with pale ftreaks, and the
eye brows white. It is the gofhawk of Ray; and Falcon,
was formerly in high efteem among falconers, being Fa^coner'
flown at cranes, geefe, pheafants, and partridges. It
breeds in Scotland, and builds its neft in trees ; is very Golhawk.
deftru&ive to game, and dailies thro’ the woods after
its quarry with vaft impetuofity ; but if it cannot catch
the objedl of its purfuit almoft immediately, defifts, and
perches on a bough till fome new game prefents it-
felf.
27. The nifus, or fparrow-hawk, with green wax,
yellow legs, a white belly undulated with grey, and
the tail marked with blackiih belts. This is the moil Sparrow-
pernicious hawk we have ; and makes great havock hawl1-
among pigeons as well as patridges. It builds in hol¬
low trees, in old nefts of crows, large ruins, and high
rocks : it lays four white eggs, encircled near the
blunter end with red fpecks.
28. The minutus, with white wax, yellow legs, and
the body white underneath. It is the leaft hawk of
Briffonius, being about the fize of a thrufti; and is
found on the ifland Melita.
FALCON, or Faucon, a bird ofprey of the hawk
kind, fuperior to all others for courage, docility, gen-
tlenefs, and noblenefs of nature *. Several authors * See Fakt.
take the name falcon to have been occafioned by its
crooked talons or pounces, which refemble a falx or
fickle. Giraldus derives it a falcando, becaufe it flies in
a curve.
The falcon, or falcon gentle, is both for the fift and
for the lure. In the choice, take one that has wide
noftrils, high and large eye-lids, a large black eye; a
round head, fomewhat full on the top ; barb feathers
on the clap of the beaks, which ftionld be ftiort, thick,
and of an azure colour; the bread large, round, and
fleihy; and the thighs, legs, and feet, large and
ftrong ; with the fear of the foot foft and bluifti: the
pounces ftiould be black, with wings long and croffing
the train, which ftiould be ftiort and very pliable.
The name falcon is reftrained to the female: for the
male is much fmaller, weaker, and lefs courageous, than
the female; and therefore is denominated tajfel, or
tircelet. The falcon is excellent at the river, brook,
and even field ; and flies chiefly at the lager game, as
wild-goofe, kite, crow, heron, crane, pye, ftioveler,
&c. For further particulars, fee Falconry, Hawk,
and Hawking.
FALCONER, a perfon who brings up, tames, and
makes, that is, tutors and manages, birds of prey ; as
falcons, hawks, &c. See Falconry.
The grand Teignior ufually keeps 6000 falconers in
his fervice. - The French king has a grand falconer,
which is an office difmembered from that of great hunt,
grand venur. Hiftorians take notice of this poll as
early as the year 1250.
. A falconer ftiould be well acquainted with the qua¬
lity and mettle of his hawks, that he may know
which of them to fly early, and which late. Every
night after flying he fliould give them calling; one
while plumage, fometimes pellets of cotton, and at
another time phyfic, as he finds neceffary. He ought
alfo every evening to make the place clean under the
porch, that by her calling he may know whether Ihe
wants fcouring upwards or downwards. Nor mult he
forget to water his hawk every evening, except on fuch
days as Ihe has bathed ; after which, at night, fhe
1 fhould
iJlate CIV.
2.
Kal co Furcatus
S wau l o\\' Tailu Hawk
c /y.
Far C O C OLUMT3 ATUU S
o r
Pigeon Hav\ k
F A L [ 2901 1 F A L
Falconer, ftiouJd be put into a warm roomj having a candle
Falconry, burning by her, where (he is to fit unhooded, if (he
— be not ramage, that (he may pick and prune herfelf.—
A falconer mould always carry proper medicines into
the field, as hawks frequently meet with accidents
there. Neither mud he forget to take with him any
of his hawking implements; and it is nece(Tary he
(hould be (kilful in making lures, hoods of ail forts,
jejlets, bewets, and other furniture. Neither ought he
to be without his coping irons, to cope his hawk’s
beak when overgrown, and to cut her pounces and ta¬
lons as there (hall be occafion : nor (hould his cauteri¬
zing irons be wanting.
Falconer (William), an ingenious Scots failor,
who, about the year 1762, came up to London with
a pretty pathetic poem, called the Shipwreck, found¬
ed on a difafter of his own experience. The publica¬
tion of this piece recommended him to the late duke
of York ; and he would in all probability have been
fuitably preferred, if a fecond (hipwreck, as may be
fuppofed, had not proved fatal to him, and to many
gentlemen of rank and fortune with whom he failed.
In 1760, he went out a volunteer in the Aurora fri¬
gate fent to carry Meflrs Vanfittart, Scrafton, and
Ford, the (upervifors appointed to regulate our Eaft
India fettteinents ; which veffel, after it had touched
at the Cape of Good Hope, was never more heard of.
Before his departure, he publiflied a very ufeful Ma¬
rine Dictionary, in I vol. 410.
FALCONRY, the art of training all manner of
hawks, but more efpecially the larger ones called fal¬
cons, to the exercife of hawking. See Hawking.
When a falcon is taken, (he mult be feeled in fuch
a manner, that, as the feeling (lackens, (he may fee
what provifion lies before her; but care ought to be
taken, not to feel her too hard. A falcon or hawk
newly taken (hould have all new furniture, as new jef-
fes of good leather, mailled lea(hes with buttons at the
end, and new bewets. There (hould alfo be provided
a fmall round (tick, to (troke the hawk; becaufe, the
oftener this is done, the fooner and better will (he be
manned. She mull alfo have two good bells, that
die may be found when (lie fcattereth. Her hood
fhould be well falhioned, raifed, and emboffed againft
her eyes, deep, and yet ftrait enough beneath, that it
may fallen about her head without hurting her; and
her beak and talons mud be a little coped, but not fo
near as to make them bleed.
If it be a foar-falcon, which hath already pafied the
feas, (he will indeed be harder to reclaim, but will
prove the bed of falcons. Her food mud be good and
warm, and given her twice or thrice a-day, till (he
be full gorged: the bed for this purpofe is pigeons,
larks, or other live birds; becaufe (he mud be broken
off by degrees from her accudomed feeding. When
(he is fed, you mud hoop and lure, as you do when
you call a hawk, that (he may know when you intend
to give her meat. On this occafion (he mud be un¬
hooded gently; and after giving her two or three bits,
her hood mud be put on again, when (he is to get two
or three bits more. Care mud be taken that (he be
clofe feeled; and after three or four days, her diet may
be leffened : the falconer fetting her every night to
perch by him, that he may awaken her often in the
night. In this manner he mud proceed, till he find
Vol. IV.
her to grow tame and gentle ; and when (he begins to
feed eagerly, he may give her a (beep’s heart. He may
now begin to unhood her in the day-time ; but it jnud
be far from company, fird giving her a bit or two,
then hooding her gently, and giving her as much more.
When (he is (harp fet, he may now unhood her, and
give her feme meat juft againft his face and eyes, which
will make her lefs afraid of the countenances of others.
She mud be borne continually on the fid, till (he is
properly manned, caufing her to feed in company, gi¬
ving her in the morning, about fun rife, the wing of a
pullet; and in the evening, the foot of a hare or co¬
ney, cut off above the joint, dead and laid in water,
which being fqueezed, is to be given her with the pi¬
nion of a hen’s wing. For two or three days give her
waftied meat, and then plumage in more or lefs quan¬
tity as (he is thought to be more or lefs foul within.
After this, being hooded again, (he is to get nothing
till (he has gleamed and cad, when a little hot meat
may be given her in company; and, towards evening,
(he may be allowed to plume a hen’s wing in company
alfo. Cleanfe the feathers of her cafting, if foul and
(limy ; if (he be clean within, give her gentle caft-
ings; and when (he is reclaimed, manned, and made
eager and (harp fet, he may venture to feed her on the
lure.
However, three things are to be confidered before
the lure be (hewed her, 1. That (he be bold and fami¬
liar in company, and not afraid of dogs and horfes.
2. Sharp fet and hungry, having regard to the hour
of morning and evening, when you would lure her.
3. Clean within, and the lure well garnifhed with meat
on both fides; and when you intend to give her the
length of a lea(h, you mud abfeond yourfelf.
She mud alfo be unhooded, and have a bit or two
given her on the lure as (hefits on your fid; afterwards
take the lure from her, and hide it that (he may not
fee it; and when (he is unfeeled, caft the lure fo near
her, that (he may catch it within the length of her
lealh, and as foon as (lie has feized -it, ufe your voice as
falconers do, feeding her upon the lure, on the ground,
with the heart and warm thigh of a pullet.
Having fo lured your falcon, give her but little meat
in the evening ; and let this luring be fo timely, that
you may give her plumage, and a juck of a joint next
morning on your lift. When (lie has caft and gleam¬
ed, give her a little reaching of warm meat. About
noon, tie a creance to her leafli; and going into the
field, there give her a bit or two upon her lure : then
unwind the creance, and draw it after you a good way;
and let him who has the bird hold his right-hand on the
taffel of her hood, ready to unhood her as foon as you
begin to lure ; to which if (lie come well, (loop round¬
ly upon it, and haftily feize it, let her caft two or
three bits thereon. Then, unfeizingand taking her oft*
the lure, hood her and give her to the man again ; and,
going farther off, lure and feed her as before.
In this manner is the falconer to proceed, luring
her every day farther and farther off, till (he is accu-
ftomed to come freely and eagerly to the lure ; after
which (he may be lured in company, taking care that
nothing affright her. When (he is ufed to the lure on
foot, (he is to be lured on horfeback ; which may be
effected the fooner, by caufing horfemen to be about
her when (he is lured on foot.
16 T When
Falconry.
Falkirk,
Falkland.
F A L [ 2902 ] F A L
When (he has grown familiar to this way, let feme- with ftatues, heads in bafs-relief, and elegant columns Falkland
body on foot hold the hawk, and he on horfeback mud not reducible to any order, but of fine proportion, tl .
call and call the lure about his head, the holder taking with capitals approaching the Ionic fcroll. Beneath Fallowmg»
off the hood by the taflel ; and if (lie feize eagerly on fome of thefe pillars was infcribed I. R. M. G. 1537 :
the lure without fear of man or horfe, then take off or Jacobus Rex, Maria de Guife.—This place was
the ereance, and lure her at a greater diilance. And alfo a favourite refidence of James VI. on account of
if you would have her love dogs aS well as the lure, call the fine park and plenty of deer. The eaft fide was
dogs when you give her her living or plumage. Seethe accidentally burnt in the time of Charles II. and the
article Hawking. park ruined during Cromwell’s ufurpation ; when the
FALKIRK, a town of Stirlingfhire in Scotland, fine oaks were cut down in order to build the fort at
fituated in W. Long. 3. 48. N. Lat. 56. 20. It is a Perth.
large ill-built place, and is fupported by great fairs Falkland (Lord). See Cary.
for black cattle from the Highlands; it being compu- FALL, the defcent of a heavy body towards the
ted that 24,000 head are annually fold there. A great centre of the earth. It is alfo the name of a meafure of
deal of money is alfo got here by the Carriage of goods length ufed in Scotland, containing fix ells.
landed at Carron wharf to Glafgow. This town is re- FALLACY, a deception, fraud, or falfe appearance.
markable for a battle fought in its neighbourhood The epicureans deny that there is any fuch thing as
between Edward I. of England, and the Scots com- a fallacy of the fenfes: for, according to them, all our
manded by the Steward of Scotland, Cummin of Ba- fenfations and perceptions, both of fenfe and phanta-
denoch, and Sir William Wallace. The latter had fy, are true ; whence they make fenfe the primary cri-
been invefted with the fupreme command; but percei- terion of truth.
■ving that this gave umbrage to the nobility, he re- The Cartefians, on the other hand, maintain, that
fjgned his power into the hands of the noblemen above- we (hofild fufpedt as falfe, oral mod as dubious, every
mentioned, referving to himfelf only the command of thing that prefents itfelf to us by means only of the
a fmall body who refufed to follow another leader, external fenfes, becaufe they frequently deceive us.
The Scots generals placed their pikemen along the They add, that our fenfes, as being fallacious, were
front, and lined the intervals between the three bodies never given ua by nature for the difcovery of truth, or
of which their army was compofed, with archers: and the contemplation of the principles of things; but only
dreading the great fupenority of the Englifh cavalry, for pointing out to us what things are convenient or
endeavoured to fecure their front by pallifadoes tied to- hurtful to our bodies.
gether with ropes. The battle was fought on the 22d The Peripatetics keep a middle courfe. They fay,
of July 1298. The king of England divided his army that if a fenfible objeft be taken in its common orge-
likewife into three bodies; and, by the fuperiority of neral view, the fenfe cannot be deceived about it; but
his archers, defeated the Scots with great (laughter, that if the objeA be taken under its fpecific view, the
Wallace alone preferved entire the troops he command- fenfe may be miftaken about it, from the want of the
ed; and retiring behind the Carron, marched leifurely difpofitions neceffary to a jult fenfation, as a difor-
along the banks of that river, which prote&ed him from der in the organ, or any thing uncommon in the me-
the enemy. In this battle fell John de Graham, a dium : thus, in fome diforders of the eye, all objedls
gentleman much celebrated for his valour, and ftyled appear yellow; a (tick in water appears broken or
ihc right-band of the gallant Wallace. His epitaph crooked, &c.
is ftill to be feen on a plain done in the church-yard of FALLING-sickness. See (the Index fubjoined
Falkirk. On the 18th of January 1746, a battle was to) Medicine.
fought here between the king’s forces commanded by FALLOPIAN tubes. See Anatomy, n° 372. 1.
general Hawley, and the Highlanders headed by Charles FALLOPIUS (Gabriel), a mott celebrated phyfi-
Stuart. The former was feized with a panic, and cian and anatomifl, was born at Modena in Italy, iu.
fled ; but Colonel Hu(k with two regiments, who kept the year 1523, and defcended of a noble family. He
their ground, prevented the Highlanders from purfuing made feveral difcoveries in anatomy, one of which was
their viftory. Extenfive ruins are perceived in the that of the tubes, called from him the Fallopian tubes.
neighbourhood of this town, fuppofed by fome anti- He travelled through the greateit part of Europe, and
quarians to have been the capital of thePidilh govern- obtained the charader of being one of the ableit phy-
ment; but others believe them to he the remains of (icians of his age. He was made profeffor of anatomy
fome Roman Rations. at Pifa in the year 1548, and at Padua in the year
FALKLAND, a fmall town of Fifefliire in Scot- 155! : here he died in 1562, aged 39. His writings,
land, made a royal burgh by James II. in 1458. which are numerous, were firft printed feparately, and
Here Rood one of the feats of the Macduffs earls of afterwards colle&ed under the title of “ Opera genui-
Fife. On the attainder of Munro Stewart, the 17th na omnia, tarn pradica quam theoretica, in tres to-
earl, it became forfeited to the crown in 1424. James V. mos difiributa.” They were printed at Venice in 1585,
who grew very fond of the place, enlarged and im- and in 1606 ; at Francfort in 1600, cutn operum ap-
proved it. The remains evince its former magnificence pendice ; and in 1606, in folio.
and elegance, and the fine tafie of the princely archi- FALLOW, a pale-red colour, like that of brick
ted. The gateway is placed between two fine round half-burnt; fuch is that of a fallow-deer,
towers ; on the right-hand joins the chapel, whole roof Fallow-F/V/i/, or Fallow-ground; land laid up, or
is of wood, handfomely gilt and painted, but in a moR that has been untilled for a confiderable time,
ruinous condition. Beneath are feveral apartments. FALLOWING 0/' Land, a particular method of
The front next to the court was beautifully adorned improving land. See Agricult. n° 15.112.141,—143>
FAN [ 2903 ] FA R
ralmouth FALMOUTH, a port-town of Cornwall in Eng-
!t land, fituated in W. Long. 5. 30. N. Lat. 50. 15.cn
Fanatics. a ^ne Engliili channel, the entrance where¬
of is guarded by two forts.
FALSE, in general, fomething contrary to truth,
or not what it ought to be ; thus we fay a falfe ac¬
tion, falfe weights, falfe claim, &c.
False slttion, if brought againft one whereby he is
call into prifon, and dies pending the fuit, the law
gives no remedy in this cafe, becaufe the truth or falfe-
hood of the matter cannot appear before it is tried :
and if the plaintiff is barred, or non-fuited at com¬
mon law, regularly all the punifhment is amercement.
False Imprifonment, is a trefpafs committed againft
a perfon, by arrelling and imprifoning him without
juft caufe, contrary to law ; or where a man is un¬
lawfully detained without legal procefs : and it is al-
fo ufed for a writ which is brought for this trefpafs. If
a perfon be any way unlawfully detained, it is falfe
imprifonment; and confiderable damages are recover¬
able in thofe aftions.
False Oath. See Perjury.
False Prophecy. See Prophecy.
False Quarter, or Quittor, in farriery. See Far¬
riery, $ xl. 4.
FALSI crimen, in the civil law, is fraudulent
fubornation or concealment, with defign to darken or
hide the truth, and make things appear otherwiie than
they are. The crimen falji is committed, t . By words,
as when a witnefs fwears falfely. 2. By writing, aS
when a man antedates a contradl, or the like. 3. By
deed, as when he fells by falfe weights and meafures.
FALSTAFF. See Fastolef.
FALX, in anatomy. See there, n° 395.
FAME, a heathen goddefs, celebrated chiefly by
the poets. She is feigned to have been the laft of the
race of Titans produced by the earth, to have her pa¬
lace in the air, and to have a vail number of eyes,
ears, and tongues. She is mentioned by Hefiod, and
particularly defcribed by Ovid and Virgil.
FAMES canina, the fame with Bulimy.
FAMILY, denotes the perfons that live together in
one houfe, under the diredlion of one head or chief
manager. It alfo fignffies the kindred or lineage of a
perfon ; and is ufed by old writers for a hide or por-
* See Hi*, tion of land fufftcient to maintain one family *.
Family, in natural hiftory, a term ufed by authors
to exprefs any order of animals, or other natural pro-
dticlions of the fame clafs. See Class and Order.
FAN, a machine ufed to raife wind, and cool the
air by agitating it. The cuftom which now prevails
of wearing fans was borrowed from the eaft, where
they are almolt indifpenfibly neceflary for keeping off
the fun and the flies. Fans are made of a thin Ikin or
a piece of paper, taffety, or other light Huff cut femi-
circularly, and mounted on feveral little flicks of wood,
ivory, tortoife-fhell, or the like. The paper, &c. is
ufually painted; and, in mounting, is plaited in fuch
a manner that the plaits may be alternately inward and
outward.
FANATICS, wild, enthufiaftic, vifionary perfons,
who pretend to revelation and infpiration.
The ancients called thofe fanatici who palled their
time in temples (far.a), and being often ftized, with
a kind of enthufiafm, as if infpired by the divinity,
(hewed wild and antic geftures. Prudentius reprefents
them as cutting and flaihing their arms with knives.
Shaking the head was alfo common among the fanati-.
ci ; for Lampridius informs us, that the emperor He-
liogabulus was arrived to that pitch of madnels, as to
(hake his head with the gaftied fanatics. Hence the
word was applied among us to the Anabaptitls, Qua¬
kers, &c. at their firft rife, and is now an epithet gi¬
ven to the modern prophets, muggletonians, &c.
FANCY, or imagination. See Imagination.
FANIONS, in the military art, fmall flags carried
along with the baggage.
FANSHAW.(Sir Richard), famous for his em-
baffies and writings, was the tenth and youngeft fon of
Sir Henry Fanfhaw of Ware Park in Hertfordfhire,
where it is fuppofed he was born about the year 1607.
He diftinguilhed himfelf fo early by his abilities, that,
in 1635, he was taken into government-employments
by king Charles I. and fent refident to the court of
Spain ; whence being recalled in the beginning of the
troubles in 1641, he adhered to the royal intereft, and
was employed in feveral important matters of (late.
During his vacant hours he wrote divers poems, and
made feveral tranflations. At the reftoration it was ex-
pe&ed he would have been made one of the fecretaries
of (late ; however, he was made mafter of the requefts ;
a ftation, in thofe times, of confiderable profit. After¬
wards, on account of hfs (kill in the Latin language,
he was made fecretary for that tongue. In 1661, he
was fent envoy to the king of Portugal. In 1662, he
was again fent to that court with the title of ambajfa-
dor, and negociated the marriage of his mafter king
Charles II. with the infanta Donna Catherina. Upon
his return he was made one of the privy-council. In
1664, he was fent ambaffador to both the courts of
Spain and Portugal; at which time, the foundation of
peace betwixt thofe crowns and England was laid by
him. His condudl during his former employments in
thofe courts gained him fuch high efteem there, that
his reception was magnificent, exceeding all that were
before, which thofe kings declared was not to be a pre¬
cedent to fucceeding ambaffadors. He died at Madrid
in 1666; on the very day he had fixed for fetting out
on his return to England. Befides fome original poems,
and others tranflations, he publHhed a tranflation of
Bathifta Guarini’s Pafior Fido, and another of the
Lujiadai Camoens. Among his poftbumous publica¬
tions are, “ Letters during his embafiies in Spain and
Portugal; with his life prefixed.”
FANUM, among the Romans, a temple or place
confecrated to fome deity. The deified men and wo¬
men among the heathens had likewife their fana\ even
the great philofopher Cicero eredled one to his daugh¬
ter Tullja.
FARANDMAN, a traveller, or merchant ftranger,
to whom, by the laws of Scotland, juftice ought to be
done with all expedition, that his bufinefs or journey
be not hindered.
FARCE, was originally a droll, petty (hew, or en¬
tertainment, exhibited by charletans, and their buffoons,
in the open ftreet to gather the crowd together.—The
word is French, and figniftes literally, “ force-meat
or duffing.” It was applied on this occafion, no doubt,
on account of the variety of jefts, gibes, tricks, &c.
wherewith the entertainment was interlarded- Some
16 T 2 authors
FaL
FAR [ 2904 ] FAR
Farcin antliors derive farce from the Latin facetia ; .others
II from the Celtic farce, “ mockeryother from the La-
Farinell;- tin faccire, “ to duff'.’1
At prefent it is removed from the ftreet to the thea¬
tre; and inftead of being performed by merry-andrews
to amufe the rabble, is afted by comedians, and be¬
come the entertainment of a polite audience. Poets
have reformed the wildnefs of the primitive farces, and
brought them to the tafte and manner of comedy. The
difference between the two on our ftage is, that co¬
medy keeps to nature and probability, and therefore is
confined to certain laws prefcribed by ancient critics;
whereas farce difallows of all laws, or rather fets them
atide on occafion. Its end is purely to make merry;
and it iticks at nothing which may contribute thereto,
however w’ild and extravagant. Hence the dialogue is
ufualiy low, the perfons of inferior rank, the fable or
aftion trivial or ridiculous, and nature and truth every
where heightened and exaggerated to afford the more
palpable ridicule.
FARCIN, Farcy, or Fajhions, in farriery. See
Farriery, xx.
FARDING-deal, the fourth part of an acre of
land. See Acre.
FARE, moft commonly fignifies the money paid for
a voyage, or paffage by water; but, in London, it is
what perfons pay for being conveyed from one part of
the town to another in a coach or chair.
FAREWELL-cape, the moft foutherly promon¬
tory of Greenland, in W. Long. 50°, and N. Lat. 6o°.
FARIN, or Farm. See Farm.
FARINA, a Latin term fignifying meal, or the
flour of corn. See Corn.
Farina Ftecundans, among botanifts, the fuppofed
impregnating meal or duft on the apices or antherse of
flowers. See Pollen.
The manner of gathering the farinas of plants for
microfcopical obfervations is this: gather the flowers
in the midft of a dry funfhiny day when the dew is
perfeftly off, then gently fhake off the farina, or light¬
ly brufh it off with a foft hair-pencil, upon a piece of
white paper; then take a Angle talc or ifinglafs be¬
tween the nippers, and, breathing on it, apply it in-
ftantly to the farinae, and the moifture of the breath
will make that light powder flick to it. If too great
a quantity be found adhering to the talc, blow a little
of it off, and, if there is too little, breathe upon it
again, and take up more. When this is done, put the
talc into the hole of a Aider, and, applying it to the
microfcope, fee whether the little grains are laid as you
defire ; and if they are, cover them up with another
talc, and fix the ring; but be careful that the talcs do
not prefs upon the farina in fuch a manner as to alter
its form.
FARINELLI, the Italian finger fo famous in Eng¬
land fome time ago, and whofe proper name was Carlo
Brofchi, was born at Naples in 1705. He had his Grft
mufical education under his father, and was afterwards
educated under Porpora, who travelled with him. He
was 17 years of age when he went to Rome; where,
during the run of an opera, there arofe a ftruggle every
night, between him and a famous trumpeter who ac¬
companied him in a fong, for execution and ftrength of
lungs in holding out longeft ; and his fame may be
dated from his viftory in this conteft. In 1734, he
came to England, where his mufical talents enraptured Farleu,
every audience s fweetnefs, ftrength, and compafs, were F‘irirl-
found in his voice ; and, in his ftyle, the tender, the
graceful, and the rapid. He is faid to have pofleffed
powers that never met before, orfince,in anyonehuman
being; and which proved therefore irrefiftible. With
this charadter he went to Spain in the year 1737, with
a full defign to return to England; being under articles
to the nobility, who then managed the opera, to per¬
form the enfuing feafon : but the firft day he perfornr-
ed before the king and queen of Spain, it was deter¬
mined to take him into the fervice of the court; a pen-
fion of above 20001. a-year was fettled on him, and
he was never more fuffered to fing in public. On the
death of Philip V. he continued in favour under his
fuccefibr Ferdinand VI. who, in 1750, dignified him
with the order of Calatrava. But when the prefent
king afcended the throne, he was obliged to quit Spain,
though his penfion was continued; he then returned to
Italy, where all his old relations and friends being dead
or removed, he had a fecond life to begin in his own
country, among ftrangers. Dr Burney vifited Farinelli
in 1770, and the above account of him is abftra&ed
from the Dodtor’s “ Prefent ftate of mufic in France
and Italy.”
FARLEU, money paid by the tenants in the weft
of England, in lieu of a heriot. In fome manors of De-
vonfhire, farleu is often diftinguiflied to be the beft
goods, as heriot is the beft beall, payable at the death
of a tenant.
FARM, farin, or Perm, (Firma), in law, fignifies
a little country meffuage, or dillridl; containing houfe
and land, with other conveniencies; hired, or taken by
leafe, either in writing, or parole, under a certain year¬
ly rent. See Lease.
This in divers parts is differently termed: in the
north, it is a tack; in Lancaftiire, a fermeholt; in
Effex, a nuike, See.
In the corrupted Latin, firrna fignified a place in-
clofed, of (hut in: whence, in fome provinces, Menage
obferves,. they call cloferie, or clofure, what in others
they call a farm. Add, that we find locare ad firmam,
to fignify to let to farm ; probably on account of the-
fure hold the tenant here has in comparifon of tenants
at will.
Spelman and Skinner, however, choofe to derive the
word farm from the Saxon feanne, or feorme, that is,
vittus, “ provifion ;” by reafon the country people and
tenants anciently paid their rents in vidluals and other
ncceffaries, which were afterwards converted into the
payment of a fum of money. Whence a farm was ori¬
ginally a place that furnifhed its landlord with provi-
fions. And among the Normans they ftill diftinguifh
between farms that pay in kind, /. e. provilions, and
thofe which pay in money ; calling the former (imply
fermes, and the latter blanche ferme, “ white ferm.”
Spelman (hews, that the word firma, anciently fig¬
nified not only what we now call a farm, but alfo a
feaft or entertainment, which the former gave the pro¬
prietor or landlord, for a certain number of days, and
at a certain rate, for the lands he held of him. Thus
fearme in the laws of king Canutus is rendered by Mr
Lambard, viftus : and thus we read of reddere firmam
unius nodis, and reddebat unum diem de firma ; which
denote provifion for a night and day, the rents about
FAR [ 2905 ] FAR
Farm, the time of the conqueft being all paid in provilions;
 which cuftom is faid to have been firft altered under
king Henry I. We alfo fay to farm duties, impolts,
&c.
Culture of a Farm. See Agriculture.
Farm, as connefted with gardening, and fufceptible
of embellifhment. See Gardening.
In fpeculation, it might have been expe&ed that the
firft effays of improvement fliould have been on a farm,
to make it both advantageous and delightful ; but the
fa& was otherwife: a fmall plot was appropriated to
pleafure ; the reft was referved for profit only. And
this may, perhaps, have been a principal caufe of the
vicious tafte which long prevailed in gardens. It was
imagined that a fpot fet apart from the reft fliould not
be like them: the conceit introduced deviations from
nature, which were afterwards carried to fuch an ex¬
cels, that hardly any objefts truly rural were left
within the enclofure, and the view of thofe without
was generally excluded. The firft ftep, therefore, to¬
wards a reformation, was by opening the garden to
the country, and that immediately led to affimilating
them; but ftill the idea of a fpot appropriated to plea¬
fure only prevailed, and one of the lateft improve¬
ments has been to blend the ufeful with the agreeable;
even the ornamented farm was prior in time to the
more rural; and we have at laft returned to limplicity
by force of refinement.
Of a pafto- The ideas of paftoral poetry feem now to be the
ral farm. ftanc}ard of that fimplicity; and a place conformable
to them is deemed a farm in its utmoft purity. An al-
lufion to them evidently enters into the defign of the
Leafowes (a), where they appear fo lovely as to endear
the memory of their author; and juftify the reputation
of Mr Shenftone, who inhabited, made, and celebrated
the place: it is a perfeft pi6ture of his mind, Ample,
elegant, and amiable; and will always fuggeft a doubt,
whether the fpot infpired his verfe, or whether, in the
fcenes which he formed, he only realized the paftoral
images which abound in his fongs. The whole is in
the fame tafte, yet full of variety; and, except in two
or three trifles, every part is rural and natural. It is
literally a grazing farm lying round the houfe; and a
walk, as unaffected and as unadorned as a common field-
path, is conduced through the feveral enclofures. But
for a detail of the plan and fcenery, as illuftrative of the
prefent fubjeft, the reader is referred to the particular
defcription of the Leafowes publiflied by the late Mr
Dodfley. We ftiall only take notice of one or two cir-
cumftances independent on the general delineation.
The art with which the diviiions between the fields
are diverfified is one of them. Even the hedges
are diftinguiflied from each other; a common quick-
fet fence is in one place the feparation ; in another,
it is a lofty hedge-row, thick from the top to the
bottom; in a third, it is a continued range of trees,
with all their fteros clear, and the light appearing in
the intervals between their boughs, and the bufhes be¬
neath them; in others, thefe lines of trees are broken,
a few groupes only being left at different diftances;
and fometimes a wood, a grove, a coppice, or a thicket,
is the apparent boundary, and by them both the ftiape
and the ftyle of the enclofures are varied.
The infcriptions, which abound in the place, are an¬
other ftriking peculiarity: they are well known and
juftly admired; and the elegance of the poetry, and 
the aptnefs of the quotations, atone for their length
and their number. But, in general, infcriptions pleafe
no more than once: the utmoft they can pretend to,
except when their allufions are emblematical, is to
point out the beauties, or defcribe the effedls, of the
fpots they belong to; but thofe beauties and thofe ef¬
fects mutt be very faint, which Hand in need of the af-
fiftance. Infcriptions, however, to commemorate a de¬
parted friend, are evidently exempt from the cenfure ;
the monuments would be unintelligible without them ;
and an urn, in a lonely grove, or in the midft of a field,
is a favourite embellifliment at the Leafowes: they are
indeed among the principal ornaments of the place;
for the buildings are moftly mere feats, or little root-
houfes; a ruin of a priory is the largeft, and that has
no peculiar beauty to recommend it: but a multipli¬
city of obje&s are unneceffary in the farm; the country
it commands is full of them; and every natural advan¬
tage of the place within itfelf has been difcovered, ap¬
plied, contralted, and carried to the utmoft perfection,
in the pureft tafte, and with inexhauftible fancy.
Among the ideas of paftoral poetry which are here
introduced, its mythology is not omitted: but the al-
lufions are both to ancient and to modern fables;
fometimes to the fairies; and fometimes to the naiads
and mufes. The objeCIs alfo are borrowed part¬
ly from the fcenes which this country exhibited feme
centuries ago, and partly from thofe of Arcadia: the
priory, and a Gothic feat, ftill more particularly cha-
radterifed by an infeription in obfolete language and
the black letter, belong to the one; the urns, Virgil’s
obeliik, and 3 ruftic temple of Pan, to the other. All
thefe allufions and objeCts are indeed equally rural:
but the images in an Englirti and a claffical eclogue are
not the fame; each fpecies is a diftindt imitative cha¬
racter. Either is proper; either will raife'the farm it
is applied to above the ordinary level; and within the
compafs of the fame place both may be introduced;
but they fliould be feparate: when they are mixed, they
counteract one another; and no reprefentation is pro¬
duced of the times and the countries they refer to. A
certain diftriCt (hould therefore be allotted to each, that
all the fields which belong to the refpeCtive characters
may lie together, and the correfponding ideas be pre-
ferved for a continuance.
2. In fuch an affortment, the more open and poliflied 9f an
fcenes will generally be given to the Arcadian ftiep- Cie“t
herd; and thofe in a lower degree of cultivation, will
be thought more conformable to the manners of the
ancient Britifh yeomanry. We do not conceive that
the country in their time was entirely cleared, or di-
ftinCtly divided ; the fields were furrounded by woods,
not by hedges; and if a confiderable trad of improved
land lay together, it ftill was not feparated into a num¬
ber of inclofures. The fubjeds, therefore, proper to re¬
ceive this charader, are thofe in which cultivation feems
to have encroached on the wild, not to have fubdued
-it; as the bottom of a valley in corn, while the fides
are ftill overgrown with wood; and the outline of that
wood indented by the tillage creeping more or lefs up
the hill. But a glade of grafs, thus circumftanced,
does not peculiarly belong to the fpecies: that may
occur
(a) la Shsopfhire, between Birmingham and Stourbridge.
FAR [ 2906 ] FAR
Farm, occur in a park or patloral farm; in this, the paftures
- fhould rather border on a wafte or a common: iflarge,
they may be broken by ftraggling btifhes, thickets, or
coppices; and the fcattered trees fhould be befet with
brambles and briars. All thefe are circumftances
which improve the beauty of the place ; yet appear to
be only remains of the wild, not intended for embel-
lilhment. Such interruptions muft, however, be lefs
frequent in the arable parts of the farm; but there the
opening may be divided into feveral lands, diftingui*
fhed, as in common fields, only by different forts of
grain. Thefe will fufficiently break the famenefs of
the fpace; and tillage does not furnilh a more pleafing
fcene, than fuch a fpace fo broken, if the extent be mo¬
derate, and the boundary beautiful.
As much wood is effential to the chara&er, a fpot
may eafily be found, where turrets rifing above the co¬
vert, or fome arches feen within it, may have the re-
femblance of a cattle or an abbey. The partial conceal¬
ment is almott necetfary to both ; for to accord with
the age, the buildings mutt feem to be. entire ; the
ruins of them belong to later days^ the difguife is,
however, advantageous to them as objects; none can
be imagined more pi&urefque, than a tower bofomed
in trees, or a cloyfter appearing between the items and
the branches. But the fuperttitions of the times fur-
nifli other objects, which are more within compafs:
hermitages were then real; folitary chapels were com¬
mon ; many of the fprings of the country being deem¬
ed holy wells, were dittinguithed by little Gothic domes
built over them ; and every hamlet had its crofs; even
this, when perfect, fet on a little ruttic pillar, and that
raifed upon a bafe of circular fteps, may in fome fcenes
be confiderable: if a fituation can be found for a May-
pole, whence it would not obtrude itfelf on every view,
that alfo might not be improper; and an ancient church,
however unwelcome it may be when it breaks into the
defign of a park or a garden, in fueh a farm as this
would be a fortunate accident: nor would the old yew
in the church-yard be indifferent; it would be a me¬
morial of the times when it was ufeful.
Many other obje£fs, fignificant of the manners of our
anceltors, might perhaps, upon recollection, occur; but
thefe are amply fufficient for a place of confiderable
extent; and cottages muft abound in every age and
every country; they may therefore be introduced in
different forms and pofitions. Large pieces of water
are alfo particularly proper; and all the varieties of
rills are confiftent with every fpecies of farm. From
the concurrence of fo many agreeable circumftanees in
this, be the force or the effedt of the charadter what it
may, a number of pleafing fcenes may be exhibited ei¬
ther in a walk or riding, to be contrafted to thofe
which in another part of the place may be formed on
Arcadian ideas; or even to be fubftituted in their ftead,
if they are omitted.
Of a fimple 3- A Part may a^0 free from either of thefe imi.ta-
farm. tive charadters, and laid out in a common fimple farm.
Some of thegreateft beauties of nature are to be found
in the fields, and attend an ordinary ftate of cultiva¬
tion : wood and water may there be exhibited in feve¬
ral forms and difpofitions; we may enlarge or divide
the inclofures, and give them fuch (hapes and bounda¬
ries as we pleafe; every one may be an agreeable fpot;
together, they may Compofe beautiful views; the arable, Farm,
the pafture, and the mead may fucceed one another; “
and now and then a little wild may be intermixed with¬
out impropriety; every beauty, in Ihort, which is not
unufual in an inclofed country, whether it arile from
negledt or improvement, is here in its place.
The buildings, alfo, which are frequent in fuch a
country, are often beautiful objedts; the church and
the manfion are confiderable; the farm-yard itfeif, if
an advantageous fituation be chofen for it; if the
ricks, and the barns, and the out-houfes, are ranged
with any defign to form them intogroupes, and if they
are properly blended with trees ; may be made a pidtu-
refque compofition. Many of them may be detached
from the groupe, and difperfed about the grounds:
the dove-cote, or the dairy, may be feparated from
the reft ; they may be elegant in their forms, and pla¬
ced wherever they will have the beft effedt. A common
barn, accompanied by a clump, is fometimes pleafing
at a diftance ; a Dutch barn is fo when near ; and an
hay-ftack is generally an agreeable circumftance in
any pofition. Each of thefe may be fingle ; and be-
fides thefe, all kinds of cottages are proper. Among
fo many buildings, fome may be converted to other
purpofes than their conftmdtioh denotes; and, what¬
ever be their exterior, may withiu be made agreeable
retreats, for refrefhment, indulgence, or fhelter.
With fuch opportunities of improvement, even to
decoration within itfelf, and with advantages of pro-
fpedf into the country about it, a fimple farm may un¬
doubtedly be delightful. It will be particularly accep¬
table to the owner, if it be clofe to his park or his
garden : the objedts which conftantly remind him of
his rank, impofe a kind of conftraint ; and he feels
himfelf relieved, by retiring fometimes from the fplen-
dor of a feat into the fimplicity of a farm : it is more
than a variety of fcene ; it is a temporary change of
fituation in life, which has all the charms of novelty,
eafe, and tranquillity, to recommend it. A place
therefore, can hardly be deemed perfedt, which is not
provided with fuch a retreat. But if it be the whole of
the place it feems inadequate to the maniion : a vilitor
is difappointed; the mafter is difiatisfied ; he is not fuf¬
ficiently diftinguiftied from his tenants; he mifles the
appendages incidental to his feat and his fortune; and
is hurt at the fimilarity of his grounds with the coun¬
try about them. A paltoral or an ancient farm is a
little above the common level; but even thefe, if
brought clofe up at the door, fet the houfe in a field,
where it always appears to be negledted and naked.
Some degree of poliih and ornament is expected in its
immediate environs; and a garden, tho’ it be but a fmall
one, fhould be interpofed between the manfion and any
fpecies of farm.
4. A fenfe of the propriety of fuch improvements about An orna-
a feat, joined to a tafte for the more fimple delights of niented
the country, probably fuggefted the idea of an orjja- farm*
merited farm, as the means of bringing every rural cir¬
cumftance within the verge of a garden. This idea has
been partially executed very often; but no where, per¬
haps, fo completely, and to fuch an extent, as at
(b) Woburn farm. The place contains 150 acres : of
which near 35 are adorned to the higheft degree; of.
the reft, about two thirds are in pafture, and the re¬
mainder
(b) Belonging to Mrs Southcote, near Weybridge in Surry.
FAR [ 2907 ] FAR
Farm, mainder is in tillage. The decorations are, however,
~ communicated to every part: for they are difpofed a-
long the fides of a walk, which, with its appendages,
forms a broad belt round the grazing-grounds; and is
continued, though on a more contrafted fcale, thro’
the arable. This walk is properly garden ; all within
it is farm ; the whole lies on the two fides of a hill,
and on a flat at the foot of it : the flat is divided in¬
to corn-fields; the paftures occupy the hill ; they are
furrounded by the walk, and crofled by a communica¬
tion carried along the brow, which is alfo richly drefs-
ed, and which divides them into two lawns, each com¬
pletely encompaffed with garden.
Thefe are in themfelves delightful ; the ground in
both lies beautifully; they are diverfified with clumps
and Angle trees ; and the buildings in the walk feem
to belong to them. Gn the top of the hill is a large
oftagon ftrufture ; and, not far from it, the ruin of a
chapel. To one of the lawns the ruin appears, on the
brow of a gentle afcent, backed and grouped with
wood ; from the other is feen the ottagon, upon the
edge of a fteep fall, and by the fide of a pretty grove,
which hangs down the declivity. This lawn is further
embellifhed by a neat Gothic building; the former by
the houfe, and the lodge at the entrance; and in both,
other obje&s of lefs confequence, little feats, alcoves,
and bridges, continually occur.
The buildings are not, however, the only orna¬
ments of the walk ; it is fhut out from the country,
for a confiderable length of the way, by a thick and
lofty hedge-row, which is enriched with woodbine, jef-
famine, and every odoriferous plant whofe tendrils
will entwine with the thicket. A path, generally of
fand or gravel, is condufted in a waving line, fome-
times clofe under the hedge, fometimes at a little di-
ftance from it; and the turf on either hand is diverfi¬
fied with little groupes of fnrubs, of firs, or the fmalleft
trees, and often with beds of flowers : thefe are rather
too profufely ftrewed, and hurt the eye by their little-
nefics ; but then they replenifli the air with their per¬
fumes, and every gale is full of fragrancy. In fome parts,
however, the decoration is more chafte; and the walk
is carried between larger lumps of evergreens, thickets
of deciduous flmibs, or ftill more confiderably open
plantations. In one place it is entirely Ample, without
any appendages, any gravel, or any funk fence to fe-
parate it from the lawn ; and is diilinguiflied only by
the richnefs of its verdure, and the nicety of its pre-
fervation. In the arable part it is alfo of green fward,
following the direction of the hedges about the feveral
inclofures : thefe hedges are fometimes thickened with
flowering Ihrubs; and in every corner or vacant fpace,
is a rofary, a clofe or an open clump, or a bed of flow¬
ers : but if the parterre has been rifled for the embel-
lifhment of the fields, the country has on the other
hand been fearched for plants new in a garden; and
the flirubs and the flowers which ufed to be deemed
peculiar to the one, have been liberally transferred to
the other ; while their number feems multiplied by
their arrangement in fo many and fuch different difpo-
tions. A more moderate ufe of them would, however,
have been better; and the variety more pleafing, had
_ it been lefs licentious.
But the excefs is only in the borders of the walk ;
the feenes through which it leadsare truly elegant, every
where rich, and always agreeable. A peculiar cheer-
fulnefs overfpreads both the lawns, arifing from the
number and the fplendor of the obje&s with which ’
they abound, the lightnefs of the buildings, the ine¬
qualities of the ground, and the varieties of the plan¬
tations. The clumps and the groves, though feparate-
ly fmall, are often mailed by the perfpe&ive, and ga¬
thered into confiderable groupes, which are beautiful in
their forms, their tints, and their pofitions. The brow
of the hill commands two lovely profpefls: the one
gay and extenfive, over a fertile plain, watered by the
Thames, and broken by St Anne’s Hill and Windfor
Callle ; a large mead, of the moft luxuriant verdure,
lies juft below the eye, fpreadlng to the banks of the
river; and beyond it the country is full of farms, vil¬
las, and villages, and every mark cf opulence and cul¬
tivation. The other view is more wooded : the fteeple
of a church, or the turrets of a feat, fometimes rife
above the tiees ; and the bold arch of Walton Bridge
is there a confpicuous objedl, equally Angular and
noble. The inclofures on the flat are more retired
and quiet; each is confined within itfelf; and all toge¬
ther they form an agreeable contrail to the open expo-
fure above them.
With th» beauties which enliven a garden are every
where intermixed many properties of a farm : both the
lawns are paftured ; and the lowings of the herds, the
bleating of the Iheep, and the tinklings of the bell-wed-
der, refound thro’ all the plantations: even the clucking
of poultry is not omitted ; for a menagerie of a very
Ample defign is placed near the Gothic building ; a
fmall ferpentine river is provided for the water-fowl;
while the others ftray among the flowering Ihrubs on the
banks, or ftraggle about the neighbouring lawn: a rub
the corn-fields are the fubjedls of every rural employ¬
ment, which arable land from feed-time to harveft can
furnilh. But though fo many of the circumftances oc¬
cur, the fimplicity of a farm is wanting ; that idea is
loft in fuch a profulion of ornament ; a rufticity of
chara&er cannot be preferved amidft all the elegant de¬
corations which may belavilhed on a garden.
FARN islands, two groups of little iflands and
rocks, 17 in number, lying oppofite to Bamboroiigh
caftle in Northumberland- At low-water, the points of
feveral others are vilible befides the 17 juft mentioned;
The neareft ifland to the ftiore is called the H'oufe-ijland,.
and lies exadlly one mile and 68 chains from the coaft.
The moft diftant is about feven or eight miles. They
are rented for L. 16 per annum: their produce is kelp,
feathers, and a few feals, which the tenant, watches and
fhoots for the fake of the oil and fkins. Some of them
yield a little grafs that may ferve to feed a cow or two;
which the people tranfport over in their little boats.
St Cuthbert is faid to have pafled the two laft years of
his life on the Houfe-ifland. A priory of Benediftiries
was afterwards-eftabliflied here, for fix or eight monks,
fubordinate to Durham. A fquare tower, the remains
of a church, and fome other buildings, are ftill to be
feen on this ifland; and a ftone coffin, which is pre¬
tended to be that of St Cuthbert. At the north end
of the ifle is a deep chafm, from the top to the bottom
of the rock, communicating with the fea; through
which, in tempeftuous weather, the water is forced with
great violence and noife, and forms a fine jet d’eau of
60 feet high. It is called by the inhabitants of the
opgofita
^Farn!
PAR [ 2908 ] FAR
Tarnabie, oppofite coaft, the Churn, One of the iflandsin the moft
Fjrquhar- diilant groupe is called the Pinnacles, from fome vaft
columnar rocks at the fouth end, even at their fides,
flat dt the tops, and entirely covered with guillemots
and (hags. The fowlers pafs from one to the other of
thefe columns by means of a narrow board, which they
place from top to top, forming a narrow bridge over
fuch a dreadful gap that the very fight of it (trikes one
with horror.
FARNABIE (Thomas), fon of a carpenter at
London, born in 1575, ftaid a (hort while at Oxford;
where being enticed to abandon his religion, he went
to Spain, and was there educated in a college belong¬
ing to the Jefuits. Being weary of their fevere difci-
pline, he went with Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis
Drake in their laft voyage in 1595. He was after¬
wards a foldier in the Low Countries: but being redu¬
ced to great want, returned to England, where wan¬
dering about for fome time under the name of Thomas
Bainrafe, the anagram of his name, he fettled at Mat¬
tock in Somerfetfliire, and taught a grammar-fchool
with good reputation. He removed to London, and
opened a fchool with large accommodations for young
gentlemen. While he taught this fchool he was made
matter of arts at Cambridge, and incorporated into the
univerlity of Oxford. Thence he removed, in 1636,
to Seven-oaks in Kent; and taught thefons of feveral
noblemen and gentlemen, who boarded with him, with
great fuccefs, and grew rich. His works gained him
reputation. Upon the breaking out of the civil com¬
motions in 1641, he was call into prifon. It was de¬
bated in the houfe of commons, whether he (hould be
fent to America; but this motion being rejefted, he
was removed to Ely-houfe in Holborn, and there he
died in 1647. Mr Farnabie was a very eminent gram-
mariaa; and many writers have fpoken with great ap¬
probation of his labours. M. Bayle in particular fays,
“ His notes upon moll of the ancient Latin poets have
been of very great nfe to young beginners; being
fhort, learned, and defigned chiefly to clear up the
text.”
FARQUHAR (George), an ingenious poet and
dramatic writer, the fon of a clergyman in Ireland,
was born at Londonderry in 1678. He was fent to
Trinity College, Dublin; but his volatile difpofition not
relifhing a college life, he betook himfelf to the ftage;
where, having dangeroufly wounded a brother-a&or in
a tragic fcene, by forgetting to change his fword for
a foil, it (hocked him fo much that he left the Dublin
theatre and went to London. Here he procured a lieu¬
tenant’s commiflion by the intereft of the earl of Or¬
rery ; which he held feveral years, and gave many
proofs both of courage and conduct. In 1698, he wrote
his firft comedy called Ijsve and a Bottle; which, for
its fprightly dialogue and bufy fc6nes, was well recei¬
ved. In the beginning of the year 1700, which was
the jubilee year at Rome, he brought out his Coitftant
Couple, or a Trip to the yubilee : and fuited Mr Wilks’s
talents fo well in the charafter of Sir Harry Wildair,
that the player gained almoft as much reputation as
the poet. This tempted him to continue it in another
comedy called Sir Harry Wildair, or the Sequel of the
Trip to the Jubilee; in which Mrs Oldfield acquired
great applaufe. In 1702, he publilhed his Mifcella-
nies, which contain a variety of humorous failles of Farquhar
fancy. 101703, appeared the Inconfant, or the Way ^
to ^win him ; in 1704, a farce called the Stage-coach; anicr‘ .
in 1705, The Twin Rivals; and in 1706, the/?(?-
cruiting Officer, founded on his own obfervations while
on a recruiting party at Shrewlbury. His laft comedy
was the Beaux Stratagem, of which he did not live to
enjoy the full fuccefs.
Mr Farquhar married in 1703. Before that time
his manner of life had been rather diflipated. The lady,
therefore, who afterwards became his wife, having fal¬
len violently in love with him, but judging that a gen¬
tleman of his humour would not eafily be drawn into
the trammels of matrimony, contrived to have it given
out that (he was poffefied of a large forturne; and find¬
ing means afterwards to let Mr Farquhar know her at¬
tachment to him, the united powers of intereft and va¬
nity perfeftly got the better of his pafiion for liberty,
and they were united in the hymeneal bands. But how
great was his difappointment, when he found all his
profpefts overclouded fo early in life, (for he was then
no more than 24), by a marriage from which he had
nothing to expe£l but an annual increafe of family, and
an enlargement of expence in confeqnence of it far be¬
yond what his income would fupport. Yet, to his ho¬
nour be it told, though he found himfelf thus deceived
in a moft eflential particular, he never was known once
to upbraid his wife with it; but generoufly forgave an
impofition which love for him alone had urged her to,
and even behaved to her with all the tendernefs arid de¬
licacy of the moft indulgent hufband.
Mrs Farquhar, however, did not very long enjoy
the happinefs (he had purchafed by this ftratagem: for
the circumftances that attended this union were in fome
refpeft perhaps the means of (hortening the period of
the captain’s life. For, finding himfelf confiderably in¬
volved in debt in confequence of their increafing fami¬
ly, he was induced to make application to a certain
noble courtier, who had frequently profeffed the great-
eft friendfliip for him, and given him the ftrongeft af-
furances of his intended fervices. This pretended pa¬
tron repeated his former declarations ; but, exprefiing
much concern that he had nothing at prefent imme¬
diately in his power, advifed him to convert his com¬
miflion into money to anfwer his prefent occafions,and
aflured him that in a (hort time he would procure ano¬
ther for him. Farquhar, who could not bear the
thoughts of his wife and family being in diftrefs, fol¬
lowed this advice, and fold his commiflion ; but, to his
great mortification and difappointment, found, on a
renewal of his application to this inhuman nobleman,
that he had either entirely forgotten, or had never in¬
tended to perform, the promife he had made him.
This diftrafting fruftration of all his hopes fixed itfelf
fo ftrongly on our author’s mind, that it foon brought
on him a fure, though not a very hidden declenfion of
nature, which at length carried him off the ftage of
life in 1707, before he arrived at 30 years of age.—
His comedies are fo diverting, and the chara&ers fo
natural, that his plays dill continue to be reprefented
to full houfes.
FARRIER, one whole employment is to (hoehor-
fes, and cure them when difeafed or lame.
FAR-
Sed. X.
FARRIERY.
p ARRIERYis the art of curing the difeafes of horfes.
The praftice of this ufeful art has been hitherto
alraoft entirely confined to a fet of men who are totally
ignorant of anatomy and the general principles of me¬
dicine. It is not therefore furprifing, that their pre-
fcriptions fliould be equally abfurd as the reafons they
give for adminiftering them. It cannot indeed be ex¬
pected that farriers, who are almoll univerfally illiterate
men, fliould make any real progrefs in their profeffion.
They prefcribe draughts, they rowel, cauterife, &c.
without being able to give any other reafon for their
praCtice, but bccaufe their fathers did fo before them.
How can fuch men deduce the caufe of a difeafe from
its fymptoms, or form a rational method of cure, when
they are equally ignorant of the caufes of difeafes and
the operation of medicines ?
The miferable ftate of this ufeful art, efpecially in
this country, has determined us to feleCt, from the beft
authors,- fuch a fyftem of praCtice as feemed to be
formed on rational principles ; this, we hope, will be a
fufficient apology for being fo full upon this article.
Sect. I. General Directions with regard to the
Management of Horfes.
1. It ought to be laid down as a general rule, to
give horfes as few medicines as poffible; and by no
means to comply with the ridiculous cuftom of fome,
who are frequently bleeding, purging, and giving balls,
though their horfes be in perfed health, and have no
indication that requires fuch treatment.
2. Proper management in their feeding, exercife, and
drefling, will alone cure many diforders, and prevent
moft; for the fimplicity of a horfe’s diet, which chiefly
confifts of grain and herbage, when good in kind, and
difpenfed with judgment, fecures him from thofe com¬
plicated diforders which are the general effeCts of in¬
temperance in the human body.
3. In France, Germany, and Denmark, horfes are
feldom purged; there they depend much on alteratives;
the ufe of the liver of antimony we have from the
.French, which is irv general a good medicine for that
purpofe, and may, in many cafes, be fubftituted in the
room of purging.
4. As hay is fo material an article in a horfe’s diet,
great care fhould be taken to procure the beft : when
it is not extraordinary, the duft ftiould be well ihook
out before it is put in the rack; for fuch hay is very
apt to breed vermin.
5. Beans afford the ftrongeft nouriftiment of all grain ;
but are fitted for laborious horfes, except on particu¬
lar occafions. In fome feafons they breed a kind of
vermin called the red bugs, which is thought to be dan¬
gerous; the beft method in fuch a cafe is to procure
them well dried and fplit.
6. Bran fealded is a kind of panada to a fick horfe:
but nothing is worfe than a too frequent ufe of it, ei¬
ther dry or fealded ; for it relaxes and weakens the
bowels too much. The botts in young horfes may be
owing to too much mufty bran and chaff, given with
other foul food to make them up for fale ; particular
care therefore fliould be taken that the bran be always
fweet and new.
7. Oats, well ripened, make a more hearty and du¬
rable diet than barley, and are much better fuited to
the conftitutions of Britilh horfes. A proper quan¬
tity of cut ftraw and hay mixed with them, is fome-
times very ufeful to horfes troubled with botts, indigef-
tion, &c.
8. Horfes who eat their litter, fliould particularly
have cut ftraw and powdered chalk given them with
their feed; as it is a fign of a depraved ftomach, which
wants corredling.
9. The falt-marflies are good pafture for horfes who
have been furfeited, and indeed for many other difor¬
ders: they purge more by dung and urine than any
other pafture, and make afterwards a firmer flefti; their
water is for the moft part brackifti, and of courfe, as
well as the grafs, faturated with falls from the fea-
water.
10. A fummer’s grafs is often neceflary ; more par¬
ticularly to horfes glutted with food, and which ufe
little exercife: but a month or two’s running is pro¬
per for moft ; thofe efpecially who have been worked
hard, and have ftiff limbs, fwelled legs, or wind-galls.
Horfes whofe feet have been impaired by quitters, bad
flioeing, or any other accidents, are alfo beft repaired
at grafs. Thofe lameneffes particularly require turn¬
ing out to grafs, where the mufcles or tendons are con-
trafted or ftirunk ; for by the continual gentle exercife
in the field, with the affiftance of a pattin-flioe on the
oppofite foot, the fhortened limb is kept on-the ftretch,
thewafted parts are reftored to their ordinary dimenfions,
and the limb again recovers its ufual tone and ftrength.
11. The fields which lie near great towns, and are
much dunged, are not proper pafture for horfes ; but
on obfervation appear very injurious to them, if they
' feed thereon all the fummer.
13. Horfes may be kept abroad all the year, where
they have a proper liable or (hed to Ihelter them from
the weather, and hay at all times to come to. So
treated, they are feldom fick ; their limbs are always
clean and dry; and, with the allowance of,corn, will
hunt, and do more bufinefs than horfes kept conftantly
within doors.
13. If horfes, when taken from grafs, fliould grow
hot and coftive, mix bran and chopt hay with their
corn ; and give them fometimes a feed of Icalded bran
for a fortnight, or longer: let their exercife and diet
be moderate for fome time, and increafe both by de¬
grees.
14. When horfes are foiled in the liable, care Ihould
be taken that the herbage is young, tender, and full
of fap; whether it be green barley, tares, clover, or
any thing elfe the feafon produces; and that it be cut
frelh once every day at leaft, if not oftener.
15. When horfes lofe their flefti much in foiling, they
Ihould in time be taken to a more folid diet : for it is
not in foiling as in grazing ; where, tho’ a horfe lofes
his flefti at firft, yet, after the grafs has purged him,
he foon grows fat.
16. Young horfes who have not done growing, mull
be indulged more in their feeding, than thofe come to
[ a ] their
( 2 ) FARR
General their maturity} but if their exercife'is fo little as to
Direflions. it necefiary to abridge their allowance of hay, a
* little frefh ftraw fhould conftantlybe putin their racks,
to prevent their nibbling the manger, and turning crib-
biters ; they Ihould alfo be fometimes ftrapped back in
order to cure them of this habit.
17. It is obvious to every one, what care fhould be
taken of ahorfe after violent exercife, that he cool not
too faft, and drink no cold water, &c. for which rea-
fon we fhall wave particular direftions.
18. Mofl horfes fed for fale, have the interftices of
their mufcles fo filled with fat, that their true fiiapes
are hardly known. For which reafon a horfe juft come
out of the dealer's hands, fhould at firft be gently ufed.
He ought to lofe blood, and have his diet lowered, tho’
not too much : walking exercife is moft proper at firft,
two hours in a day ; in a veeek or fortnight two hours
at a time, twice a-day ; after this ufage for a month,
bleed him again, and give him two or three times a-
week fcalded bran, which will prepare him for purging
phyfic, that may now be given fafely, and repeated at
the ufual intervals.
19. When a horfe comes out of a dealer’s hands, his
cloathing muft be abated by degrees, and care taken
to put him in a moderately warm ftable; otherwife the
fudden tranfition would be attended with the worftcon-
feqpences.
Sect. II. Some General Directions in regard to
Bleeding, Purging, See.
1. Horses who Hand muchin ftable, and are full fed,
require bleeding now and then; efpecially when their
eyes look heavy, dull, red, and inflamed ; as alfo, when
they feel hotter than ufual, and mangle their hay.
Young horfes fhould be bled when they are fhedding
their teeth, as it takes off thofe feverifh heats they
are then fubjeft to. But the cafes that chiefly require
bleeding, are colds, fevers of moft kinds, falls, bruifes,
hurts of the eyes, ftrains, and all inflammatory dif-
orders, &c.
It is right to bleed a horfe, when he begins to grow
flefhy at grafs, or at any other time when he looks
heavy : and it is generally proper to bleed before pur-
S'nS- >
Let your horfe always be bled by meafure, that
you may know what quantity you take away : two or
three quarts are always enough at one time; when you
repeat it, allow for the diforder and the horfe’s con-
ftitution.
Let the blood, when cold, be carefully examined,
both as to colour and confiftence, whether black, flo¬
rid, fizey, &c.
2. Purging is often neceffary in grofs full horfes, in
fome diforders of the ftomach, liver, &c. but fhould be
direfted with caution. Before a purge is given to any
horfe, it is neceffary fome preparation fhould be made
for it, in order to render the operation more fafe and
efficacious : thus a horfe that is full of flefh fhould firft
be bled, and at the fame time have his_dietlowered for
a week, efpecially thofe that have been pampered for
fale; feveral mafhes of fcalded bran fhould alfo pre-
vioufly be given, in order to open the bowels, and un¬
load them of any indurated excrement, which fome¬
times proves an obftacle to the working of the phyfic,
by creating great ficknefs and griping.
I E R Y. Sed. II.
Let it be remembered, that a horfe is purged with Of Blted-
difficulty ; that the phyfic generally lies 24. hours in In8> &c»
the guts before it works; and, that the trad of bowels
it has to pafs through, is above 30 yards ; and lying
horizontally, confequently refinous and other improper
drugs may, and often do, by their violent irritations,
occafion exceffive gripings and cold fweats, (have off
the very mucus or lining of the guts, and bring on in¬
flammations, which often terminate in mortifications,
and death.
It is remarkable too, that the ftomach and guts of
a horfe are but thin, compared to fome other animals
of the fame bulk, and therefore muft be more liable to
inflammation and irritation.
Horfes kept much in the ftable, who have not the
proper benefit of air and exercife in proportion to
their food, fhould in fpring have a mild purge or two
after a previous preparation by bleeding, lowering their
diet, and fcalded mafhes.
Horfes that fall off in their ftomach, whether it
proceeds from too full feeding, or ingendering crudi¬
ties and indigefted matter, fhould have a mild purge
or two.
Horfes of a hot temperament, will not bear the com¬
mon aloetic purges ; their phyfic therefore fhould be
mild and cooling.
Purging is always found very beneficial in ftubborn
dry coughs: but mildmercurials joined with them, make
them yet more efficacious.
Horfes of a watery conftitution, who are fubjeft to
fwelled legs, that run a fharp briny ichor, cannot have
the caufes removed any way fo effeftually as by purging.
The firft purge you give to a horfe fhould be mild, in
order to know his conftitution.
It is a miftaken notion, that if a proper prepared
purge does not work to expe&ation, the horfe will be
injured by it; for though it does not pafs by ftool, its
operation may be more efficacious as an alterative to
purify the blood, and it may pafs by urine or other
fecretions.
Purging medicines are very fuccefsfully given in fmall
quantities, mixed with others; and, aft then as alte¬
ratives.
If mercurial phyfic is given, care fhould be taken
that it be well prepared; and warmer cloathing and
greater circumfpeftion are then required.
Purges fhould be given early in the morning upon
an empty ftomach: about three or four hours after the
horfe has taken it, he fhould have a feed of fcalded bran;
and a lock or two of hay may then be put into his
rack. The fame day give him two more mafhes ; but
fhould he refufe warm meat, he may be allowed raw
bran.
All his water fhould be milk-warm, and have a hand¬
ful of bran fqueezed in it; but if he refufes to drink
white water, give it him without bran.
Early the next morning give him another mafh ; but
if he refufes to eat it, give him as much warm water as
he will drink : let him be properly cloathed, and rode
gently about. This fhould be done two or three times
a day, unlefs he purges violently; once or twice will
then be fufficient: at night give him a feed of oats mixed
with bran.
During the working, a horfe fhould drink plenti¬
fully ; but, if he will not drink warm water, he muft
be
Sea, IT. FARR.
Of Purging, be indulged with cold, rather than not drink at all.
We (hall here infert fome general forms of purges.
Take focotorine aloes ten drams, jalap and fait of
tartar each two drams, grated ginger one dram,
oil of cloves 30 drops; make them into a ball with
fyrup of buckthorn. Or,
Take aloes and cream of tartar each one ounce, ja¬
lap two drams, cloves powdered one dram, fyrup
of buckthorn a fufficient quantity.
Or the following, which has an eftabliftied chara&er
among fportfmen.
Take aloes from ten drams to an ounce and an
half, myrrh and ginger powdered each half an
ounce, faffron and oil of annifeed each half a dram.
Mr Gibfon recommends the following :
Take focotorine aloes ten drams, myrrh finely
powdered half an ounce, faffron and frefii jalap in
powder of each a dram; make them into a (tiff
ball with fyrup of rofes, then add a fmall fpoon-
ful of rectified oil of amber.
The foccotrine aloes (hould always be preferred to
the Barbadoes or plantation aloes: though the latter
may be given to robuft ilrong horfes; but even then
fhould always be prepared with the fait or cream of
tartar, which, by opening its parts, prevents its adhefion
to the coats of the ftomach and bowels; from whence
horrid gripings, and even death itfelf has often enfued.
This caution i* well worth remarking, as many a horfe
hath fallen.a facrifice to the negleft of it.
Half an ounce of Caftile foap, to a horfe of a grofs
eonftitution, may be added to any of the above ; and
the proportions may be increafed for ftrong horfes.
When, mercurial phyfic is intended, give two drams
of calomel over night, mixed up with half an ounce of
diapente and a little honey, and the purging ball the
next morning.
The following, when it can be afforded, is a very
gentle and effe&ual purge, particularly for fine deli¬
cate horfes ; and if prepared with the Indian rhubarb,
will not be expenfive.
Take of the fineft focotorine aloes one ounce, rhu¬
barb powdered half an ounce or fix drams, ginger
grated one dram; make into a ball with fyrup of
rofes.
The following purging drink may be given with the
utmod fafety ; it may be quickened, or made ftronger,
by adding an ounce more fenna, or two drams of jalap.
Take fenna two ounces; infufe it in a pint of boil¬
ing water two hours, with three drams of fait of
tartar ; pour off, and diffolve in it four ounces of
Glauber’s falts, and two or three of cream of
tartar.
This lad phyfic is cooling, eafy, and quick in its
operation ; and greatly preferable in all inflammatory
cafes to any other purge, as it paffes into the blood,
and operates alfo by urine.
When horfes lofe their appetites after purging, it is
neceffary to give them a warm Aomach-drink made of
an infufion of camomile-flowers, annifeeds, and faffron:
or the cordial ball may be given for that purpofe.
Should the purging continue too long, give-an ounce
of diafcordium in an Englilh pint of Port-wine; and re¬
peat it once in 12 hours, if the purging continues.
Plenty of gum-arabic water (hould alfo be given; and,
in cafe of violent gripes, fat broth glyders, or tripe li-
I E R ( 3 )
quor, (hould be often thrown up, with too drops of Of Purging,
laudanum in each.
The arabic folution may be thus prepared.
Take of gum .arable and tragacanth of each four
ounces, juniper-berries and carraway-feeds of each
an ounce, cloves bruifed half an ounce ; fimmer
gently in a gallon of water, till the gums are dif-
folved : give a quart at a time in half a pail of
water ; but if he will not take it freely this way,
give it him often in a horn.
When a purge does not work, but makes the horfe
fwell, and refufe his food and water, which is fometimes
the effe£l of bad drugs or catching cold, warm diuretics
are the only remedy; of which the following are recom¬
mended.
Take a pint of white-wine, nitre one ounce; mix
with it a dram of camphire, diffolved in a little
reftified fpirit of wine ; then add two drams of
oil of juniper, and the fame quantity of unreftified
oil of amber, and four ounces of honey or fyrup
of marflimallows.
When a horfe fwells with much phyfic, do not dif¬
fer him to be rode about till he has fome vent; but ra¬
ther lead him gently in hand till fome evacuation is
obtained.
As it is obferved, that horfes more willingly take
fweet and palatable things than thofe that are bitter
and of an ill tade, care (hould be taken that the latter
be given in balls, and that their drinks be always con¬
trived to be as little naufeous as poffible, and fweetened
either with honey or liquorice. Thofe that are pre¬
pared with grofs powders are by no means fo agreeable
to a horfe, as thofe made by infufion ; as the former
often clam the mouth, irritate the membranes about
the palate and throat, and frequently occafion the
cough they are intended to prevent.
Balls (hould be of an oval (hape, and not exceed the
fize of a pullet’s egg : when the dofe is larger, it (hould
be divided into two ; and they (hould be dipt in oil,
to make them flip down the eafier.
As we have given fome general forms of purges, we
(hall obferve the fame rule in regard to glyders, with
fome few cautions and remarks.
Let it be obferved then, that, before the adminiflring
emollient clyders in codive diforders, a fmall hand, well
oHed, (hould be paffed up the horfe’s fundament, in
order to bring away any hardened dung, which other-
wife would be an obdacle to the glyder’s paffage.
A bag and pipe of a proper form is to be preferred
to a fyringe, which throws up the glyfler with fo much
force, that it often furprifes a horfe, and makes him re-
jedf it as fad as it goes in ; whereas the liquor, when
preffed gently from the bag, gives him no furprife or
uneafinefs, but paffes eafily up into the bowels, where
it will fometimes remain a long time, and be extremely
ufeful, by cooling and relaxing them ; and will fome¬
times incorporate fo with the dung, as not eafily to be
didinguiflied from the other contents of the guts. Thefe
emollient glyders are extremely ferviceable in mod fevers,
and greatly preferable topurging ones; which in general
are too pungent, and dimulate too much, efpecially if
aloes are a part of the compofition.
Nutritive glyders are very neceffary, and often fave a
horfe from darving when his jaws are fo locked up by
convulfions that nothing can be conveyed by the mouth.
[ a 2 1 They
( 4 ) r A R R
Of Colds. They fiiould not exceed a quart or three pints at a
time, but be often repeated: nor fhoidd they be too fat;
but made of (heeps heads, trotters, or any other meat-
broths, milkpottage, rice-mi'.krtrained, and many other
fuch nourifhing things. For an emollient glyfter, take
the following.
Take marlhmallows and camomile flowers each a
large handful, bay-berries and fweet-fennel feeds
bruifed each an ounce ; boil in a gallon of water
to three quarts, pour off into a pan, and diffolve in
it half a pound of treacle and a pint of lintfeed
oil or any common oil.
To make it more laxative, add four ounces of lenitive
eleituary, or the fame quantity of cream of tartar, or
common purging falts.
Purging Glyjier. Take two or three handfuls of
marlhmallows, fenna one ounce, bitter apple half
an ounce, bay-berries and annifeeds bruifed each an
ounce, fait of tartar half an ounce ; boil a quarter
of an hour in three quarts of water; pour off, and
add four ounces of fyrup of buckthorn, and half
a pint of oil.
This glyfter will purge a horfe pretty brifkly ; and
may be given fuccefsfully, when an immediate difeharge
is wanting; efpecially in fome feverswith inflamedlungs,
®r other diforders, which require fpeedy relief.
But it is neceflary to caution againft a folution of
coarfe aloes for this purpofe, as it has been found to
gripe horfes violently, and excite feverilh and fometimes
convulfive fymtoms; and indeed pungent and Simu¬
lating medicines, as the rtronger purgatives generally
are, ftiould be given in this form with great caution.
But the generality of emollient glyfters, may be pre¬
pared with mu'ch lefs trouble ; as two quarts of water-
gruel, with half a pound of treacle, a pint of oil, and
a handful of common fait, will as effectually anfwer
every purpofe. The following is a reftringent glyfter.
Take pomegranate-bark or oak-bark two ounces,
red-rofe leaves frefli or dry a handful, balauftines
an ounce ; boil in two quarts of water, till one is
near confumed ; pour off, and diffolve in it four
ounces of diafeordium ; to which may be added a
pint of Port-wine.
This will anfwer in all common cafes where reftrin-
gents are neceffary, but ftiould never be given in larger
quantities ; for the longer glyfters of this kind lie in
the bowels, the more efficacious they are.
Sect. III. Of Colds.
By taking cold, we mean that the pores and outlets
of the fkin (which in a natural healthy ftate of body
are continually breathing out a fine fluid, like the fteam
arifing from hot water, or fmoke from fire) are fo far
ffiut up, that thefe fteams, or perfpirable matter, not
having a free paffage through them, are hindered from
going off in the ufual manner; the confequence of which
is, their recoiling on the blood, vitiating its quality, o-
verfilling the veffels, and affedling the head, glands or
kernels of the neck and throat, the lungs, and other prin¬
cipal parts.
To enumerate the various caufes of colds would be
endlefs : the moft ufual are, riding horfes till they are
hot, and fuffering them to ftand in that condition where
the air is cold and piercing ; removing a horfe from a
hot liable to a cold one, and too fuddenly changing his
1 E R Y. Seft. ITT.
cloathing, whence it is that horfes often catch fuch fe- Of Colds,
vere colds after they come out of dealers hands; and by    —*
not being carefully rubbed down when they come in
hot off journeys.
The figns of a horfe’s catching cold, are a cough, hea-
vinefs and dullnefs, which affedl him more or lefs in
proportion to the feverity of it: the eyes are fometimes
moift and watery, the kernels about the ears and under
the jaws fwell, the nofe gleets, and he rattles in his
breathing ; and when the cold is violent, the horfe will
be feverilh, his flanks work, and he will both loath his
hot meat and refufe his water. When thefe lail fymptoms
are attended with a (limy mouth, ears, and feet cold, and
a great inward forenefs, there is danger of a bad fever.
But when the horfe coughs ftrong, fnorts after it, is
but little off his ftomach, pricks up his ears, and moves
brifldy in his Hall, dungs and ftales freely, his fl<in feels
kindly, and his coat does not flare, he is in no danger,
and there will be no occafion for medicines of any kind ;
but you fliould bleed him about two quarts, keep him
warm, and give him feeds of fealded ban, with as much
warm water as he will drink, in order to dilute his
blood.
If the diforder fhould increafe, the horfe feel hot, and
refufe his meat, bleed him, if ftrong, two quarts more ;
and if you are not fatisfted without giving medicines,
avoid, as you would poifon, a farrier’s drench ; (which
is generally compofed of fome hot, maufeous powders,
given in a quantity of ale ; whidi too often increafes the
fever by overheating the blood, and palls the horfe’s
ftomach by its loathfomnefs:) and inftead of it, infufe
two ounces of annifeeds with a dram of faffron, in a
pint and a half of boiling water; pour off the clear liquor,
and diffolve in it four ounces of honey, to which may
be added four fpoonfuls of fallad-oil: this drink may
be given every night; orone of the following balls, pro-
voided there is no fever, in which cafe it always will
be more eligible to give two or three ounces of nitre or
fait prunella every day in his feeds or water till it is
removed ; but fliould the horfe be inclined to coftive-
nefs, remember that his body ftiould be kept open by
emollient glyfters, or cream of tartar diffulved in his
water, to the quantity of three or four ounces a-day.
Pettoral Horfe-ball. Take of the frefti powders of
annifeed, elicampane, carraway, liquorice, tur-
merick, and flour of brimftone, each three ounces;
juice of liquorice four ounces, diffblved in a fuffi-
cient quantity of mountain ; faffron powdered half
an ounce, fallad-oil and honey half a pound, oil
of annifeed one ounce: mix together with wheat-
flour enough to make them into a pafte.
Or the following from Dr Bracken.
Take annifeed, carraway feed, and greater carda¬
moms, finely powdered, of each one ounce, flour
of brimftone two ounces, turmerick in fine powder
one ounce and a half, faftron two grains, Spanifh
juice diffolved in water two ounces, oil of annifeed
half an ounce, liquorice-powder one ounce and a
half, wheat-flour a fufficient quantity to make
into a ftiff pafte by beating ail the ingredients
well in a mortar.
Thefe balls confift of warm opening ingredients; and,
given in fmall quantities, about the fixe of a pullet’s egg,
will encourage a free perfpiration; but, in cafe of a fever,
fhould be cautioufly continued. They are much more
efficacious
Sea. IV. FARR
Of Fevers, efficacious and in all cafes fuperiorto thefarriers drench¬
es, if diffolved in a pint of warm ale.
This fimple method, with good nurfing andhot maffies,
warm water and cloathing, efpecially about the head and
throat, which promotes the running at the noftrils, will
anfwer the mod fudden colds; and when the horfe
feeds heartily, and fnorts after coughing, moderate exer-
eife every day will haften his recovery.
To a horfe loaded with flelh, a rowel may fometimes
be necelfary, as may alfo a gentle purge or two to fome,
when the diltemper is gone off.
Sect. IV. Of Fevers in general.
T. The fymptoms of a fever are, Great reftleffnefs;
the horfe ranging from one end of his rack to the other;
his flanks beat; his eyes are red and inflamed; his tongue
parched and dry; his breath is hot, and fmells flrong;
he lofes his appetite, and nibbles' his hay, but does not
chew it, and is frequently fmelling to the ground; the
whole body is hotter than ordinary, (though not parched,
asinfome inflammatory diforders;) he dungs often,little
at a time, ufually hard, and in fmall bits ; he fometimes
Hales with difficulty, and his urine is high-coloured ;
and he feems to thiril, but drinks little at a time, and
often; his pulfe beats full and hard, to fifty Itrokes and
upwards in a minute.
The firft intention of cure is bleeding, to the quan¬
tity of two or three quarts, if the Itorfe is ftrong and in
good condition : then give him a pint of the following
drink, four times a-day ; or an ounce of nitre, mixed
up into a ball with honey, may be given thrice a-day,
inllead of the drink, and waflied down with three or
four horns of any Tmall liquor.
Take of baum, fage, and camomile-flowers, each a
handful, liquorice-root fliced half an ounce, fait
prunel or nitre three ounces; infufe in two quarts
of boiling water; when cold, ftrain off, and fqueeze
into it the juice of two or three lemons, and fweet-
en with honey.
As the chief ingredient to be depended on in this
drink is the nitre, it may perhaps be as well given in
water alone ; but as a horfe’s ftomach is foon palled,
and he requires palatable medicines, the other ingredi¬
ents may in that refpedt have their ufe. Soleyfel for
this purpofe advifes two ounces of fait of tartar, and one
of fal armoniac, to be diffolved in two quarts of water,
and mixed with a pail of common water, adding a hand¬
ful of bran or barley-flour to qualify the unpleafant
tafte: this may be given every day, and is a ufeful me¬
dicine.
His diet ffiouldbe fcalded bran, given in fmall quan¬
tities ; which if he refufes, let him have dry bran fprin-
kled with water : put a handful of picked hay into the
rack, which a horfe will often eat when he will touch
nothing elfe ; his water need not be much warmed, but
ffiould be given often and in fmall quantities: his cloa¬
thing fliould be moderate ; too much heat and weight
on a horfe being improper in a fever, which fcarce e-
ver goes off in critical fweats (as thofe in the human
body terminate), but by ftrong perfpiration.
If in a day or two he begins to eat his bran and pick
a little hay, this method with good nurfing will an-
fwer : but if he refufes to feed, more blood fhould be
taken away, and the drinks continued; to which may
be added two or three drams of faffron, avoiding at this
I E R Y. ( 5 )
time all hotter medicines: the following glyller fhould Of Fevers,
be given, which may be repeated every day, efpecially “
if his dung is knotty or dry.
Take two handfuls of marffimallows, and one of ca¬
momile flowers; fennel-feed an ounce ; boil in
three quarts of water to two ; ftrain off, and add
four ounces of treacle, and a pint of linfeed oil or
any common oil.
Two quarts of water-gruel, fat broth, or pot-liquor,
with the treacle and oil, will anfwer this purpofe ; to
which may be added a handful of fait. Thefe fort of
glyfters are more proper than thofe with purging iri-
gredientsi
The following opening drink is very effedlual in thofe
fevers ; and may be given every other day, when the
glyfters ftiould be omitted ; but the nitre-balls or drink
may be continued, except on thofe days thefe are taken.
Take of cream of tartar and Glauber’s falls, each
four ounces; diffolve in barley-water, or any
other liquor : an ounce or two of lenitive ele&uary
may be added, or a dram or two of powder of ja¬
lap, to quicken the operation in fome horfes.
Four ounces of Glauber’s falls, or cream of tartar,
- with the fame quantity of lenitive eleftuary, may be
given for the fame purpofe, if the former fliould not o-
pen the body fufficiently.
In four or five days the horfe generally begins to
pick his hay, and has a feeming relifti to food ; though
his flanks will heave pretty much for a fortnight: yet
the temper of his body and return of appetite fliew,
that nothing more is requifite to complete his recovery,
than walking him abroad in the air, and allowing plen¬
ty of clean litter to reft him in the ftable.
This method of treating a fever is fimple, according
to the laws of nature ; and is confirmed by long expe¬
rience to be infinitely preferable to the hot method.
The intention here is to leffen the quantity of blood,
promote the fecretion of urine and perfpiration, and cool
and dilute the fluids in general.
2. There is another fort of fever that horfes are fub-
jecft to, of a more complicated and irregular nature than
the former ; which, if not properly treated, often proves
fatal.
The figns are, A flow fever, with languiftiing, and
great depreffions: the horfe is fometimes'inwardly hot,
and outwardly cold; at other times hot all over, but
not to any extreme ; his eyes look moift and languid ;
he has a continual moifture in his mouth, which is the
reafon he feldom cares to drink, and when he does it is
but little at a time. He feeds but little, and leaves off
as foon as he has eat a mouthful or two ; he moves his
jaws in a feeble, loofe manner, with an unpleafant gra¬
ting of his teeth ; his body is commonly open ; his dung
foft and moift, but feldom greafy; his ftaling is often
irregular, fometimes little, at other times profufe, fd-
dom high-coloured, but rather pale, with little or ru>
fediment.
When a horfe’s appetite declines daily, till he refufes
all meat, it is a bad fign. When the fever doth not
diminifli, or keep at a Hand, but increafes, the cafe is
then dangerous. But when it fenfibly abates, and his
mouth grows drier, the grating of his teeth ceafes, his
appetite mends, and he takes to lay down (which per¬
haps he has not done for a fortnight), thefe arepromi-
fing figns. A horfe in thefe fevers always runs at the
nofe.
( 6 ) FARR
Of Fevers, nofe, but not thekindly white difcharge,as in the break-
— ’ ing of a cold, but of a reddilh or greenilli dufky colour,
and of a confidence like glue, and dicks like turpentine
to the hair on the infide of the nodrils : If this turns
to a gleet of clear thin w'ater, the horfe’s hide keeps
open, and he mends in his appetite; thefe are certain
ligns of recovery.
The various and irregular fymptoms that attend this
flow fever, require great Ikill to direft the cure, and
more knowledge of the fymptoms of horfes difeafes
than the generality of gentlemen are acquainted with.
The experienced farrier fliould therefore be confulted
and attended to, in regard to the fymptoms ; but very
feldom as to the application of the remedy, which is
generally above their comprehenfion; though it may be
readily felefted, by duly attending to the obfervations
here inculcated.
Fird, then, a moderate quantity of blood, not exceed¬
ing three pints, may be taken away, and repeated in
proportion to his ftrength, fullnefs, inward forenefs,
cough, or any tendency to inflammation. After this,
the fever-drink firft: above mentioned may be given,
with the addition of an ounce of fnake-root, and three
drams of faffron and camphor diffolved firft in a little
fpirit of wine; the quantity of the nitre may beleffened,
and thefe increafed as the fymptoms indicate.
The diet ftiould be regular ; no oats given, but fcal-
ded or raw bran fprinkled; the beft flavoured hay
fliould be given by handfuls, and often by hand, as the
horfe fometimes cannot lift up his head to the rack.
As drinking is fo abfolutely neceflary to dilute the
blood, if the horfe refufes to drink freely of warm wa ¬
ter or gruel, he muft be indulged with having the chill
only taken off by ftanding in the {table: nor will any
inconvenience enfue, but oftener an advantage ; for the
naufeous warmth of water, forced on horfes for a time,
palls their ftomachs, and takes away their appetites,
which the cold water generally reftores.
Should the fever after this treatment increafe, the
horfe feed little, ftale often, his urine being thin and
pale, and his dung fometimes loofe and at other times
hard ; fliould the moifture in his mouth continue, his
fltin being fometimes dry and at others moift, with his
coat looking ftarting, and forfeited : upon thefe irre¬
gular fymptoms, which denote great danger, give the
following balls, or drink ; for in thefe cafes there is no
time to be loft.
Take of contrayerva-root, myrrh, and fnake-root,
powdered, each two drams, faffron one dram, mi-
thridate or Venice treacle half an ounce ; make
into a ball with honey, which ftiould be given
twice or thrice a-day, with two or three horns of
an infufion of fnake-root fweetened with honey;
to a pint and a half of which may be added half a
pint of treacle-water or vinegar, which latter is a
medicine of excellent ufe in all kinds of inflamma¬
tory and putrid diforders, either external or inter¬
nal.
Should thefe balls not prove fuccefsful, add to each
a dram of camphor, and, where it can be afforded, to a
horfe of value, the fame quantity of caftor. Or the
following drink may be fubftituted in their ftead for
fome days.
Take of contrayerva and fnake-root of each two
ounces, liquorice-root fliced one ounce, faffron two
I E R Y. Sed. IV.
drams ; infufe in two quarts of boiling water clofe Of Fevers.
covered for two hours ; ftrain off, and add half a   
pint of diililled vinegar, four ounces of fpirit of
wine, wherein half an ounce of camphor is diffol¬
ved, and two ounces of mithridate or Venice trea¬
cle ; give a pint of this drink every four, fix, or
eight hours.
Should the horfe be coftive, recourfe muft be had to
glyfters, or the opening drink : Ihould he purge, take
care not to fupprefs it, if moderate ; but if, by continu¬
ance, the horfe grows feeble, add diafcordium to his
drinks, inftead of the mithridate; if it increafes, give
more potent remedies.
Let it be remembered, that camphor is a very power¬
ful and effectual medicine in thefe kinds of putrid fe¬
vers ; being both adtive and attenuating, and particu¬
larly calculated to promote the fecretions of urine and
perfpiration.
Regard fhould alfo be had to his ftaling ; which if
in too great quantities, fo as manifeftly to deprefs his
fpirits, (hould be controuled by proper reftringents, or
by preparing his drinks with lime-water. If, on the
contrary, it happens that he is too remifs this way, and
ftales fo little as to occalion a fullnefs and fwelling of
the body and legs, recourfe may be had to the follow¬
ing drink :
Take of fait prunella, or nitre, one ounce ; juniper-
berries, and Venice turpentine, of each half an
ounce : make into a ball with oil of amber.
Give him two or three of thefe balls, at proper inter¬
vals, with a decodtion of marfti-mallows fweetened with
honey.
But if, notwithftanding the method we have laid
down, a greenifti or reddifh gleet is difcharged from his
noftrils, with a frequent fneezing ; if he continues to
lofe his flefti, and becomes hide-bound; if he altoge¬
ther forfakes his meat, and daily grows weakerif he
fwells about the joints, and his eyes look fixed and
dead ; if the kernels under his jaws fwell, and feel loofe;
if his tail is raifed, and quivers ; if his breath fmells
ftrong, and a purging enfues with a difcharge of fetid
dark-coloured matter; his cafe may then be looked on
as defperate, and all future attempts to fave him will
be fruitlefs.
The figns of a horfe’s recovery are known by his
hide keeping open, and his fltin feeling kindly; his
ears and feet will be of a moderate warmth, and his eyes
briflt and lively; his nofe grows clean and dry ; his ap¬
petite mends, he lies down well, and both ftales and
dungs regularly.
Be careful not to overfeed him on his recovery ; let
his diet be light, feeds fmall, and increafed by degrees
as he gets ftrength: for, by overfeeding, horfes have fre¬
quent relapfes or great forfeits, which are always dif¬
ficult of cure.
If this fever {hould be brought to intermit, or prove
of the intermitting kind, immediately after the fit is o-
ver give an ounce of Jefuit’s bark, and repeat it every
fix hours till the horfe has taken four or fix ounces :
fhould eruptions or fwellings appear, they ought to be
encouraged; for they are good fymptoms at the decline
of a fever, denote a termination of the diftemper, and
that no further medicines are wanted.
The true reafons, perhaps, why fo many horfes mif-
carry in fevers, are, that their mafters, or doftors, will
not
Sea. IV. FARR
Of Fevers, not wait with patience, and let nature have fair play :
that they generally neglett bleeding fufficiently at firft;
and are conftantly forcing down fugar-fops, or other
food, in a horn, as if a horfe muft be ftarved in a few
d^ys if he did not eat: then they ply him twice or
thrice a-day with hot medicines and fpirituous drinks,
which (excepting a very few cafes) mult be extremely
pernicious to a horfe, whofe diet is naturally fimple, and
whofe ftomach and blood, unaccuftomed to fuch heat¬
ing medicines, muft be greatly injured, and without
doubt are often inflamed by fuch treatment.
Dilute the blood with plenty of water,or white drink;
let his diet be warm bran-mafhes, and his hay fprin-
kled. Should the fever fife, which will be known by
the fymptoms above defcribed, give him an ounce of
nitre thrice a-day in his water, or made up in a ball
with honey. Let his body be kept cool and open, with
the opening drink, given twice or thrice a-week; or an
ounce of fait of tartar may be given everyday, difiblved
in his water, for that purpofe, omitting then the nitre.
After a week’s treatment in this manner, the cordial
ball may be given once or twice a-day, with aninfufion
of liquorice-root fweetened with honey; to which may
be added, when the phlegm is tough, or cough dry and
bulky, a quarter of a pint of linfeed or fallad oil, and
the fame quantity of oxymel fquills.
The following cooling purge is very proper to give
at the decline of the diftemper, and may be repeated
three or four times.
Take two ounces of fenna, annifeed and fennel brui-
fed each half an ounce : fait of tartar three drams;
let them infufe two hours in a pint of boiling wa¬
ter ; ftrain off, and diflblve in it three ounces of
Glauber’s fait, and two of cream of tartar; give
for a dofe in the morning.
This purge generally works before night very gen¬
tly ; and in fevers, and all inflammatory diforders, is
infinitely preferable to any other phyfic.
Before we clofe this feftion on fevers, it may be no
itrl^roper hint to the curious, to take notice, that a
horfe’s pulfe fhould more particularly be attended to
than is cuftomary, as a proper eftimate may thereby be
made both of the degree and violence of the fever pre-
fent, by obferving the rapidity of the blood’s motion,
and the force that the heart and arteries labour with to
propel it round. The higheft calculation that has been
made of the quicknefs of the pulfe in a healthy horfe, is,
that it beats about forty ftrokesin a minute ; fo that in
proportion to the increafe above this number, the fever
is riling, and if farther increafed to above fifty the fe¬
ver is very high.
How often the pulfe beats in a minute may eafily be
difcovered by tneafuring the time with a ftop-watch,
or minute fand-glafs, while your hand is laid on the
horfe’s near fide, or your fingers on any artery: thofe
which run up on each fide the neck are generally to be
feen beating, as well as felt, a little above the cheft; and
one withinfide each leg may be traced with the finger.
A due attention to the pulfe is fo important an ar¬
ticle, in order to form a proper judgment in fevers, that
it would appear amazing it has fo much been neglec¬
ted, if one did not recolleft, that the generality of far¬
riers are fo egregioufly ignorant, that they have no
manner of conception of the Blood’s circulation, nor in
general have they ability enough to diftinguifh the dif-
I E R Y. ( 7 )
ference between an artery and a vein.—With fuch pretty Of a Pleu-
guardians do we intruft the healths and lives of the moft rify>
valuable of animals !
Sect. V. Of a Pleurify, and an Inflammation of
the Lungs, <bc.
i. These diforders have fcarce been mentioned by
any writer on farriery before Mr Gibfon ; who, by fre¬
quently examining the carcafes of dead horfes, found
them fubjedt t<S the different kinds of inflammatious here
defcribed.
In order to diftinguifh thefe diforders from others,
we fhall defcribe the fymptoms in Mr Gibfon’s own
wor.ds.
“ A pleurify then, which is an inflammation of the
pleura; and a peripneumony, which is an inflamma¬
tion of the lungs ; have fymptoms very much alike ;
with this difference only, that in a pleurify a horfe
fhevvs great uneafinefs, and fhifts about from place to
place ; the fever, which at firft is moderate, rifes fud-
denly very high ; in the beginning he often ftrives to
lie down, but ftarts up again immediately, and fre¬
quently turns his head towards the affe&ed fide, which
has caufed many to miftake a pleuritic diforder for the
gripes, this fign being common to both, though with
this difference : in the gripes, a horfe frequently lies
down and rolls; and, when they are violent, he will
alfo have convulfive twitches, his eyes being turned up,
and his limbs ftretched out, as if he were dying; his
ears and feet are fometimes occafionally hot, andfome-
times as cold as ice ; he falls into profufe fweats, and
then into cold damps; ftrives often to ftale and dung,
but with great pain and difficulty ; which fymptoms
generally continue, till he has fome relief: but, in a
pleurify, a horfe’s ears and feet are always burning hot,
his mouth parched and dry, his pulfe hard and quick:
even fometimes, when he is nigh dying, his fever is con¬
tinued and increafing; and though in the beginning he
makes many motions to lie down, yet afterwards he
reins back as far as his collar will permit, and makes
not the leall offer to change his pofture, but ftands
panting with ihort flops, and a difpofition to cough,
till he has relief, or drops down.
“ In an inflammation of the lungs, feveral of the
fymptoms are the fame ; only in the beginning he is
lefs adtive, and never offers to lie down during the
whole time of his ficknefs ; his fever is ftrong, breath¬
ing difficult, and attended with a fliort cough : and
whereas, in a pleurify, a horfe’s mouth is generally par¬
ched and dry ; in an inflammation of the lungs, when
a horfe’s mouth is open, a ropy flime will run out in
abundance ; he gleets alfo at the nofe a reddifti or yel-
lowilh water, which flicks like glue to the inlide of his
noftrils.
“ In a pleurify, a horfe heaves and works violently at
his flanks, with great reftleffnefs, and for the moft part
his belly is tucked up : but, in an inflammation of the
lungs, he always fttews fullnefs; the working of his
flanks is regular, except after drinking and fhifting his
pofture ; and his ears and feet are for the moft part
cold, and often in damp fweets”.
2. The cure of both thefe diforders is the fame. In
the beginning a ftrong horfe may lofe three quarts of
blood, the next day two quarts more ; and, if fymp¬
toms do not abate, the bleedings muft be repeated, a
quart
( 8 )
Of a Pku-
rify, &c.
quart at a time ;   .-i - - ^ .. a - , , i he iisns oi tms innammauon, or external pieuruy,
peated bleedings that are in thefeca esc iey e^- are a ftifrnefs Qf the body, fhoulders, and fore-legs;
pended on. But if a horfe has ha yp attended fometimes with a fhort dry cough, and a
„rfs, or .« llrrs n,ri„ti„g when handled in thofe par,.
Bleeding,foftpectorals,attenuants, andgentlepurges,
are the internal remedies ; and, externally, the parts
affe&ed may be bathed with equal parts of fpirit of fal
armoniac and ointment of marfhmallows or oil of ca¬
momile.
Thefe outward inflammations frequently fall into the
infide of the fore-leg, and fometimes near the fhoulder;
forming abfeefles, which terminate the diforder.
The membrane which feparates the lungs, and more
particularly the diaphragm or midriff, is often alfo in¬
flamed ; which is fcarce to be diftinguifhed from the
Sea. vr.
for it is fpeedy, large,^and quick-re f 0f th;s inflammation, or external pleurify, &c-
F A. R R * E R Y.
andoftener. ’Mr Gibfon recommends rowels on each
fide the bread, and one on the belly ; and a bhftenng
ointment to be rubbed all over his brifket upon the
foremoft ribs.
. The diet and medicines fhould be both co°bng» at'
tenuating, relaxing, and diluting; and the horfe Ihcnild
have warm maihes and plenty of water or gruel, ine
following balls may be given thrice a-day.
Take of fpermaceti and nitre, of each one ounce ;
oil of annifeed, 30 drops; honey enough to make
aba11- , , V- L llminrice- flamed; wtuen is icarce to oe amingunnea rrom me
A pint of barley-water, in which fig q pleurify, only in this, that when the midriff is greatly
root have been boiled, ftiould be £‘ven a e ’ inflamed, the horfe will fometimes be jaw-fet, and his
to which the juice of lemons be a e , mouth fo much clofed that nothing can be got in; but
lung, are greatly oppreM wrth » .^r “Jh- the mabl>i of c„e the Pame.
two or three horns full of the decoftion may be given nr l j jm.
three or four times a-day, with four fpoonfuls of honey Sect. VI. Of a Cough, and AJlhma.
and linfeed oil. A ftrong decoftion of the rattle-fnake- 'rHE confequence often of the preceding diforders
root is alfo much recommended in pleuritic diforders, injudicioufly treated, are fettled habitual coughs; which
and may be given to the quantity of two quarts a-day, frequently degenerate into afthmas and broken-wind.
fweetened with honey. It remarkably attenuates the Nothing has more perplexed pra&itioners than the
blood, difperfes the inflammation, and in fome parts
is deemed a fpecific for this complaint.
An emollient glyfter fhould be injefted once a-day,
to which may be added two ounces of nitre or cream
of tartar.
In two or three days he will probably run at the
nofe, and begin to feed ; but fhould he not, and con¬
tinue hot and fhort-breathed, you muff bleed him
again, and give the following glyfter.
Take fenna and marfhmallows, of each two ounces;
fennel and bay-berries, each one ounce; boil in
five pints of clear water, to two quarts; pour off
the clear, and add four ounces of purging falts,
two or three of fyrup of buckthorn, and half a
pint of linfeed or any common oil.
If by thefe means he grows cooler, and his pain mo¬
derates, repeat the glyfter the next day, unlefs it
worked too much ; then intermit a day ; and when he
comes to eat fealded bran and picked hay, leave off the
balls, and continue only the decoftion, with now and
then a glyfter. ,
But let it be obferved, that a horfe feldom gets the
better of thefe diforders, unlefs he has relief in a few
days; for if the inflammation is not checked in that
time, it ufually terminates in a gangrene, or colledtion
of matter, which, for want of expe&oration, foon fut-
focates him.
But as pleuritic diforders are apt to leave a taint on
the lungs, great care fhould be taken of the horfe’s
cure of fettled coughs; the caufe of which, perhaps,
has been their want of attention to the different fymp-
toms which diftinguifh one copgh from another; for
without ftrift obfervance thereof, it is impofiible to find
01ft the true method of cure.
Thus, if a horfe’s cough is of long ftanding, atten¬
ded with lofs of appetite, wafting of flefh, and weak-
nefs, it denotes a confumption; and that the lungs are
full of knotty, hard fubftances, called tubercles, which
have often been difeovered on diffedtion.
The following figns denote when the cough proceeds
from phlegm and fiimy matter that flop up the veffels
of the lungs.
The horfe’s flanks have a fudden quick motion ; he
breathes thick, but not with his noftrils open like a
horfe in a fever or that is broken-winded ; his cough
is fometimes dry and hufky, fometimes moift, before
which he wheezes, rattles in the throat, and fometimes
throws out of his nofe and mouth great gobs of white
phlegm, efpecially after drinking, or when he begins
or ends his exercife, which difeharge commonly gives
great relief. Some fuch horfes wheeze and rattle to
fuch a degree, and are fo thick-winded, that they can
fcarce move on, till they have been out fome time in the
air; though then they will perform beyond expecta¬
tion.
The above afthmatie'eafe proves often very obftinate;
but, if it happens to a young horfe, and the cough is
not of long ftanding, it is greatly relieved, if not totally
exercife and feeding, which ftiould be light and open curecl, by the following method,
0 t rr.u.. 1 r..ii -rn.n, 1.1.
for two or three weeks.
There is alfo an external pleurify, or inflammation
of the mufcles between the ribs, which, when not pro¬
perly treated, proves the foundation of that diforder
called the chef founder; for if the inflammation is not
difperfed in time, and the vifeid blood and juices fo
attenuated by internal medicines that a free circula¬
tion is obtained, fuch a ftiffnefs and inactivity will re¬
main on thefe parts, as will not eafily be removed,
and which is generally known by the name of chef-
If the horfe is full of flefti, bleed him plentifully ; if
low in flelh, more fparingly; which may occafionally
be repeated, on very great oppreffions and difficulty of
breathing, in proportionate quantities.
As mercurial medicines are found remarkably ufeful
in thefe cafes, give a mercurial ball (with two drams of
calomel) over night, and a common purge next morn¬
ing : or the following, which is recommended by Mr
Gibfon.
Take gum*galbanum, ammoniacum, and afa foetida,
of
Sed. VI.
Of Coughs, of each two drams, fine aloes one ounce, faffron
&c- one dram, oil of annifeeds two drams,* oil of am¬
ber one dram ; with honey enough to form into
a ball.
They may be repeated at proper intervals, with the
ufual cautions. In the intermediate days, and for fome
time after, one of the following balls may be given
every morning.
Take cinnabar of antimony, finely levigated, fix
ounces; gum ammoniacum, galbanum, and afa fas-
tida, of each two ounces ; garlick four ounces;
faffron half an ounce : make into a pafte for balls,
with a proper quantity of honey.
Take of the pectoral or cordial ball one pound, bal-
fam of Peru half an ounce, balfam of fulphur an-
nifated one ounce, flowers of benjamin half an
ounce, honey as much as is fufficient to form them
into a pafte ; give the fize of a pigeon’s egg every
morning.
Exercife in a free open air is very ferviceable, and
the diet Ihould be moderate.
The following are the fymptoms of a dry cough, or
afthma.
The horfe affli&ed with this cough eats heartily,
hunts and goes through his bufinefs with alacrity, ap¬
pears well coated, and has all the figns of perfeft health;
^ret he coughs at particular times almoft inceffantly,
without throwing up any thing, except that the vio¬
lence of the cough will caufe a little clear water to dif-
til from his nofe. Though this cough is not period¬
ical, yet fome of thefe horfes cough moft in a morning,
after drinking.
This may properly be ftyled a nervous ajlhma in a
horfe, as probablyitchieflyaffedsthe nerves inthemem-
branous parts of the lungs and midriff; and is a cafe
very doubtful at lead, if not incurable : but when the
horfe is young, the following method may be fuccefsful.
Take away firft a moderate quantity of blood; then
give him two drams of calomel, mixed up with an ounce
of diapente, for two nights; and the next morning a
purging ball. Keep him well cloathed and littered,
and feed him with fcalded bran, and warm water.
Once in eight or ten days this purge maybe repeated,
with one mercurial ball only, given over night.
The following balls may then be taken, one every
day, about the fize of a pullet’s egg, the horfe fading
two hours afterwards ; and ftibuld be continued two
months or longer, to be of real fervice.
Take native cinnabar, or cinnabar of antimony, half
a pound; gum guaiacum four ounces; myrrh, and
um armoniac, of each two ounces ; Venice foap
alf a pound: the cinnabar mud be finely levigated,
as before obferved, and the whole mixed up with
honey, or oxymel fquills.
The following alfo will be found a ufeful remedy in
obdinate dry coughs.
Take gum ammoniacum, fquills, and Venice foap,
of each four ounces; balfam of fulphur with anni¬
feeds one ounce ; beat up into a mafs, and give as
the former.
Before we clofe this fe&ion, it may be neceffary to
pbferve here, that fome young horfes are fubjeft to
coughs on cutting their teeth ; their eyes alfo are af-
fedted from the fame caufe. In thefe cafes, always
bleed; and if the cough is obftinate, repeat it, and
( 9 )
give warm mafhes ; which, in general, are alone fuf- Of broken
ficient to remove tin’s complaint. wind-
Sect. VII. Of a Broken Wind.
This diforder hitherto feems to have been little un-
derftood ; but Mr Gibfon is inclined to think, that the
fource of it is frequently owing to injudicious or hafty
feeding of young horfes for fale ; by which means the
growth of the lungs, and all the contents within the
cheft, are fo increafed, and in a few years fo preterna-
turally enlarged, that the cavity of the ched is not ca¬
pacious enough for them to expand themfelves in and
perform their fundtions.
A narrow contradted cheft with large lungs may
fometimes naturally be the caufe of this diforder : and
it has been obferved, that horfes rifing eight years old
are as liable to this diftemper, as, at a certain period
of life, men are to fall into afthmas, confumptions, and
chronic difeafes.
The reafon why this diforder becomes more apparent
at this age, may be, that a horfe comes to his full
ftrength and maturity atthis time; at fix, he commonly
finifhes his growth in height; after that time he lets
down his belly and fpreads, and all his parts are grown
to their full extent; fo that the preffure on the lungs
and midriff is now more increafed.
But how little weight foever thefe reafons may have,
repeated diffedtions have given ocular proofs of a pre¬
ternatural largenefs, not only of the lungs of broken-
winded horfes, but of their heart and its bag, and of
the membrane which divides the cheft ; as well as of
a remarkable thinnefs in the diaphragm, or midriff.
This difproportion has been obferved to be fo great,
that the heart and lungs have been almoft of twice
their natural fize, perfectly found, and without any
ulceration whatever, or any defedl in the wind-pipe
or its glands.
Hence it appears, that this enormous fize of the
lungs, and the fpace they occupy, by hindering the
free adtion of the midriff, is the chief caufe of this dif¬
order : and as the fubftance of the lungs was found
more flefhy than ufual, they of courfe mull lofe a great
deal of their fpring and tone.
Whoever confiders a broken-wind in this light, muft
own that it may be reckoned among the incurable dif-
tempers of horfes ; and that all the boafted pretenfions
to cure are vain and frivolous, fince the utmoft fkill can
amount to no more than now and then palliating the
fymptoms, and mitigating their violence.
We ftiall therefore only lay down fuch methods as
may probably prevent this diforder, when purfued in
time. But if they ftiould not fucceed, we fhall offer
fome remedies and rules to mitigate its force, and make
a horfe as ufeful as poffible under this malady.
It is ufual, before a broken wind appears, for a horfe
to have a dry obftinate cough, without any vifiblefick-
nefs or lofs tff-appetite ; but, on the contrary, a dif-
pofition to foul feeding, eating the litter, and drinking
much water.
In order then to prevent, as much as pofiible, this
diforder, bleed him, and give him the mercurial phyfic
above prefcribed, which fhould be repeated two or three
times.
The following balls are then to be taken for fome
time, which have been found extremely efficacious in
[ b j| removing
FARRIERY.
( xo ) FARR
Of a removing obftinate coughs.
WiruT Take aurum mofaicnm, finely powdered, eight oun-
   ces; myrrh and elicampane, powdered, each four
ounces ; annifeeds and bay-berries, each an ounce;
faffron, half an ounce ; make into balls with oxy-
mel fquills.
The aurum mofaicum is made of equal parts of quick-
filver, tin, fal armoniac, and fulphur. We give this
medicine as ftrongly recommended by Mr Gibfon ; but
how far the aurum mofaicum'may contribute to its ef¬
ficacy, may perhaps juftly be difputed: as a fubftitute
in its room, therefore, for this purpofe, we recommend
the fame quantity of powdered fquills, or gum ammo-
niacum, or equal parts of each.
Broken-winded horfes fliould eat fparingly of hay,
which as well as their corn may be wetted with cham¬
ber ley, or fair water ; as this will make them lefs cra¬
ving after water.
The volatile falls in the urine may make it preferable
to water, and may be the reafon why garlick is found
fo efficacious in thefe cafes ; two or three cloves given
at a time in a feed, or three ounces of garlick bruifed,
and boiled in a quart of milk and water, and given
every other morning for a fortnight, having been found
very ferviceable ; for by warming and ftimulating the
folids, and diffolving the tenacious, juices which choke
up the vefiels of the lungs, thefe complaints are greatly
relieved.
Careful feeding, and moderate exercife, has greatly
relieved broken-winded horfes.
Horfes fent to grafs in order to be cured of an ob-
ftinate cough, have often returned completely broken-
winded, where the pafture has been rich and fuceulent,
fo that they have had their bellies conftantly full. As
the ill confequence therefore is obvious, where you have
not the conveniency of turning out your horfe for a
conftancy, you may foil him for a month or two with
young green barley, tares, or any other young herbage.
To purfive thick-winded horfes, Barbadoes and
common tar have often been given with fuccefs to the
quantity of two fpoonfuls mixed with the yolk of an
egg, diffolved in warm ale, and given fading two or
three times a-week, efpecially thole days you hunt or
travel.
But in order to make all thefe forts of horfes of any
real fervice to you, the grand point is to have a parti¬
cular regard to their diet, obferving a juft ceconomy
both in that and their exercife ; giving but a moderate
quantity of hay, corn, or water, at a time, and moi-
ftening the former, to prevent their requiring too much
of the latter, and never exercifing them but with mo¬
deration, as has before been obferved. The follow¬
ing alterative ball may be given once a-fortnight or
three weeks; and as it operates very gently, and re¬
quires no confinement but on thofe days it is given (when
warm meat and water are neceffary), it may be conti¬
nued for two or three months.
Take focotorine aloes fix drams; myrrh, galbanum,
and ammoniacum, of each two drams ; bay-ber¬
ries half an ounce: make into a ball with a fpoon-
ful of oil of amber, and a fufficient quantity of
fyrup of buckthorn.
Sect. VIII. Of a Confumption.
When a confumption proceeds from a defeft In a
I E R Y. Sea. IX,
horfe’s lurigs or any principal bowel, the eyes look Of a
dull; the Srs and feet are moltly hot; he coughs lharply Confump-
by fits ; fneezes much, and frequently groans with it; tio11’ &c’
his flanks have a quick motion ; he gleets often at the
nofe, and fometimes throws out a yellowilh curdled
matter ; and he has little appetite to hay, but will eat
corn, after which he generally grows hot.
As to the cure, one of the principal things is bleed¬
ing in fmall quantities (a pint, or pint and half, from
fome horfes is fufficient), which fhould be repeated as
often as the breath is more than ordinarily opprefled.
Pe&orals may be given to palliate prefent fymptoms ;
but as difiedtions have difcovered both the glands of the
lungs and raefentery to be fwelled, and often indurated,
the whole ftrefs lies on mercurial purges, and the fol¬
lowing ponderous alteratives, given intermediately.
Take native cinnabar, or cinnabar of antimony, one
pound, powdered very fine, andaddthe fame quan¬
tity of gum guaiacum and nitre ; give the horfe
an ounce of this powder twice a-day, wetting his
feeds.
The fpring grafs is often extremely ferviceable ; but
the fait marfhes are to be preferred, and to be more
depended on than medicines ; for great alterations are
thereby made in the blood and juices, and no fmall be¬
nefit arifes from open air and proper exercife.
Sect. IX. Of an Apoplexy or Staggers, Convul-
five Diforders, Lethargy, Epilepfy, and Pafy.
Farriers generally include all diftempers of the head
under two denominations, \\tl. flaggers and convulfons,
wherein they always fuppofe the head primarilyaffe&ed.
But in treating thefe diforders, we will diftinguifti be¬
tween thofe that are peculiar to the bead, as having their
fource originally thence; and thofe that are only con¬
comitants of fome other difeafe.
In an apoplexy a horfe drops down fuddenly, with¬
out other fenfe or motion than a working at his flanks.
The previous fymptoms are, drowfinefs; watery eyes,
fomewhat full and inflamed; a difpofitionto reel; feeble-
nefs ; a bad appetite ; the head almoft conftantly hang¬
ing, or refting on the manger; fometimes with little
or no fever, and fcarce any alteration in the dung or
urine ; the horfe is fometimes difpofed to rear up, and
apt to fall back when handled about the head; which
is often the cafe wuth young horfes, to which it does
not fuddenly prove mortal, but with proper help they
may fometimes recover. If the apoplexy proceeds from
wounds or blows on the head, or matter on the brain ;
befides the above fymptoms, the horfe will be frantic
by fits, efpecially after his feeds, fo as to ftart and fly
at every thing. Thefe cafes feldom admit of a perfeft
recovery; and when horfes fall down fuddenly, and
work violently at their flanks, without any ability to
rife after a plentiful bleeding, they feldom recover.
All that can be done is to empty the veflels as fpee-
dily as poffible, by ftriking the veins in feveral parts at
once, bleeding to four or five quarts; and to raife up
the horfe’s head and fhoulders, fupporting them with
plenty of ftraw. If he furvives the fit, cut feveral
rowels; give him night and morning glyfters prepared
with a ftrong deco&ion of fenna and fait, or the pur-
ging glyfter mentioned in the diredtions; blow once a-
day up his noftrils a dram of powder of afarabacca,
which will promote a great difcharge; afterwards two
or
Sed. IX. FARR
Of an or three aloetlc purges (hould be given; and to fecure
Aporl-y, him from a relapfe, by attenuating and tninning his
' blood, give him an ounce of equal parts of antimony
and crocus metallorum fora month; or, which is pre¬
ferable, the fame quantity of cinnabar of antimony and
gum guaiacum.
If the fit proceeds only from fulnefs of blood, high
feeding, and want of fufficient exercife, or a fizy blood
(which is often the cafe with young horfes, who though
they reel, flagger, and fometimes fuddenly fall down,
yet are eafily cured by the above method), an opening
diet with fcalded bran and barley will be neceffary for
fome time ; and the bleeding may be repeated in fmall
quantities.
As to the other diforders of the head, fuch as leth¬
argy or fleeping evil, epilepfy or falling-ficknefs, ver¬
tigo, frenzy, and madnefs, convulfions, and paralytical
diforders, as they are moft of them to be treated as the
apoplexy and epilepfy, by bleeding and evacuations,
with the alteratives there dire&ed, we fhall wave treat¬
ing of them feparately ; but mention fome particular
rules to diftingifh them, according to the plan we laid
down; and then offer fome general remedies for the fe-
veral purpofes.
In an epilepfy, or falling ficknefs, the horfe reels and
flaggers, his eyes are fixed in his head, he has no fenfe
of what he is doing, he dales and dungs infenfibly, he
runs round and falls fuddenly ; fometimes he is immo¬
veable, with his legs dretched out as if he was dead,
except only a quick motion of his heart and lungs,
which caufes a violent working of his Hanks; fometimes
he has involuntary motions, and (baking of his limbs,
fo drong, that he has not only beat and fpurned his lit¬
ter, but the pavement with it; and with thefe alternate
fymptoms a horfe has continued more than three hours,
and then has as furprifingly recovered : at the going off
of the fit, he generally foams at the mouth, the foam
being white and dry, like what comes from a healthful
horfe when he champs on the bit.
But in all kinds of gripes, whether they proceed from
diforders in the guts, or retention of urine, a horfe is
often up and down, rolls and tumbles about; and when
he goes to lie down, generally makes feveral motions
with great feeming carefulnefs, which (hews he has a
fenfe of his pain ; and if he lays dretched out for any
time, it is generally but for a diort fpace.f
Epilepfies and convulfions may arife from blows on
the head, too violent exercife, and hard draining; and
from a fulnefs of blood, or impoverifhed blood, and
furfeits; which are fome of the caufes that denote the
original diforder.
In lethargic diforders, the horfe generally reds his
head with his mouth in the manger, and his pole often
reclined to one fide; he will Ihew an inclination to eat,
but generally falls afleep with his food in his mouth,
and he frequently fwallows it whole without chewing;
emollient glyders are extremely necefiary in this cafe,
with the nervous balls recommended for the daggers
and convulfions ; drong purges are not requifite, nor
mud you bleed in too large quantities, unlefs the horfe
be young and ludy. In old horfes, rowels and large
evacuations are improper ; but volatiles of all kinds are
of ufe, when they can be afforded : the alterative purge
mentioned at the end of this fe&ion may be given, and
repeated on amendment.
I E R Y. ( ii )
This dillemper is to be cured by thefe means, if the Of a
horfe is not old and pad his vigour. It is a good fign
if he has a tolerable appetite, and drinks freely with- c‘
out flabbering, and if he lies down, and rifes up care¬
fully, though it be but feldom.
But if a lethargic horfe does not lie down ; if he is
altogether dupid and carelefs, and takes no notice of
any thing that comes near him ; if he dungs and dales
feldom, and even while he fleeps and dozes; it is a bad
fign : if he runs at the nofe thick white matter, it may
relieve him; but if a vifeid gleet, that dicks to his
nodrils like glue, turn to a profufe running of ropy,
reddifh and greenifh matter, it is an infallible fign of a
great decay of nature, and that it will prove deadly.
Young horfes from four to fix years, are very fub-
je£l to convulfions, from botts in the fpring ; and the
large coach breed, more then the faddle. They are
feized without any previous notice; and if botts and
worms are difeovered in their dung, the caufe feems to
be out of doubt, more efpecially if they have lately
come out of a dealer’s hands.
When this convulfion proceeds from a didempera-
ture of the midriff, or any of the principal bowels, it is
to be didinguifhed from botts and vermin by previous
fymptoms ; the horfe falls off his domach, and grows
gradually weak, feeble, and difpirited in his work, and
turns (hort-breathed with the lead exercife.
The lively defeription of that univerfal cramp or con¬
vulfion, called by fome the flag-evil, which feizes all the
mufcles of the body at once, and locks up the jaws, fo
that it is impoffible almod to force them open, we (hall
give in Mr Gibfon’s own words, who fays: As foon as
the horfe is feized, his head is raifed with his nofe to¬
wards the rack, his ears pricked up, and his tail cocked,
looking with eagernefs as an hungry horfe when hay is
put down to him, or like a high-fpirited horfe when he
is put upon his mettle; infomuch, that thofe who are
drangers to fuch things, when they fee a horfe Hand in
this manner, will fcarce believe any thing of confe-
quence ails him ; but they are foon convinced, when
they fee other fymptoms come on apace, and that his
neck grows diff, cramped, and almod immoveable: and
if a horfe in this condition lives a few days, feveral knots
will arife on the tendinous parts thereof, and all the
mufcles both before and behind will be fo much pulled
and cramped, and fo dretched, that he looks as if he
was nailed to the pavement, with his legs diff, wide,
and dradling ; his fkin is drawn fo tight on all parts of
the body, that it is almod impfiible to move it; and if
trial be made to make him walk, he is ready to fall at
every dep, unlefs he be carefully fupported; his eyes
are fo fixed with the inaction of the mufcles, as give
him a deadnefs in his looks; he fnorts and fneezes of¬
ten, patits continually with (hortnefs of breath ; and this
fymptom increafes continually till he drops down dead;
which generally happens in a few days, unlefs fome
fudden and very effedtual turn can be given to the dif-
temper.
In all thefe cafes the horfe fliould fird be bled plen¬
tifully, unlefs he is low in flefh, old, or lately come off
any hard continued duty; then you mud be more fpar-
ing of his blood: afterwards give the following ball.
Take afafetida half an ounce, Ruflia cador powdered
two drams, valerian root powdered one ounce;
make into a ball with honey and oil of amber.
[ b 2 ] This
( 12 ) FARR
Of the Tliis ball may be given twice a-day at firft ; and then
Stag-evil, once, wafhed down with a decodtion of mifletoe or va-
c‘ lerian fwTeetened with liquorice or honey: an ounce of
afa foetida may be tied up in a piece of ftrong coarfe
linen rag, and put behind his grinders to champ on.
The laxative purges and emollient glyfters fhould be
given intermediately to keep the body open; but when
the former balls have been taken a week or ten days,
the following may be given once a-day with the valeri¬
an decodtion.
Take cinnabar of antimony fix drams; afa foetida
half an ounce;’arittolochia, myrrh, and bay-berries,
of each two drams ; make into a ball with treacle
and oil of amber.
This is the moft effedtual method of treating thefe
diforders; but when they are fufpedted to arife from
botts, and worms, which is generally the cafe, mercurial
medicines mull lead the way, thus :
Take mercurius dulcis and philonium, of each half
an ounce; make into a ball with conferves of rofes,
and give the horfe immediately; half the quantity
may be repeated in four or five days.
The following infufion fhould then be given, to the
quantity of three or four horns, three or four times a-
day, till the fymptoms abate; when the above nervous
balls may be continued till they are removed.
Take penny-royal and rue of each two large hand¬
fuls, camomile flowers one handful, afa foetida and
caftor of each half an ounce, faffron and liquorice-
root fliced of each two drams; infufe in two
quarts of boiling water ; pour off from the ingre¬
dients as wanted.
If the caftor is omitted, add an ounce of afa fcetida.
The following ointment may be rubbed into the
cheeks, temples, neck, fhoulders, fpine of the back, and
loins, and where-ever there is the greateft contra&ions
and ftiffnefs.
Take nerve and marfhmallow ointment of each four
ounces, oil of amber two ounces, with a fufficient
quantity of camphorate fpirit of wine; make a li¬
niment.
When the jaws are fo locked up that medicines can¬
not be given by the mouth, it is more eligible to give
them by way of glyfter : for forcing open the jaws by
violence often puts a horfe into fuch agonies, that the
fymptoms are thereby increafed.
In this cafe alfo he muft be fupported by nourifhing
glyfters, made of milk-pottage, broths, &c. which mult
be .given to the quantity of three or four quarts a-day:
glyfters of this kind will be retained, and abforbed into
the blood ; and there have been inftances of horfes thus
fupported for three weeks together, who muft otherwife
have perifhed.
Mr Gibfon mentions fome extraordinary inftances of
fuccefs in cafes of this fort by thefe methods, and repea¬
ted fridtions, which are extremely ferviceable in all con-
\ vulfive diforders, and often prevent their being jaw-fet;
they fhould be applied with unwearied diligence every
two or three hours, where-ever any ftiffnefs or contrac¬
tions in the mufcles appear ; for a horfe in this condi¬
tion never lies down till they are in fome meafure remo¬
ved.
The ufe of rowels in thefe cafes is generally unfuc-
eefsful, the fkin being fo tenfe and tight, that they fel-
dom digeft kindly, and fometimes mortify ; fo that if
I E R Y. Sed. X.
they are applied they fhould be put under the jaws, and Of the
in the breaft. Strangles,
The red-hot iron fo frequently run through the fore- c' . - -
top and mane, near the occipital bone, for this purpofe,
has often been found to have deftroyed the cervical
ligament.
In paralytic diforders, where the ufe of a limb or
limbs is taken away, the internals above recommended
fhould be given, in order to warm, invigorate, and at¬
tenuate the blood ; and the following ftimulating. em¬
brocation fhould be rubbed into the parts affedted.
Take oil of turpentine four ounces, nerve ointment
and oil of bays of each two ounces, camphor rub¬
bed fine one ounce, redtified oil of amber three
ounces, tindture of cantharides one ounce.
With this liniment the parts affedted fhould be well
bathed for a confiderable time, to make it penetrate ;
and when the hind parts chiefly are lame, the back and
loins fhould be well rubbed with the fame. To the
nervous medicines above recommended, may be added
fnake-root, contrayerva, muftard-feed, horfe-radifli root,
fteeped in ftrong beer, or wine where it can be afford¬
ed. Take the following for an example, which may
be given to the quantity of three.pints a-day alone, or
two horns full may taken after the nervous balls.
Take fnake-root, contrayerva, and valerian, of each
half an ounce; muftard-feed and horfe-radifh root
feraped, of each two ounces ; long pepper two
drams: infufe in three pints of ftrong wine.
When the horfe is recovering from any of the above
diforders, the following alterative purge maybe repeat¬
ed two or three times, as it operates very gently.
Take focotorine aloes one ounce, myrrh half an
ounce, afa fcetida and gum ammoniacum of each
two drams, faffron one dram ; make into a ball
with any fyrup.
Where a retention of dung is thecanfe of this difor-
der, the great gut fhould firft be raked thoroughly with
a fmall hand, after which plenty of emollient oily gly¬
fters fhould be thrown up, and the opening drink given,
till the bowels are thoroughly emptied of their impri-
foned dung. Their diet fhould for fome days be open¬
ing, and confift chiefly of fealded bran, with flour of
brimftone, fealded barley, ^c.
Sect. X. Of the Strangles, and Fives.
i. The ftrangles is a diftemper to which colts and
young horfes are very fubjeft; and begins with a fwel-
ling between the jaw-bones, which fometimes extends
to the mufcles of the tongue; and is attended with fo
great heat, pain, and inflammation, that fometimes, till
matter is formed, the horfe fwallows with the utmofl
difficulty.
The fymptoms are, extraordinary heat and feverifh-
nefs, with a painful cough, and a great inclination to
drink without being able; fome horfes lofing their
appetite entirely, others eating but little, by reafon of
the pain which chewing and fwallowing occafions :
when the fwelling begins on the infide of the jaw-bones,
it is much longer in coming to matter than when more
to the middle ; when it arifes among the glands, and
divides into feveral tumours, the cure is generally te¬
dious, as it breaks in different places ; and when it
forms upwards on the wind-pipe and gullet, there is
fometimes danger of fuffocation, unlefs the fwelling
Sea. X. FARR
Of the foon breaks. But the mod dangerous kind is, when,
1V<~S~ befides the above fymptoms, the horfe runs at the nofe;
this is by fome called the baftardJirangles.
As this diforder feems to be critical, the mod ap¬
proved method is to affift nature in bringing the fwel-
lings to maturity, by keeping them conftantly moift
with ointment of marfhmallows, and covering the head
and neck with a warm hood. But as all fwellings in
glandular parts fuppurate flovvly, the following poultice
may be applied hot twice a-day.
Take leaves of marlhmallows ten handfuls, white-
lily root half a pound, linfeed and fenugreek-feed
bruifed of each four ounces : boil them in two
quarts of water till the whole is pulpy; and add
four ounces of ointment of marfhmallows, and a
fufficient quantity of hogs-lard, to prevent its
growing ftiff and dry.
In five or hx days, by thefe means, the matter is ge¬
nerally formed, and makes its way through the fkin ;
and if the difcharge is made freely and with eafe, the
opening need not be enlarged ; but fhould be dreffed
with the following ointment fpread on tow, Itill con¬
tinuing the poultice over it to promote the digeftion,
and prevent any remaining hardnefs.
Take rofin and, Burgundy pitch of each a pound
and a half, honey and common turpentine each
eight ounces, yellow wax four ounces, hogs-lard
one pound, verdigreafe finely powdered one ounce;
melt the ingredients together, but do not put in
the verdigreafe till removed from the fire; and it
fhould be ftirred in by degrees, till the whole is
grown (tiff and cool.
If the fever and inflammation run high, and the fwel •
ling be fo fituated as to endanger fuffocation, a mode¬
rate quantity of blood muft be taken away, and the re¬
mainder diluted with plenty of water-gruel, or warm
water, malhes, <fac.
The running at the nofe which often attends the
ftrangles is dangerous, efpecially if it continues after
they have ripened and broke, as the horfe will be greatly
weakened thereby. To prevent this wafte and decay,
give him every day for fome time an ounce of Jefuit’s
bark ; or a flrong deco£lion of guaiacum /havings,
wdiich hath been found extremely beneficial in reftrain-
ing thefe glandular difcharges when too liberal, and
in drying up ulcers of all kinds in horfes.
If a hardnefs remains after the fores are healed up,
they may be anointed with the mercurial ointment;
and when the horfe has recovered his ftrength, purging
will be neceffary.
2. The vives or ives differ from the ftrangles only
in this ; that the fwellings of the kernels under the
ears of the horfe, (which are the parts at firft chiefly
affected), feldom gather, or come to matter, but by
degrees perfpire off and difperfe by warm cloathing,
anointing with the marfhmallow ointment, and a mo¬
derate bleeding or two. But /hould the jinflammation
continue notwithftanding thofe means, a fuppuration
muft be promoted by the methods above recommended
in the ftrangles.
When thefe fwellings appear in an old or full-aged
horfe, they are figns of great malignity, and often of
an inward decay, as well as forerunners of the glanders.
The mercurial ointment above-mentioned, may be
prepared thus :
I E R Y. ( 13 )
Take of crude mercury or quickfilver one ounce, Difeafes of
Venice turpentine half an ounce; rub together in die Eyes.
a mortar till the globules of the quickfilver are no
longer vifible ; then add two ounces of hogs-lard.
Sect. XI. Of the Difeafes of the Eyes.
1. In order to make the diforders of the eyes well
underftood, we /hall confider them as arifing from dif¬
ferent caufes; external injuries affefting the globe of
the eye ; and from internal caufes affedting the hu¬
mours within the globe. We /hall confider alfo the
eye as naturally weak from a bad conformation, which
poflibly may often be hereditary.
2. In all recent diforders of the eye from external
injuries, fuch as blows, bites, attended with a fwel-
ling of the lid, and a running from the eye, you muft
firft fponge the part often with cold fpring-water and
vinegar ; and if much fwelled, bleed immediately, and
apply over it a poultice made of the pulps of roafted
or boiled apples, cleared from their feeds and hu/ks;
or of conferve of rofes and vinegar, with a little bole,
and the white of an egg. When the fwelling is abated,
either of the following wa/hes will complete the cure.
Take white vitriol half an ounce, fugar of lead two
drams ; diffolve in a pint of fpring-water; to
which may occafionally be added, when the
rheum is very great, and inflammation removed,
half an ounce of tutty or compound powder of
cerufs.
3. Let the eye and eyelid be bathed three or four
times a-day with a clean fponge dipped in this wa/h ;
or it may be applied with a feather, leaving a few
drops on the eye. When the veins under the eye have
been turgid, opening them with a lancet has often
been found fuccefsful.
4. Mr Gibfon, from his own experience, recommends
the following, with which alone he has fucceeded in
moft common cafes.
Take two drams of rofe-buds, infufe them in half a
pint of boiling wrater; when cold, pour off the
infufion, and add to it twenty grains of fugar of
lead.
This is to be ufed as the former ; but the quantity
of fugar of lead may occafionally be increafed.
5. Sometimes from the violence of the inflammation,
fucceeding blows, and external injuries, the coats of
the eye /hall lofe their tranfparency, thicken, and turn
white or of a pearl-colour: in the latter cafe, the horfe
has fome glimmering of light; in the former, he is blind
while the eye continues in this ftate.
6. If the horfe be fle/hy and of a grofs conftitution,
bleeding may be'repeated, and a rowel will be neceffary:
let his diet be fcalded bran or barley; avoiding for
fome days oats, beans, or any thing hard to chew.
The cooling opening drink, (p. 5. col. 2. par. 4. )
/hould be given every other day, which wull anfwer bet¬
ter than aloetic purges.
7. If the eyelids continue fwelled and moift, and the
under fide of the eye inflamed, an ounce of honey may
be added to four ounces of the above waters; or the
part may be well bathed with an ounce of honey of
rofes, and half a dram of fugar of lead, diffolved in
three ounces of fpring-water : to which may be added,
when the eye is very watery, a fpoonful or two of red
wine, which will help to thicken the matter and dry it up.
1. If
( i4 ) FARR
Difeafes of 8. If a film or thick fiough fliould remain, it may
the Eyes, tajjen by blowing into the eye equal parts of
white vitriol and fugar-candy finely powdered.
Glafs finely powdered, mixed up with honey and a
little frelh butter, is much recommended by Dr Bracken
for this purpofe ; as alfo the following ointment.
Take ointment of tutty one ounce, honey of rofes
two drams, white vitriol burnt one fcruple; this,
with a feather, may be fmeared over the eye twice
a-day.
9. Let it be remembered, that it has long been ob-
ferved in pra&ice, that the eye in its firft ftate of inflam¬
mation is fo very tender, that the eye-waters prepared
with tutty and other powders aggravate the diforder;
confequently, during this ftate, the tin&ures of vege¬
tables and folutions of falls are greatly preferable.
10. Wounds of the eye may be drefled with honey
of rofes alone, or with a little fugar of lead mixed with
it; adding thereto, after a few days, an eighth part of
tinfture of myrrh ; all the preceding dire&ions in re¬
gard to inflammation beingattended to, efpecially bleed¬
ing, rowels, and gentle cooling phyfic.
11. When the humours of the eye are thickened,
and the diforder is within the globe, (harp external
applications are not only ufelefs, but extremely detri¬
mental by the irritation they occafio'fi, and confequently
Ihould be avoided.
12. In all cafes of this fort, whether moon-eyes,
which are only cataradfs forming, or in confirmed ones
attended with a weeping; general evacuations, with
internal alteratives, can only take place.
Thefe generally make their appearance, when a horfe
is turned five coming fix; at which time one eye be¬
comes clouded, the eyelids being fwelled, and very often
fhut up ; and a thin water generally runs from the dif-
eafed eye down the cheek, fo ftiarp as fometimes to
excoriate the Ikin ; the veins of the temple, under
the eye, and along thenofe, are turgid and full: though
fometimes it happens that the eye runs but little.
This diforder comes and goes till the cataradl is ripe;
then all pain and running difappears, and the horfe be¬
comes totally blind, which is generally in about two
years. During this time fome horfes have more fre¬
quent returns than others; which continue in fome a
week or more, in others three or four; returning
once in two or three months, and they are feldom fo
long as five without a relapfe.
13. There is another kind of moon-blindnefs which is
alfo the forerunner of cataracls, where no humour or
weeping attends. The eye is never (hut up or clofed
here, but will now and then look thick and troubled,
at which time the horfe fees nothing diftinftly : when
the eyes appear funk and perifhing, the catara&s are
longer coming to maturity ; and it is not unufual in
this cafe for one eye to efcape.
Thefe cafes generally end in blindnefs of one if not
of both eyes ; the molt promifing figns of recovery are
when the attacks come more feldom, and their conti¬
nuance grows fhorter, and that they leave the cornea
clear and tranfparent, and the globe plump and full.
14. The attempts to cure the cataradls have hitherto
been only palliative and mitigating the fymptoms; yet
early care has fometimes been fuccefsful. To this end
the horfe (hould be rowel’d and bled at proper intervals;
except where the eyes appear funk and perilhing, where
I E R Y. Sea. XI.
it is often pernicious. During the violence of the Rifcafes 0f
fymptoms, obfcrve the cooling treatment above recom- t,1c Eyes-
mended, giving him two ounces of nitre every day
mixed into a ball with honey; and bathe the parts above
the eye with verjuice, or vinegar, wherein rofe-leaves
are infufed; to four ounces of which, half a dram of
fugar of lead may be added. The fwelling on the lid
may afterwards be bathed with a fponge dipt in equal
parts of lime and Hungary water, mixed together: the
coolingphyfic, (p. 3. col. j.par. 4. from bottom) fhould
be given every fourth day, till the eye becomes clear,
and recovers, its ufual brightnefs. The following is
alfo very proper phyficfor this purpofe.
Take lenitive eleduary and cream of tartar of each
four ounces, Glauber’s falls three ounces, fyrup
of buckthorn two ounces.
When the weeping is by thefe means removed, the al¬
terative powders (See the feclion. Of Alterative Me¬
dicines) ftiould be given every day, till two or three
pounds are taken, and after an interval of three months
the fame courfe ftiould be repeated. This method has
often been attended with good fuccefs,- where the eyes
have been full, and no way perilhed; in that cafe, bathe
or foment them with the following, twice a-day.
Take crude fal armoniac two drams, diflblve in a
pint of lime-water, and add to it four ounces of
brandy or Hungary water.
This will att as a ftimulus, and may help to thin and
rarify the gummy juices, &nd bring new fupplies of
nourifhment to the periftiing eyes.
This courfe not fucceeding, in order more power¬
fully to open the veffels of the cryftalline humour,
(which in thefe cafes is always found opake, and, when
the cataraft is confirmed, entirely lofesits tranfparency,)
and hinder as much as poffible the forming of obftruc-
tions, mercurials are chiefly to be depended on : thus
ive every other day, for three or four mornings, two
rams of calomel, mixed up with conferve of rofes ;
and then purge off with the common ball.
During this courfe, particular care fliould be taken
of the horfe : after repeating this, the alterative pow¬
ders before-mentioned fhould be given for fome weeks
or months if you expect any benefit from them ; or
they may be beat up into a ball with live millepedes,
and an ounce and a half given every day; if thefe
(hould not fucceed, and the horfe is a valuable one, the
turbith courfe recommended in the fe&ion on altera¬
tives feems to be the moft promifing method left.
But to horfes that are not fo, an ounce of antimony,
ground into an impalpable powder, may be given every
day in one of his feeds for three months or longer: or
a ftrong decoftion of guaiacum (havings may be given
for fome time, to which crude antimony may be added,
in the following manner.
Take guaiacum (havings one pound, crude antimony
tied in a rag the fame quantity ; boil in two gal¬
lons of forge-water to one, and give a quart a-day,
either alone, or mixed with his water.
15. The haws is a fwelling and fponginefs that grows
in the inner corner of the eye, fo large fometimes as to
cover a part of the eye. The operation here is ealily
performed by cutting part of it away; but the farriers
are apt to cut away too much: the wound may be
drefled with honey of rofes; and if a fungus or fpongy
flelh arifes, it (hould be fprinkled with burnt alum, or
touched
Sea. xii.
Of the touched with blue vitriol.
Glanders.
  Sect. XII. Of the Glanders.
The caufe and feat of the glanders has till lately-
been fo imperfeftly handled, and fo little underftood
by the writers of this diftemper, that it is no wonder
it (hould be ranked among the incurables: but a new
light having been thrown on this whole affair by the
ftudy of M. La Fofie, the king of France’s farrier,
who has been at the pains to trace out, and difcover,
by diffecfions, the fource and caufe of this diforder;
we hope the method he has propofed, with fome further
experiments and improvements, will foon bring to a
certainty of cure (in molt cafes at lead) a diftemper fo
dangerous to our horfes, and that hitherto has eluded
the force of art.
M. de la Foffe has diftinguifhed feven different kinds
of glanders, four of which are incurable.
The firft proceeds from ulcerated lungs, the purulent
matter of which comes up the trachea, and is dif-
charged through the nodrils, like a whitifh liquor,
fometimes appearing in lumps and grumes : in this
diforder, though the matter is difcharged from the no-
ftrils, yet the malady is folely in the lungs.
The fecond is a wafting humour, which ufually feizes
horfes at the decline of a difeafe, caufed by too hard
labour; this defluxion alfo proceeds from the lungs.
The third is a malignant difeharge, which attends
the ftrangles fometimes, and falls upon the lungs, which
runs off by the noftrils.
The fourth is, when an acrimonious humour in the
farcy feizes thefe parts, where it foon makes terrible
havock.
The fifth kind we fhall defcribe by and by, as arifing
from taking cold.
The fixth kind is a difeharge from the ftrangles,
which fometimes vents itfelf at the noftrils.
Thefe are the various diforders which have been ob-
ferved fometimes to throw matter out from the noftrils;
let us now defcribe the real glanders.
The matter, then, difeharged from the noftrils of a
glandered horfe, is either white, yellow, or greenilh,
fometimes ftreaked or tinged with blood : when the
difeafe is of long Handing, and the bones are fouled,
the matter turns blackifh, and becomes very fetid ; and
is always attended with a fwelling of the kernels or
glands under the jaws; in every other refpedl the horfe
is generally healthy and found, till the diftemper has
been of fome continuance.
It is always a bad fign when the matter flicks to the
infide of the noftrils like glue or ftiff pafte ; when the
infide of the nofe is raw, and looks of a livid or lead
colour; when the matter becomes bloody, and flunks;
and when it looks of an afh-colour. But when only a
limpid fluid is firft difeharged, and afterwards a whitifh
matter, the gland under the jaw not increafing, and
the diforder of no long continuance, we may expedl a
fpeedy cure ; for in this cafe, which arifes from taking
cold after a horfe has been overheated, the pituitary
membrane is but {lightly inflamed, the lymph in the
fmall veffels condenfed, and the glands overloaded, but
not yet ulcerated.
From thefe fymptoms, and fome obfervations made
both by Bracken and Gibfon, it is plain they were not
abfolute ftrangers to the feat of this diforder, though
( '5 ) ,
they neglefled puffing their inquiries to the fountain- Of the
head, and confequently were at a lofs to know how to Glanders.
apply the remedy to the parts affedled.
But our author, after examining by diffedlion the
carcafes of glandered horfes, and making a ftridl feru-
tiny into the ftate of the vifeera, aflitted for that pur-
pofe by ingenious and expert anatomifts, for ten years
together, affirms this difeafe to be altogether local; and
that the true feat of it is in the pituitary membrane
which lines the partition along the infide of the nofe,
the maxillary finufes or cavities of the cheek-bones on
each fide the nofe, and the frontal finufes or cavities
above the orbits of the eyes. That the vifeera, as liver,
lungs, &c. of glandered horfes, are in general exceeding
found ; and confequently that the feat of this diforder
is not in thofe parts, as has been afferted by moft au¬
thors. Nor indeed is it probable it ffiould : for how
could fuch horfes preferve their appetite, their good
appearance, fleek and ffining coats ; in a word, all the
figns of health, for many years together (which many
glandered horfes are knowm to enjoy), with fuch dif-
tempered bowels ?
But on nicely examining the heads of fuch horfes,..
he found the cavities above-mentioned more or lefs filled
with a vifeous flimy matter, and the membrane which
lines both them and the noftrils inflamed, thickened,
and corroded with fordid ulcers, which in fome cafes
had eat into the bones.
He obferves, that when glandered horfes difeharged
matter from both noftrils, both fides of the membrane
and cavities were affedled ; but when they ran at one
noftril only, that fide only was found diftempered.
It is a curious remark of our author, that the fub-
lingual glands, or the kernels fituated under the jaw¬
bone, which are always fwelled in this diftemper, do
not difeharge their lymph into the mouth, as in man,
but into the noftrils; and that he conftantly found their
obftruftion agreed with the difeharge : if one gland
only was affeded, then the horfe difeharged from one
noftril only ; but if both were, then the difeharge was
from both.
The feat of this diforder thus difeovered, our author
with great ingenuity has paved the way for cure, by
trepanningthefe cavities, and taking out a pieceof bone,
by which means the parts affe£led may be waffied with
a proper inje&ion, and in fine the ulcers deterged,
healed, and dried up.
But as, from the obfervations fince made by this gen¬
tleman, there are different fpecies of the glanders, fo
the cure of the milder kinds may firft be attempted by
injections and fumigations: thus, after taking cold,
ffiould a horfe for 15 or 20 days difeharge a limpid fluid
or w-hitiffi matter from one or both noftrils, the glands
under the jaw rather growing harder than diminiffiing,
we may expeA it will degenerate into a true glanders.
To prevent which, after firft bleeding, and treating
him as we have direAed for a cold, let an emollient in-
jeAion, prepared with a decoAion of linfeed, marffi-
mallows, elder, camomile flowers, and honey of rofes,
or fuch like, be thrown up as far as poffible with a
ftrong fyringe, and repeated three times a-day ; ffiould
the running not leffen or be removed in a fortnight by
the ufe of this injeAion, areftringent one may now be
prepared with tinAure of. rofes, lime-water, &c. and
the noftrils fumigated with the powders of frankincerife,
maitich.
FARRIERY.
( i6 ) FARR
Of the Colic maftich, amber, and cinnabar, burnt on an iron heated
for that purpofe; the fume of which may eaiily be con¬
veyed through a tube into the noftrils.
This method has been found fuccefsful when ufed in
time : but the methods of cure depend on the ftubborn-
nefs of the diforder; and when inveterate, recourfe mull
be had to the operation above defcribed.
Sect. XIII. Of the Colic or Gripes, and Pains in
the Bowels, from fudden accidents.
There feems to be no diftemper fo little underftood
by the common farrier, as the colic or gripes in horfes,
one general remedy or method ferving them in all cafes :
but as this diforder may be produced by very different
caufes, the method of cure muft alfo vary ; otherwife
the intended remedy, injudicioufly applied, will not
only aggravate the complaint, but make it fatal. We
fhall divide this diforder into three different fpecies.: the
flatulent or windy, the bilious or inflammatory, and
the dry gripes ; each of which we fhall diftinguifh by
their different fymptoms, and then point out the pro¬
per remedies.
i. The flatulent or windy colic is thus known. The
horfe is often lying down, and as fuddenly rifing again
with a fpring; he ftrikes his belly with his hinder feet,
itamps with his fore-feet, and refufes his meat; when
the gripes are violent, he will have convulfive twitches,
his eyes be turned up and his limbs ftretched out as if
dying, his ears and feet being alternately very hot and
cold; he falls into profufe fweats, and then into cold
damps; ftrives often to dale, and turns his head fre¬
quently to his flanks ; he then falls down, rolls about,
and often turns on his back ; this laft fymptom pro¬
ceeds from a ftoppage of urine, that almoft always at¬
tends this fort of colic, which may be increafed by a
load of dung prdling on the neck of the bladder.
Thefe are the general fymptoms of colic and gripes
from wind, drinking cold water when hot, and when
the perfpirable matter is retained, or thrown on the
bowels by catching cold ; in all which cafes they are
violently diflended. Cribbing horfes are more parti¬
cularly fubjeft to this complaint, by reafon they are
conftantly fucking in great quantities of air.
The firft intention is to empty the ftrait gut with a
fmall hand dipt in oil, which frequently makes way for
the confined wind to difcharge itfelf; and by eafing
the neck of the bladder, the fupprefiion of urine is taken
off, and the horfe ftales and gets eafe.
The following ball and glyfter feldom fail of giving
relief in thefe cafes.
Take Strafburgh or Venice turpentine, and juniper-
berries pounded, of each half an ounce ; falt-pru-
nella or falt-petre, an ounce; oil of juniper, one
dram ; fait of tartar, two drams: make into a ball
with any fyrup; it may be given whole, and walhed
down with a deco&ion of juniper-berries, or a horn
or two of ale.
If the hdrfe does not break wind, or ftale plenti¬
fully, he will find no relief: therefore in an hour or
two give him another ball, and add to it a dram of fait
of amber; which may be repeated a third time, if found
neceffary. During the fit the horfe may be walked
and trotted gently; but fhould by no means be haraffed
beyond his ability, or dragged about till he is jaded.
The following glyfter may be given, between the
I E R Y. Sea. XIII.
balls, or alone, and repeated occafionally. Of Gripes.
Take camomile flowers two handfuls ; annife, co- " '
riander, and fennel feeds, of each an ounce ; long
pepper half an ounce ; boil in three quarts of water
to two; and add Daffy’s elixir, or gin, half a
pint ; oil of_ amber half an ounce, and oil of ca¬
momile eight ounces.
The figns of a horfe’s recovery, are his lying quiet,
without ftarting, or tumbling, and his gathering up
his legs, and ceafing to lafti out; and if he continues
an hour in this quiet pofture, you.may conclude all
danger over.
2. The next fpecies of colic we fliall defcribe, is the
bilious or inflammatory; which befides moft of the
preceding fymptoms, is attended with a fever, great
heat, panting, and drynefs of the mouth : the horfe
alfo generally throws out a little loofe dung, with a
hot fcalding water; which, when it appears blackilh,
or of a redifli colour, and fetid fmell, denotes an ap¬
proaching mortification.
In this cafe the horfe fliould immediately be bled to
the quantity of three quarts; and it fliould be repeated,
if the fymptoms do not abate in a few hours. The
emollient glyfter, with two ounces of nitre diffolved in
it, ftiould be thrown up twice a-day, to cool the in¬
flamed bowels; plenty of gum-arabic water fliould be
taken, and a pint of the following drink given every
two or three hours till feveral loofe ftoolsare procured,
and then it fliould be given only night and morning till
the diforder is removed.
Take fenna three ounces, fait of tartar half an ounce;
infufe in a quart of boiling water an hour or two;
then ftrain off, and add two ounces of lenitive e-
leduary, and four of Glauber’s falls.
If this diforder is not removed by thefe means, but
the inflammation and fever increafe, attended with a
difcharge of the flefli-coloured water above defcribed,
the event will moft probably be fatal: and the chief
thing to be depended on now, muft be a ftrong de-
coftion of Jefuit’s bark, given to the quantity of a pint
every three hours, with a gill of red port-wine.
A quart of the fame may be ufed for a glyfter, with
two ounces of Venice turpentine, diffolved with the
yolks of two eggs, an ounce of difacordium, and a pint
of red wine, and given twice a-day: if the horfe re¬
covers, give two or three mild rhubarb purges.
3. The laft we fliall defcribe is the dry gripes, or the
colic, which arifes often from coftivenefs; it is difco-
vered by the horfe’s frequent and fruitlefs motion to
dung, the blacknefs and hardnefs of the dung, the fre¬
quent and quick motion of his tail, the high colour of
his urine, and his great reftleffnefs and uneafinefs.
In this cafe the ftrait gut ftiould be examined and
emptied with a fmall hand oiled properly for that pur¬
pofe; the emollient oily glyfter (p. 4. col. 1. par. 2.)
ftiould be thrown up twice a-day; and the above pur¬
ging drink given, till the bowels are unloaded, and the
fymptoms removed.
The diet for a horfe in the gripes, fliould be (calded
bran, warm water-gruel, or white water, made by dif-
folving four ounces of gum-arabic in a quart of water,
and mixing it with his other water.
4. From this hiftory and divifion of gripes and colics,
with their different treatment, it appears how abfo-
lutely neceffary it is they fliould be well underftood, in
order
Sea. XIV. FARR
Of the order to be managed flulfully: it is plain too, that vi-
1,ax and 0]ent ^ot medicines fhould in every fpecies of this
a’ diforder be guarded againft, and given with great cau-
  tion and dil'cretioh, even in the firft. kind of flatulent
colic, where indeed they can only be wanted; yet too
often, when prepared by the farriers with oil of tur¬
pentine, geneva, pepper, and brine, they even in-
creafe that diforder, by ftimulating the neck of the
bladder, too forcibly heating the blood, and inflaming
the bowels, till a mortification is brought on them.
Thefe are, in general, the conflant appearances of ho«-
fes that die of this diforder ; whofe bowels being ex¬
amined for that purpofe, have been found inflamed,
full of red and livid fpots, fometimes quite black,
crifped with extreme heat, and rotten.
Sect. XIV. Of the Lax and Scouring, ivith other
Diforders of the Stomach and Bowels.
It is fometimes a nice matter to form a proper judg¬
ment when to controul or encourage a loofenefs; but
thefe general rules may be a direction : If a healthy
full horfe, on taking cold, or upon hard riding, over¬
feeding, eating unwholefome food, or with a flight
fever, (hould have a moderate purging, by no means
think of flopping it ; but rather encourage it with an
open diet, and plenty of warm gruel: but if it con¬
tinues long, with gripings, the mucus of the bowels
coming away, and the horfe lofing his appetite and
flefli, it is then high time to give him proper medicines;
if he voids great quantities of flime and greafy matter,
give him the following drench, and repeat it every other
day for three times.
Take lenitive eledfuary and cream of tartar of each
four ounces, yellow rofin finely powdered one
ounce, and four ounces of fweet oil; mix with a
pint of water-gruel.
The following alterative ball alone has been found
fuccefsful for this purpofe when given twice a-week,
with fealded bran and warm gruel.
Take focotorine aloes half an ounce, diapente one
ounce; make into a ball with the juice of Spa-
nifli liquorice difiblved in water, and a fpoonful
of oil of amber.
To this may be added two drams of myrrh, and a
dram offaffron, and (where it can be afforded) half an
ounce of rhubarb.
When the purging is attended with a fever, rhubarb
fhould firft be given to the quantity of half an ounce,
with an ounce and half of lenitive eledtuary ; at night,
after the working, give half an ounce or more of diaf-
cordium in a pint of red wine mulled with cinnamon;
and repeat it every day, and the rhubarb-ball once in
two or three.
But if the diftemper increafes, the horfe’s flanks and
belly look full and diftended, and he appears griped
and in pain, let this glyfter be given, and the quantity
of diafeordium increafed an ounce in his night-drink.
Take camomile flowers one handful, red rofes half
a handful, pomegranate and baulauftines of each
an ounce; boil in two quarts of water to one;
ftrain off, and diffolve in it two or three ounces of
diafeordium, and one of mithridate; to which
may be added a pint of port wine: repeat it once
a-day.
If the flux continues violent, give an ounce of rock-
I E R Y. i( 17 )
alum, with an ounce and a half of bole, twice a-day ; Of the
or, diffolve double this quantity with two ounces of dia- f ^
fcordium, and the cordial ball, in two quarts of harts- C°s^c' ^'
horn drink ; to which may be added a pint of port; 1_
and give the horfe, three or four times a-day, a pint of
this drink.- For this purpofe alfo a ftrong deco&ion
of oak-bark may be given, with either of the above re¬
medies, and to the fame quantity ; even by itfelf, it
will be found on trial no inconfiderable remedy.
When the difeharge is attended with an acrid mucus
or flime, the griping and pains are very fevere, the
common lining of the bowels being waftied away; in
this cafe the following glyfter fhould frequently be in¬
jected warm.
Take of tripe-liquor or thin ftarch two quarts, oil
of olives half a pint, the yolk of fix eggs well
broke, and two or three ounces of coarfe fugar.
Some horfes, having naturally weak ftomachs and
bowels, throw out their aliment undigefted; their dung
is habitually foft and of a pale colour; they feed poorly,
and get no flefli: to remedy this complaint, give the
following purge two or three times; and then the in-
fufion to the quantity of a pint every morning.
Take focotorine aloes fix drams, rhubarb powdered
three drams, myrrh and faffron each a dram ;
make into a ball with fyrup of ginger.
Infufton.—Take zedoary, gentian, winters-bark,
and orange-peel, of each two ounces ; pome¬
granate-bark and balauftines of each an ounce ;
camomile-flowers and centaury, each a handful;
cinnamon and cloves, each an ounce: infufe in a
gallon of port or ftrong beer.
The bloody-flux is a diftemper horfes are not very
fubjedt to; however, as it fometimes does occur, when¬
ever blood is difeharged, attended with gripings and
great pain in the bowels, if the flux is not fpeedily re-
ftrained the horfe probably may be foon loft : we re¬
commend therefore the following glyfter and drink for
that purpofe.
Take oak-bark four ounces, tormentil-root two
ounces, burnt hartfhorn three ounces; boil in
three quarts of forge-water to two; ftrain off, and
add two ounces of diafeordium, four ounces of
ftarch, and half a dram of opium.
A glyfter may alfo be prepared with the fame quan¬
tity of fat broth, ftarch, and opium, in order to plafter
over the coats of the bowels, and abate their violent ir¬
ritations. Alfo,
Take foft chalk two ounces, mithridate or diafeor¬
dium one ounce, powder of Indian-root half a
dram, liquid laudanum 50 or 60 drops; diffolve
in a pint of hartfhorn drink, and add to it four
ounces of cinnamon-water and red wine; give it
twice a-day.
Gum-arabic diffolved in hartfhorn drink, or in com¬
mon water, fhould be the horfe’s ufual drink.
When horfes are apt to be coftive, from whatever
caufe it arifes, gentle openers fhould be given ; fuch as
cream of tartar, Glauber’s falts, and lenitive ele&uary:
four ounces of any two of thefe diffolved in warm ale,
whey, or water, given every other morning for two or
three times, will anfwer this purpofe ; efpecially if af-
fifted by an oily emollient glyfter, prepared with a
handful of fait. Scalded bran or barley, with an ounce
of fenugreek and linfeed, o.ccafionally given, will pre-
[ c ] vent
Sed.
( 18 ) FARR
Of Worms vent this complaint: but where it is conftitutional,
and Botts. an^ proceeds from the power and force of digeftion in
the ftomach and guts, as fometimes happens, and the
horfe is in perfefi health, no inconvenience will arife
from it; and it is obferved that fuch horfes are able to
endure great fatigue and labour.
Sect. XV. Of Worms and Botts.
Authors have defcribed three different forts of
worms that affedl horfes, viz. Bvtts> which young
horfes'are often troubled with in the fpring ; the Ro-
tundi, or thofe refembling earth-worms ; and the Af-
carides, or thofe about the fize of the larged fewing
needle, with flat heads.
The botts which breed in the ftomachs of horfes,
and are fometimes the caufe of convuliions, appear to
be very large maggots, compofed of circular rings,
with little fharp prickly feet along the fides of their
bellies (like the feet of hog-lice), which by their fliarp-
nefs (like the points of the fined needles) feem to be
of ufe to faden them to the part where they breed and
draw their nourifhment, and to prevent their being
loofened from fuch adhefion before they come to matu¬
rity. The eggs from whence thofe botts are produced,
are difperfed into cinders all round the lower orifice of
the domach, and are laid under the inner coat or thin
membrane of the flomach; fo that when the animals
come to form and life, they burfl through this inner coat
with their breech and tail draight outwards, and their
trunks fo fixed into the mufcular or flefliy coat of the
ftomach, that it fometimes requires a good pull to
difengage them; from the blood of this lad coat
they draw their nourilhment, which they fuck like
fo many leeches, every one ulcerating and purfing
up the part where it fixes like a honey-comb ; and
they often make fuch quick havock, as to deftroy the
horfe.
The fymptoms of worms are various. • The botts
that many horfes are troubled with in the beginning of
the funvmer, are always feen flicking on the flrait gut,
and are often thrufl out with the dung, with a yellowifli
coloured matter like melted fulphur: they are no ways
dangerous there; but are apt to mak^ a horfe reftlefs
and uneafy, and rub his breech againft the polls. The
feafon of their coming is ufually in the months of May
and June; after which they are feldom to be feen, and
rarely continue in any one horfe above a fortnight or
three weeks. Thofe that take their lodgment in the
ftomach, are extremely dangerous by caufing convul-
fions ; and are feldom difcovered by any previous figns
before they come to life, when they throw a horfe into
violent agonies. The other kinds are more trouble-
fome than dangerous; but are known by the following
figns: The horfe looks lean and jaded, his hair flares
as if he was furfeited, and nothing he eats makes him
thrive ; he often ftrikes his hind-feet againft his belly;
is fometimes griped, but without the violent fymptoms
that attend a colic and ftrangury ; for he never rolls
and tumbles, but only fhews uneafinefs, and generally
lays himfelf down quietly on his belly for a little while,
and then gets up and falls a feeding; but the fureft
fign is when he voids them with his dung.
For the cure of botts in the ftomach, calomel ftiould
firft be given in large quantities, and repeated at proper
intervals; jEthiops mineral, or fome of the under-men-
I E R Y.
tioned forms, may be given afterwards.
But botts in the ftrait gut may be cured by giving
the horfe a fpoonful of favin, cut very fmall, once or
twice a-day in his oats or bran, moiftened; and three
or four of cloves of garlick may be added to advantage.
Give alfo an aloetic purge between whiles; the fol¬
lowing Hands recommended.
Take fine focotorine aloes, ten drams ; frefh jalap,
one dram ; ariftolochia, or birthwort, and myrrh
powdered, of each two drams; oil of favin and
amber, of each one dram ; fyrup of buckthorn
enough to form into a ball.
But as the fource of w’orms in general proceeds from
a vitiated appetite and a weak digeftion, recourfe mud
fird be had to mercurials, and afterwards to fuch things
as are proper to ftrengthen the ftomach, promote di¬
geftion, and, by deftroying the fuppofed ova, prevent
the regeneration of thefe animals. Thus, two drams
of calomel may be given with half an ounce of diapente,
and mixed up with conferveof wormwood, over-night;
and the next morning the above purge : thefe may be
repeated fix or eioht days. Or the following mercurial
purge may be given, which will be lefs troublefome,
and no lefs efficacious.
Take crude quick-filver two drams, Venice turpen¬
tine half an ounce; rub the quick-filver till no
liftening appears; then add an ounce of aloes, a
ram of grated ginger, 30 drops of oil of favin,
and a fufficient quantity of fyrup of buckthorn to
make a ball.
One of thefe balls may be given every fix days, with
the ufual precautions in regard to mercurial phyfic ;
and the following powder intermediately.
Take powdered tin and iEthiops mineral of each
half an ounce: give every night in a malh, or
among his corn.
The various preparations of antimony and mercury
muft be given feveral weeks together, in order to get
entire riddance of thefe vermin. The jEthiops mineral
may be given to the quantity of half an ounce a-day;
the mercurius alkalifatus to two drams a-day, incor¬
porated with a bit of cordial ball. The cinnabar pow¬
ders, as dire&ed in the farcy, are no lefs effeftual: and
when worms are bred from high feeding, or unvvhole-
fome food; rue, garlick, tanfy, favin, box, and many
other fimples, may be given fuccefsfully ; being for
that purpofe mixed with their food ; as alfo cut to¬
bacco, from half an ounce to an ounce a-day.
Sect. XVI. Of the Yellows^ or Jaundice.
Horses are frequently fubjetfl to this diftemper ;
which is known by a duflty yellownefs of the eyes; the
infide of the mouth and lips, the tongue, and bars of
the roof of the mouth, looking alfo yellow. The horfe
is dull, and refufes all manner of food; the fever is
flow, yet both that and the yellownefs increafe toge¬
ther. The dung is often hard and dry, of a pale yel¬
low, or light pale green. His urine is commonly of
a dark dirty brown colour; and when it has fettled
fome time on the pavement, it looks red like blood.
He dales with fome pain and difficulty ; and if the dif¬
temper is not checked foon, grows delirious and fran¬
tic. The off-,fide of the belly is fometimes hard and
diftended ; and in old horfes, when the liver has been
long difeafed, the cure is not practicable, and ends fa-
Sea. XVII. FARR
Diforders tally with a wafting diarrhoea: but when the diftemper
t^e is recent, and in young horfes, there is no fear of a
and'ekdder recovery, if the following dire&ions are obferved.
 1 Firft of all bleed plentifully ; and give the laxative
glyfter (p. 5. col. 2. par. 1.) as horfes are apt to be
very cofxive in this diftemper ; and the next day give
him this purge :
Take of Indian rhubarb powdered one ounce and a
half, faffron two drams, focotorine aloes fix drams,
fyrup of buckthorn a fufficient quantity.
If the rhubarb fnould be found too expeufive, omit
it, and add the fame quantity of cream of tartar, and
half an ounce of Caftile foap, with four drams more of
aloes. This may be repeated two or three times, gi¬
ving intermediately the following balls and drink.
Take of Ethiops mineral half an ounce, millepedes
the fame quantity, Caftile foap one ounce ; make
into a ball, and give one every day, and wa(h it
down with a pint of the following decq&ion.
Take madder-root and turmerick of each four oun¬
ces, burdock-root fliced half a pound, Monk’s
rhubarb four ounces, liquorice fliced two ounces;
boil in a gallon of forge-water to three quarts;
{train off, and fweeten with honey.
Balls of Caftile foap and tumerick may be given alfo
for this purpofe to the quantity of three or four ounces
a-day, and will in moft recent cafes fucceed.
By thefe means the diftemper generally abates in a
week, which may be difcovered by an alteration in the
horfe’s eyes and mouth; but the medicines mult be con¬
tinued till the yellownefs is entirely removed. Should
the diftemper prove obftinate, and not fubmit to this
treatment, you muft try more potent remedies, viz.
mercurial phyfic, repeated two or three times at proper
intervals ; and then the following balls.
Take fait of tartar two ounces, cinnabar of anti¬
mony four ounces, live millepedes and filings of
fteel of each three ounces, faffron half an ounce,
Caftile or Venice foap half a pound; make.into
balls, the fize of a pullet’s egg, with honey; and
give one night and morning, with a pint of the
above drink.
It will be proper, on his recovery, to give two or
three mild purges ; - and, if a fat full horfe, to put in a
rowel.
Sect. XVII. Of the Diforders of the Kidneys
and Bladder.
The figns of the kidneys being hurt or affe&ed are,
a weaknefs of the back and loins, difficulty of ftaling,
faintnefs, lofs of appetite, and deadnefs in the eyes;
the urine is thick, foul, and fometimes bloody, efpe-
cially after a violent ftrain. A horfe difeafed in his
kidneys can feldom back, that is, move ftraight back¬
wards, without pain, which is vifible as often as he is
put to the trial: the fame thing is obfervable indeed
in horfes whofe backs have been wrung and wrenched;
but with this difference, that in the latter there is fel¬
dom any defeat or alteration in the urine, except that
it is higher coloured.
Bleeding is the prime remedy, and that plentifully,
in order to prevent inflammation; and the more fo, if
a fever attends a difficulty in ftaling, for then we may
fufpedi the kidneys already inflamed. A rowel in the
belly has been found ufeful ; and the following balls
I E R Y. ( i9 )
may be given twice or thrice a-day, with a pint of Difqrdcrs
marftimallow decoftion, in which half an ounce of gum tlie
arable is diffolved, with an ounce of honey.
rr\ r n t ir r • e- andUlaader,
1 ake LiOcateiJus-baJiam one ounce, ipermaceti fix   ,,,
drams, fal prunella half an ounce ; mix into a ball
with honey : if the urine is bloody, add half an
ounce of Japan earth.
Should the fever continue, bleed largely, give emo-
lient glyfters, and the cooling opening drink, (p. 5.
col. 1. par. 5.) till it abates.
If the urine paffes with difficulty and pain, notwith-
ftanding thefe means, give this ball, and repeat it twice
or thrice a-day till the horfe ftales freer and without
pain, his urine become of a right confiftence, and free
from any purulent fediment.
Take balfam of copivi or Straflmrg turpentine, and
Venice foap, of each one ounce, nitre fix drams,
myrrh powdered two drams; make into a ball
with honey, and wafti it down with the marfh-
mallow deco&ion.
As a fupprelfion of urine arifes fometimes from an
inflammation of the kidneys; fo at others, from a pa¬
ralytic diforder, difabling them in their office of fepara-
ting the urine from the blood : in this latter cafe, the
bladder is ufually empty, fo that a horfe will make no
motion to ftale; and if he continues a few days in this
condition, his body will fwell to a great degree, break
out in blotches all over, and death will foon clofe the
feene.
If it arifes from inflammation, bleed largely, and
treat the horfe as above recommended ; but if not, give
fiimulating glyfters, and ftrong diuretics, fuch as the
following balls, once in four hours: for if a horfe ftales
not in 30 hours, his danger muft be great.
Take juniper-berries powdered one ounce, fal pru¬
nella fix drams, etherial oil of turpentine half an
ounce, camphor one dram, oil of juniper two
drams; make into a ball with honey, and give
after it three or four horns of the marftimallow
.deco&ion and honey.
Or, Take fquills powdered two or three drams,
' nitre half an ounce ot fix drams; make into a ball
with honey.
If the complaint is not removed bythefe means, rub
the horfe’s reins well with two parts of oil of turpen¬
tine, and one of oil of amber; and apply a poultice of
garlic, horfe-radifti, muftard-feed, camphor, and green
foap, fpread on thick cloth, over them. Give the horfe
alfo two drams of calomel over night, and a moderate
purge the next morning. Thefe perhaps are the chief
and beft remedies that can be given in this generally
fatal diforder.
When the ftrangury in a horfe does not arife from
wind, or dung prefling on the neck of the bladder (as
was obferved in the Sedtion on Colics), the caufe is from
inflammation, or too long a retention of the urine. Such
horfes make frequent motions to ftale, ftand wide and
ftraddling, are full, and have their flanks diftended.
In this cafe bleed largely; give the following drink,
and repeat it every two hours, for two or three times,
till the horfe is relieved.
Take Venice turpentine, broke with the yolk of
an egg, one ounce, nitre or fal prunella fix drams,
half a pint of fweet oil, and a pint of white wine.
If this drink fhould not have the defired effedl, the
[ c 2 ] diuretic
( 20
Of
Molten-
greafc.
I E R Y. Sea. XVIII.
bove two or three days in a week ; neither will he lofe Of Surfeits,
his flefli or appetite with them, but on the contrary &c-
mend in both; which cannot be obtained by any other"
method of purging, and gives this greatly the preference
in many cafes.
Sect. XIX. Of Surfeits, Mange, and Hide¬
bound.
) FARR
diuretic ball abovementioned may be given in the fame
manner, omitting the myrrh.
Give the horfe plenty of the marfhmallow-deco&ion;
in a quart of which diffolve an ounce of nitre and gum
arabic, and two of honey.
Horfes fubjeft to a diabetes, or profufe ftaling, if
old, or of a weak conftitution, are feldom cured; they
foon lofe their flefli and appetite, grow feeble, their
coat flaring, and they die rotten. Of a young horfe
there are more hopes ; but he muft not be indulged
with too much water, or moift food. Give him the
following:
Take jefuits bark four onnces, biftort and tormen-
til-root of each two ounces ; boil in two gallons
of lime-water to the confumption of half, and give
a pint three times a-day.
As this diforder generally proceeds from too violent
exercife, over-ftraining, See. repeated bleedings in fmall
quantities are abfolutely neceffary, till the mouths of
the veflels clofe up.
Sect. XVIIL Of Molten-greafe.
By molten-greafe is meant a fat or oily difeharge
with the dung; and it arifes from a colliquation or melt¬
ing down of the fat of a horfe’s body by violent exer-
cife in very hot weather. It is always attended with a
fever, heat, reftleffnefs, ftarting and tremblings,, great
inward ficknefs, fliortnefs of breath, and fometimes with
the fymptoms of a pleurify. His dung will be ex¬
tremely greafy, and he will fall into a icouring ; his
blood will have a thick fldn or fat over it when cold,
of a white or yellow hue, but chiefly the latter; the
congealed part or fediment is commonly a mixture of
fize and greafe, which makes it fo extremely flippery,
that it will not adhere to the fingers, and the fmall
portion of ferum feels alfo flippery and clammy. The
horfe foon lofes his flefli and fat, which probably is dif-
folved and abforbed into the blood ; and thofe that fur-
vive this ftiock commonly grow hide-bound for a time,
their legs fwelling both before and behind, and con¬
tinue in this flate till the blood and juices are reftified;
and if this is not done effectually, the farcy, or fome
• obftinate forfeit, generally follows very difficult to re¬
move.
In the fir ft place bleed plentifully, and repeat it for
two or three days fucceffively in fmaller quantities ;
two or three rowels fliould alfo be immediately put in,
and the cooling emollient glyfters (p. 5. col. 2. par.
2, 3.) daily thrown up to abate the fever, and drain
off the greafy matter from the inteftines. By the
mouth give plenty of warm water or gruel, with
cream of tartar or nitre, to dilute and attenuate the
blood, which in this cafe is greatly difpofed to run into
grumes, and endanger a total ftagnation.
When the fever is quite gone off, and the horfe has
recovered his appetite, gentle aloetic purges {hould be
given once a-week, for a month or fix weeks, in order
to bring down the fwelled legs. To this end give the
following; which, repeated for fome time, will entirely
remove this diforder.
Take of focotorine aloes fix drams, of gum guaia-
cum powdered half an ounce, of diaphoretic an¬
timony and powder of myrrh of each two drams;
make into a ball with fyrup of buckthorn.
Thefe will feldom take a horfe from his bufinefs a-
Surkeits arife from various caufes; but are com¬
monly the effe&s of fome difeafes not attended to, or
that have been ill cured.
A horfe is faid to be furfeited, when his coat flares,
and looks rufty and dirty, though proper means have
not been wanting to keep him clean. The {kin is full
of feales and dander, that lies thick and meally among
the hair, „and is conflantly fupplied with a frefti fuc-
ceffion of the fame, for want of due tranfpiration. Some
horfes have hurdles of various fixes, like peas or tares ;
fome have dry fixed fcabs all over their limbs and bo¬
dies ; others a moifture, attended with heat and inflam¬
mation ; the humours being fo {harp, and violently
itching, that the horfes rub fo inceffantly, as to make
themfelves raw. Some have no eruptions at all; but
an unwholefome look, and are dull, fluggifh, and lazy :
fome appear only lean and hide-bound; others have
flying pains and lamenefs, refembling a rheumatifm :
fo that in the furfeits of horfes, we have almoft all the
different fpecies of the feurvy and other chronical dif-
tempers.
The following method is ufually attended with fuc-
cefs in the dry ipecies. Firft take away about three
or four pounds of blood, and then give the following
mild purge, which will work as an alterative, and
fllould be repeated once a-week or ten days for fome
time.
Take focotorine aloes fix drams or one ounce, gum
guaiacum half an ounce, diaphoretic antimony
and powder of myrrh of each'two drams; make
into a ball with fyrup of buckthorn.
In the intermediate days, an ounce of the following
powder fliould be given, morning and evening, in his
feeds.
Take native cinnabar, or cinnabar of antimony,
finely powdered, half a pound ; crude antimony,
in fine powder, four ounces; gum guaiacum, alfo
in powder, four ounces; make into x6 dofes for
eight days.
This medicine muft be repeated till the horfe coats
well, and all the fymptoms of furfeit difappear.
The wet furfeit, which is no more than a moift run¬
ning feurvy, appears on different parts of the body of
a horfe, attended fometimes with great heat and in¬
flammation; the neck oftentimes fwells fo in one night’s
time, that great quantities of a hot briny humour iffue
forth, which, if not allayed, will be apt to colleft on
the poll or withers, and produce the poll-evil or fiftula.
This difeafe alfo frequently attacks the limbs, where it
piroves obftinate and hard to cure, and in fome horfes
{hows itsfelf fpring and fall.
In this cafe bleed plentifully, avoid externally all
repellers, and give cooling phyfic twice a-week; as,
four ounces off lenitive eleftuary, with the fame quan¬
tity of cream of tartar ; or the latter, with four ounces
©f Glauber’s falls, quickened, if thought proper, with
two or three drams of powder of jalap, difiblved in
water-
Sea. XX. FARR
Of the water-gruel, and given in a morning fading.
Farcin. After three or four of thefe purges, two ounces of
nitre made into a ball with honey may be given every
morning for a fortnight; and if attended with fuccefs,
repeat it for a fortnight longer.
The powders above-mentioned may be alfo given
with the horfe’s corn ; or a ftrong decoction of guaia-
cum (havings or logwood may be given alone to the
quantity of two quarts a-day. Thefe, and indeed all
alterative medicines, mud be continued for a long time
where the diforder proves obdinate.
The diet (honld be cool and opening, asfcalded bran
or barley ; and if the horfe is hide-bound, an ounce of
fenugreek feeds (hould be given in his feeds for a month
or longer ; and, as this diforder often proceeds from
worms, give the mercurial phyfic too, and afterwards
the cinnabar powders, as above directed. But as in ge¬
neral it is not an original difeafe, but a fymptom only
of many, in the cure regard mud be had to the fird
caufe: thus, as it is an attendant on furfeits, fevers,
worms, &c. the removal of this complaint mud be va-
rioufly effe&ed.
In a mangy horfe the (kin is generally tawny, thick,
and full of wrinkles, efpecially about the mane, the
loins, and tail ; and the little hair that remains in thofe
parts dands aimed always draight out or bridly ; the
ears are commonly naked and Without hair, the eye and
eye-brows the fame ; and when it affe&s the limbs, it
gives them the fame afpe<d: yet the (kin is not raw, nor
peels off, as in the hot inflamed forfeit.
Where this didemper is caught by infeftion, if taken
in time it is very eafily cured : and we would recom¬
mend a fulphur ointment as mod effectual for that pur-
pofe, rubbed in every day. To purify and cleanfe the
blood, give antimony and fulphur for fome weeks after.
There are a great variety of external remedies for this
purpofe, fuch as train-oil and gun-powder, tobacco
deeped in chamber ley, &c. Solcfeyl recommends the
following.
Take burnt aluin and borax in fine powder of each
two ounces, white vitriol and verdigris pow¬
dered of each four ounces ; put them into a clean
pot, with two pounds of honey, dirring till they
are incorporated; when cold, add two ounces of
drong aqua-fortis.
But when this diforder is contra&ed by low feeding,
and poverty of blood, the diet mud be mended, and
the horfe properly indulged with hay and corn-. The
following ointments are effediually ufed for this diforder
rubbed into the parts affefted every day.
Take powdered brimdone, train-oil, and tar, of
each equal quantities ; to which may be added
ginger, or white hellebore.
Or, Take fulphur vivum half a pound, crude fal ar-
moniac one ounce, hogs lard or oil a fufficient
quantity to form into an ointment.
Thefe are both very powerful remedies for this dif¬
order, and can fcarce fail of fuccefs.
Sect. XX. Of the Farcin or Farcy.
The true farcy is properly a didemper of theblood-
veffels, which generally follows the traft of the veins,
and, when inveterate, thickens their coats and integu¬
ments, fo that they become like fo many chords. We
fliali not deferibe the different forts of farcies, feeing
I E R . Y. ( 2I )
they are only degrees of one and the fame didemper Of the
but proceed to paint the didemper by its fymptoms, Fircin.
which are pretty manifed to the eye.
At fird, one or more fmali fwellings, or round buds
like grapes or berries, fpring out over the veins, and
are often exquifitely painful to the touch; in the begin¬
ning they are hard, but foon turn into foft bliders,
which when broke difeharge an oily or bloody ichor,
and turn into very foul and ill-difpofed ulcers. In fome
horfes it appears on the head only; in fome on the ex-
ternal jugular; in others on the plate-vein, and runs
downwards on the infide of the fore-arm towards the
knee, and very often upwards towards the brilket; in
fome the farcy (hews itfelf on the hind-parts, about the
paderns, and along the large veins on the infide of the
thigh, riling upwards into the groin, and towards the
(heath; and fometimes the farcy makes its appearance
on the flanks, and fpreads by degrees towards the lower
belly, where it often becomes very troublefome.
When the farcy appears on the head only, it is eafily
cured; efpecially when it is feated- in the cheeks and
fore-head, the blood-veffels being here fmall: but it is
more difficult when it affe&s the lips, the nodrils, the
eyes, the kernels under the jaws, and other foft and
loofe parts, efpecially if the neck-vein becomes corded.
When it begins on the outfide of the {boulder or hips,
the cure is feldom difficult: but when the farcy arifes
on the plate-vei-n, and that vein fwells much, and turns
corded, and the glands or kernels under the arm-pit are
affe&ed, it is hard to cure; but more fo when the cru¬
ral veins within fide of the thigh are corded, and befet
with buds, which affe&s the kernels of the groin and
the cavernous body of the yard. When the farcy begins
on the patterns or lower limbs, it often becomes very
uncertain, unlefs a timely (lop is put to it; for the fwell-
ing in thofe dependant parts grows fo exceffively large
in fome conftitutions, and the limbs fo much disfigured
thereby with foul fores and callous ulcerations, that
fuch a horfe is feldom fit for any thing afterwards but
the meaneft drudgery: but it is always a promifing fign,
wherever the farcy happens to be fituated, if it fpreads i:<>
further. It is ufual to affeft only one fide at a tifrie ;
but when it paffes over to the other, it (hews great ma ¬
lignancy : when it arifes on the fpines, it is then for the
moil part dangerous ; and is always more fo to horfes
that are fat and full of blood, than to thofe that are in*
a more moderate cafe. When the farcy is epidemical,
as fometimes happens, it rifes on feveral parts of the
body at once, forms nafty foul ulcers, and makes a pro-
fufe running of greenilh bloody matter from both nof-
trils ; and foon ends in a miferable rot.
When the farcy makes its firft appearance on the head,
it rifes on the cheeks and temples, and looks like a net¬
work, or fmall creeping twigs full of berries. Some¬
times it inflames the eye, and fometimes little blifters or
buds run along the fide of the nofe. It arifes often on
the outfide of the (houlder, running along the fmall veins
with heat and inflammation ; and fometimes a few fmall
buds appear near the withers, and on the outfide of the
hip. In all thefe appearances, the difeafe being fuper-
ficial, and affeaing only the fmaller veffels, is eafily
conquered by the following method, when taken in
time | for the fimpleft farcy, if neglefled, may degene¬
rate into the word fort
This diftemper, then, being of an inflammatory na¬
ture*
( 22 ) FARR
Of the ture, and in a particular manner affefting the blood-
Farcy- veffels, muft neceffarly require large bleeding, particu¬
larly where the horfe happens to be fat and full of
blood. This always checks the beginning of a farcy, but
is of fmall fervice afterwards; and if a horfe is low in
flefh, the lofs of too much blood fometimes proves in¬
jurious. After bleeding, let the horfe have four ounces
of cream of tartar and lenitive ele&uary; which may be
.given every other day for a week, to cool the blood and
the body; and then give nitre three ounces a-day for
three weeks or a month, and anoint the buds or fwel-
lings with the following ointment twice a-day.
Take ointment of elder four ounces, oil of turpentine
two ounces, fugar of lead half an ounce, white vi¬
triol powdered two drams; mix together jn a
gally-pot.
The buds fometimes by this method are difperfed,
leaving only little bald fpots which the hair foon covers
tigain. When they break and run, if the matter be
thick and well digefted, they will foon be well: but in
order to confirm the cure, and to difperfe fome little
lumps which often remain for fome time on the ,lkin
without hair, give the liver of antimony for a month;
two ounces a-day for a fortnight, and then one ounce
a-day for the other fortnight : by following this me¬
thod, a farcy which affefts only the fmall veffels may
be (lopped in a week or ten days, and foon after totally
eradicated.
When the farcin affe&s the larger blood-veffels, the
cure is more difficult; but let it always be attempted
early: therefore, on the plate, thigh, or neck-veins
appearing corded, bleed immediately on the oppofite
fide, and apply the following to the corded vein.
Take oil of turpentine in a pint-bottle fix ounces,
oil of vitriol three ounces; drop the oil of vitriol
into the oil of turpentine by little at a time, other-
wife the bottle will burft; when it has done fmoak-
ing, drop in more oil of vitriol, and fo on till all
is mixed.
This mixture is one of the beft univerfals in a be¬
ginning farcy; but where it is feated in loofe flelhy
parts, as flanks or belly, equal parts of the oil of vitriol
and turpentine are neceffary.
Rub the parts firft with a woollen cloth, and then
apply fome of the mixture over the buds, and where-
ever there is any fwelling, twice a-day. Give the
cooling phyfic every other day, and then three ounces
of nitre every day for fome time.
When the farcy begins on the flanks, or towards the
lower belly, it often takes its rife from a fingle pun&ure
of a fliarp fpur. The pain and fmarting is one fure
fign to diftinguilh the farcy from common accidents;
the flaring of the hair, which Hands up like a tuft all
round the buds or blifters, and the matter that iffues
from the buds, which is always purulent and of a clammy
greafy confiftence, are other certain figns. After bath¬
ing with the mixture above mentioned till the ulcers
are fmooth and healing, (hould the fwelling not fubfide,
to prevent the fpreading of the buds, and to difperfe
them, bathe with either of thefe mixtures as far as the
centre of the belly; and at the fame time give a courfe
of antimonials as will prefently be preferibed.
Take fpirits of wine four ounces, oil of vitriol and
turpentine of each two ounces, white-wine vine¬
gar or verjuice fix ounces.
I E R Y. Sed. XX,
Or the following: of the
Take fpirits of wine re&ified four ounces, camphor farcy.
half an ounce, vinegar or verjuice fix ounces, white   
vitriol diffolved in four ounces of fpring-water
one ounce : mix together.
In the lower limbs the farcy lies fometimes concealed
for a great while; and makes fo flow a progrefs, that
it is often miftaken for greafe, or for a blow or kick,
and goes by the general appellation of a humour fettled
there. In order to diflinguifli the one from the other,
we (hall obferve, that a kick or bruife is generally at¬
tended with a hidden fwelling, or a contufed wound,
■ which for the moft part digefts eafily: the greafe is
alfo a fmooth fwelling that breaks out above the bend¬
ing of the pafterns backwards ; but the farcy begins on
the paflern joint ufually with one bud, and runs up¬
wards like a knotty crab-tree.
Very fimple means have fometimes flopped it, before
it has begun to fpread; a poultice with bran and ver¬
juice bound round the part and renewed once a-day will
often alone fucceed ; and if proud flefh {hoiffd arife,
touch it with oil of vitriol, or aqua-fortis, an hour be¬
fore you apply the poultice ; for when the diftemper
is local, as we fuppofe it here, it is to be conquered
by outward applications.
When the diflemper grows inveterate, and refifts the
above method, and the veffels continue corded, Gib-
fon recommends the following mixture.
Take linfeed oil half a pint; oil of turpentine and
falt-petre, of each three ounces ; tinfture of eu-
phorbium and hellebore, of each two drams; the
foldiers ointment, two ounces ; or oil of bays, or
oil of origanum, half an ounce: double aqua-fortis,
half an ounce: after the ebullition is over, add
two ounces of Barbadoes tar.
Rub this into the corded veins, and where ever there
is a fwelling, once in two or three days ; but if the
orifices are choked up with proud flefh, or the fkin
fo much thickened over the ulcers as to confine the
matter, in either cafe it is neceffary to make an open
paffage with a fmall hot iron, and deftroy the proud
flefh ; after which it may be kept down by touching
with oil of vitriol, aqua-fortis, or butter of antimony.
A lalve may be prepared with quickfilver and aqua-for¬
tis, rubbbing any quantity of the former with enough
of the latter to the confiftence of a liniment; fmear
the ulcers with this whenever they appear foul, and
you will find it preferable to moft other eating medi¬
cines.
Our farriers, after opening the buds, put in ufually
a fmall quantity of corrofive lublimate or arfenic, which
they call coring out the farcy ; this may anfwer where
the buds are few, and not fituated near large blood-
veffds, joints, or tendons: others ufe Roman vitriol,
or fublimate and vitriol in equal quantities ; but let
it be remembered, that many a horfe has been poifoned
by thefe medicines ignorantly ufed, and in too large
quantities.
The following balls are proper in every ftate of the
farcy ; and when the diflemper has been in its infancy,
before the Ikin was much defaced, has often cured it in
a week or two, by giving them only once or twice a-
day : but in an old farcy they ftiould be given for two
or three months together.
Take of native cinnabar, or cinnabar of antimony,
eight
Sea. XX. FARR
Of the eight ounces ; long bithwort and gum guaiacum
Farcy. powdered, of each four ounces : make into a palte
with honey, and form into balls of the iize of a
large walnut, and roll them into liquorice-powder.
The tedioufnefs of this courfe has encouraged the
giving of mercurials; and indeed, where they are di¬
rected with fkill, they mull be attended with fuccefs :
the ftronger preparations, as the red and white preci¬
pitates, and turbith, being combined with fharp faline
parts, may be hazardous and injurious ; but the latter
given in fmall quantities have been found very fuccefs-
ful in fuch kind of inveterate diforders. Mr Gibfon
fays, he has given it to a dram at a dofe, where the
limbs have been greatly fwelled ; that in 48 hours the
fores were all dried up, and the limbs reduced ; but
that it made the horfe fo violently fick for feveral days,
and fcoured him to fuch a degree, that it could not be
repeated.
One wrould have thought that the fuccefs attending
this njedicine fofuddenly, might have encouraged Gib¬
fon to have made further trials in fmaller quantities ;
which had he done, it is more than probable he would
not have been difappointed : for the grand fecret in
giving mercurials as alteratives, is the introducing them
into the blood, without operating on the ftomach and
bowels ; and to do this effectually, they muff be given
in fmall quantities, and fo bridled as to controul their
force on the firft paffages ; taken in this manner, they
will mix gradually with the blood and juices, and ope¬
rate both effectually and fafely.
Dr Braken recommends the knots and chords to be
rubbed with the mercurial ointment before they break
in order to difperfe them ; and after breaking, to drefs
the fores with equal parts parts of Venice turpentine
and quickfilver : if by thefe means the mouth ffould
become fore, treat as above.—This method feems to
be effectual, with proper care.
The following is alfo recommended by the fame gen¬
tleman :
Take butter of antimony and bezoar mineral, of
each one ounce ; beat up with half a pound of
cordial ball; and give the bignefs of a walnut, or
three quarters of an ounce, every day for two or
three w-eeks, failing twro or three hours after it.
We (hall here take notice of what is called the inci¬
ter farcy ; wrhich has no refemblance to a true farcy,
either in its caufe, fymptoms, or effedts, but has only
obtained this name through cuftom and ignorance.
This wrater-farcy, then, is of two kinds : one the pro¬
duct of a feveriih difpofition, terminating on the Ikin,
as often happens in epidemical colds; the other is drop-
fical, where the w'ater is not confined to the belly and
limbs, but (hew'S itfelf in feveral parts of the body by
foft fwellings yielding to the preffure of the finger.
This laft kind ufually proceeds from foul feeding, or
from the latter grafs and fog that often comes up in
great plenty with continued cold rains, and breeds a
(luggifh vifcid blood. In the former cafe, we have
fern the limbs and whole body enormoufly fwelled, and
very hard, the belly and (heath greatly diftended; which
were as furprifingly reduced in 24 hours, by (light fca-
rifications within-fide the leg and thigh with a (liarp pen¬
knife, and three or four (trokes on the (kin of the belly
on each fide the (heath: from thefe fcarifications there
was a conftant and furprifing large dripping of water,
1 E R y. (
which foon relieved the horfe; when a few purges com-
pleated his recovery.
In the other fpecies of dropfy the curative intentions
are to difcharge the water, recover the crafis or ftrength
of the blood, and brace up the relaxed fibres through¬
out the whole body. To this end, purge once a-week
or ten days ; and give intermediately either of the fol¬
lowing.
Take black hellebore fre(h gathered, two pounds ;
wafh, bruife, and boil in fix quarts of water, to
four ; and then (train out the liquor,, and put two
quarts of white-wine on the remaining hellebore,
and let it infufe warm 48 hours : then (train off,
mix both together, and give the horfe a pint night
and morning.
Take nitre two ounces, fquills powdered three dram.*
or half an ounce, camphor one dram, honey enough
to form into a ball, to be given once a-day alone,
or wafhed down with a horn or two of the above
drink.
Before we clofe this feCtion, it is proper to lay
down the fymptoms of an incurable farcy, that the
owners of fuch horfes may fave themfelves unneceffary
expenfe and trouble in their endeavours to obtain a
cure.
When a farcy, by improper applications, or by ne-
gle6t, has fpread and increafed, or after long continu¬
ance refilled the medicines above recommended; if frefli
buds are continually fpouting forth, while the old ones
remain foul and ill-conditioned; if they rife on the (pines
of the b#ck and loins ; if the horfe grows hide-bound,-
and runs at the nofe ; if abfceffes are formed in the
flefhy parts between the interllices of the large mufcles t
if his eyes look dead and lifelefs ; if he forfakes his
food, and fcours often, and his excrements appear thin
and of a blackilh colour; if the plate or thigh vein con¬
tinues large and chorded after firing and other proper
applications; thefe fyraptoms denote the diltemper ta
have penetrated internally, and that it will degenerate
into an incurable confumption : it is mod probable alfo
that the whole mafs of fluids are tainted, and become
irremediable by art.
Sect. XXL Of Alterative Medicines.
By alteratives, or altering medicines, are to be un-
derffood fuch as, having no immediate fenfible opera¬
tion, gradually gain upon the confiitution, by changing
the humours or juices from a (tate of diffemperature
to health. This intention in fome cafes may perhaps
be effefted by correcting the acrimony of the juices,,
and accelerating the blood’s motion ; and in others by
attenuating or breaking its particles, and dividing
thofe coheiions which obftruCt the capillaries or finer
veffels, and fo promote the due fecretions of the various-
fluids. It is certain, that many have but an indifferent
opinion of a medicine that does not operate externally,
and gratify their fenfes with a quantity of imagined
humours eje&ed from the body : but let fuch people
remember, that there are good humours as well as bad,
which are thrown off together; that no evacuating me¬
dicine has a power of feleCting or feparating the bad
from the good ; and confequently that they are thrown
out only in a proportionate quantity. Thefe few hints
may be fufficient to convince the judicious reader of the
great advantages ariling from alteratives, and the pre¬
ference
23 )
Of the
( H )
FARRIERY.
Sea. XXI.
of Fererrce due to them in mofTcafes over purgatives ; un-
WcdidiieT ^ cou^ Prove^> as already mentioned, that the
c 1Cllles• latter could cull out and feparate from the blood the
the bad humours folely, leaving the good behind: but
this feleftive power has long been juftly exploded as
ridiculous and uncertain ; fince it is plain, that all kinds
of purging medicines differ only in degree of ftrength,
and operate no otherwife upon different humours than
as they ftimulate more or lefs.
We fhall therefore take this opprrunity of recom¬
mending fome alterative medicines which are not fo
generally known as they ought to be; and that too on
the fureft grounds, a proper experience of their good
effe&s in repeated trials. The firft, then, is nitre or
purified falt-petre; which has long been in great efteem,
. and perhaps is more to be depended on in all inflamma¬
tory fevers than any other medicine whatever: but be-
fides this extenfive power of allaying inflammatory dif-
orders, it is now offered as an alterative remedy, taken
in proper quantities for furfeits, molten-greafe, hide¬
bound, greafe-heels, &c. And as it has been known
to fucceed even in the cure of the farcy ; what other
diftempers in horfes, arifing from vitiated fluids, may
it not be tried on, with a ftrong probability of fuc-
cefs? This great advantage will arife from the ufe of
this medicine over molt others, that, as its operation
is chiefly by urines, it requires no confinement or cloath-
ing; but the horfe may be worked moderately through¬
out the whole courfe. This medicine has been found
equally efficacious (by many trials made in one of our
hofpitals) in correfting the acrimony of the juices, and
difpofing the moft obfh’nate and inveterate fores to heal
up ; and hence probably it came recommended as an
alterative to our horfes.
The quantity of nitre given at a time fhould be from
two to three ounces a-day ; let it be finely powdered,
and then mix with it by little at a time as much honey as
will form it into a ball: give it every morning faffing
for a month; or it may be given at firft for a fortnight
only, intermitting a fortnight, and then repeat it. If
it be obferved that the horfe (hews an uneafinefs at the
ftomach after taking it|; a horn or two of any liquor
fhould f>e given after it, or it may be diflblved at firft
in his water, or mixed with his corn ; though the ball,
where it agrees, is the eafieft method of giving.
When horfes take drinks with great relu£fance, pow¬
ders muft be given intheir feeds: thus crude antimony,
or liver of antimony finely powdered, may be given to
the quantity of half an ounce, night and morning; but
in all furfeits, gum guaiacum mixed with antimony is
found more efficacious. Thus,
Take of crude antimony finely powdered, or, where
it can be afforded, cinnabar of antimony, and gum
guaiacum, of each a pound: mix together with
an oily peftle to prevent the gum’s caking: divide
the whole into 32 dozes, viz. an ounce each doze:
let one be given every day in the evening-feed.
Or, Take of cinnabar of antimony, gum guaiacum,
and Caftile or Venice foap, of each half a pound;
fait of tartar, four ounces: beat them up into a
mafs, and give an ounce every day. To thefe may
be added very advatageoufly, an ounce and an
half of camphor.
iEthiops mineral, given to the quantity of half an
ounce a-day, is a very good fweetenerand corrector of
the blood and juices; but it has been obferved, after Of
having been taken a week or ten days, to make fome Rowelh'nS'*
horfes flabber, and unable to chew their hay and oats;
and the fame fymptoms have arifen, where only two
drams of crude mercury has been given, and continued
about the fame fpace of time.
Diet-drinks.—1. A decbdtion of logwood, prepared
like that of guaiacum, is alfo fuccefsfully given in 1'ur-
feits.
2. Lime-water prepared with fhavings of faflafras
and liquorice, is a good diet-drink to fweeten and cor-
re& a horfe’s blood; and may be given witji the nitre-
balls for that purpofe.
3. Tar-water alfo, as has before been hinted, may in
many cafes be well worth trial: but let it be remem¬
bered, that all medicines of this kind fhould be conti¬
nued a confiderable time in obftinate cafes.
Sect. XXII. Of Roiuelling.
There feems to be no remedy fo much made ufe of,
and fo little underftood by farriers in general, as
rowels; for which reafon we ftiall endeavour to fet the
whole affair in a clearer light than hitherto it has ap¬
peared in.
We fhall begin, then, by defcribing ronvelling ; which
is an artificial vent made between the fkin and flefh, in
order to unload and empty the veffels in general, and
thereby relieve particular parts when too much op-
preffed by a fullnefs or redundancy.
The general and abfurd reafoning of farriers on the
effefts and ufe of rowelling, in fomemeafure makes this
fe&ion the more neceffary, as it is too notorious how
impertinently they talk on this fubjed: for in fliort,
with them, a rowel is to draw off all the bad and cor¬
rupt humours from the blood by a fort ef magic.
It is neceffary to obferve, that the matter generally
difchargedby a rowel, is nothing more than an ouzing
from the extremities of the veffels divided in the ma¬
king of it; in fad, then, it is blood, which lofes its co¬
lour, by being fhed out of the veffels, by the warmth
of the part, and by its confinement.
If this is granted, it will evidently appear, that the
good effedsenfuing from this operation muft be owing
to a gradual depletion or emptying of the veffels in ge¬
neral ; by which means the furcharge or load on a par¬
ticular part is taken off and removed, and impurities
or bad juices (generally called humours) run off with
the good in proportion to their quantity in the blood.
Thus, to lean hide-bound horfes, and thofe of a dry
hot conftitution, the difcharge, by depriving the con-
ftitution of fo much blood and fluids, is daily exhauft-
ing the ftrength of the animal; and may be produdive
of bad confequences, by defrauding the conftitution of
a neceffary fluid.
But in diforders from fulnefs, attended with acri¬
mony or fharpnefs 'of the juices, and with defluxions
on the eyes, lungs, or any oart of confequence ; the
gradual difcharge, brougb on by thefe means, will
contribute to leffen the fulnefs on the parts affeded,
and give the veffels an opportunity of recovering their
tone, while evacuating and alterative medicines are do¬
ing their office.
It may be neceffary, however, to obferve, that there
is a wonderful communication between the veffels of the
cellular membrane under the ikin, which remarkably
appears
Sea. XXIII. FARR
Of Strains, appears, by inflating tbofe of flieep, calves, <bc. by the
 butchers: hence, probably, it is, that fome diforders of
this integument are fo apparently relieved by iflues, or
rowels, without our having any recourfe to that gene¬
ral depletion of the veffels, we have juft obferved, to
account for it; and hence, alfo, may be deduced their
utility, fometimes in draining off any extravafated fluids
which may lodge between the interftices of the mufcles,
after violent {trains of the (boulder; alfo in difcharging
fuch vicious or (harp fluids as are thrown on the mem¬
branes, and occafion thofe flying pains and lameneffes
which we And are often removed by this local remedy.
Sect. XXIII. Of Strains in Various Parts.
1. It is neceffary to obferve, that, in all (trains, the
mufcular or tendinous fibres are overftretched ; and
fometimes ruptured, or broke. To form, therefore, a
true idea of thefe diforders, let us firft confider every
mufcle and tendon as compofed of fpringy elaftic fi¬
bres, which have a proper power of their own to con-
trad and extend themfelves ; or, to make their a&ion
more familiar, let us compare them to a piece of cat¬
gut, that we may the better judge with what propriety
oily medicines are dire&ed for their cure. Thus, then,
if, by a violent extenfion of this catgut, you had fo
overftretched it as to deftroy its fpringinefs or elafticity,
and was inclined to recover its loft tone, would you
for that purpofe think of foaking it in oil? And is not
the method of treating drains, or overftretched mufcles
and tendons, full as prepofterous, when you bathe or
foak them in oily medicines, at a time that they want
reftringents to brace them up? Yetcuftom has fo efta-
bliftied this pra&ice, and fallacious experience feem-
ingly fo confirmed it, that it would be a difficult talk
to convince the illiterate and prejudiced of the abfur-
dity, who, by attributing effeds to wrong caufes, are
led into this error, and the oils ufurp the reputation
that is due only to reft and quiet: they feem, however,
to be aware of the ill confequences, by their adding
the hot oils, as fpike, turpentine, and origanum; which,
though they in fome meafure guard againft the too
fuppling quality of the other oils, yet the treatment is
(till too relaxing to be of real f^rvice.
2. And indeed, in all violent (trains of either ten¬
dons or mufcles, whatever opinion we may entertain of
bathing and anointing with favourite noltrums, which
often fucceed in flight cafes, where perhaps bandage
alone would have done; yet it is the latter, with pro¬
per refting the relaxed fibres till they have thoroughly
recovered their tone, that are the chief things to be
depended on; and frequently fome months neceffary
for effeding the cure.
3. All violent drains of the ligaments, which con¬
ned the bones together, efpecially thofe of the thigh,
require time, and turning out to grafs, to a perfed re¬
covery. External applications can avail but little here,
the parts affeded lying too deep, and fo furrounded
with mufcles that medicine cannot penetrate to them.
The fooner, in thefe eafes, a horfe is turned out to
grafs, the better; as the gentle motion in the field will
prevent the ligaments and joint-oil from thickening,
and of courfe the joint itfelf from growing ftiff.
4. When a horfe’s (houlder is overftrained, he does
not put out that leg as the other; but, to prevent pain,
fcts the found foot hardily on the ground to fave the
X E R Y. ( 25 )
other; even though he be turned fhort on the lame Of Strains,
fide, which motion tries him the mod of any. When
trotted in hand, inftead of putting his leg forward in
a right line, he forms a circle with the lame leg ; and
when he (lands in the liable, that leg is advanced be¬
fore the other.
5. In order to cure this lamenefs, firft bleed him,
and let the whole (houlder be well bathed three times
a-day with hot verjuice or vinegar, in which may be
diffolved a piece of foap; but if the lamenefs continues
without fwelling, or inflammation, after refting two or
three days, let the mufcles be well rubbed for a confi-
derable time, to make them penetrate, with good opo-
deldoch, or either of the following mixtures:
Take camphorated fpirit of wine, two ounces ; oil
of turpentine, one ounce ; this proportion will
prevent the hair coming off.
Or, Take the bed vinegar, half a pint; fpirit of
vitriol, and camphorated fpirit of wine, of each
two ounces.
6. When the (houlder is very much fwelled, it (hould
be fomented with woollen cloths (large enough to co¬
ver the whole) wrung out of hot verjuice and fpirit of
wine; or a fomentation prepared with a ftrong decoc¬
tion of wormwood, bay-leaves, and rofemary, to a quart
of which may be added half a pint of fpirit of wine.
7. A rowel in the point of the (houlder in this cafe
often does great fervice; efpecially if the drain has
been very violent, and the fwelling very large: but as
to boring up the (houlder with a hot iron, and after¬
wards inflating it, it is both a cruel and abfurd treat¬
ment: and the pegging up the found foot, or fetting
on a patten (hoe, to bring the lame (houlder on a ftretch,
is a mod prepofterous practice, and diredlly calculated
to render a horfe incurably lame; for it can only be
neceffary in cafes the very oppofite to this, where the
mufcles have been long contrafted, and we want to
(Iretch them out.
8. Where poultices can be applied, they are at firft
undoubtedly very effedlual, after bathing with hot vi¬
negar or verjuice;; and are to be preferred greatly to
cold charges, which, by drying fo foon on the part,
keep it ftiff and uneafy: let them be prepared with oat¬
meal, rye flour, or bran boiled up in vinegar, (Irong-
beer or red-wine lees, with lard enough to prevent their
growing ftiff; and when by thefe means the inflam¬
mation and fwelling is brought down, bathe the part
twice a-day with either of the above mixtures, opodel-
doch, or camphorated fpirit of wine; and roll the part
three or four inches, both above and below, with a
ftrong linen roller, of about two fingers width ; which
contributes not a little to the recovery, by bracing up
the relaxed tendon; and perhaps is more to be depend¬
ed on than the applications themfelves.
9. In drains of the coffin joint, that have not been
difeovered in time, there will grow fuch a ftiffnefs in
the joint, that the horfe will only touch the ground
with his toe; and the joint cannot be played with the
hand: the only method here is repeated bliftering, and
then firing fuperficially.
10. Strains of the back Jineavs are very common; and
are eafily difeovered by the fwelling, which extends
fometimes from the back-fide of the knee down to the
heel, but for the mod part the horfe fets that foot be¬
fore the other. The tendon (hould be well bathed three
Id] or
( 26 ) FARRIERY. Sea. XXIV.
Of Strains, or four times a-day with hot vinegar; and if much may be found in the SeSion of Bone-fpavin; but the OfTu-
fwelled, apply the poultices above recommended; and fublimate fhould be omitted. mours-
when the fwclling is down, bathe with the mixtures 17. The firing, ufed for the ftrengthening relaxed
above, or with camphorated fpirit of wine and oil of finews or-tendons, (hould aft only on the ikin, which,
amber, in which is diflblved as much camphor as the by contrafting and hardening it all round the finews,
fpirits will take up; and roll up the tendon with a pro- compreffes them more firmly like a bandage. The bow-
per bandage, or laced flocking; which laft, properly men of old fubmitted to this operation, in order to give
fitted to the limb, might be wore to great advantage, ilrength to the mufcles and tendons of their arms. A
not only in thefe fort of injuries, but in moft others, proper degree of fkill is very requilite to perform it ef-
where there is a difpofition to the greafe, or other fwel- feftually on a horfe ; for a due medium fhould be ob-
ings of the limbs, from weak and relaxed fibres. Cur- ferved, and the inftrument neither fo flightly applied
riers (havings wetted with vinegar have been found ufe- as to fcarify the fkin only fuperficially, nor fo deep as
ful for this purpofe; as has alfo tar and fpirit of wine: to wound or cauterize the finew or its (heath. The
but where the tendons have fuffered by repeated inju- lines fhould be drawn pretty clofe together, on each fide
ries of this kind, the cafe will demand blitlering, firing, of the joint or finew, following the courfe of the hair;
and proper reft. no crofs lines fhould be made, as they but disfigure the
11. Strains of the knees and pq/ierns arife frequently horfe afterwards, without any real ufe. The firing in-
from kicks or blows: if they are much fwelled, apply ftrument, or knife, ought to be a little rounded on the
firft the poultices; and when the fwelling is abated, edge, gradually thickening to the back, that it may re¬
bathe with the above, or the following. tain the heat for fome time, but fhould not be applied
Take vinegar, one pint; camphorated fpirit of till the flaming rednefs is partly gone off. The caute-
wine, four ounces ; white vitriol, diflblved in a rized parts may be bathed with fpirit of wine at firft ;
little water, two drams. and anointed afterwards with bees-wax and oil, which
Or, Take the white of three or four eggs, beat alone is fufficient to complete the cure.
them into a froth with a fpoon; to which add an 0 wrvr nr rr jrj.ni
ounce of rock alum, finely powdered; fpirit of SeCT* XXIV‘ °f Tum0llrS and ^P^umes.
turpentine, and wine, of each half an ounce; mix Tumours, or fwellingo, arife either from external
them well together. injuries, or internal caufes.
12. As great weaknefs remains in the pafterns after Swellings caufed by external accidents, as blows and
violent itrains, the beft method is to turn the horfe out bruifes, fhould at firft be treated with reftringents ;
to grafs till he is perftftly recovered; when this can- Thus, let the part be bathed frequently with hot vine-
not be complied with, the general way is to blifter and gar or verjuice; and, where it will admit of bandage,
fire. let a flannel wetted with the fame be rolled on: if by
13. When a horfe is lame in the Jlifie, he generally this method the fwelling does not fubfide, apply, efpe-
treads on his toe, and cannot fet the heel to the ground, daily on the legs, a poultice with red-wine lees, ftrong-
Treat him at firft with the vinegar and cooling reftrin- beer grounds, and oatmeal, or with vinegar, oil, and
gents: but if a large fwelling, with puffinefs, enfues, oatmeal: either of thefe maybe continued twice a-
foment it well with the difcutient fomentation till it day, after bathing, till the fwelling abates; when, in
difperfes; and then bathe the part with any of the a- order to difperfe it entirely, the vinegar (hould be chan-
bove medicines. ged for camphorated fpirit of wine, to four ounces of
14. A lamenefs in the ^whirl-bone and hip, is difco- which may be added one of fpirit of fal armoniac; otr
vered by the horfe’s dragging his leg after him, and it may be bathed with a mixture of two ounces of
dropping backward on his heel when he trots. If the crude fal armoniac boiled in a quart of chamber-ley
mufcles of the hip are only injured, this kind of lame- twice a-day, and rags dipped in the fame may be roll-
nefs is cured eafily; but when the ligaments of the ed on.
joint are affefted, the cure is often very difficult, tedi- Fomentation made by boiling wormwood, bay¬
ous, and uncertain. In either cafe, at firft bathe the leaves, and rofemary, and adding a proper quantity of
parts well with the cooling medicines, four or five fpirits, are often of great fervice to thin the juices, and
times a-day: in the mufcular ftrain, this method alone fit them for tranfpirationefpecially if the injury has
may fucceed ; but in the ligamentous, it is reft and affefted the joints.
time only can reftore the injured parts to their proper But in bruifes, where the extravafated blood will not
tone. by thefe means be difperfed,the fhorteft way is to open
15. Strains in the beet are to be treated by foaking the fkin, and let out the grumes.
the parts with coolers and repellers; but when the li- Critical tumours, or fwellings, which terminate fe-
gaments are hurt, and they are attended with great vers, fhould by no means be difperfed; except where
weaknefs and pain, ufe the fomentation. If a hardnefs they fall on the pattern or coffin joint, fo as to endan-
fhould remain on the outfide, it may be removed by re- ger them: in this cafe the difcutient fomentation,
peated bliftering; if within, it may be out of the power (p. 25. col. 2.) ffiould be applied three or four times
of any external applications to remove: however, the a-day, and a doth or flannel frequently wrung out
joint fhould be fired gently with fmall razes or lines of the fame fhould be bound on, in order to keep the
pretty clofe together, and then covered with a mercu- joint continually breathing.
rial plafter. To the difcutient fomentation above men- But if the fwelling fixes under the jaws, behind the
tioned may be added crude fal armoniac, with a hand- ears, on the poll, withers, or ire the groins and (heath,
ful of wood-a flies boiled in it. &e< it fhould be encouraged and forwarded by ripen-
16. The bliftering ointment for the above purpofes ing poultices wherever they can be applied; oatmeal.
boiled
Sea. XXIV. -FARR.
Of Im- boiled foft in milk, to which a proper quantity of oil
poflhumes. anj ]ar(j js may anfwer this purpofe; or the
poultice recommended in the Seftion of Strangles:
' thefe muft be applied twice a-day, till the matter is
perceived to fluttuate under the fingers, when it ought
to be let out; for which purpofe, let the tumour be
opened with a knife or ftrong lancet, the whole length
of the fwelling, if it can be done fafely; for nothing
contributes fo much to a kind healing, as the matter’s
having a free difcharge, and the opening’s being big
enough to drefs to the bottom.
Pledgets of tow, fpread with black or yellow bafi-
licon (or the wound ointment), and dipped in the fame,
melted down with a fifth part of oil of turpentine,
fhould be applied to the bottom of the fore, and filled
up lightly with the fame, without cramming: it may
be thus drefled once or twice a-day, if the difcharge is
reat, till a proper digeftion is procured ; when it
muld be changed for pledgets fpread with the red pre¬
cipitate ointment, applied in the fame manner.
Should the fore not digeft kindly, but run a thin
water and look pale, foment, as often as you drefs,
with the above fomentation ; and apply over your
dreffing the ftrong-beer poultice, and continue this
method till the matter grows thick, and the fore florid.
The following ointments will generally anfwer your
expedations in all common cafes; and may be prepared
without, as well as with, the verdigreafe.
Take Venice turpentine and bees-wax of each a
pound, oil of olives one pound and a half, yellow
rofin 12 ounces; when melted together, two or
three ounces of verdigreafe, finely powdered, may
be ftirred in, and kept fo till cold, to prevent its
fubfiding.
Take of yellow bafilicon, or the above ointment,
without verdigreafe, four ounces ; red precipitate,
finely powdered, half an ounce : mix them toge¬
ther cold with a knife or fpatula.
This laft, applied early, will prevent a fungus, or
proud fleflt, from fliooting out: for if you drefs too
Jong with the above digeftive, the fungus will rife
fall, and give fome trouble to fupprefs it ; when it
will be neceffary to walh the fore, as often as you drefs,
with a folution of blue vitriol in water, or to fprinkle
it with burnt alum and precipitate. If thefe fhould
not be powerful enough, touch with a cauftic, or wafh
with the fublimate water made by difTolving half an
ounce of corrofive fublimate in a point of lime-water.
But this trouble may in a great meafure be pre¬
vented, if the fore is on a part where bandages can be
applied with compreffes of linen cloth: for even when
thefe excrefcences regerminate, as it were; under the
knife, and fpring up in fpite of the cauftics above
mentioned, they are to be fubdued by moderate com-
preffion made on the fprouting fibres by thefe means.
Authors on farriery have given in general very pro¬
per receipts to anfwer every intention of this kind by
medicines : but as they have not laid down fufficient
rules for their application in thofe cafes where they are
molt wanted, the following general direftions will not
be unacceptable ; as the difficulty in healing fome kinds
of fores arifes frequently from the unfkilful manner of
dreffing them.
It may be neceflary then to obferve here, once for
all, that the cures of pioft fores are effected by the
I E R Y. ( 27 )
fimpleft methods; and that it is often of much more Of Wounds
confequence to know how to drefs a fore, than what to  
drefs it with. And in this confifts indeed the chief art
of this branch of forgery: for the moll eminent in that
profeffion have long fince difcovercd, that variety of
ointments and falves are unneceffary in the cure of
mod wounds and fores ; and they have accordingly dif-
carded the greateft part formerly in repute for that pur¬
pofe ; repeated obfervations having taught them, that,
after the digeftion, nature is generally difpofed to heal
up the wound fall enough herfelf; and that the for-
geon’s chief care is to prevent a luxuriancy, commonly
called proudflejh; which all ointments, wherein lard or
oil enters, are but too prone to encourage, as they
keep the fibres too lax and fopple ; and which dry lint
alone, early applied, as eafily prevents, by its ab-
forbing quality, and light compreffion on the fprout-
ing fibres.
Thus, if a hollow wound or fore is crammed w'ith
tents, or the dreffings are applied too hard, the tender
(hoots of flelh from the bottom are prevented pulhing
up ; and the fides of the fore from this diilenfion may
in time grow horny and turn fiftulous ; nor has the
matter by this method a free difcharge.
On the other hand, if fores of any depth are drefled
foperficially, the external parts being more difpofed to
heal and come together than the internal, they will fall
into contaft, or heal too foon ; and the fore, not filling
up properly from the bottom, will break out afrefti.
Hence we may juftly conceive how little ftrefs is
to be laid on famous ointments, or family falves, un-
fkilfully applied; for unlefs this due medium is ob-
ferved, or obtained in the dreffing, no hollow fore can
heal up properly.
As foon then as a good digeftion is procured (which
is known by the thicknefs and whitenefs of the matter
difcharged, and the florid red colour at the bottom of
the fore) let the dreffings be changed for the precipi¬
tate medicine ; or the fore may be filled up with dry
lint, alone, or dipped in lime-water with a little ho¬
ney and tindlure of myrrh, or brandy, about a fifth
part of the latter to one of the former : a pledget of
lint, dipped in this mixture fhould alfo be applied to
the bottom of the fore, which fhould be filled up with
others to the forface or edges, but hot crammed in too
hard, as before obferved, nor yet applied too loofely.
By this method, the fore would incarn, or heal up
properly, and foft fpcmgy flefh would be prevented or
fopprefled in time ; whereas when ointments or falves
are too long continued, a fungus, or proud flefh, is
thereby fo encouraged in its growth, that it requires
fome time to deftroy and eat it down again : a proper
comprefs of cloth, and a linen roller, is abfolutely ne-
ceflary both for this purpofe, and to fecure on the drefs-
ings, wherever they can conveniently be applied.
Sect. XXV. Of Wounds in general.
In all frefh wounds made by cutting inftruments,
there is nothing more required than bringing the lips
of the wound into contadl by future or bandage, pro¬
vided the part will allow of it; for on wounds of the
hips, or other prominent parts, and acrofs fome of the
large mufcles, the flitches are ap' to burft on the horfe’s
lying down and rifing tip in the ftall. In foch cafes,
the lips fhould not be brought clofe together: one
[ d 2 3 flitch
( 28 ) FARR
OfWounds Hitch is fufficient for a wounfl two inches long ; but
in large wounds, they fliould be at an inch or more
dittance ; and if the wound is deep in the mufcles,
care fliould be taken to pafs the needles proportionably
deep, otherwife the wound will not unite properly from
the bottom.
Should the wound bleed much from an artery di¬
vided, the firft Hep fliould be to fecure it, by pafling
a crooked needle underneath, and tying it up' with a
waxed thread: if the artery cannot be got at this way,
apply a button of lint or tow to the mouth of the
bleeding vefiels, dipped in a ftrong folution of blue vi¬
triol, ftyptic water, oil of vitriol, or hot oil of tur¬
pentine, powdered vitriol, or colcothar, and re¬
member always to apply it clofe to the mouth of the
bleeding veflcls, and take care that it is kept there by
proper comprefs and bandage till an efchar is formed ;
otherwife it will elude your expeftations, and frequent¬
ly alarm you with frefli bleedings.
In a memoir prefented to the Royal Academy of
Sciences by M. La Fofie, he gives an account of the
fuccefs he had n^et with in flopping the bleedings of
very confiderable arteries in horfes, by the application
of the powder of puff-balls, the arteries cicatrizing by
this means only, without any fucceeding haemorrhage.
The lycoperdon, or puff-ball, was made ule of tor
this purpofe in human fubje&s, about 170 years ago,
by Felix Wurtz, a famous old furgeon in Germany;
but he does not feem to have thought of trufting to it
in fuch confiderable arteries as M. La FoiTe mentions,
viz. thofe of the leg and thigh, the bleedings from
which divided veffels he ffopt in a few minutes by the
ufe of this powder only. The agaric of the oak may
alfo be ufed for this purpofe, where it can be retained
by a proper bandage.
Thefe applications, as indeed all ftyptics, feem to
aft by conflringing the extremity of the veffel, or
choaking it up, till a grume of blood is formed in¬
ternally, which plugs up the orifice ; and has been
found to adhere to it fo as to conftitute one body with
the veffel.
We avoid fettino- down any famous receipts for
frefli wounds, whether ointments, »r Friar’s balfams,
being well affured, that, in a healthy found conftitution,
nature furniflies the belt balfam, and performs herfelf
the cure, which is fo often attributed to the medicine ;
when it is otherwife, and the blood is deprived of its
balfamic flate, as will appear from the afpeft of the
wound and its manner of healing, it muft be reftified
by proper internal medicines, before a good founda¬
tion for healing can be laid by any external application
whatever.
The lips of the wound then being brought together
by the needle or bandage, it needs only to be covered
with rags dipped in brandy, or a pledget of tow fpread
with the wound ointment, (fee p. 27. col. 1.) the
direftions in the preceding feftions being obferved
and the wounded part kept as much as poffible from
motion.
Punftured wounds from thorns, or any other acci¬
dents, fliould be treated in the fame manner; applying
• the beer or bread and milk poultice over the dreffing,
till fome figns of digeftion appear ; and fomenting the
part well every day. This method is alfo very fuccefs-
fully ufed to thofe fwellings which often arife on the
I E R Y. Sed. XXVI.
neck from bleeding; the fores being fprinkled with Of Ulcers.
precipitate, and burnt alum powdered, to fetch out —— 
the core, or fungus, which choaks up the orifice. The
ufual method is to introduce a piece of vitriol, or fub-
limate, which often brings on a plentiful difeharge,
fetches out the core, and makes a cure; but it is often
with the lofs of the vein, and it fometimes leaves a large
fvvelling and impoflhumation.
In gun (hot wounds, when the ball has not pene¬
trated too deep, it fliould be extrafted, if it can be
fetched away without difturbance, together with any
extraneous bodies that might pafs in with it ; the
wound fliould be dreffed with the old digeftive of Ve¬
nice or common turpentine, divided with the yolks of
eggs, to which may be added fome honey and tinfture
of myrrh. The entrance of thefe wounds frequently
requires to be enlarged, and a depending orifice Ihould
always be procured if poffible ; and if the wound
ftiould not digeft kindly, apply the beer poultice, and
foment with the difeutient fomentation before men¬
tioned.
In fealds, or burns from gun-powder, or any other
caufe, when the fldu remains entire, bathe the part
well, and keep it foaked with rags dipped in ipirit of
wine camphorated r fait bound thick on the part has
been found very effeftual for this purpofe ; and indeed
all faline and fpirituous applications excel others, while
the flein is yet unbroke; but when thelkin isfeparated^
anoint the part, and keep it conftantly fupple with
linfeed or falad oil, and a plafter fpread with bees¬
wax and oil; if the Ikin is fo fcorched, that floughs
mull be digefted out, drefs with the wound-ointment
and oil of turpentine, and finifli the cure with any dry¬
ing ointment. Should the horfe be feverilh from the
pain, bleed him, give cooling glyfters, and treat him
as we have direfted in fimple fevers.
Sect. XXVI. Of Ulcers in General.
We ffiall not here enter into a defeription of each
particular fpecies of .ulcers, but only lay down fome
direftions for their general treatment ; by which means
we (hall avoid the ufual prolixity of authors on this
fubjeft, and yet give fo general an idea of the nature
of ulcers, as we hope will be fufficiently inflruftive
both of the application and of the proper remedy to
each.
It may be neceflary to obferve, that we may often
in vain purfue the bell methods of cure by external ap¬
plications, unlefs we have recourfe to proper internal
remedies; for as all ulcers, difficult to heal, proceed
from a particular indifpofition of the blood and juices,
before the former can be brought into any order, the
latter muft be correfted by alteratives and fweetening
medicines.
The firft intention in the cure of ulcers is bringing
them to digeft, or difeharge a thick matter ; which
will, in genera], be effefted by the green ointment, or
that with precipitate ; but fliould the fore not digeft
kindly by thefe means, but difeharge a gleety thin
matter, and look pale, you muft then have recourfe
to warmer dreffings, fuch as balfam, or oil of turpen¬
tine, melted down with your common digeftive, and
the ftrong-beer poultice over them; it is proper alfo in
thefe kind of fores where the circulation is languid,
and the natural heat abated, to warm the part, and
quicken
Sea. XXVI. FARR
Of Ulcers, quicken the motion of the blood, by fomenting it well
at the time of dreffing ; which method will thicken the
matter, and roufe the native heat of the part, and then
the former drefiings may be re-applied.
If the lips of the ulcer grow hard or callous, they
muft be pared down with a knife, and afterwards rub¬
bed with the cauftic.
Where foft fungous flefh begins to rife, it fliould care¬
fully be fuppreffcd in time, otherwife the cure will go
on but flowly : if it has already fprouted above the
furface, pare it down with a knife, and rub the re¬
mainder with a bit of cauftic ; and to prevent its riling
again, fprinkle the fore with equal parts of burnt alum
and red precipitate ; or walh with the fublimate wa¬
ter, and drefs with dry lint even to the furface, and
then roll over a comprefs of linen as tight as can be
borne; for a proper degree of preflure, with mild ap¬
plications, will always oblige thefe fpongy excrefcen-
ces to fubfide, but without bandage the ftrongeft will
not fo well fucceed.
All finufes, or cavities, fhonld be laid open as foon
as difcovered, after bandages have been ineffeftually
tried : but where the cavity penetrates deep into the
'mufcles, and a counter opening is imprafticable or
hazardous ; where, by a continuance, the integuments
of the mufcles are conftantly dripping and melting
down ; in thefe cafes injections may be ufed, and will
frequently be attended with fuccefs. A decodtion of
colcothar boiled in forge-water ; or folution of lapis
medicamentofus in lime-water, with a fifth part of ho¬
ney and tindture of myrrh, may be firft tried, injedted,
three or four ounces twice a-day; or fome reiin, melted
down with oil of turpentine, may be ufed for this pur-
pofe : if thefe fttould not fucceed, the following, which
is of a (harp and cauftic nature, is recommended o«
Mr Gibfon’s experience.
Take of Roman vitriol half an ounce ; diffblve in a
pint of water; then decant and pour off gently in¬
to a large quart-bottle: add half a pint of cam¬
phorated fpirit of wine, the fame quantity of the
beft vinegar, and two ounces of Egyptiacum.
This mixture is alfo very fuccefsfully applied to ul¬
cerated greafy heels, which it will both cleanfe and
dry up.
Thefe finufes, or cavities, frequently degenerate in-
lofijlulx, that is, grow pipey, having the infide thick¬
ened, and lined, as it were, with a horny callous fub-
ftance. In order to their cure, they muft be laid open,
and the hard fubftance all cut away ; where this is im-
prafticable, fcarify them well, and truft to the preci¬
pitate medicine made ftrong, rubbing now and then
with cauftic, butter of antimony, or equal parts of
quickfilver and aquafortis.
When a rotten or foul bone is an attendant on an ul¬
cer, the flefti is generally loofe and flabby; the difcharge
oily, thin, and (linking ; and the bone difcovered to be
carious, by its feeling rough to the probe pafled thro’
the flefti for that purpofe. In order to a cure, the
bone muft be laid bare, that the rotten part of it be re¬
moved : for which purpofe, deftroy the loofe flefti, and
drefs with dry lint; or the doflils may be preffed out
of timfture of myrrh or euphorbium. The throwing off
the fcale is generally a work of nature, which is ef-
fe&ed in more or lefs time, and in proportion to the
depth the bone is affe&ed ; though burning the foul
I E R Y. ( 29 )
bone is thought by fome to haften its reparation. Of Bone-
Where the cure does not properly fucceed, mercu- sPavin -
rial phyfic (hould be given, and repeated at proper in¬
tervals : and to correct and mend the blood and juices,
the antimonial and alterative powders, with a decoc¬
tion of guaiacum and lime waters, are proper for that
purpofe.
Sect. XXVII. Of a Bone-Spavin.
Without entering at all into the caufe of this dif-
order, which is a bony excrefcence, or hard fwell-
ing, growing on the infide of the hock of a horfe’sleg,
we (hall content ourfelves with defcribing the different
kinds thereof by their fymptoms, and then enter on
their cure.
A fpavin, that begins on the lower part of the hock,
is not fo dangerous as that which puts out higher, be¬
tween the two round procefles of the leg-bone ; and a
fpavin near the edge is not fo bad as that which is more
inward toward the middle, as it does not fo much affedt
the bending of the hock.
A fpavin, that comes by a kick or blow, is at firft
no true fpavin, but a bruife on the bone, or membrane
which covers it ; therefore not of that confequence, as
when it proceeds from a natural caufe: and thofe that
put out on colts, and young horfes, are not fo bad
as thofe that happen to horfes in their full ftrength and
maturity ; but in very old horfes they are generally in¬
curable.
The ufual method of treating this diforder is by bli-
fters and firing; without any regard to the fituation, or
caufe whence it proceeds. Thus, if a fulnefs on the
fore-part of the hock comes upon hard riding, or any
other violence, which threatens a fpavin; in that cafe,
fuch coolers and repeliers are proper, as are recom¬
mended in drains and bruifes. Thofe happening to
colts and young horfes are generally fuperficial, and re¬
quire only the milder applications ; for it is better to
wear them down by degrees, than to remove them at
once by fevere means.
Various are the preferiptions for the bliftering oint¬
ment ; but the following, on proper experience, (lands
well recommended by Mr Gibfon.
Take nerve and marfti-mallow ointment, of each two
ounces; quickfilver, one ounce, thoroughly broke
with an ounce of Venice turpentine ; Spanifti flies
powdered, a dram and a half; fublimate, one
dram ; oil of origanum, two drams.
The hair is to be cut as clofe as poflible, and then
the ointment applied pretty thick over the part ; this
(hould be done in the morning, and flie horfe kept
tied up all day without any litter till night ; when he
may be untied, in order to lie down ; and a pitch or
any (licking plafter may be laid over it, and bound on
with a broad tape or bandage to keep all clofe.
After the blifter has done running, and the fcabs be¬
gin to dry and peel off, it may be applied a fecond
time, in the fame manner as before ; this fecond ap¬
plication generally taking greater effedl than the firft,
and in colts and young horfes makes a perfedt cure.
When the fpavin has been of long (landing, it will
require to be renewed, perhaps, five or fix times : but
after the fecond application, a greater diftance of time
muft be allowed, otherwife it might leave a fear, or
caufe a baldnefs ; to prevent which, once a-fortnight
or
( 3° ) FARR
Of a Curb, or three weeks is often enough ; and it may in this
&c- manner be continued fix or feven times, without the
leaft blemifh, and will generally be attended with fuc-
befs.
But the fpavins that put out on older or full-aged
ftorfes are apt to be more obftinate, as being feated
more inward ; and when they run among the finuofi-
ties of the joint, they are for the moft part incurable,
as they then lie out of the reach of applications, and are
arrived to a degree of impenetrable hardnefs.
The ufual method in thefe cafes is to fire directly, or
to ufe the ftrongeft kind of cauftic blirters ; and fome-
times to fire and lay the blifter immediately over the
part: but this way feldom fncceeds farther than put¬
ting a flop to the growth of the fpavin, and is apt to
leave both a blemifh and ftiffnefs behind ; befides the
great rifle run (by applications of thefe fiery and cau¬
ftic medicines to the nervous and tendinous parts about
the joints) of exciting violent pain and anguifh, and
deftroying the limb.
The belt and fafeft way, therefore, is to make trial
of the bliftering ointment above, and to continue it ac¬
cording to the directions there laid down, for fome
months, if found neceflary ; the horfes in the intervals
working moderately : the hardnefs will thus be dif-
folved by degrees, and wear away infenfibly.
Where the fpavin lies deep, and runs fo far into the
hollow of the joint that no application can reach it,
neither firing nor medicines can avail, for the reafons
above-mentioned 4 though bold ignorant fellows have
fometimes fucceeded in cafes of this fort (by men of
judgment deemed incurable) by the application of
cauftic ointments with fublimate, which aft Very for¬
cibly, enter deep, and make a large difeharge, and by
that means deftroy a great part of the fubftance, and
diffolve away the remainder: though, whoever is at
all acquainted with the nature of thefe medicines, muft
know how dangerous in general thejr operation is on
thefe occafions; and that a proper prepared cautery
made like a fleam, under the dire&ion of a fkilful hand,
may be applied with lefs danger of injuring either ten¬
dons or ligaments. After the fubftance of the fwclling
has been properly penetrated by the inftrument, it muft
be kept running by the precipitate medicine, or mild
bliftering ointment. Where the fpavin lies not deep in
the joint, and the bliftering method will not fucceed,
the fwelling may be fafely fired with a thin iron forced
pretty deep into the fubftance, and then ftiould be
dreffed as is above direfted.
Sect. XXVIII. Of a Curb and Ring-hone.
1. As a fpavin rifes among the bones on the fore¬
part of the hock, fo a curb takes its origin from the
junftures of the fame bones, and rifes on the hind-part,
forming a pretty large tumour over the back part of
the hind-leg, attended with ftiffnefs, and fometimes
with pain and lamenefs.
curb proceeds from the fame caufes that produce
fpavins j viz. hard riding, ftrains, blows, or kicks.
The cure at firft is generally eafy enough effefted by
bliftering, repeated two or three times, or oftener. If
it does not fubmit to this treatment, but grows excef-
fively hard, the quickeft and fureft way is to fire with
a thin iron, making a line down the middle from top
to bottom, and drawing feveral lines in a penniform
I E R Y. Sea. XXIX.
manner pretty deep ; and then to apply a mild blifter- Of Splents.
ing plafter or ointment over it.—This method will en-   —
tirely remove it.
There is another fwelling taken notice of on the out-
fide of the hock, which is called z jardon. This com¬
monly proceeds from blows and kicks of other horfes;
but frequently happens to menaged horfes, by fetting
them on their haunches : it is feldom attended with
much lamenefs, unlefs it has been neglefted, or fome
little procefs of the bone be broke. It ftiould firft be
treated with the coolers and repellers in feft. xxxi.:
but if any fwelling continues hard, and infenfible, the
beft way is to blifter or fire; but the mild blifters a-
lone generally fucceed.
2. The ring-irone is a hard fwelling on the lower
part of the pattern, which generally reaches half-way
round the fore-part thereof, and from its refemblance
to a ring has its denomination. It often arifes from
ft rains, &c. 5 and, when behind, from potting young
horfes too early upon their haunches ; for in that at¬
titude a horfe throws his whole weight as much, if not
more, upon his pa Items, than on his hocks.
When it appears diftinftly round the pattern, and
does not run downwards toward the coronet, fo as to
affeft the coffin-joint, it is eafily cured : but if it takes
its origin from fome (train or defeft in the joint origi¬
nally, or if a callofity is found under the round liga¬
ment that covers that joint, the cure is generally du¬
bious, and fometimes impracticable; as it is apt to
turn to a quittor, and in the end to form an ulcer upon
the hoof.
The ring-bones that appear on colts and young
horfes, will often iufenfibly wear off of themfelves,
without the help "of any application ; but when the
fubftance remains, there needs no other remedy befides
bliftering, unlefs when by long continuance it is grown
to an obftinate hardnefs, and then it may require both
bliftering and firing.
To fire a ring-bone fuccefsfully, let the operation
be performed with a thinner inftrument than the com¬
mon one, and let the lines or razes be made not above
a quarter of an inch diftant, eroding them obliquely,
fomewhat like a chain : apply a mild blifter over all,
and, when quite dried up, the rupture-plafter; and
then turn the horfe to grafs for fome time.
Sect. XXIX. Of Splents.
These are hard excrefcences that grow on the (hank-
bone, and are of various (hapes and fizes. Some hor¬
fes are more fubjeft to fplents than others; but young
horfes are moft liable to thefe infirmities, which often
wear off and difappear of themfelves. Few horfes put
out fplents after they are feven or eight years old, un¬
lefs they meet with blows or accidents.
A fplent that arifes in the middle of the (hank-bone
is nowife dangerous ; but thofe that arife on the back
part of this bone, when they grow large and prefs a-
gainft the back finew, always caufe lamenefs or ftiff¬
nefs, by rubbing againft it: the others, except they
are fituated near the joints, feldom occafion lamenefs.
As to the cure of fplents, the beft way is not to
meddle with them, unlefs they are fo large as to dif-
figure a horfe, or are fo fituated as to endanger his
going lame.
Splcnts in their infancy, and on their firft appear¬
ance.
Sea. XXX. FARR
Of the ance, fhould be well bathed with vinegar, or old ver-
Poll evil. jujce; which, by ftrengthening the fibres, often put a
Hop to their growth: for the membrane covering the
bone, and not the bone itfelf, is here thickened; and
in fome conftitutions purging, and afterwards diuretic
drinks, will be a great means to remove the humidity
and moifture about the limbs, which is what often gives
rife to fuch excrefcences.
Various are the remedies prefcribcd for this diforder;
the ufual way is to rub the fplent with a round Hick
or the handle of a hammer, till it is almoft raw, and
then touch it with oil of origanum. Others lay on a
pitch-plafter, with a little fublimate, or arfenic, to
deftroy the fubrtance; fome ufe oil of vitriol; fome
tinfture of cantharides: all which methods have at times
fucceeded ; only they are apt to leave a fear, with the
lofs of hair. Thofe applications that are of a more
cauftic nature often do more hurt than good, efpeci-
ally when the fplent is grown very hard, as they pro¬
duce a rottennefs, which keeps running feveral months
before the ulcer can be healed, ahd then leaves an ugly
fear.
Mild blifters often repeated, as recommended in the
fe&’ion upon the Bone Spavin, (hould firft be tried as
the moft eligible method; and will generally fucceed,
even beyond exptftatton: but if they fail, and the
fplent be near the knee or joints, you mufl: fire and
blifter in the fame manner as for the bone-fpavin.
Splents on the back part of the fiiank-bone are dif¬
ficult to cure, by reafon of the back finews covering
them: the bed way is to bore the fplent in feveral places
with an iron not very hot; and then to fire in the com¬
mon way, not making the lines too deep, but very clofe
together.
Sect. XXX. Of the Poll-evil.
The poll-evil is an abfeefs near the poll of a horfe,
formed in the finufes between the poll-bone and the
uppermoft vertebrse of live neck.
If it proceeds from blows, bruifes, or any external
violence, at firft: bathe the fwelling often with hot vine¬
gar ; and if the hair be fretted off with an ouzing thro’
the Ikin, make ufe of two parts of vinegar, and one of
Ipirit of wine ; but if there be an itching, with heat
and inflammation the fafeft way is to bleed, and apply
poultices with bread, milk, and elder flowers: this
method, with the afliftance of phyfic, will frequently
difperfe the fwelling and prevent this evil.
But when the tumour is critical, and has all the figns
of matter, the bed method then is to forward it by
applying the ripening poultices already taken notice
of, till it comes to maturity, and burds of itfelf; or
if opened with a knife, great care flvould be taken to
avoid the tendinous ligament that runs along the neck
under the mane;, when matter is on both fides, the
opening mud be made on each fide, and the ligament
remain undivided.
If the matter flows in great quantities, refembles
melted glue, and is of an oily confidence, it will require
a fecond incifion, efpecially if any cavities are difeo-
vered by the finger or probe; thefe Ihould be opened
by the knife, the orifices made depending, and the
wound dreffed with the common digedive of turpen¬
tine, honey, and tinfture of myrrh, and, after digedion,
with theprecipitate ointment; or walh with the following
I E R Y. ( 3> )
made hot, and fill up the cavity with tow foaked in it. Of a Fi-
Take vinegar or fpirit of wine half a pint, white ^ula’ ^c'
vitriol diffolved in fpring-water half an ounce,
tindlure of myrrh four ounces.
This may be made fliarper by adding more vitriol;
but if the flefli is very luxuriant, it fhould fird be pared
down with a knife before the application. With this
walh alone Mr Gibfon has cured this diforder without
any other formality of drefiing, wafhing with it twice
a-day, and laying over the part a quantity of tow
foaked in vinegar and the white of eggs beat together.
But the mod compendious method of cure, is found
by obfervation to be by fealding, as the farriers term
it; and is thus profecuted when the fore is foul, of a
bad difpofition, and attended with a profufion of mat¬
ter.
Take corrofive fublimate, verdigreafe in fine powder,
and Roman vitriol, of each two drams; green
copperas half an ounce, honey or iEgyptiacum
two ounces, oil of turpentine and train-oil of each
eight ounces, redtified fpirit of wine four ounces;
mix together in a bottle.
The manner of fealding is firll to clean the abfeefs
well with a piece of fponge dipped in vinegar; then
put a fufficient quantity of the mixture into a ladle
with a fpout; and when it is made fealding hot, pour
it into the abfeefs, and clofe the lips together with one
or more flitches. This is to remain in feveral days;
and if good matter appears, and not in an over great
quantity, it will do well without any other drefiing,
but bathing with fpirit of wine; if the matter flows in
great abundance, and of a thin confiftence, it muff be
fcalded again, and repeated till the matter leffens and
thickens.
Sect. XXXI. Of a Fifula, and Brnifes on the
Withers, Warbles on the Back, and Sit-fajls.
i. Bruises on the withers frequently impofthumate,
and for want of care turn fiftulous. They arife often,
from pinches of the faddle, and Ihould be treated with
repeflers: for this purpofe bathe the tumour well with
hot vinegar three or four times a-day ; if that does not
fucceed alone, an ounce of oil of vitriol may be put to-
a quart of vinegar, or half an ounce of white vitriol dif¬
folved in. a little water, and added to the fame quan¬
tity. Thefe are generally very effcdlual repellers for
this purpofe in horfes, and will frequently prevent im-
pofthumation : when the fwelling is attended with heat,
fmarting, and little hot watery pimples,, the following
mixture will then be more proper to bathe with.
Take two ounces of crude fal ammoniac, boiled in
a quart of lime-water; where that cannot be had,
a handful of pearl or wood alhes may be boiled
in common water: pour off the deco&ion when
fettled, and mix with it half a pint of fpirit of
wine: anoint the part afterwards with linfeed oil,
or elder ointment, to foften and fmooth the fl<in.
But when the fwellings are critical, the confequence
of a fever fettled on this-part, you mull avoid the re¬
pelling method, and affift in bringing the fwelling to
matter, by means of fuppurating poultices: experienced
farriers advife, never to open thefe tumours till they
break of themfelves: for if they are opened before they
are ripe, the whole fore will be fpongy, and difeharge
a bloody ichor, which foon degenerates into a fordid
ulcer..
( 32 ) FARR
Of Wind- ulcer. But take care to enlarge the openings, and pare
8alls- away the lips, that your dreflings may be applied eafily;
' and avoid the ligament which runs along the neck to
the withers: if a gathering forms on the oppofite fide,
open it in the fame manner; but take care they incjjne
downwards, for the fake of depending orifices, and
letting the matter flow off eafily. For the method of
dreffing, we muft refer to the preceding SeAion; and
if the bones ihould be found foul, they mufl: be drefi'ed
-with tin&ure of myrrh till they fcale off: if the fun¬
gus is very troublefome, and the difcharge oily, yel¬
low, and vifcid, pledgets foaked in the following,
made hot, have been found very effedtual, bathing the
fwelling round with fpirit of wine and vinegar.
Take half an ounce of blue vitriol diffolved in a pint
of water ; oil of turpentine, and reftified fpirit of
wine, of each four ounces: white-wine vinegar, fix
ounces ; oil of vitriol and ./Egyptiacum, of each
two ounces.
When the cavities are truly fiftulous, the callofities
muft; be cut out, where it can be done, with a knife;
and the remainder deftroyed by corrofives, viz. preci¬
pitate, burnt alum, and white vitriol, as we have al¬
ready obferved in the Se&ion on Ulcers.
2. Warbles are fmall hard tumours under the faddle-
part of the horfe’s back, occafioned by the heat of the
faddle in travelling, or its uneafy fituation. A hot
greafy dilh-clout, at firft frequently applied, will fome-
times remove them. Camphorated fpirits of wine are
alfo very effeftual for this purpofe to difperfe them, to
which a little fpirit of fal armoniac may be added. The
repellers above-mentioned are fuccefsfully applied in
thefe cafes; and if you are obliged to work the horfe,
take care your faddle is nicely chambered.
3. A fit-fajl proceeds generally from a warble, and
is the horfe’s hide.turned horny ; which, if it cannot be
diffolved and foftened by rubbing with the mercurial
ointment, muft be cut out, and treated then as a frdh
wound.
Sect. XXXII. Of Wind-galls, Blood and
Bog Spavins.
1. A Wind-gall is a flatulent fwelling, which
yields to the preffure of tlie finger, and recovers its
fliape on the removal thereof: the tumour is vifible to
the eye, and often feated on both fides of the back fi-
new, above the fetlocks, on the fore-legs, but moft fre¬
quently on the hind-legs; though they are met with
in various parts of the body, wherever membranes can
be fo feparated, that a quantity of air and ferofities
may be included within their duplicatures.
When they appear near the joints and tendons, they
are generally caufed by ftrains, or bruifes on the finews,
or the fheath that covers them; which, by being over-
ftretched, have fome of their fibres ruptured; whence
probably may ouze out that fluid which is commonly
found with the included air: though, where thefe fwel-
lings fhew themfelves in the interftices of large mufcles,
which appear blown up like bladders, air alone is the
chief fluid; and thefe mayfafely be opened, and treat¬
ed as a common wound.
On the firft appearance of wind-galls, their cure
fhould be attempted by reftringents and bandage: for
which purpofe, let the fwelling be bathed twice a-day
with vinegar, or verjuice alone; or let the part be fo-
I E R Y. Sed. XXXIII.
mented with a deco&ion of oak-bark, pomegranate, Of Spavins.
and alum boiled in verjuice, binding over it, with a
roller, a woollen cloth foaked in the fame. Some, for
this purpofe, ufe red-wine lees, others curriers fhavings
wetted with the fame, or vinegar, bracing the part up
with a firm bandage.
If this method, after a proper trial, (hould not be
found to fucceed, authors have advifed the fwelling to
be pierced with an awl, or opened with a knife : but
mild bliftering has in general the preference given to
thefe methods; the included fluids being thereby
drawn off, the impa&ed air difperfed, and the tumour
gradually diminifhed.
2. A blood-fpavin is a fwelling and dilatation of
the vein that runs along the infide of the hock, form¬
ing a little foft fwelling in the hollow part, and is
often attended with a weaknefs and lamenefs of the
hock.
The cure Ihould be firft attempted with the reftrin¬
gents and bandage above recommended, which will
contribute greatly to ftrengthen all weakneffes of the
joints, and frequently will remove this diforder if early
applied ; but if by thefe means the vein is not reduced
to its ufual dimenfions, the fkin Ihould be opened, and
the vein tied with a crooked needle and wax-thread
palled underneath it, both above and below the fwell¬
ing, and the turgid part fuffered to digeft away with
the ligatures : for this purpofe, the wound may be
daily dreffed with turpentine, honey, and fpirit of wine,
incorporated together.
3. A bog-fpavin is an encyfted tumour on the infide
of the hough ; or, according to.Dr Bracken, a collec¬
tion of brownifh gelatinous matter, contained in a bag,
or cyft, which he thinks to be the lubricating matter
of the joint altered, the common membrane that intlo-
fes it forming the cyft. This cafe he has taken the
pains toilluftrate in a young colt of his own, where he
fays, When the fpavin was preffed hard on the infide
the hough, there was a fmall tumour on the outfide,
which convinced him the fluid was within-fide the
joint: he accordingly cut into it; difcharged a large
quantity of this gelatinous matter; dreffed the fore with
dofiils dipped in oil of turpentine; putting into it, once
in three or four days, a powder made of calcined vi¬
triol, alum, and bole : by this method of dreffing, the
bag Houghed off, and came away, and the cure was
fuccefsfully completed without any vifible fear.
This diforder, according to the above defcription,
will fcarcely fubmit to any other method, except fi¬
ring, when the cyft ought to be penetrated to make it
effedhial; but in all obftinate cafes that have refilled
the above methods, both the cure of this and of the
fwellings called ouind-galls Ihould be attempted in this
manner. If, through the pain attending the opera¬
tion or dreffings, the joint fhould fwell and inflame, fo¬
ment it twice a-day, and apply a poultice over the
dreffings till it is reduced.
Sect. XXXIII. Of Mallenders and Sallenders.
Mallenders are cracks in the bend of the horfe’s
knee, that difcharge a ftiarp indigefted matter; they
are often the occafion of lamenefs, ftiffnefs, and the
horfe’s tumbling.
Sallenders are the fame diftemper, fituated on the
bending of the hough, and occafion a lamenefs behind.
They
Sed. XXXIV. FARR
Of Lam- They are both cured by wafting the parts with a
pas, &c. ]ather of foap warmed, or old chamber-lye ; and then
~ apply over the cracks a ftrong mercurial ointment
fpread on tow, with which they Ihonld be dreffed,
night and morning, till all the fcabs fall off: if this
(hould not fucceed, anoint them night and morning
with a little of the following, and apply the above
ointment over it.
Take hogs lard, two ounces ; fublimate mercury,
two drams.
Or, Take hogs lard, two ounces ; oil of vitriol, two
drams.
Take the next from Gibfon, which is to be depend¬
ed on.
jEthiops mineral, half an ounce ; white vitriol,
one dram ; foft green foap, fix ounces.
Anoint with this often ; but firft clip away the hair,
and clear the fcabs. On their drying up, it may be
proper to give a gentle purge or two ; or the nitre-
balls may be taken advantageoufly, for a fortnight or
three weeks.
Sect. XXXIV. Of Lampas, Barbs., and IVolves-
teeth.
r. The lampas is an excrefcence in the roof of the
horfe’s mouth, which is fometimes fo luxuriant, that
it grows above the teeth, and hinders his feeding, The
cure is in lightly cauterifing the flefh with a hot iron,
taking care that it does not penetrate too deep, fo as
to fcale off the thin bone that lies under the upper
bars; the part may be anointed with burnt alum and
honey, which is proper for moft fores in the mouth.
This operation is by fome thought to be entirely
unneceffary; it being a general obfervation with them,
that all young horfes have their mouths more or lefs
full of what are called lampas ; and that fometimes
they rife higher than the fore-teeth ; but they further
©bferve, in proportion as a horfe grows older, the roof
flattens of itfelf, and the teeth then appear to rife. We
are obliged to the ingenious M. La Foffe for this re¬
mark, and hope it will be the means of abolifhing this
cruel and unneceffary operation.
2. Barbs are fmall excrefcences under the tongue,
which may be difcovered by drawing it afide, and are
cured by cutting clofe off, and wafliing with brandy or
fait and water.
3. A horfe is faid to have wolves-teeth, when the
teeth grow in fuch a manner, that their points prick
or wound either the tongue or gums in eating. Old
horfes are mod liable to this infirmity, and whofe up¬
per overlhoot the under teeth in a great degree.
To remedy this evil, you may either chop off the fu-
perfluous parts of the teeth with a chiffel and mallet,
or file them down, which is the better way, till you
have fufficiently wafted them.
Sect. XXXV. Of the Greafe.
In order to treat this diforder with fome propriety,
we ftiall confider it as arifing from two different caufes;
a fault or relaxation in the vefftls, or a bad difpofition
in the blood and juices. We muft here obferve, that
the blood and juices (or humours, for there are always
fome in the beft ftate of blood) are brought to the ex¬
treme parts by the arteries, and returned by the veins;
in which latter, the blood is to rife in perpendicular
I E R Y. (33)
columns, to return the circulating fluids from the ex- Of the
tremities : hence fwellings in the legs of horfes may Greai~e-
eaiily be accounted for, from a partial ftagnation of
the blood and juices in the finer veffels, where the cir¬
culation is moft languid; and efpecially when there is
want of due exercife, and a proper mufcular compref-
fion on the veffels, to puft forward the returning
blood, and propel the inert and half-ftagnating fluids
through their veffels ; in fhort, the blood in fuch cafes
cannot fo readily afcend as defcend, or a greater quan¬
tity is brought by the arteries than can be returned by
the veins.
The greafe then, confidered in this light, mnft be
treated as a local complaint, where the parts affe&ed
are alone concerned, the blood and juices being yet
untainted, and in good condition ; or as a diforder
where they are both complicated: but when it is an
attendant on fome other diftemper, as the farcy, yel¬
lows, dropfy, &c. fuch difeafes muft firft be cured be¬
fore the greafe can be removed. In the former cafe,
moderate exercife, proper dreffing, cleanlinefs, and ex¬
ternal application, will anfwerthe purpofe ; in the lat¬
ter, internals muft be called in to our affiftajice, with
proper evacuations.
When a horfe’s heels are firft obferved to fwell in
the liable, and fubfide or go down on exercife ; let care
be taken to waft them very clean every time he comes
in, with foap-fuds, chamber-ley, or vinegar and wa¬
ter ; which, with proper rubbing, will frequently pre¬
vent, or remove, this complaint: or let them be well
bathed twice a-day withhold verjuice, or the following
mixture, which will brace up the relaxed veffels ; and
if rags dipped in the fame are rolled on, with a proper
bandage, for a few days, it is moft likely the fwell¬
ings will foon be removed by this method only, as the
bandage will fupport the veffels till they have reco¬
vered their tone. To anfwer this end, alfo, a laced
flocking made of ftrong canvas or coarfe cloth, neatly
fitted to the part, would be found extremely fervice-
able, and might eafily be contrived by an ingenious
mechanic.
Take re&ified fpirit of wine, four ounces; diffolve
in it half an ounce of camphor ; to which add
wine-vinegar, or old verjuice, fix ounces; white
vitriol, diffolved in a gill of water, one ounce;
mix together, and (hake the phial when ufed.
But if cracks or fcratches are obferved, which ooze
and run, let the hair be clipped away, as well to pre¬
vent a lodgment (which becomes flunking andoffenfive
by its flay), as to give room for wafting out dirt or
gravel, which, if fuffered to remain there, would great-
-ly aggravate the diforder.
When this is the cafe, or the heels.are full of hard
fcabs, it is neceffary to begin the cure with poultices,
made either of boiled turnips and lard, with a handful
of linfeed powdered ; or oatmeal and rye-flour, with a
little common turpentine and hogs lard, boiled up with
ftrong-beer grounds or red-wine lees. The digeftive
ointment being applied to the fores for two or three
days, with either of thefe poultices over it, will, by foft-
ening them, promote a difcharge, unload the veffels,
and take down the fwelling ; when they may be dried
up with the following :
Take white vitriol and burnt alum, of each two
ounces; ^Egyptiacum, one ounce ; lime-water, a
[ e ] quart
( 34 ) . FARR
Of the .quart or three pints : wafh the fores with a fponge
-Greafe. dipped in this, three times a-day; and apply the
— common white ointment fpread on tow, to an
ounce of which may be added two drams of fugar
of lead.
This method is generally very fuccefsful, when the
•diftemper is only local, and requires no internal medi¬
cines ; but if the horfe be full and grofs, his legs great¬
ly gorged,fo that the hair ttares up, and is whatfome
term pen-feathered, and has a large {linking difcharge
from deep foul fores, you may expeft to meet with
great trouble, as thefe diforders are very obftinate to
remove, being often occafioned by a poor dropfical
ftate of blood, or a general bad difpofition in the blood
and juices,
■The cure in this cafe, if the horfe is full and fleftiy,
muft be begun by bleeding, rowels, and repeated pur¬
ging ; after which, diuretic medicines are frequently
given with fuccefs. Thus,
Take four ounces of yellow rofin, one of fal prunel-
Ise ; grind them together with an oiled peftle;
.add a dram of oil of amber; and give a quart of
forge-water every morning., failing two hours be¬
fore and after taking, and ride moderately.
As this drink is found very difagreeable to fome hor-
fes, \Ve would recommend the nitre-balls in its (lead,
given to the quantity of two ounces a-day, for a month
or fix weeks, mixed up with honey, or in his feeds:
take the following alfo for that purpofe.
Yellow rofin, four ounces; fait of tartar, and fal
prunellas, of each two ounces ; Venice foap, half
-a pound ; oil of juniper, half an ounce { make in¬
to balls of two ounce weight, and give one every
morning.
The legs, in this cafe, fhould be bathed or foment¬
ed, in order to breathe out the ftagnant juices, or to
thin them, fo that they may be able to circulate freely
in the common current. For this purpofe, foment
twice a-day with the difcutient fomentation, (p. 26.
col. 1.) in which a handful or two of wood-afhes has
been boiled; apply then the above poultices, or the
following, till the fwelling has fubfided, when the fores
may be drefied with the green ointment till they are
•properly digefted, and then dried up with the water
and ointment above recommended.
Take honey, one pound; turpentine, fix. ounces;
incorporate with a fpoon; and add of the meal of
fenugreek and linfeed, each four ounces ; boil in
three quarts of red-wine lees to the confidence of
a poultice ; to whieh add, when taken from the
fire, two ounces of camphor in powder; fpread it
on thick cloths, and apply warm to the legs, fe-
curing it on with a ftrong roller.
If the fores are very foul, drefs them with two
parts of the wound-ointment, and one of iEgyptia-
•cum ; and apply the following, fpread on thick cloths,
and rolled on.
Take of black foap, one pound ; honey, half a
pound; burnt alum, four ounces; verdigreafe
powdered, two ounces ; wheat-flour, a fufficient
quantity.
If the diuretic balls fliould not fucceed, they muft be
changed for the antimonial and mercurial alteratives,
already mentioned: but turning a horfe out in a field,
where he has a hovel or (bed to ran to at pleafure,
I E R Y. Sed. XXXVL
would greatly contribute to quicken the cure, and in- of Scrat-
deed would in general effeft it alone ; but if this can- ches’ ^c*
not be complied with, let him be turned out in the
day-time.
If the horfe is not turned out, a large and conve¬
nient ftall is abfolutely neceflbry, with good drefiing
and care.
The laft thing we (hall recommend, is a method to
oblige a horfe to lie down in the ilable. This undoubt¬
edly is of the utmofl confequence, as it will not a little
contribute to the removal and cure of this diforder ;
for by only changing the pofition of his legs, a freer
circulation would be obtained, and the fwdling taken
down : whereas in general it is greatly aggravated by
the obftinacy of the horfe, who refufes to lie down at
all (probably from the pain it gives him to bend his
legs for that purpofe), by which.means the ftiffn'efs
and fwelling increafes, till the over-gorged and di-
ftended veflels are obliged to give way, and, by burit-
ing, difcharge the fluids, which (hould circulate thro’
them.
Sect. XXXVI. Of Scrat-ches, Crown-fcabs,
Rat-tai'^ and Capellets.
1. Scratches in the heels have fo much affinity
with the greafe, and are fo often concomitants of that
diftemper, that the method of treating them may be
felefted chiefly from the preceding feA'on ; which at
firft {hould be by the linfeed and turnip poultice, with
a little common turpentine, to foften them and relax
die veffels; the green ointment may then be applied
for a few days to promote a difcharge, when they may
be dried up with the ointments and wafhes recommended
in the above fedion. Itisbeft afterwards to keep the
heels fupple, , and foftened with currier’s dubbing,
which is made of oil and tallow. This will keep the
hide from cracking, and be as good a prefervative as
it isto leather; anti, by tiling it often before exercife, will
prevent the fcratches, if care is taken to wafh the heels
with warm water when the hoi fe-comes in. When they
prove obftinate, and the fqres are deep, ufe the follow¬
ing : but if any cavities or hollow places are formed,
they fhould firft be laid open; for no foundation can be •
laid for healing, till you cao drefs to the bottom.
Take Venice turpentine, four ounces; quickfilver,
one ounce ; incorporate well together by rubbing
fome time; and then add honey and fheeps fuet,
of each two ounces.
Anoint with this once or twice a-day ; and if the
horfe is full or flefhy, you muft bleed and purge; and
if the blood is in a bad ftate, the alteratives muil be
given to redlify it.
2. The crown-fcab is an humour that breaks out
round the coronet, which is very fharp and itching,
and attended with a feurfinefs : fharp waters prepared
with vitriol are generally ufed for the cure ; but the
fafeft way is firft to mix marfhmallow and yellow bafi-
licon, or the wound-ointment, equal parts, and to
fpread them on tow, and lay all round the coronet.
A doze or two of pbyfic may be very proper, with the
diuretic medicines preferibed in the preced. col. and
the alteratives above recommended, in rebelliobs cafes.
Vid. the Sedlion on Alteratives.
3. Rat-tails are excrefcences which creep from the
paftern to the middle of the fhanks, and are fo called
from
Sea. XXXVIII. FARR
Of Rup- from the refemblance they bear to the tail of a rat.
turcs, &c. Some are moift, others dry ; the former may be treated
with the drying ointment and wadies, p. 33. col. 2. par.
ult. the latter with the mercurial ointment prefcribed in
the Sedtion of Strangles, laft paragr. If the hardnefs
does not fubmit to the lad medicine, it Oiould be pared
off with a knife, and dreffed with turpentine, tar, and
honey, to which verdigreafe or white vitriol may occa-
lionally be added ; but before the ufe of the knife,
you may apply this ointment.
Take black foap, four ounces ; quick-lime, two
ounces ; vinegar enough to make an ointment.
4. There are particular dwellings which horfes are
fubjedt to, of a w'enny nature, which grow on the heel
of the hock, and on the point of the elbow, and are
called by the French and Italians capellets : they arife
often from bruifes and other accidents ; and when this
is the cafe, fhould be treated with vinegar and other
repellers. But when they grow gradually on both heels
or elbows, we may then fufpeft the blood and juices
in fault, and that fome of the veffels are broke and juices
txtravafated: in this cafe, the fuppuration fliould be pro¬
moted, by rubbing the part with marlhmallow oint¬
ment ; and when matter is formed, the (kin Ihould be
opened with a lancet, in fome dependent part towards
one fide, to avoid a fear: the dreffings may be turpen¬
tine, honey, and tindiure of myrrh. The relaxed Ikin
may be bathed with equal parts of fpirit of wine and
vinegar, to which an eighth part of oil of vitriol may
be added. The contents of thefe tumours are various;
fometimes watery; at others fuety, or like thick pafte ;
which, if care be not taken to digeft out properly with
the cyft, will frequently colledi again; was it not for
the disfigurement, the fiiorteft method would be to ex¬
tirpate them with a knife, which, if artfully executed,
and the fkin properly preferved, would leave very little
deformity.
Sect. [XXXVII.] XXXVIII. Of Ruptures, An-
ticor, Colt-evil or Gonorrhoea, and Difeafes of
the Mouth.
1. In regard to ruptures, though they are generally
divided into particular claffes, we lhall only ‘ obferve,
that by violent efforts of the horfe, or other accidents,
the guts or caul may be forced between the mufcles of
the belly at the navel, and through the rings of the
mufcles into the ferotum or cod. The fwellings are
generally about the fize of a man’s fill, fometimes
much larger, defeending to the very hock: they are
frequently foft, and yield to the preffure of the hand,
when they will return into the cavity of the belly with
a rumbling noife ; and, in moft, the vacuity may be
felt through which they paffed.
On their firft appearance, endeavours fhould be made
to return them by the hand ; but if the fwelling fhould
be hard and painful, in order to relieve the ftri&ure,
and relax the parts through which the gut or caul
has paffed, let a large quantity of blood be immediately
taken away, and the part fomented twice or thrice a-
day, applying over it a poultice made of oatmeal, oil,
and vinegar, which fhould be continued till the fwelling
grows foft and eafier, or the gut is returned. In the
mean time, it would be proper to tfifow up emollient
oily glylters twice a-day, and to let the horfe’s chief
dirt be boiled barley, fealded malt, or bran.
I E R Y. ( 35 )
Should the fwelling afterwards return, we apprehend Colt-evil,
the reftringent applications, ufually recommended on  
thefe occafions, will avail little without a fufpenfory
bandage; fo that an ingenious mechanic in that art is
chiefly to be relied on for any future affillance; though
it has been obferved, that with moderate feeding, and
gentle exercife, fome horfes have coutinued to be very
ufeful under this complaint.
2. The anticor is a diforder not very common among
our horfes, or thofe in northern climates; but is par¬
ticularly taken notice of by the French, Spanifh, and
Italian writers; who deferibe it a malignant fwelling
in the bread, which extends fometimes to the very {heath
under the belly ; it is attended with a fever, great
depreflions and weaknefs, and a total lofs of appetite*
The cure fhould be fird attempted by large and re¬
peated bleedings, to abate the inflammation ; emollient
glyders fhould be injected twice or thrice a-day, with
an ounce of fal prunella in each, and the cooling drink
in the Seftion on Fevers fliould be given inwardly ;
the fwelling fhould be bathed with the marfhmallow
ointment; and a ripening poultice, with onions boiled
in it, fhould be applied over it. If by this method,
continued four or five days, the inflammation in the
throat and gullet is removed, our attention fhould more
particularly turn to encourage-the fwelling at the bread,
and bring it, if poffible, to matter : to which end, con¬
tinue the poultice, and give two ounces of Venice treacle
diffolved in a pint of beer every night; when the fwel-
ling is grown Coft, it mud be opened with the knife,
and dreiTed with turpentine digedive, the danger how
being over.
But fhould it be found imprafticable to bring the
fwelling to matter, and it increafes upwards, fo as to
endanger fuffocation ; authors have advifed to pierce
the tumour with a hot pointed cautery in five or fix
places; to drefs with the above digedive ; and, in order
to dimulate and promote a greater difeharge, to add
to it a fmall quantity of Spanifh flies and euphorbium
in powder; fomenting at the fame time, and bathing
the circumjacent parts with ointment of marfhmallows.
M. Gueriniere, as well as Solyfell, have advifed open^
ing the ikin, when the tumour cannot be brought to
matter, in order to introduce a piece of black helle¬
bore-root deeped in vinegar, and to confine it there
for 24 hours: this alfo is intended as a dimulant; and
is faid to anfwer the intention, by occafioning fome¬
times a fwelling as big as a man’s head.
3. Befides the diforders of the mouth, which we
have already animadverted on, there are frequently ob¬
ferved on the infide the lips and palate, little fwellings
or bladders caWzA giggs. Slitting them open with a
knife or lancet, and wafhing them afterwards with
fait and vinegar, is in general their cure ; but when
they degenerate into what are called cankers, which
are known by little white fpecks, that fpread and oc-
cafion irregular ulcers, the bed method then is to touch
them daily with afmall flat cautery, moderately heated
till the fpreading is flopped, and to rub the fores three
or four times a day with jEgyptiacum, and tinfture of
myrrh fharpened with oil or fpirit of vitriol; when by
this drefling the Houghs are feparated, they may be
wafhed frequently with a fponge dipped in copperas,
or fublimate water, if they continue to fpread; or a
tinfture made by diffolving half an ounce of burnt alum,
[ e 2 3 and
( 3G ) FARR
Obferva- and two ounces of honty, in a pint of tinfture of rofes.
tions on Either of thefe will dry them up, and are very ufeful
IlorfesFect’ in molt diforders of the mouth.
A relaxation and fwelling of the palate fometimes
happens to horfes on catching cold. To remedy this
diforder, blow pepper on the part, or anoint it with the
fame mixed up with, honey. The tindture above men¬
tioned may be ufed for this purpofe, to which may be
added half an ounce of fpirit of fal armoniac.
4. The colt-evil is fuppofed to arife from Honed colts
having full liberty with mares, before they are able to
cover them; whence frequently enfues an excoriation
or fretting on the glands and a fwelling on the Iheath.
This laft diforder frequently proceeds too from dirt or
filth lodging there, and is often removed by wafting
the part clean with butter and beer: bht when the
yard itfelf is fwelled, foment it twice a-day with marft-
mallows boiled in milk, to which may be added a little
fpirit of wine ; anoint the excoriation with the white
ointment, or waft it with a fponge dipped in lime, to
a pint of which may be added two drams of fugar of
lead: the yard ftould be fufpended up to the belly ;
and if the fwelling ftould increafe with the inflamma¬
tion', bleed, and give the cooling phyfic, anoint with
ointment of alder, and apply the bread-and-milk poultice.
If a fimple gonorrhoea or feminal gleet is obferved
to drip from the yard, (which is often the cafe in
high-fed young horfes, where a relaxation of the glands
and feminal veffels has been brought on by frequent
emiffions), let the horfe be plunged every day into a river
or pond; give him two or three rhubarb purges, at pro¬
per diftances; and intermediately the following balls.
Take of balfam of copivi, or Venice turpentine, oli-
banum, and maftich powdered, of each two drams;
bole armeniac, half an ounce: mix up into a ball
with, honey, and give it night and morning till
the difcharge leffens, and then every night till it
goes off.
Balls prepared with rhubarb and turpentine may
alfo be given for this purpofe; two drams of the for¬
mer, with half an ounce of the latter.
DISEASES OF THE FEET.
Sect. XXXIX. Preliminary Remarks.
I. Of Greaftng, Oiling, and Stuffing Horfes Hoofs. The
cuftom of keeping our finefthorfes eonitantly Handing
upon dry litter and hot dung in the Hable, is exceed¬
ingly hurtful to the feet and legs, particularly the
former, which are always found to agree beff with
coolnefs and moiffure. Hence we find, that horfes
hoofs, whilH running in the fields, are always in bet¬
ter condition than thofe that are kept hot and dry in
the ffable, which, befide being liable to many difeafes,
* Obferva. are hard, brittle, ftattered, and often broken.
tions on the With refpeft to greafy or oily applications, fo often
Horfc* and Pre^cr'bed for the hoofs of horfes in order to preferve
on the dif- them found, tough, <&c. Mr Clark * very juffly con-
eafesof their demns them as rather pernicious than falutary.
feet ; from When young horfes (he obferves)are firft taken from
cious per-'" t^le fields, their hoofs are cool, found, and tough. Thefe
formance are found from experience to be good qualities. Buthor-
the follow- fes are no fooner introduced into the Hable, than their
ing feflions hoofsare greafed or oiled two or three times a-week: and
extrac- jp are hept much in the houfe Handing upon hot dry
I E R Y. Sed. XXXVII.
litter, without being frequently led abroad, and with- Obferva-
out having an opportunity of getting their hoofs cooled tio‘ls£n
and moiflened in wet ground, their hoofs grow fo Hor es f eet*
brittle, dry, and hard, that pieces frequently break
off, like chips from a hard Hone ; and, when driving
the nails in ftoeing, pieces will fplit off, even although
the nails are made very fine and thin. Now, if thefe
fame horfes with brittle fhattered hoofs are turned out
out to graze in the fields, their hoofs in time will be
come, as they were originally, found, tough, and good.
This change muH undoubtedly be aferibed to the
wet and moiffure which the hoofs areexpofedto in the
fields, of which water is the principal ingredient; and
it is a certain fa£t, of which we have daily proofs, that
when all other means fail, horfes are turned out to
rafs in order to recover their decayed brittle hoofs,
t is known, that the hoofs of horfes are porous ; and
that infenfible perfpiration is carried on through thefe
pores, in the fame manner, and according to the fame
laws, as take place in other parts of the body. Now,
every body knows, that greafy or oily medicines ap¬
plied to the fltin of the human body, prevent perfpira-
tion, which is frequently attended with the worff con-
fequences. The fame reafoning will hold with refpedt
to the hoofs of horfes ; for grealy or oily applications
clofe or fliut up the pores of the hoof, by being ab-
forbed or fucked into its inner fubffance. Hence the
natural moiffure which ftould nourift the hoof, is.
thereby prevented from arriving at its furface; which,
on that account, becomes as it were dead, and con-
fequently dry, brittle, and hard.
The original pra&ice of greafing or oiling horfes
hoofs, had probably taken its rife, from obferving,
that greafe or oil foftened dead fubHances, fuch as
leather, &c. But this will by no means apply to the
hoofs of horfes, as there is a very great difference be¬
tween the living and dead parts of animals. The for¬
mer having juices, &c. neceflary for their own nourifli-
men and fupport, whilH the latter require fuch applica¬
tions as will preferve them from decaying and rotting.
The dealers in horfes about London, when they get
a bad-footed horfe in their hands, moiffen his hoofs
frequently in water; for which purpofe, they keep a
puddle of water and dung at the watering place, that
when the horfe comes to water, his fore-feet are funk
in the puddle, by which means they are cooled and
moiffened twice or thrice every day ; fo that, whilH
they are making up his carcafe for the market, his
hoofs are likewife repaired, and fufficient to Hand the
teff of a trial upon fale. But no fooner do horfes with
hoofs of this kind come into other hands, their hoofs
at the fame time being kept dry and greafed, &c. than
they degenerate into their former Hate. Hence the
caufe of fo many complaints that horfes turn foon
lame after they come from dealers, when, in fail, it
proceeds from greafy applications, and negle&ing to
cool or moiffen the hoofs in water; for the careful
groom, when airing his mafler’s horfes, rather than lead»
them into a puddle, will go about in order to keep
their legs clean and dry.
Another practice equally pernicious, is the fluffing
up horfes hoofs (as it is called), with hot, refinous,
and greafy mixtures, under the notion of cooling and
foftening them. Various are the preferiptions recom¬
mended for this purpofe, many of which are of a quite
oppose
Sea. XXXIX. FARRIERY. ( 37 )
Defers of oppofite nature to the purpofe intended. There is tion of the whole hoof, which is called hoof-lound; and Defers of
the Feet. ]ikewife a great impropriety in fluffing up the hoofs likewife to corns, running thruffies, or fruffies; either the yeer'
“ with rotten dung and ftale urine: this, it is true, is of which render a horfe lame.
moifture; but of the very word kind, on account of Some hoofs are pretty well proportioned, and look
the falls contained in the urine, which of itfelf greatly well to the eye; but, at the fame time, they are thin
contributes towards hardening and drying their hoofs, and weak crufled, and not able to Hand much fatigue
in place of foftening them ; befides the other bad ef- in travelling upon hard ftoney grounds. On the other
fe&s which may arife to the frog, fee. from the rot- hand, very ftrong crufted hoofs are by no means the
tennefs of the dung. But, without commenting upon bed, but are liable to cracks, fee. In fuch hoofs, the
the various compolitions or pompous preferiptions re- horny fibres appear very didinil, and run in a draight
commended in books, or thofe handed about as receipts line from the coronet or top of the hoof to its bails,
for the foftening and duffing horfes hoofs, the author refembling the grain of fome kinds of wood, partieu-
would recommend one which is more natural, and larly oak. Hence they are difpofed to cracks or fif-
ought not to be defpifed for its fimplicity, as it is only fures, which cleave the hoof quite through, fometimes
cooling and moidening the hoofs with water morning from the coronet down to the bottom of the hoof. In
and evening: And, to thofe who are fond of duffing, others, thefe cracks at fird do not penetrate through
he would preferibe bran and water, or clay, fee. made the horn, but appear like a feam on the furface of the
into the confillency of a poultice; and, in particular hoof, commonly named a fand-crack; which, from re¬
cafes, where horfes dand much in the dable, and the taining the land and gravel, at lad works its way into
hoofs are difpofed to be very hard, dry, and brittle, a the quick, and occafions lamenefs, fee. Another difad-
poultice of this kind, or any other emollient compofi- vantage attending very drong eroded hoofs is, that,
tion in which water is a principal ingredient, may be when they dand long in a dry hot dable, they con-
applied all round the hoof; or, in imitation of fome traft, and by their thicknefs and hardnefs bruife the
dealers, to keep a puddle of water at the watering place, internal parts of the foot. Hence the horfe will be
which will anfwer equally well, if not better. From lame, though, at the fame time, no vilible defe£l will
this manner of treatment, the hoofs will be preferved be feen about the hoof, excepting a great heat, pain,
in their natural date, and a free and equal perfpiration and tendernefs in his feet; the true caufe of which is
kept up, by which the nourifhmcnt natural to the hoof feldom attended to or known; and hence the horfe
will have free accefs to its furface, as it is this only is faid to be lame in fome other part, perhaps the ffioul-
which caufes that cohefion of the parts which conili- ders. Low thin heels are weak-cruded, and liable to
tutes a firm, found, tough hoof. lamenefs from injudicious ffioeing. The oppofite ex-
II. Of the natural Defetts of the Feet. It is very treme, viz. very high heels* is equally bad ; as thefe are
well known, that diderent climates and diderent foils fubjedl to corns, and contraftion of the hoof; and the
greatly ade£t the feet of hoffes. Thofe that are bred deepnefs of the crud caufes a numbnefs in the feet, and
in hot countries, danding modly upon dry ground, undeadinefs in the horfe’s going, which make him.
have deep cruded hollow hoofs with fmall frogs; for, liable to trip and dumble.
being but little expofed to wet or moidure, the fibres Much has been faid by authors, with refpedl to the
of the hoof contrail more clofely. And, even in Great diderent colours of horfes hoofs, aferibing diderent qua-
Britain, there is a confiderable diderence, according to lities and temperaments to peculiar colours, fuch as
the drynefs or wetnefsof the foil upon which horfes are hardnefs, drynefs, brittlenefs, fee. But it is very well
bred. Thofe that are bred upon the mountainous parts known to practitioners in dioeing horfes, that there are
of England and Wales, and in the northern parts of good and bad hoofs of all colours; fome being natu-
of Scotland, have generally good found tough hoofs; rally weak and difpofed to be brittle, whilft others are
whild thofe horfes that are bred upon low marfhy tough and drong. But a great deal depends upon the
grounds, (which are moltly of the big draught kind), management of them in the dable, in keeping them
have flat, large, foft hoofs; for being kept too moid, properly moidened, in order to preferve a due medium
by always foaking in wet, the horny fibres of the hoof between thefe oppofite extremes. It is likewife gene-
are too much relaxed. rally remarked, by authors, as a fure fign of bad thin
Thofe hoofs which are either too large or too fmall, hoofs, that, when the {hoe-nails are drove high up in
in proportion to the fize of the body, and thicknefs of the crud, it is, fay they, an evidence that the crud is
the bones of the legs, are generally, and not without thin, and that there was not fufficient hold, without
foundation, looked upon as bad. Large broad hoofs, driving the nails high up. But this can be no true cri-
for the moll part, have thin flat foies; large, foft, fpon- terion to judge by; for, if the nails can be driven high
gy frogs; a drong crud, fomething hollow upon the up in the crud with fafety in a thin weak foot, the
upper and fore part, and full of wrinkles or rings, not fame may as certainly be done in a drong foot, with
unlike the rough outfide of an oyder-ffiell. Hoofs of more eafe and expedition, which indeed is frequently
this ffiape are liable to that difeafe termed foundered; the cafe.
and to have high, round, or fwelled foies, and low To form a right judgment of what may be called a
weak heels, fee. goocl hoof, it mud neither be too large nor too fmall
Small hoofs are liable to the oppofite extreme, efpe- in proportion to the fize of the leg: at the fame time,,
dally thofe of that kind which generally go under the its ffiape mud be regular, gradually enlarging from the
denomination of ajfcs hoofs, as they are deep cruded coronet towards its bafis; the crud fmooth, even, and
and narrow, the foie very hollow, the frog fmall, the free from feams, cracks, or wrinkles; the foie drong,
heels high and drong, the crud upon the outfide clear and a little hollow; the heels firm and open ; the frog
and duning: thefe are naturally difpofed to a contrac- tough, found, and dry.
Sect
( 38 ) F A Pv R
ih^Fcet.*1* Sect. XL. Wounds in the Feet.
Wounds in the feet happen frequently, but chiefly
from want of proper care, and treating them injudi-
cioufly when they are firft inflifted.
t. Wounds upon the coronet, or top of the hoof,
when fuperficial, are eafily cured, if not negle&ed or
improperly treated. But the moft Ample wound, by
bad management or negleft, may, efpecially if the horfe
fhould happen at the time to be in a bad habit of body,
be attended with dangerous confequences : therefore,
however trifling they may at firft appear, they (hould
be treated with attention.
When large deep wounds are inftidled upon the co¬
ronet, from which may be apprehended a great inflam¬
mation, and its confequences; to prevent thefe evils as
much as pofiible, it will be neceffary to have recourfe
to bleeding, and, at the fame time, to give fuch inter¬
nal remedies as are recommended in inflammatory cafes ;
cooling falts, glyfters, &c. together with a low foft
diet, keeping the hoof moift and foft with emollient
poultices applied around it, which may be made of
turnip, mallows, or even bran and water.
Deep wounds upon the coronet are generally made
by long (harp caukers upon the heels of the (hoes of
the oppofite foot, penetrating downwards between the
coffin-bone and the hoof. In this cafe, as there is no
depending orifice or paffage for the matter contained
in the wound to be difcharged downwards, there is
great danger of a fiftula or finuous ulcer being formed;
to prevent which, an artificial drain or opening muft be
made through the hoof, firft rafping or paring it very
thin upon the outfide where the perforation is to be
made; then introduce a (harp-pointed inftrument, a
little bent, into the orifice of the wound, and, paffing it
to the bottom, force it outwards. This operation will
be performed with lefs pain to the animal, if the inftru¬
ment be concealed within a canula or hollow tube, till
it reaches to the bottom of the wound; when the per¬
foration is to be made by pufhing it beyond the extre¬
mity of the canula ; and, by applying a bandage pretty
tight round the coronet, the (ides or lips of the wound
may be brought into conta& and healed up, or a feton
may be introduced, and continued till the inflamma¬
tion, fwelling, foe. is removed. If this operation be
too long delayed, the matter confined in the wound
forms a number of finufes or fiftula:, which frequently
run in different diredlions under the hoof, and require
a large portion of it to be cut away before they can be
healed up, leaving an ugly blemifh, and a weaknefs or
tendernefs on that part of the hoof, which never ad¬
mits of a thorough cure. But, by treating it in the
manner now mentioned, the annular ligament may be
preferved entire, and a falfe quarter avoided: and, al¬
though there may remain an horizontal crack or fiffure
in the hoof where the perforation was made; yet, as
the hoof grows downwards, it will likewife go along
with it, and wear out, without leaving a blemifh or any
other bad confequence.
When the capfular ligament of the coffin-joint is
wounded or perforated by any inftrument, fo as to ad¬
mit the external air into its cavity, the glands there fi-
tuated inflame; and, in place of fecreting a lubricating
mild liquor, they difeharge a (harp ichorous fluid,
which deftroys and corrodes the very cartilages or
I E R Y. Sea. XL.
griftles upon the ends of the articulated bones, which Wounds in
at laft grow together, and form what is termed an an- t^ie ^eet’
cbylofis, and of courfe lamenefs. There are many far-
riers who boaft of their having cured wounds in the
joints after they were affe&ed with that fymptom which
they call a joi>it-<water, that is, a difeharge of the fy-
novia or mucilaginous fluid contained within the cavity
of the joint. But what they commonly call a joint-
water, is only a yellow ferum or lymph, which is fre¬
quently to be met with iftuing in great abundance
from wounds in the legs; and not the fynovia or fluid
contained within the cavity of the joint. Notwith-
ftanding wounds of this kind happen frequently; yet,
fo little are the generality of practitioners acquainted
with the nature of them and their confequences, that
they make no diftindtion betwixt them and thofe of
a more Ample nature. Hence, therefore, they find
themfelves frequently miftaken in prognofticating the
cure of a wound, to appearance of a very Ample na¬
ture.
It is a certain fadt, confirmed by experience, thatr
when the capfular ligament of any joint is perforated
or Eut through, there is but litttle chance of a com¬
plete cure being effedled, fo as the horfe may be ufeful
for the faddleor carriage; although, in other refpefts,
to thofe who are willing to be at the expenfe, he may,
if a ftrong horfe, be ufeful in fome kinds of drudgery.
As to the mode of dreffing wounds of this kind, all
that art can do, is to prevent, as much as poffible, a
violent inflammation or flux of humours to the affe&ed
limb, by blooding, glyfters, cooling falls, together
with a low foft diet, applying digeftive poultices to the
wound, and injecling now and then into the cavity of
the joint tin&ure of myrrh.
2. Wounds upon the coronet towards the back part
of the foot or heel, which are commonly called an over¬
reach, are occafioned by the toe of the hind-lhoe on
the fame fide cutting the fore-heel. Some horfes are
much addi&ed to this, owing entirely to their manner
of going, viz. the hind-foot moving in the fame line
of diredtion with the fore-foot ; in riding faft, the fore¬
foot not giving place in time to the hind-foot, (trikes
again ft the fore-heel: hence fome horfes, in trotting,
make a clattering noife with the hind-ffioes (triking a-
gainft the heel of the fore ones; hence, likewife, many
horfes are thrown down by the fame caufe.
Although an over-reach is a wound of the compli¬
cated kind, being at the fame time a contufion or
bruife together with a wound; yet they are nowife
dangerous, and are eafily cured by treating them in the
manner hereafter mentioned; for,in two or three days,
when the wound comes to fuppurate properly, the
bruifed or dead parts fall off, and only leave a larger
furface of a wound than was at firft apprehended.
With refpeftto the dreffing proper forrecent wounds,
farriers are too much prejudiced in favour of certain
balfams, ointments, and tinCIures; and too fanguine ia
the belief of their fuppofed fpecific virtues, the healing
qualities of which they flatter themfelves are irrefift-
ible. But the truth is, all that art can do in the heal¬
ing of wounds, is to remove every impediment which
may obftrufl: the uniting of the divided parts, and to
forward the formation of laudable pus or matter; that
being once effeCled, the reft is performed by nature,
which is felf-fufficient. All the balfams and remedies
which
Sed. XL. FARR
Wounds in which are faid to generate new flefh, in faft only affift
the Feet. nature by excluding the external air, keeping the
“ wounded parts warm, and confining the fecreted hu-
piours, which, by remaining there a due time, are con-
■verted into laudable matter, which is the balfam of na¬
ture’s preparing. Therefore, the moft approved and
rational method of treating recent wounds is, to en¬
deavour to bring them to a fuppuration or difcharge of
laudable matter ; for which purpofe, poultices are moft
eligible, as they may be eafily made more or lefs of a
digeftive quality, by melting and mixing any proper
digeftive ointment with the poultice whilft warm.
1. Digeftive Ointment. Take common turpentine
and hog’s lard, of each equal parts, melted toge¬
ther.
This ointment may be made ftronger or weaker, by
diminifhing the one ingredient and increafing the o-
ther ; and is very proper to be mixed with poultices, in
order to keep them foft and pliable.
2. Digejlive Poultice. Take oat-meal or coarfe
wheat-flour; digeftiveointment, two ounces; beer-
grounds, a fufficient quantity: boil the whole to
the confiftence of a poultice. The quantity of
the ointment may be increafed or diminilhed in
proportion to the fize of the poultice.
The experience the author has had of the good ef-
Fedts of poultices of this kind in recent wounds, makes
him recommend them as preferable to any other mode
of dreffing, for promoting a quick fuppuration, and
leaving a fmooth even cicatrix.
3. jEmolliait Poultice. Take oat-meal, or coarfe
wheat-flour, and lintfeed powdered, of each half a
pound. Boil them in milk or water to the confift¬
ence of a poultice: to which add of fal armoniac,
in powder, one ounce.
This emollient poultice may be applied when there
Is a great heat, inflammation, or fwelling, attending
wounds ; and by the addition of frdh butter, lard, or
oil, may be made of a more relaxing nature.
Many people are indeed prejudiced againft the ufe
of poultices, from a wrong notion, that they (as the
phrafe is) draw humours to the wounded part; but
the abfurdity of this way of reafoning will be evident
to thofe who are acquainted with the healing art.
“ Poultices, (fays Mr Bartlett) are of fueh real and
extenfive ufe in farriery, that we thought the compo-
fition of them could not be too general. How Ample
foever the ingredients may appear to fome, (which are
generally at hand), yet they will be found to anfwer
moft intentions, where prefent cafe is to be obtained
by warmth, foftening, and relaxing the injured part.
Many are the cafes which demand fuch alfiftance, as
recent fwellings, inflammations, treads, bruifes, crack¬
ed and fwelled heels and feet, burns, fcalds, brui-
fed and lacerated wounds from flumps, thorns, glafs,
nails, &c. which laft are much better treated with fuch
Ample emollient applications, than by hot oils or fcald-
jng plafters dropt into the wounds; which, under the
abfurd notion of drawing, but too often fear up the
mouths of the veffels, hinder digeftion, and confequent-
ly increafe both pain and inflammation. In fhort, it
is certain that very great fervices are daily done by the
ufe of poultices, not only in thofe diforders to which
the human body is incident, but alfo in thofe where¬
with the brute part of the creation is affli&ed. One
1 e R v. ( 39 )
advantage which they have over moft outward applica- Wounds in
tions is peculiar to them, that they convey and retain the Feer*
an additional heat, befides what is often in the ingre¬
dients; and as moft of them have alfo fomething emol¬
lient in their compofition, they muft neceflarily fof-
ten and relax the {kin and veffels, abate tenfion, atte¬
nuate and thin vifcid and obftrufted juices, fo that
their return into the common courfe of circulation, or
difeharge by the pores of the {kin, muft in general be
much better anfwered by poultices than by other me¬
thods.”
Poultices may be continued till fuch time as the
wound appears to be well digefted, (that is, a kindly
fuppuration of white well-concocled matter), look
fmooth and equal, free from cavities or excrefcences of
proud fleflt; in that cafe, the ufe of poultices may be
left off, and the furface of the wound may be fprinkled
over with the following mild efcharotic powder.
4. Take burnt limeftone, that breaks down on be¬
ing expofed to the air without water, three oun*
ces ; Armenian bole, one ounce; rubbed toge¬
ther in a mortar, and put through a fine fieve.
After the wound is fprinkled with this powder, a
pledget of dry lint may be fixed gently over it; and,
when the furface of the wound is nearly equal with the
lkin, the powder will be fufficient, without any doth
or covering.
3. There is another fpecies of wounds to which the
feet are much expofed, called punctures, on account of
their fmall orifice, as the parts immediately after the
wound is infli&ed readily clofe up, whereby it becomes
difficult to know the depth of the wound. They are
generally occafioned from treading upon fliarp ftones,
broken glafs, {harp bones, and nails, and likewife from
nails in {hoeing; either of thefe perforating the foie or
frog, and wounding the internal parts of the foot ;
which, from their fituation and confinement within the
hoof, are attended with the moft violent pain and in¬
flammation, which are frequently increafed by the in¬
judicious method generally obferved in treating thefc
wounds when firft inflifted, .by the application of hot
. corrofive oils poured into the recent wound, in order to
deaden it, which is produ$ive of the worft of cqnfe-
quences. Thus, a fine young chaife-horfe, upon a
journey, was pricked with a nail in {hoeing; which be¬
ing immediately obferved, the farrier poured into the
wound oil of vitriol. The horfe continued very lame ;
and, upon the third day, he gave up, not being able
to travel any longer. The leg, immediately above the
hoof, .fwelled to a moft enormous fize, broke out in
different places, and difeharged an incredible quantity
of bloody matter, by which the whole limb was wafted,
and the horfe rendered entirely ufelefs.
Punftures or pricks from nails in {hoeing, are com.
monly faid to proceed from ignorance or blundering*.
This may fometimes be the cafe; but, at the fame
time, it is an accident that may, and indeed does,
happen to the moft expert artift; and it is furprifing,
eonfideriqg the narrow fpace there is in fome hoofs for
driving nails, that it does not happen more frequent¬
ly. When it is difeovered in time, it is eafily cured,
by opening a paffage for the matter downwards, and
dreffing it with any digeftive ointment or poultice, and
keeping the foot moift, by applying an emollient poul¬
tice allround the hoof. But when it is overlosked, or
( 40 ) FARR
Wounds in a fragment of the nail remains in the wound, the in-
the Feet. flammation increafing, it at lad fuppurates. The mat-
ter accummulating, and not finding a paflage down¬
wards, from the natural formation of the hoof, it
moves upwards to the coronet or top of the hoof,
and forms a round tumour, which afterwards breaks
out and degenerates into a mod malignant ulcer, com¬
monly termed,
4. A Quittor-lone. This tumour is attended with
great pain and inflammation, .and a confiderable fwell-
mg round its balls. The method of cure commonly
pra&ifed, and indeed recommended by authors, efpe-
cially Dr Braken, is to bore a number of holes into the
fubdance of the tumour with a hot iron, pointed pyra¬
midally; and to introduce into thefe holes fmall pieces
of corrofive fublimate, (fome even ufe arfenick), which
corrodes and dellroys the flefh for fome fpace around
them, and at lad feparates from the found parts, in a
hardened mafs of dead mortified fiefli, called a core,
which falls off and leaves a large furface of a wound.
But, frequently, a fecond or fometimes a third opera¬
tion is found neceffary, before the fiflula or finus can
be opened to the bottom, and the proud flelh totally
overcome, which grows very luxuriantly, and renders
the cure tedious, uncertain, and very painful to the a-
nimal. Therefore, as this method of cure is attended
with fo many inconveniences, and is even dangerous
from the quantity of fublimate, &c. made ufe of,
which may as readily dedroy the ligament of the joint,
bones, &c. as the fubdance of the tumour, it ought
never'to be ufed but with caution, and when other
means have failed, as it likewnfe endangers the life of
the horfe. The knife feems far preferable : fird tie a
ligature round the fetlock, in order to dop the bleed¬
ing; and, with a crooked fharp knife, cut out the tu¬
mour to the bottom ; afterwards drefs it like a freih
wound, till it is healed up.
In ulcers of this kind, as there are a number of fi-
nufesor fidulse which run in different diredtions under¬
neath the hoof, it is hardly polfible to avoid dedroy-
ing the annular ligament which lies below the coronet,
and cutting away a large portion of the hoof; yet, in
many cafes, (efpecially when there is an opening in the
tumour), the method propofed, at the beginning of
this fedtion, for curing the deep wounds upon the co¬
ronet with feton, may be fird tried; and, if that does
not fucceed, either of the operations above mentioned
may be performed.
Pun&ures differ little or nothing, in the manner of
treating them, from wounds ; only the foie or frog
fhould be feraped thin all round the orifice of the
wound, which, at the fame time, if too fmall, fhould
be enlarged, and the digedive poultice applied, taking
care that no fragment or extraneous fubdance remain
in the wound, and keeping the whole hoof mold and
foft with emollient poultices around it; and, in cafes
attended with violent pain, recouffe mud be had to
fuch internal remedies as are proper in inflammatory
cafes, fuch as the following mixture by way of a drink,
in order to prevent, as much as poflible, an inflamma¬
tion, or a flux of humours to the afflitted limb, bleed¬
ing being fird pretnifed, together with ufing a low foft
diet.
5. Take fait of nitre, two ounces; common treacle,
two ounces. Diffolve in a quart of water.
I E R Y. Sea. XL.
It will be neceffary to repeat this draught morning Wounds i»
and evening; if the horfe fhould fhew any uneafinefs, t*ie
or appear griped, the quantity of water may be in- "'—
creafed, or the fame quantity of nitre may be given
the horfe in a mafli of bran twice 9-day, if it doeanot
caufe him loath his food. If the coffin-bone fhould be
wounded and turns carious, it will be tedious to wait
for an exfoliation, as, from the fpongy texture of this
bone, it exfoliates but flowly : therefore, if it can con¬
veniently be done, the carious parts may be feraped off
with a knife, and afterwards dreffed with pledgets of
tow dipped in the tin&ure of myrrh ; and let the poul¬
tice be applied above it.
In pundtures, as above deferibed, it is a common
pradtice to pour into the wound hot corrofive oils,
(fome even run into the'wound an iron nail made red
hot), in order, as the phrafe is, to deaden the parts.
In fuperfieial or flight wounds, when perhaps little
more than the hoof is wounded, the application of hot
oils can hardly be very hurtful. But the barbarous
method of pufhing a hot nail into a recent wound, can¬
not fail of being attended with bad confequences, as
the cure is unqueftionably worfe than the difeafe. But,
at all events, when the pundture is deep, either of thefe
cruel methods is extremely hurtful. The wound is faid
to be of the moft inveterate or defperate kind; when,
in fadt, the bad pradtice of injudicious applications, tsc*
efcape the juft cenfure they deferve.
5. Contujions or bruifes happen frequently on the
coronet or top of the hoof, from the treading of other
horfes feet, which will occafion lamenefs; although, at
the fame time, no external mark of violence win ap¬
pear on the coronet, farther than a little fwelling, or
the horfe will fhow a fenfe of pain when the affedted
part is touched or preffed upon. The following poul¬
tice in this cafe may be applied with fuccefs, if conti¬
nued for fome time.
6. Take thick lees of wine or vinegar, one pint;
crude fal ammoniac, two ounces ; oat-meal or
bran, fufficient to make it of a due confiftence.
Diffolve the fal ammoniac in the lees firft.
Before concluding this fedtion, it may not be im¬
proper to mention the following rules, which ought
carefully to be attended to by every pradfitioner.
1. The firft thing to be obferved in dreffingof wounds
is, to remove all foreign bodies, (if it can be done with
fafety), all lacerated or torn parts, whether of the
fleih or of the hoof, <bc. which, from their being left
in the wound, would greatly impede the cure. 2. All
wounds fhould be carefully infpedted at every dreffing,
obferving attentively whether any alteration has been
made on their furface, whether they be clean at the
bottom, and free from any extraneous fubftance that
may hinder or retard the cure. 3. Whatever appears
mortified, or any fungous or proud flefh, muft be re¬
moved, either by fuppuration, by the knife, or by
cauftic. 4. Cramming wounds with hard tents, or fy •
ringing them frequently with fpirituous tindlures, are
extremely hurtful. The former increafes the pain and
inflammation, &c. the latter produces a callus upon
the internal fufface of the wounds, which prevents
their healing. 5. The dreffings of wounds fhould lie
fmooth and eafy upon the parts. 6. Over-tight liga¬
tures or bandages fhould be carefully avoided. 7. As
wounds in the feet or legs, for obvious reafons, are
more
Sea. XLI. FARR
Foundered more difficult to heal than on any other part of the
Feet' body ; therefore, reft and a wide ftall are abfolutely
neceflary, together with a low regimen or foft diet, in
order to keep the body cool and open.
Sect. XLI. Of that Difeafe in the Feet com¬
monly ca/Zec? Foundered.
The term/?a«r/<rra/is frequently applied to lame
horfes in a very vague manner, and without any de¬
termined or fixed ^meaning : for, when a horfe (hows
any defeft or impediment in moving his fore-feet, he
is then pronounced to be foundered, whether he really
has been fo or not; that is, according to what is com¬
monly underftood by that term, owing to the want or
neglect of not making proper diftin&ions of the diffe¬
rent difeafes in the feet. If we confult authors who
have treated upon this fubje£t, we ftiall find their ac¬
counts of it very dark and imperfect ; they bewilder
the reader, and convey but a very indiftinft idea of
the nature of the difeafe : hence many errors are com
mitted in pradlice, to the deftruftion of a number of
valuable horfes, which otherwife, by proper manage¬
ment, might have been rendered found and ufeful.
When a horfe i» firft attacked with this diforder, he
fhows a great reftleffnefs, is hot and feverilh, heaves
much at the flanks, breathes quick, has a quick ftrong
pulfe, and groans much when moved about; at the
fame time, he fhows fymptoms of the moft violent pain,
fometimes in one, but more frequently in both fore¬
feet ; for which reafon, he lies down much ; but,
when forced to move forwards, he draws himfelf toge¬
ther, as it were into a heap, by bringing forward his
hind-feet almoft under hL fhoulders, in order to keep
the weight of his body as much as poffible from reft-
ing upon his fore-feet. In ftepping forward, he fets
his heel down firft with great caution, as afraid of
touching the ground. This laft fymptom fhould be
. particularly attended to, as from it we may conclude
with certainty that the chief feat of the diforder is in
the feet. The hoofs at the fame time are exceedingly
hot; and, if water is thrown upon them, they dry in-
Itantly : if an attempt is made, to pull off any of the
fhoes, the horfe (hows great uneafinefs upon the leaft
twill or preffure made upon any part of the foot, and
a great unwillingnefs to fupport the weight of his'bo¬
dy upon the other foot, efpecially when they are both
alike affedled.
It is univerfally allowed, that the caufe of this dif¬
eafe proceeds from too violent exercife, fuch as riding
very hard upon ftony grounds or turnpike roads, and
that young horfes are moft liable to it; and to thefe
we may likewife add, unequal preffure upon the in¬
ternal parts of the foot, from the concave or hollow
form of the common (hoes. All thefe caufes combined
together, when a horfe is of a plethoric or full habit
of body, and not accuftomed to violent exercife, oc-
cafion this difeafe in a greater or leffer degree. To
form fome faint idea of this malady in horfes, we may
in a great meafure appeal to what we experience our-
felves in running upon hard ground; for we find, that
it occafions a great heat, attended with a fmart pain
in our feet, which would be greatly increafed from un-
eafy fhoes, efpecially if compelled (like horfes) to
continue the running for anyconfiderable time. The
feet likewife become turgid and painful after a long
I E R Y. ( 41 )
day’s journey, efpecially if the perfon is not acctl- Foundered
Homed to travel; and this inflammation frequently ter- Feet‘
minates in blifters upon the foies of the feet. Hence
it is evident, that, in proportion to the habit of body
the horfe is in at the time, and the violence of the la¬
bour or exercife he has undergone, the inflammation
iii the internal parts of the foot will be more or lefs
violent, and attended with all the fymptoms already
mentioned.
This difeafe, then, appears from the fymptoms at¬
tending it, and the effedls it afterwards produces in
the feet, to be, in its firft ftage, an inflammation of
the internal parts of the feet, arifing from the violent
exercife, which occafions a more than ordinary deter¬
mination of the blood to the feet: hence that rapid cir¬
culation of the blood in the veffels within the hoof,
which frequently terminates in a rupture of thefe vef¬
fels, and of courfe an extravafation of the blood, and,
in fome cafes, a total feparation of the horny fubftance
of the hoof from the aponeurotic fibres upon the fore
part of the coffin-bone; whilft in others, where it has
been lefs violent, a concretion or growing together of
the parts within the hoof has taken place, fo as to
appear upon diffedlion oqe *foiid mafs ; and hence
lamenefs.
Thus, a young chaife-horfe, after a hard day’s
work, was attacked with all the fymptoms already
mentioned, and was treated in the common manner as
above related, that is, rowelled, fyc. In a few weeks
after the difeafe had taken its courfe in the ordinary
way, he was put under the author’s care. The foie, a
little before the point of the frog in one of his fore¬
feet, became foft; and having a curiofity to fee the
caufe of it, the author cut away the foie, which was
but thin, and found a cavity containing a reddifti co¬
loured liquor : after removing the ragged parts of the
hoof, a large tranfverfe opening (howed itfelf, into
which a probe was introduced upwards between the
coffin-bone and .the hoof; the connedlion between the
tendinous fibres upon the furface of the coffin bone and
the hoof, was deftroyed at the fore-part or toe ; the
bone, lofing part of its fupport, preffed down upon the
horny foie, and produced that fwelling or convexity
of its furface, which is called a high, round, or pumice
foie. The hoof loft its former (hape, growing narrow
towards the toe, with a preternatural thicknefs of the
horny fubftance of the cruft, whilft the quarters or
fides of the hoof were decayed, thin, and full of deep
wrinkles, together with a hollownefs upon the furface
of the upper part of the hoof, the whole foot having a
difeafed appearance. When the horfe had recovered
fo far as to be able to walk, in going foreward he
threw out his legs well before him, but drew them
backwards before he fet his foot to the ground ; fet-
ting the heel down firft with great caution upon which
he relied moft, the toe being turned a little upwards.
From this fymptom only, we may jndge with cer¬
tainty, even though at a diftance, upon feeing a horfe
walk, whether he has ever been foundered or not.
This difeafe proves dill more violent, and indeed
fometimes fatal, if the horfe has been allowed to (land
in cold water when his feet are overheated. Thus, a
faddle-horfe, after being , rode very hard, was turned
loofe into a ftable-yard all over in a fweat ; he went
immediately into the water-pond, where he was fuf-
[ f ] fered
( 42 ) FARR
Foundered fered to ft and for a confiderable time in very cold wea-
eer' ther : a few hours afterwards, he was feized with a moft
violent fever; and a great pain in his fore-feet: he lay
' upon the litter for fome days in the greateft agony;
and at laft both his hoofs dropt off, occafioned by a
mortification brought upon the parts from the applica¬
tion of the cold water, which rendered him entirely
ufelefs.
From what has been faid with refpedl to this dif-
eafe, it is evident, that as the circulation is greatly in-
creafed, and the current of blood chiefly determined
toward the fore-feet, attended with fymptoms of the
moft violent pain, we may thence conclude, that there
is an inflammation in thefe parts : therefore, the cure
tnuft firft be attempted by diminifhing the circulation
of the blood, giving cooling falls internally, as N° 5.
glyfters, an opening diet, and plenty of diluting li¬
quor four or five t mes a day, together with emol¬
lient poultices applied warm all round the hoofs, in
order to foften them, and keep up a free and equal
perfpiration ; obferving, that his fhoes be eafy upon
his feet ; but by no means to pare the foie or frog to
that excefs which is commonly done in cafes of this
kind, farther than cleaning away the hardened furface
of the foie and frog, in order that the poultice may
have the defired effeft, by increafing the perfpiration
through the pores ; and to avoid all manner of greafy
or oily applications to the hoofs, for the reafons already
mentioned.
In all violent inflammations, there is nothing which
contributes more to give immediate relief, than plen¬
tiful bleeding timeoufly performed ; and which ought
by no means to be neglected, or too long delayed:
for, in cafes of this nature, although the fever may be
fo far overcome by ftrength of conftitution, or pre¬
vented by medicines from deftroying the life of the
animal; yet the effe&s of it will ever afterwards re¬
remain, and, of courfe, the horfe will be lame for life.
But, in order to judge properly when this operation
may be neceffary, the pulfe muft be attended to, the
knowledge of which is of the utmoft importance in the
practice of farriery, and fliould be more generally ftu-
died, as it is the only criterion or rule by which we
may be dire&ed when bleeding is neccfiary, or when
it ought to be avoided. But, when this operation is
negle&ed, and the cure is firft attempted by rowels,
See. it is a long time before they can come to a proper
fuppuration, on account of the violence of the fever.
Hence, in place of fuppurating, they fometimes turn
into a gangrene, by which many horfes lofe their lives.
But, at all events, before the rowels could have any
cffedl, even allowing they were to fuppurate in the
common time, (which is about three days), the in¬
flammation within the hoof will by that time have ta¬
ken place, and its confequences will follow, to the
ruin of the feet, and* of courfe, the foundnefs of the
horfe.
The manner in which a horfe walks or ftands upon
his fore parts, when affe&ed with this diforder, has In¬
duced many pradlitioners, &c. to conclude, that the
fhoulders are affefted : hence they fay a horfe is foun¬
dered in the body; and that drains, fuch as rowels,
are the only proper remedies. But granting there was
a ftiffnefs, &c. all over the body, which is frequently
the cafe in the beginning of inflammatory fevers, bleed-
I E R Y. Seft. XLH.
ing ought to be premifed, as the firft neceflary ftep to- Hoof-
wards the cure. t3011"*1.
Sect. XLII. Hoof-Bound.
This complaint affefts the hoofs differently, accord¬
ing to their natural fliape, and the treatment they are
expofed to, whether from injudicious (hoeing, keeping
the hoofs loo hot and dry, or paring the foie and bin¬
ders at every time they are (hoed. Some are affefted
with a circular contra&ion of the cruft, compreffing
the whole foot. In others, the cruft is contra&ed at
the coronet only, comprefiing the annular ligament,
&c. A third kind is, when either one or both heels arc
contra&ed; hence, therefore, in proportion to the de¬
gree of contradlion, the internal parts of the foot arc
comprefied, and the horfe becomes more or lefs lame.
It has been already obferved, feft. xxxix. that deep-
crufted narrow hoofs, or what are commonly called
ajfet hoofs, are naturally difpofed to this malady: when
they become difeafed, they are eafily known from their
appearance, as they are fmaller in proportion than the
legs, and frequently fmaller at their bafis than at the
coronet; the cruft of the heels is high, thick, and
ftrong; the frog wafted and rotten; the hoofs are al-
moft perpendicular; the horfe moves in pain, fteps
(hort and quick, and trips and (tumbles frequently ; it
is/not uncommon that one foot only is affedted, which
then appears confiderably fmaller than the other.
This difeafe is hailened and brought on by paring
and hollowing out the foie and binders at every time
the (hoes are renewed, from a miftaken notion of widen¬
ing the heels; hence they are thereby made fo very
thin, that the cruft at the extremity of the heels may
be forced almoft clofe to one another even with one’s
fingers: and what greatly forwards the complaint, is
the form of the (hoes commonly ufed, which are made
hollow; for this pradtice of hollowing the (hoes fo uni-
verfally prevails, that, without any regard to the (hape
of the foie, whether it be flat or otherwife, the (hoe is
made concave or hollow upon that fide which is placed
next the foot. Hence the outer edges of the concave
(hoes force the crufts at the heels nearer to one ano¬
ther ; which being there retained, the contradlion of
the hoof becomes general, and confirmed, beyond the
power of art or remedy.
In the feeond fpecies of this complaint, the hoof ac¬
quires a particular (hape, which Mr Gibfon, in his Far¬
riery, compares to that of a bell; that is,-the hoof ap¬
pears contradled and tight round the coronet and in-
ftep, but fpreads wider downwards to its bafis ; the
hoof in other refpedts looks well and found. This is
generally occafioned by keeping the horfe (landing for
a long time together in the (table upon hot dry litter,
without moiftening and cooling the hoofs, allowing
them at the fame time to grow to a preternatural fize
both in length and breadth; hence, from the great
ftrength, the rigidnefs and drynefs of the under part of
the hoof, a preternatural ftrifture or preffure is made
by the hardened cruft at the coronet, which compreffe*
the annular ligament, and parts near it.
The third fpecies of this malady is, when either one
or both heels are contracted. This frequently happens
even in all kinds of hoofs, but more efpecially in thofe
that are flat, from the ufe of concave or hollow (hoes,
together with cutting out the foie and binders at every
time^
Sea. XLII. FARR
Honf- time the horfe is Hioed,. But it more frequently hap-
bound. pens, that the infide heel only is contra&ed, from the
natural weaknefs of that part of the hoof: hence the
weight of the limb, &c. preffing upon the infide cruft at
the heel, it is infle&ed or bended inwards; by which,
together with the concave form of the (hoe, and lofs
of fubftance from paring, &c. the diforder is increafed,
the cruft of the heels becomes contra&ed, and com-
prefles that quarter of the foot, and of courfe occafions
lamenefs.
With refpedl: to any particular method of cure to be
obferved in removing this difeafe, all that can be faid
is, That, as it is one of that kind which cornel on gra¬
dually and perceptibly, it may by proper care and ma¬
nagement, when properly attended to, be prevented.
But, when once it becomes confirmed, it never will ad¬
mit of a thorough cure. Neverthelefs, it may be fo far
palliated as to render a horfe in fome degree founder,
by keeping the hoofs cool and moift; as, in this cafe,
they are naturally difpofed to be very hot, dry, and
hard, his {hoes (hould be flat, narrow, and open heeled,
the hoofs never greafed nor oiled, the foies never pared.
But, as the crufts of the heels in thefe hoofs are pre-
ternaturally high and ttrong, they (hould always be
pared down till they are lower thaii the frog, that it,
if poftible, may reft upon the ground. This operation
will tend to remove that ftridfure from the heels and
frog, which will greatly relieve them. But many
people, adhering too ftri&ly to that general rule, which,
from inattention, has creeped into pradice, u/z. of
paring down the toes, and keeping the heels entire,
without reflefting upon the Thape or natural formation
of the particular hoofs, continue the fame praftice up¬
on deep-crufted, high-heeled hoofs, which is only ne-
cefiary to be obferved in long-toed hoofs with low
heels, and thereby this diforder is greatly increafed ;
the weight of the body is likewife thrown forewards, by
which the horfe ftands too much upon his toes; and
hence the leg-bones, from the aukward habit of the
horfe’s (landing, become bent at the joints, and occa-
fion what is called knuckeling or nackeling.
The fecond fpecies of this complaint, is when the
cruft at the coronet becomes contraded; and, compref-
fing the annular ligament, &c. occafions lamenefs, the
hoof acquiring that (hape formerly compared to that
of a bell. Different methods have been tried and re¬
commended for the cure. Mr Gibfon propofes to make
feveral lines or rafes on the fore-part of the hoof with
a drawing knife, almoft to the quick, from the coronet
down to its bafis, and turning the horfe out to grafs :
others, after this operation is performed, fcrew the heels
wide, by means of a fcrewed (hoe: a third method
pra&ifed is, to draw the foie, and divide the fleftiy fub¬
ftance of the frog with a knife, and keeping it fepara-
ted by the fcrewed (hoe above mentioned: a fourth
method in ufe, is to make the inner-rim of the (hoe-
heel very thick on the under fide, (its upper furface be¬
ing quite flat); and by making it reft upon the binders
and foie at the extremity of the heels, by preffure from
the weight of the body, the heels are forced to recede
to a greater diftance from one another. Either of thefe
methods may indeed in a fmall degree widen or expand
the horny fubftance of the cruft, and may be of ufe in
recent contra&ions. But, when once it has become
confirmed, and is of fome (landing, no means what-
1 E R Y. ( 43 )
ever can then reftore the internal parts to their primi- Hoof-
tive (late; for, as the contradlion takes place, the ten-
der parts within the hooof being compreffed, lofe their
tone, and diminifti in their fize. The blood-veffels be¬
come impervious; 'hence a decay or wafting of the
whole foot, and not unfrequently a concretion of the
parts, and, of courfe, the impoffibility of the horfe ever
becoming found. But, as it has been obferved, that the
caufe of this fpecies of the complaint now under confi-
deration proceeds from allowing the hoofs to grow to
an extraordinary fize, and keeping them too hot and
dry, by which they acquire a rigidity and drynefs oc-
cafioning a preternatural compreffion upon the coronet;
to remove which, (as the cafe will only admit of pal¬
liation), the furface of the hoof at its bafis muft be
pared down till the blood appears, the thick ftrong
cruft upon the outfide towards the toe rafped in the
fame manner, and the horfe turned out to grafs in foft
meadow-ground till the feet recover. But it muft be
obferved, that, if both hoofs are alike affedled, one of
them at one time only fliould be treated in the manner
direfled, as a tendernefs will remain for fome days,
which might prevent the horfe from walking about in
fearch of food.
The third fpecies is a contradlion of one, or fome-
times of both heels, in flat feet, from the ufe of con¬
cave (hoes, &c. Where it has not been of a very long
(landing, it may, by proper management, be great¬
ly relieved, by laying a fide the ufe of concave fhoes,
and refraining from paring the foie, &c. But to re¬
move the ftridlure of the hoof more immediately, the
whole contradled quarter of the cruft near the heel muft
be rafped or pared to the quick, from the coronet to
its bafis, clofe to the frog, taking care to avoid draw¬
ing blood, putting on a barred (hoe, caufing the fhoe-
bar to prefs upon the frog, keeping the hoof cool and
moift, or turning the horfe out to grafs. Hence the
preffure from the contradled hoof being removed, and
the frog at the fame time reding upon the bar of the
(hoe, the contradled quarter is thereby dilated or ex¬
panded ; the new hoof growing from the coronet down¬
wards, acquires a round, full (hape, and becomes of its
original form.
From what has been faid concerning this difor¬
der in the feet of horfes, it is evident, what little pro-
fpedl there is of effedling a thorough cure by art, as
the complaint is of fuch a nature as only to admit of
fome palliation, and, even then, in fome very favour¬
able cafes only. Neverthelefs, it is pradlicable to pre¬
vent contradlions in the hoofs from taking place, even
in thofe hoofs which are feemingly difpofed that way
from their (hape, &c. by obferving the rules already
laid down, viz. by keeping the hoofs moift and cool,
\vhich is their natural (late; ufing flat (hoes, from which
the hoofs can acquire no bad (hape; allowing the foie
and frog to continue in their full ftrength, the latter
efpecially to reft upon the ground; and keeping the
cruft within due bounds, not fuffering it to grow too
long towards the toe, nor too high at the heels.
Sect. XLIII. Of Corns.
In the human body, corns in the feet are termed fo
with fome propriety, from their horny fubftance; but,
what are called corns in the feet of horfes, are very im¬
properly named, as they are quite of an oppofite na-
[ f 2 ] tures
( 44 ) FARR
Of Corns, tore, rather refembling contufions or bruifes, and not
. unlike thofe bruifes which happen in the palms of the
hands and fingers to working people, arifing from vio¬
lent pinching, bruifing, &c. where the Ik in is thick,
which appears of a blackifh red colour, and exceeding¬
ly painful at firft, containing blood; but,in the end, the
ferum or thinner parts being abforbed, the red particles
appear, when the dead Ikin is removed, like red powder.
In like manner corns, or rather bruifes, appear red and
foxy (as the phrafe is). They are fituate in the corner
or fliarp angle of the foie at the extremity of the heels,
where the cruft refle&s inward and foreward, forming
the binders. But, they are more frequently to be met
with in the infide heel, from the manner of the horfe’s
ftanding, together with the preffure or weight of the
body, which is greater upon the infide of the hoof than
the outfide. Bruifes of this kind are exceedingly pain¬
ful, infomuch that the horfe flirinks and ftumbles when
any thing touches or preffes upon that quarter of the
hoof; hence lamenefs.
This complaint arifes from different caufes, accord¬
ing to the fiiape or natural formation of the hoof, to¬
gether with the treatment they are expofed to. But
i the following are the moft frequent.
i/?, In flat low heels, from too great a preffure of
the fhoe-heel upon the foie, whether from cankers, a
too great thicknefs of iron upon the heels of the (hoe,
or its being bended downwards upon the foie, or the
fhoe made too concave; either of thefe caufes will pro¬
duce the fame effedt: for, from the too great preffure
upon the horny foie, the flefhy foie, which lies imme¬
diately underneath it, is compreffed and bruifed be¬
tween the (hoe-heel, the foie, and the extremities or
outward points of the coffin-bone; and hence a contu-
fion or bruife, attended with an extravafation of the
blood, which afterwards gives that part of the foie a
red appearance, and is the reafon why the foie on that
place never grows up fo firm and folid as it was be¬
fore, but remains foft and fpongy, forming a lodgment
for fand and gravel, which frequently infinuates itfelf
into the quick, caufing an inflammation, attended with
a fuppuration or difcharge of matter, which, if not
finding a paffage below, will break out at the coronet.
idy This complaint is produced in wide open heels,
when the hoofs are very thick and ftrong, from too
great a luxuriancy of the binder, which, being inflec¬
ted or bended downwards between the (hoe and the
foie, compreffes the flelhy foie, as already mentioned;
and hence lamenefs.
3i/,This malady, in deep narrow hoofs, proceeds from
a contra&ion of the cruft compreffing the heels, &c.
Hence, it not unfrequently happens in hoofs of this
(hape, that both heels are alike affedted, from the ftric-
ture and preffure of the hardened cruft upon the tendi¬
nous aponeurofis, &c. on the outfide of the coffin-
bone, which, in this cafe, is bruifed between the bone
and the cruft; hence the rednefs may fometimes be
traced upwards almoft to the coronet. In this cafe, no
radical cure can take place, as the caufe which pro¬
duces thefe bruifes, &c. will exift while the horfe lives,
and at the fame time the horfe will be lame from the
contraction of the hoof; but the remedy propofed in
the preceding feCtion, by way of palliation for hoof-
bound feet, may be of ufe to render the horfe in fome
sneafure more ferviceable.
I E R Y. Sea. XLIV.
With refpeCI to the two firft caufes, when the bruife Running'
proceeds from too great a preffure from the (hoe- Thrufhes.
heels, &c. upon the foie, the (hoe muft be made fo as
to bear off the tender part, and likewife to fome dt-
ftance on both fides of it; for which purpofe, a round
or a barred (hoe will be neceffary. The red and bruifed
parts muft be cut out to the quick, and the hoof kept
foft with- emollient poultices for fome time.- But the '
texture of the blood-veffels, and likewife that of the
hoof at the bruifed part, being deftroyed, a fponginefs
remains afterwards, and, upon the lead unequal pref¬
fure from the (hoe, &c. are liable to a relapfe, never
admitting of a thorough cure, and of confequeuce fub-
jed to frequent lamenefs.
Corns or bruifes in the feet of horfes might, by tak¬
ing proper care of them, be eafily avoided: for in thofe
countries where horfes go moftly barefooted, this ma¬
lady is not fo much as known ; neither are thofe hor¬
fes that go conftantly at cart and plough fubjeft to
them: hence, therefore, this complaint is moft fre¬
quently to be met with in great towns, where horfes
go much upon hard caufeway, having their (hoes turned
up with high cankers on the heels, and frequently re¬
newed, at the fame time their hoofs being kept too
dry and hard, from ftanding too much upon hot dry
litter; hence will appear the neceffity of complying
with what is moft natural to the hoofs of horfes,
namely, coolnefs and moifture, together with ufing fuch
a form of (hoe as will prefs equally upon the circum¬
ference of the cruft, and without giving it any bad
unnatural (hape. See Shoeing of Horfes.
Sect. XLIV. Of Running Thrufoes.
i. A Running Thrush (or Brush), is a difchajge
of a fetid, and fometimes ichorous, matter, from the
cleft in the middle of the frog, affeding one, frequently
both, and in fome cafes all the four feet. But, ge¬
nerally, the fore-feet are moft fubjed to this difeafe.
In moft cafes, it feldom admits of a radical cure; but
is fubjed to frequent relapfes, occafioning lamenefs,
from the rawnefs and tendernefs of the parts affeded,
on being expofed to fand, gravel, &c, or in rough
grounds, from the heels treadingon (harp (tones, &c. and
when the horfe happens to be of a bad habit of body, they
even degenerate into what is commonly called a canker.
Running thrufhes, according to Mr Gibfon, “ are
fometimes profitable to horfes of flefhy and foul con-
ftitutions ; becaufe (fays he) they drain off a great
many bad humours.” But, however falutary or bene¬
ficial they may be in fome particular conftitutions, yet,
upon the whole, they prove extremely troublefome, on
account of the lamenefs and tendernefs of the feet af-
feded with them ; and, where there occurs one cafe
in which they may properly be faid to become bene¬
ficial to the conftitution, there are a far greater num¬
ber in which they are hurtful, as they are brought on
by the treatment the hoofs are expofed to, together
with the injudicious method generally obferved in (hoe¬
ing them, particularly in thofe hoofs that are narrow-
heeled, or difpofed to behoof-bound, running thrufhes
being always an attendant upon that complaint. But,
to explain this more particularly, there is, in the middle
of the frog, a cleft or opening, by which the heels in
a natural (late have a fmall degree of contradion and
expanfion, especially when the horfe treads or preffes
Se£t. XLIV. FARR
Running his heel upon the ground, the frog then expands; when,
; Thruthes. therefore, a horfe is (hoed with concave or hollow fhoes,
the heels are deprived of that power of expanfion, be¬
ing conftantly confined in a contra&ed date by the re¬
finance from the outer edges of the concave (hoe, by
which the frog is prefied or fqueezed on both fides, by
the cruft of the heels being brought nearer to or almoft
into contaft with one another. Hence pain, inflam¬
mation, an obftrudlion of the blood, &c. (in the flefhy
fubftance of the frog), and of eourfe that wafting and
rottennefs of its external covering, which, falling off in
pieces, leaves the quick almoft bare : the new frog,
growing in detached pieces, never acquires the folidity
of the former ; and hence that rawnefs and tendernefs
which ever afterwards remain, and that extreme fen-
fibility of pain when any hard fubftance touches that
part of the foot, and of courfe fubje£t the horfe to fre¬
quent lamenefs, There are, no doubt,other caufes which
may be faid to occafion this malady, even in thofe
hoofs that are wide and open at the heels, where there
is not the leaft appearance of a contra&ionat the heels:
but thefe are generally owing to the treatment the hoofs
are expofed to in the liable, by keeping them too hot
and dry for a long traft of time together, during which
the natural perfpiration is greatly obftrudied, by the
conftant application, of greaie or oil to the hardened
hoofs, and Huffing them up with hot, refinous, and
greafy mixtures, as tar, turpentine, See. the horfe be¬
ing all the while kept at full feeding, and not having
proper and neceffary exercife to promote the circula¬
tion of the fluids, and to forward the ordinary fecre-
tions, &c.: the legs fwell and inflame; at laft a running
in the frog appears ; and hence this difeharge is faid
to be beneficial to the conftitution, when in fail it is
bht too frequently brought on by a flothful negledl,
and kept up by bad management. Frefh air and re¬
gular exercife are effentially neceffary towards prefer¬
ring horfes in an atlive healthy ftate ; for running
. . thrufhes, like other difeafes to which pampered horfes
are fubjeil, are not known in thofe countries where
horfes run at large in the fields ; neither are they fo
frequently to be met with in the country amongft la¬
bouring horfes, vvhofe exercife is regular, and whofe
hoofs are much expofed to coolnefs and moifture, the
.natural ftate of the feet of horfes.
Willi refpedl to the cure of running thrufhes, it has
been hinted, that in maft cafes, efpecially where it has
been of bug Handing, affeding nil the frogs more or
lefs, it is impradicable to eradicate it by any affiftance
from art. For inftance, when it proceeds from con-
traded narrow heels in thofe feet which are faid to be
hoof-bound, it is then an attendant only on that dif-
eafe ; and therefore cannot be cured without removing
the firft caufe, tho’ then it will only admit of fame
* See.. fmall degree of palliation *. But in thofe hoofs which
fe . xlm. are an(j 0pen at the heels, where the complaint is
recent, one or both the fore-feet only being affeded,
and where there is reafon to fufped that it proceeds
from the ufe of concave or hollow fhoes, or keeping the
hoofs too hot, dry, and hard, the cure then may be
compleated with eafe and fafety, by laying afide the
ufe of concave fhoes, wafhing the frogs clean after ex¬
ercife, and dreffing them with Mel Egyptiacum, made
as follows.
ii. Mel Egyptiacum. Verdigris in fine powder.
i E R Y. { 45 )
two ounces; honey, fix ounces ; vinegar, fouroun- (K-un"inS
ces ; boil them over agende fire till they have ac- rhr ^
quired a reddifh colour.
Or a folution of blue vitriol.
12. Solution of vitriol. Blue vitriol powdered, one
ounce ; water, onp quart:
keeping the hoofs cool and moift. But, at the fame
time, recourfe muft be had to internal remedies by way
of revulfion, as purging or diuretic medicines, bleed¬
ing being firft premifed : if the former is made choice
of, twice or thrice will be fufficient, repeated at pro¬
per intervals ; but if the latter, which feems prefer¬
able, they may be continued for fome time with great
fafety, without lofing one day’s work of the horfe.
In fome cafes, there is frequently not only a dif¬
eharge of fetid matter from the clefts of the frogs;
but, at the fame time, a difeharge of greafy like mat¬
ter from the round protuberances of the heels, and the
hollow of the paftern joints. It will be neceffary,
therefore, to make a diftinftion between the matter
difeharged in this cafe, which appears of a thick,
white, clammy, or foapy confiftence, and that run¬
ning in the legs commonly termed a greafey which ia
of a quite oppofite quality ; the latter by good ma¬
nagement will admit of a thorough cure, whilft the
foimer baffles all the power of medicine.
. 2. In horfes of a grofs habit of body, efpecially the
heavy draught-kind, running thruflies fometinpes de¬
generate into what is commonly called a canker. In
this cafe, the horny fubftance of the frog is foon
thrown off; the flefhy parts grow to an immoderate fize,
the luxuriant fubftance or fpongy flefh having a great
numberof papillse or tubercles, which Mr Gibfon com¬
pares not improperly to cauliflower, the colour only-
excepted, which is of a pale red, and fometimes varie¬
gated and tinged with blood; attended with a copious
difeharge of a thin ichorous fetid humour, having a
moft offenlive fine!!. If its progrefs be not fpeedily
ftopt, the flefhy foie, from its vicinity, becomes like-
wife affefted ; the horny foie rots, decays, and falls off;
the whole foot turns into a Lind of quag or bog, (in
warm weather full of maggots, which it is almoft im-
poffible to prevent/ even with the moft,corrofive drefs-
ings) ; the tendons become likewife aft'edted, the bones
'carious, the hoof falls off, and the horfe is rendered
ufelefs. To prevent thefe and the like confequences,,
as foon as a running thrufti begins to fhow the leaft
malignant difpolition, proper means muft be ufed to.
correct the habit of body, and to divert this difeharge
to fome other outlet, either by purging or diuretic re¬
medies, continued for fome time, bleeding being firit
premifed. As to external applications, the firft thing
neceffary to be done, is to pare down the cruft till it is
lower than the fungus, or growth of the canker, and
to remove any hard pieces of the hoof or foie where-
ever it preffes, upon the tender parts -r the circular part
of the cruft fhould be furrounded and kept foft with
an emollient poultice. For dreffings, the mildeft ef-
charotic powders may be firft tried, as the following :
13. Take burnt alum powdered, two ounces ; blue
vitriol powdered, one ounce.
But, when it degenerates into the laft fpecies men¬
tioned above affeding the flefhy foie, &c. the ftrongeft
corrofive applications will then be neceffary, and fome-
tiraes hardly fufficient to keep down the luxuriancy of
the.
t 46 ) FARR
Falfe- the fungus. The cauftic oils are found preferable, as
Quarter, q]. vljj-jo]. aqua-fortis, butter of antimony : either of
“ thefe may be applied once every day; otherwife, if ne-
glefted dreffing too long, or to every other day, which
is the common pra&ice, the great humidity and moi-
fture iffuing from the fungus fp weakens the force of
the ftrongeft oils, that they have little or no efteft :
when thefe fliarp dreffings feem to gain upon the can¬
ker, it may be dreffed with equal parts of red precipi¬
tate and burnt alum pounded and mixed together, till
fuch time as the new foie begins to grow; the purging
or diuretic medicines being given at proper intervals
till the cure is compleated.
Sect. XLV. Of Falfe-quarter, and Sand-cracks.
1. What is commonly called a falfe-quarter in the
foot of an horfe is a cleft or chink in the fide or quar¬
ter of the hoof, running in a flanting dire&ion with
the horny fibres of the hoof, from the coronet to its
balls, by which the horny fubftance of the cruft is di¬
vided ; one part of the hoof being in a manner de¬
tached from the other, and rendered unable to fuftain
its portion or lhare of the weight of thelilnb, &c, and
hence the name off :lfe-quarter: for, when the horfe
fets his foot on the ground, the chink widens; but,
when it is lifted up, the hardened edges of the divided
hoof take in between them the tender and foft parts,
and fqueeze it fo as to occalion frequent bleeding at
the chink, and is frequently attended with inflam¬
mation, a difcharge of matter, and, of courfe, lame-
nefs.
This complaint, notwithftanding the different ac¬
counts commonly given as to the caufe of it, is in fa£l
the eft'e& of a deep wound or bruife upon the coronet,
by which the continuity of the parts has been entirely
broke off 4 for we always find, that, when the horny
fibres are divided at their roots, they never unite or
grow up as before, but leave a blemilh, more or lefs,
in proportion to the fize and deepnefs of fuch wounds,
&c. We have many inftahces of this, even in the
human body ; for, when a wound happens at the roots
of the nails, whether in the fingers or toes, it occa-
fions a blemilh, which continues to grow in the fame
manner afterwards. Hence, it will be evident that no
radical cure can pofiibly take place ; but we may fo far
palliate the complaint as to render the horfe fomething
ufeful, by ufing a flioe of fuch a conftru&ion as will
fupport the weight of the limb, &c. without refting
or preffing too much upon the weakened quarter; for
which purpofe, a round, or what is called a barred/hoe,
will be molt proper. The furface of the hoof on and
near the difeafed part may be cut down lower than the
furface of the cruft upon which the (hoe is to reft ; or,
if the hoof will not admit of being cut down, the fhoe
' may be raifed up from the weak quarter. Eeither of
thefe means will remove the weight of the body from
the difeafed part, and the horfe will go founder.
But, as fand and gravel is eafily admitted into the
chink, or crack, where, being accumulated and pent
up, it irritates and inflames the parts, whereby matter
is formed underneath the hoof, which caufes lamenefs,
and which not uofrequently breaks out at the coronet,
producing the moft inveterate ulcers, which become
extremely difficult to heal, on account of the finus or
fiftula branching out in different dire&ions underneath
I E R Y. Sea.XLVI.
the hoof. Therefore, horfes with this defeft {hould be Sand-
carefully obferved ; and, when the thick hardened cracks^&c.
edges of the chinks or crack grow too high, by which
it is fo much the deeper, and, of courfe, lodges the
greater quantity of fand, &c. thefe edges fhould be
rafped, or pared with a crooked knife, till the featn
difappears. But wherever there remains a hlacknefs,
or appearance of gravel, that part muft be tracked far¬
ther ; always obferving, if poffible, to avoid drawing
blood. The chink or crack thus made fmooth and e-
•qual, no fand or gravel can lodge in it; and, as the
parts will be tender, it will be neceffary to apply an
emollient poultice for fome days, till the tendernefs
v/ear off. If the inflammation has been great, and
matter formed in the crack, or the parts wounded by
the knife in cutting its hardened edges, proud flefh
may rife and jet out. In this cafe, the hard parts of
the hoof near it are to be removed, a digeftive poultice
applied, and, when the inflammation is abated, the
proud flefh may be touched-with the following corro-
five powder:
Take blue vitriol burnt, two drams ; corrofive fub-
limate, one dram; rubbed into powder.
2. A fand-crack is of much the fame nature with a
falfe-quarter; only they run more frequently in an ho¬
rizontal direftion than the latter, on theoutfide or fur¬
face of the cruft : they are generally the effedft of flight
or fuperficial wounds upon the coronet, and grow gra¬
dually downwards towards the bafis of the hoof, and
at laft are cut or rafped off in the fhoeing ; when they
occafion lamenefs from lodging fand or gravel, they
muft be treated in the fame manner as already men¬
tioned for falfe-quarters.
Sect. XLVI. Of Horfes cutting their Legs in
Travelling.
Horses frequently cut their legs both before and
behind, by ftriking or knocking the hoof when trot¬
ting, &c. againft the oppofite leg, whereby a wound is
made, which is attended with an inflammation, fwell-
ing, &c. and of courfe lamenefs. The parts common¬
ly wounded from cutting in the fore-legs, are the pro¬
minent and back part of the fetlock joint; and under
the knee joint on the infide of the leg. The former is
moft common : the latter only happens to thofe horfes
who raife their feet high in trotting; and, as fuchhor-
fts generally go fall, this laft fpecies of cutting is di-
ftinguilhed by the name of the fwift or fpeedy cut.
In the hind-legs, horfes cut themfelves upon the
prominent part of the fetlock-joint; and fometimes, e-
fpecially thofe who move their legs too low, cut up¬
on the coronet. But, whether they cut before or be¬
hind, it commonly proceeds from fome of the follow¬
ing caufes.
1/?, Injudicious fhoeing; under which maybe in¬
cluded, the hoofs being fuffered to grow too large and
broad, the fhoe projecting over the infide edge of the
hoof, the clenches or rivets of the nails rifing above the
furface of the cruft.
There are a great variety of fhoes recommended for
preventing this complaint, of different conftruCtions ;
but the moft common are thofe that are made thick up¬
on the infide heel. Others have a border or margin
turned up upon the infide of the fhoe’s rim, commonly
called a feather, which raifes the infide of the hoof
confi-
Sea. XLVI. FARR
Cutting confiderably higher from the ground than the outfide.
Feet- Either of thefe lhoes may be of ufe to a dealer, in order
to make a wry-footed horfe appear to Hand ftraight upon
his limbs; but can have no efFe& upon a horfe’s man¬
ner of moving his legs, efpecially at the time when the
foot is raifed from the ground, and paffing by the o-
ther leg, fo as to prevent him from cutting. The rea-
fon why this method of (hoeing feems to fucceed, efpe¬
cially in the hind-feet, is this : when the (hoe is made
thick upon the infide heel, which part commonly ftrikes
the oppofite leg, the (hoe-nails are removed to a con-
fiderable diftance forward from the thick part of the
(hoe, which, at the fame time, is kept much within
the circle of the hoof; and, on that account, it be¬
comes impoffible that the (hoe (hould touch the oppo-
fite leg. But, to (how that this railing of the infide
quarter or heel, by a thicknefs of iron in the (hoe, is
not neceffary to prevent horfes from cutting, the au¬
thor has frequently caufed the heel of the (hoe to be
made thinner than common; and, by keeping it with¬
in the hoof, it anfwered equally well with the for¬
mer : he has likewife caufed the (hoe to be cut in the
middle of the quarter, whereby the hoof at the heel was
left quite bare; which anfwered the purpofe fo much
the better, as the foot was the lefs loaded with the ad¬
ditional weight of fuperfluous iron.
2d, The great weight of the concave (hoes com¬
monly ufed, is likewife another caufe why horfes, that
in other refpefls move well upon their legs, do fre¬
quently cut and wound themfelves ; and to this we may
add, the great length of the hoof at the toe, efpecially
in the fore-feet, which is allowed frequently to grow
to an unnatural fize. It has been already obferved, that
great load of iron is by no means neceffary in a horfe’s
(hoe: on the contrary, it becomes a great difadvan-
tage ; for a fiat one that is properly conftrufted, and
well wrought, that is, well hammered, will wear as
long as a concave or hollow (hoe that is almoft double
the weight of the former. This, at Ifirft view, will per¬
haps appear a paradox ; but, neverthelefs, it is a faft :
for, as the round or outward furface of a concave (hoe
is the only part that touches the ground, and is liable
to be wore, it foon grows thin, and yields to the pref-
fure from the weight of the body ; and therefore mull
I E R Y. (47)
be renewed before the other parts of it are hardly Cutting
touched, and but little reduced in its original weight. fo61'
But the furface of a flat (hoe, reding equally upon the
ground, wull remain firm upon the hoof, and be fuffi-
ciently flrong to fupport the weight of the body till it
wears very thin.
When horfes cut or wound themfelves immediately
under the knee-joint, this is called thefwift orfpeedy cut;
and is occafioned by railing the feet high in trotting,
whereby the infide toe or quarter of the hoof flrikes a-
gaind the oppofite leg. This is eafily prevented, by
making the (hoe draight, and placing it confiderably
within the hoof at the part where the hoof drikes the
other leg, obferving that no nails are to be put in that
part of the (hoe which is kept fo much within the hoof,
otherwife they mud immediately plunge into the quick.
3^, When cutting proceeds from a natural defeft,
that is, a wrong pofition of the foot upon the leg-
bones, whereby the toes are turned too much outward,
or too much inward ; at the fame time, if the horfe
erodes his legs much in trotting; in this cafe there is
no preventing his cutting altogether, though it may be
palliated. Such horfes are by no means fit for jour¬
ney-riding, being generally addifled both to cutting
and dumbling.
In the laji place, it may proceed from fatigue or
weaknefs. This happens frequently, even to thofe hor¬
fes that deal their legs well (as the phrafe is), efpe¬
cially in young horfes ; but they foon leave it off when
they acquire more drength, and are accudomed to
their work : mod people mud have experienced this
in themfelves when boys, as they at that age are very
ready to knock their ancles with the heel of the oppo¬
fite (hoe, which cudom wears off as they growdrong.
Upon the whole, the bed general rule that can be laid-
down for preventing horfes from cutting their legs, is
to keep their hoofs round and fhort at the toe, and
from growing too large and broad; to obferve that the
(hoe does not projedl over the infide edge of the hoof;
that the clenches or rivets of the nails on the outer
furface of the crud are fmooth ; and above all, that the
(hoe be made light, well worked, and properly propor¬
tioned to the fize of the foot. See Shoeing of Horjes.
FAS
FASCES, in Roman antiquity, axes tied up toge¬
ther with tods, or daves, and borne before the Roman
magidrates as a badge of their office and authority.
According to Florus, the ufe of the fafees was in¬
troduced by the elder Tarquin the fifth king of Rome;
and were then the mark of the fovereign dignity. In
after-times they were borne before the confuls, but by
turns only, each his day; they had each of them 12,
borne by as many liftors. Thefe fafees confided of
branches of elm; having in the middle a fecuris or axe,
the head of which dood out beyond the red. Publi-
cola took the axe out of the fafees, as Plutarch affures
us, to remove from the people all occafion of terror-
After the confuls, the pretors affumed the fafees. In
the government of the decemvirs, it was the pra&ice at
fird for only one of them to have the fafees. After¬
wards each of them had twelve, after the manner of
the kings.
FASCETS, in the art of making glafs, are the
F A S
irons thrud into the mouths of bottles, in order to con¬
vey them to the annealing tower.
FASCIA, in archite&ure, fignifies any flat member
having a confiderable breadth and but a fmall projec-
jeclure, as the band of an architrave, larmier, &c. In
brick-buildings, the juttings out of the bricks beyond
the windows in the feveral dories except the highed
are called fafetas, or fafeioe.
Fascia, in adronomy, the belts feen on the difli
of the fuperior planets Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn f. tSee
Fascia Lata, in anatomy, a mufcle of the leg, cal- nomy, n° 12,
led alfo femi-viembranofus. See Anatomy, Table cfx^' 15> 44s-
tbe Mufcles. 4S'
FASCIALIS, in anatomy, one of the mufcles of
the thigh, called fartorius. See Anatomy, Table of
the Mufcles.
FASCINATION, (from the Greek /Wxam/v, to
fdfeinate or bewitch), a fort of witchcraft fuppofed to
operate either by the eye or the tongue.
FAS-
FAS [ 4S ] FAS
Fafcrnes FASCINES, in fortification, faggots of fmall wood,
p Ijj, of about a foot diameter, and fix feet long, bound in
a the middle, and at both ends. They are ufed in raifing
batteries, making chandeliers, in filling up the moat
to facilitate the paffage to the wall, in binding the ram¬
parts where the earth is bad, and in making parapets
of trenches to fcreen the men. Some of them are dip¬
ped in melted pitch or tar; and, being fet on fire, ferve
to burn the enemy’s lodgments or other works.
In the corrupt Latin they ufe fafcenina, fafcennla,
fafcinata, &c. to fignify the pales, fafcines, &c.
ufed to inclofe the ancient caftles, &c.
FASHION-pieces, in the fea-language, the aftmoft
or bindmoft timbers of a (hip, which terminate the
breadth, and form the (hape of the (tern. They are
united to the ftern-poft, and to the extremity of the
wing-tranfom, by a rabbit, and a number of ftrong nails
or (pikes driven from without.
FAST, or Fasting, in general, denotes the abfti-
nence from food; but is more particularly ufed for fuch
abftinence on a religious account.
Religious falling has been pradlifed by mod nations
from the remoteft antiquity. Some divines even pre¬
tend its origin in the earthly paradife, where our firfi:
parents were forbidden to eat of the tree of know¬
ledge. But though this feems carrying the matter too
far, it is certain, that the Jewifh church has obferved
fads ever fince its fjrd inditution. Nor were the neigh¬
bouring heathens, viz. the Egyptians, Phoenicians,
and Affyrians, without their fads. The Egyptians,
according to Herodotus, facrificed a cow to Ifis, after
having prepared themfelves by fading and prayer; a
cudom which he likewife afcribes to the women of Gy¬
rene. Porphyry affirms, that the Egyptians, before
their dated facrifices, always faded a great many days,
fometimes for fix weeks; and that the lead behoved to
be for feven days: during all which time the prieds
and devotees not only abdained from fled), fi(h, wine,
and oil ; but even from bread, and fome kinds of pulfe.
Thefe auderitias were communicated by them to the
Greeks, who obferved their fads much in the fame
manner. The Athenians had the eleufinian and thef-
mophorian fads, the obfervation of which was very ri¬
gorous, efpecially among the women, who fpent one
whole day fitting on the ground in a mournful drefs,
without taking any nourilhment. In the idand of
Crete, the prieds of Jupiter were obliged to abdainall
their lives from fi(h, fie(h, and baked meats. Apu-
leius informs us, that whoever had a mind to be ini¬
tiated in the myderits of Cybele were obliged to pre¬
pare themfelves by fading ten days; and, in (hort, all
the pagan deities, whether male or female, required
this duty of thofe that defired to be initiated into their
myderits, of their prieds and priedeffes that gave the
oracles, and of thofe that came to confult them.
Among the heathens fading was alfo praftifed be¬
fore fome of their military enterprifes. Aridotle in¬
forms us, that the Lacedemonians having refolved to
fuccour a city of the allies, ordained a fad throughout
the whole extent of their dominions, without excepting
even the domedic animals: and this they did for two
ends; one to fpare provifions in favour of the befieged;
the other, to draw down the bleffing of heaven upon
their enterprife. The inhabitants of Tarentum, when
befieged by the Romans, demanded fuccours from their
neighbours of Rhegium, who immediately commanded Fading,
a fad throughout their whole territories. Their enter- r“ “
prife having had good fuccefs by their throwing a fup-
ply of provifions into the town, the Romans were ob¬
liged to raife the fiege; and the Tarentines, in memory
of this deliverance, indituted a perpetual fad.
Fading has always been reckoned a particular duty
among philofophers and religious people, fome of whom
have carried their abdinence to an incredible length-
At Rome it was pra&ifed by kings and emperors them¬
felves. Numa Pompilius, Julius Cefar, Augudus, Vef-
fpafian, and others, we are told, had their dated fad-
days : and Julian the apodate was fo exaid in this ob-
vance as to outdo the prieds themfelves, and even the
mod rigid philofophers. The Pythagoreans kept a
continual lent; but with this difference, that they be- »
lieved the ufe of fi(h to be equally unlawful with that
of fldh. Befides their condant temperance, they alfo
frequently faded rigidly for a very long time. In this
refped, however, they were all outdone by their ma-
der Pythagoras, who continued his fads for no lefs
than 40 days together. Even Apollonius Tyaneus.
one of his mod famous difciples, could never come up
to him in the length of his fads, though they greatly
exceeded thofe of the ordinary Pythagoreans. The gym-
nofophids, or brachmans of the ead, are alfo very re¬
markable for their fevere fadings; and the Chiiiefe,
according to father le Comte, have alfo their dated fads,
with forms of prayer for preferving them from barren-
nefs, inundations, earthquakes, &c. The Mahometans
too, who poffefs fo large a part of Afia, are very re¬
markable for the drift obfervance of their fads; and the
exaftnefs of their dervifes in this refpeft is extraordi¬
nary.
Fading was often ufed by the heathens for fuperdi-
tious purpofes ; jfometimes to procure the interpreta¬
tions of dreams ; at others, to be an antidote againd
their pernicious confequences. A piece of fuperdi-
tion prevails to this day among the Jews ; who, tho’
exprefsly forbid to fad on Sabbath-days, think them¬
felves at liberty to difpenfe with this duty when they
happen to have frightful and unlucky dreams the night
preceding, that threatened them with great misfor¬
tunes. On thefe occafions they obferve a formal fad
the whole day; and at night the patient, having in¬
vited three of his friends, addreffes himfelf to them fe¬
ven times in a very folemn manner, faying, “ May
the dream I have had prove a lucky one!” And his
friends anfwer as many times, “ Amen, may it be
lucky, and God make it fo!” After which, in order
to encourage him, they conclude the ceremony with
thefe words of Ecclefiades, “ Go eat thy bread with
joy ;” and then fet themfelves down to table. They
have alfo added feveral fads not commanded in the law
of Mofes, particularly three, in memory of fore di-
fireffes their nation has fuffered at different times ; and
fome among them have kept an anniverfary fad in me¬
mory of the tranllation of the Septuagint, in order to
expiate the bafe compliance of their doftors for a fo¬
reign prince, and the outrage offered to the dignity of
their law, which in their opinion was only'given to the
Jewifii nation. The abdinence of the ancient Jews
commonly laded 27 or 28 hours at a time ; beginning
before funfet, and not ending till fome hours after fun-
fet next day. On thefe days they were obliged to wear
white
FAS [ *2957* ] FAS
white robes in token of grief and repentance; to co-
ver themfelves with fackcloth, or their word cloaths;
to lie on allies ; to fprinkle them on their head, &c.
Some fpent the whole night and day following in the
temple or fynagogue, in prayers and other devotions,
barefooted, with a fcourge in their hands, of which
they fometimes made a good ufe in order to raife their
zeal. Laftly, in order to complete their abftinence,
at night they were to eat nothing but a little bread
dipped in water with fome fait for feafoning; except
they chofe to add to their repaft fome bitter herbs and
pulfe.
The ancients, both Jews and Pagans, had alfo their
falts for purifying the body, particularly the priefts
and fuch as were any way employed at the altars; for
when nofturnal diforders happened to thefe, it was un¬
lawful for them to approach all the next day, which
they were bound to employ in purifying themfelves.
On this account, at great feftivals, where their mini-
ftry could not be difpenfed with, it was ufual for them,
on the eve thereof, not only to fall, but alfo to abltain
from deep, for the greater certainty. For this pur-
pofe the high-prieft had under-officers to wake him,
if overtaken with fleep ; againil which other preferva-
tives were alfo made ufe of.
Many wonderful ftories have been told of extraordi¬
nary fails kept by religious people; great numbers of
which, undoubtedly, muft be falfe. Others, however,
we have on very good authority, of which fome are
mentioned under the article Abstinence. Another we
have in the
Fasting Woman. Of the many inilances of extra¬
ordinary failing mentioned by different authors, this
feems to be one of the bell authenticated. A full ac¬
count of this very uncommon cafe is given in the Phil.
Tranf. Vol. LXVII. Part I. the fubftance of which
follows. The woman, whofe name was Janet M‘Leod,
an inhabitant in the pariih of Kincardine in Rofs-
Ihire, continued healthy till ihe was 15 years of age,
when (he had a pretty fevere epileptic fit; after this
fhe had an interval of health for four years, and then
another epileptic fit which continued a whole day and
a night. A few days afterwards (he was feized with a
fever, which continued with violence feveral weeks, and
from which Ihe did not perfe£lly recover for fome
months. At this time fire loll the ufe of her eyelids; fo
that Ihe was under a neceffity of keeping them open
with the fingers of one hand, whenever Ihe wanted to
look about her. In other refpedls ffie continued in
pretty good health; only {he never had any appearance
of menies, but periodically fpit up blood in pretty large
quantities, and at the fame time it flowed from the
nofe. This difeharge continued feveral years; but at
laft it ceafed : and foon after {he had a third epileptic
fit, and after that a fever from which {he recovered very
flowly. Six weeks after the crifis, {he ftole out of the
houfe unknown to her parents, who were bailed in
their harveil-work, and bound the {heaves of a ridge
before (he was obferved. In the evening {he took to
her bed, complaining much of her hearty (moft proba¬
bly her Jiomacb, according to the phrafeology of that
country) and her head. From that time Ihe never ro£e
for five years, but was occafionally lifted out of bed.
She feldom fpoke a word, and took fo little food that
it feemed fcarce fufficient to fupport a fucking infant.
Tot. IV.
Even this fmall quantity w'as taken by compulfion; and ran
at laft, about Whitfunday 1763, Ihe totally refilled
every kind of food or drink. Her jaw now became fo
fall locked, that it was with the greateft difficulty her
father was able to open her teeth a little, in order to
admit a fmall quantity of gruel or whey; but of this
fo much generally run out at the corners of her mouth,
that they could not be fenfible any had been fwallow-
ed. About this time they got fome water from a no¬
ted medicinal fpring in Brae-Mar, fome of which they
attempted to make her fwallow, but without effedt.
They continued their trials, however, for three morn¬
ings; rubbing her throat with the water, which run out
at the corners of her mouth. On the third morning
during the operation, Ihe cried out “ Give.me mora
water;” and fwailowed with eafe all that remained in
the bottle. She fpoke no more intelligibly for a year;
though {he continued to mutter fome words which her
parents only underllood, for 14 days. She continued
to reje& all kinds of food and drink till July 1765.
At this time her filler thought, by fome'figns Ihe made,
that fhe wanted her jaws opened; and this being done,
not without violence, {he called intelligibly for a drink,
and drank with eafe about an Engliffi pint of water.
Her father then afleed her why (he would not make
fome figns when flie wanted a drink; to which {he an-
fwered, why fhould (he, when (he had no defire. It
was now fuppofed that Are had regained the faculty of
fpeech ; and her jaws were kept open for about three
weeks, by means of a wedge. But in four or five days
(he became totally filent, and the wedge was removed
becaufe it made her lips fore. She dill, however, con¬
tinued fenfible ; and when her eyelids were opened,
knew every body, as could be gueffed from the figns
(he made.
By continuing their attempts to force open her jaws,
two of the under foreteeth were driven out; and of this
opening her parents endeavoured to avail themfelves
by putting fome thin nourifhing drink into her mouth ;
but without effefl, as it always returned by the cor¬
ners. Sometimes they thought of thrufting a little
dough of oatmeal through this gap of the teeth, which
{he would retain a few feconds, and then return with
fomething like a {training to vomit, without one par¬
ticle going down. Nor were the family fenfible of
any thing like fwallowing for four years, excepting the
fmall draught of Brae-Mar water, and the Englifla pint
of common water. For the laft three years {he had not
any evacuation by {tool or urine, except that once or
twice a-week fhe paffed a few drops of urine, abouf as
much, to ufe the expreffion of her parents, as would
wet the furface of a halfpenny. In this fituation fhe
was vifited by Dr Mackenzie, who communicated the
account of her cafe to the royal fociety. He found her
not at all emaciated; her knees were bent, and the
ham firings tight, fo that her heels aimed touched her
buttocks. She flept much, and was very quiet; but
when awake, kept a eonftant whimpering like a new¬
born weakly infant. She never could remain, a mo¬
ment on her back, but always fell to one fide or ano¬
ther; and her chin was clapped cloie to her bread, nor
could it by any force be moved backwards.
The doftor paid his iirft; vifit in the month of Oc¬
tober; and five years afterwards, viz. in OilobCr 1772,
was induced to pay her a fecond vijit, by hearing that
* 17 C ffie
FAT [ ] FAT
flie was recovering, and had begun to eat and drink.
The account given him was moft extraordinary. Her
parents one day returning from their country-labours
(having left their daughter fixed to her bed as ufual),
Were greatly furprifed to find her fitting upon her hams,
on the fide of the hbufe Op polite to her bed-place, fpin-
ning with her mother’s diftaff. All the food .file took
at that time was only to crumble a little oat or barley
cake in the palm of her hand, as if to feed a chicken.
She put little crumbs of this into the gap of her teeth;
rolled them about for fome time in her mofith 5 and
then fucked out of the palm of her hand a littls water,
whey, or milk: and this only ohce or twice a-day, and
even that by cofripuifiom She never attempted to
fpeak;’her jaws were fall locked, and her eyes (hut.
On opening her eye-lids, the balls were found to be
turned up under the edge of the os frontis; her coun¬
tenance was ghaftly, her complexion pale, and her whole
perfon emaciated. She feemed fenfible and tra&able
in every thing except in taking food. This (lie did
with the utmoft rdu&ance, and even cried before (he
yielded; and at lad only took a few crumbs as if to
feed a bird, and fucked half a fpoonful of milk from
the palm of her hand. The great change of her looks,
Doftor Mackenzie attributed to her fpinning flax on
the diftaff, which exhaufted too much of thefaliva;
atid therefore he recommended to her parents to con-
fin e-bei'tot-ally to the fpinning of wool.—In 1775 (he
was vifited again, and found to be greatly improved in
fieT looks, as Well as ftrength; her food was alfo con-
fiderably ihcreafed in quantity, though even then (he
did hot take more than would be fufficient to fuftain
an infant of two years of age.
FASTI, in Roman antiquity, the kalendar wherein
were expreffed the feveral days of the year, with their
fieafts, gaihes, and other ceremonies.
Thefe were two forts of fafti, the greater arid lefs;
the former being diftinguilhed by the appellation/^/
magtftrales, and the latter by that offajii calendares.
The greater fafti contained the feafts, with every
thing relating to religion and the magiftrates.
The leffef were again diftinguifhed into the'city and
country fafti, each adapted to the people for whom
they were defigned. In all thefe fafti, the court ■‘days,
or tliofe whereon carafes might be heard and deter¬
mined, were marked with the letter F; thefe days were1
called fafti, from fart, to fpeak or pronounce ; and the
other days, not marked with this letter, were called
ttefajii.
FASTOLF (Sir John), a valiant and renowned
Englifh officer, a knight-banneret and of the garter,
who ferved in Frahce under Henry IV. V. a+fd VI.
was defcended from an ancient family in'NotfolkJ and
was born about the year 1377.: He was as rfiuch di-
ftiiiguiffied for his virtue at home, as for his valour
abroad ; and became no lefs amiable in his private,
than he had been admirable in his public character.
He died in X459, upwards of 80 years of age, as we
learn frdm his noted cotempdrary William Caxton the
firft Efiglifh printer. By an unaccountable tpiftake it
has been afferted, that Shakefpear’s Falftaff was drawn
to ridicule this great man ; and this has made judici¬
ous biographers more ftudtous to pfeferve his'reputa¬
tion.
FAT, in anatomy, an oily concrete fubftance depo-
fited in different parts of animal bodies*.
Strong exercife, preternatural heat, an acrimonious
(late of the juices, and other like caufes, by which the
oily parts of the blood are attenuated, refolved, or/!
evacuated, prevent the generation of fat: labours of
the mind alfo have this effect, as well as labbur or in-
temperature of the body. Hence reft and plentiful
food are fufficient to fatten brutes; but with men it is
often otherwife. It is (tirprifing how foon fome birds
grow fat; ortolans in 24 hours, and larks dill fooner.
Fats may be divided, from their confiftence, into
three kinds: (1.) The foft and thin, which grow per-
fedtly liquid in a very final 1 heat. (2.) The thick and
confident, which liquify lefs readily; and,’(3;) The
hard and firm, which require a ftill ftronger heat to
melt them. The firft is called Pinguedo; the fecond,
Auxungia; and the third, Adept, as taken froth the
animal; and Sebum, or Sevum, when freed from the
(kins, &c. This ufe of the names, however, is notcort-
ftant, fome employing them differently.
A great number of fats have been kept in the (hops,
for making ointments, plafters, and other medicinal
compofitions;'as hogs-lard, the fat of the boar, the
fox, the hare, dog, wild cat, Alpine moufe, beaver; that
of hens, ducks, geefe, ftorks; of the whale, pike, fer-
pents, viper, &c. as alfo human fat.—In regard to all
thefe kind of fubftances, however, much depends upon
the manner of purifying or trying, and of keeping
them.
To obtain fat pure, it muft be cut int6 pieces, and
cleaned from the interpofed membranes and veffels. It
muft then be cleanfed from its gelatinous matter by
wafhing with water, till the water comes from it co-
lourlefs and infipid; it is afterwards be melted with
a moderate heat in a proper veffd with a little water;
and it is to be kept thus melted till the water be en¬
tirely evaporated, which is known' by the difcontitm-
ance of-the boiling, which is caufed by the water only,
and which lafts till not a drop of it remains: it is af-
terwards to be put into*an earthen pot, where it fixes;
then k is exceedingly white, fufficiently pure for the
purpofes of pharmacy or chemical examination.
Fat thus purified has very little tafte, and a weak,
but peculiar, fnrtell.
Mineral acids exhibit the fame phenomena with fat,
as they do with the-fixed fweet oils of vegetables, which
contain nothing gwrnrny or refinouS;, and which do not
dry. Such is the oil of ben, oil of olives, and all thofe
which chemills call fat oils.
Alkalis diffolve fat, as they do thefe oils, and form
a fimilar foap. Fat contains no principle fo volatile as
to be raifed with khe heat of boiling water. It does
not inflame, but when heated in open air (o as to rife
in vapours. Laftly, by age it contrails an acrid and
rancid quality.
When fat is diftilled with a heat fuperior to that of
boiling water, which niuft therefore be done in a re¬
tort and in a naked fire, firll an acid phlegm arifes, and
a fmalb portion-of oil which remains fluid. As the
diftillation continues, the acid becomes ftronger., and
the oil thicker, and at laft it^congeals in the receiver.
No other principle arifes during this diftillation: and,
laftly, when the retort is red, nothing remains but a
very fmall quantity of that kind of coal which cannot
be burnt without very great difficulty. See Coal.
FAT [ 2959 ] F A T
If the congealed oil which is found in the receiver
be again diltilled, mote acid is obtained, and an oil
which does not congeal j and thus, by repeating the
diftillations, the oil is more and mofe attenuated. While
it is thus deprived of its acid, it acquires a more and
more penetrating fmell; and thus, by diftiilation alone,
it may be rendered as volatile as effential oils, and ca¬
pable of rifing with the heat of boiling water.
Fat, and all other analogous oily matters, cannot be
heated fufficiently to be raifed into vapours, without
fuffering a confiderable alteration, and even decompo-
fition. The vapours which rife from it, when heated
in open air, are the fame as thofe which rife when ,di-
ftilled in clofe veffels. They conlift of acid and atte¬
nuated oil. This acid is remarkably penetrating, acrid,
and volatile; it irritates end inflames the eyes, the
throat, and lungs; it makes the eyes flied tears, and
excites a cough as much as volatile fulphureous acid
does, although its nature be very different.
When fat is in its natural ftate, and has not yet fuf-
fered any alteration, its acid is fo well combined with
its oily part, that none of its properties can be per¬
ceived. Thus fat, in good condition, is very mild, and
ufed fuccefsfully in medicine, particularly externally,
for its lenient quality: but, notwithftanding its great
mildnefs, before it has been heated fufficiently to de-
compofe it, and while it is yet frefti, it becomes ex¬
ceedingly acrid, irritating, and caultic, when it$ acid
is partly difengaged by fire or by time.
When fat is become very rancid, not only its me¬
dicinal effedts, but alfo many of its efiential properties,
are totally changed, particularly its property of re¬
filling the adlion of fpirit of wine : for this menftru-
um, which does notaffedl pure and unchanged fat, dif-
folves fome portion of fat which has been llrongly
heated, or which has become rancid. This effedl can
certainly proceed from no other caufe, than that the
acid of the fat difengages itfelf in both thefe cafes.
Mr de Machy, an intelligent apothecary of Paris,
and an able chemill and obferver, has made a remark
upon this fubjedt which correfponds with this opi¬
nion ; which is, that all the rancidity of fat may be
taken from it by treating it with, fpirit of wine. Now,
this evidently happens, becaufe the fpirit of wine dif-
folves all the portion of fat which is difengaged from
its acid; that is, all the rancid part, while it does not
touch that which is not changed- This pradtice may
be advantageoufly employed for the prefervation or re¬
covery of fome fats ufed in medicine, but which are
rare, and not to be procured in their recent ftate.
One of the chief ufes of fat probably is, to receive
into its compofition, to blunt and corredl, a great part
of the acids of the aliments, and which are more than
are requifite to the compofition of the nutritive juice,
or which nature could not otherwife expel. This is
certain, that the greater the quantity of aliments is
taken by healthy animals above what is neceflary for
their nouriftiment and reprodudlion, the fatter they be¬
come. Hence animals which are callrated, which are
not much exercifed, or which are come to an age when
the lofs and produdlion of the femjna'l fluid is lefs, and
which at the fame time confume much fucculent ali¬
ment, generally become fatter, and fometimes exceed¬
ingly fo.
Although fat be very different from truly animalifed
fubllances, and appears not eafdy convertible Intq nu¬
tritive juices, it being generally difficult of digellion,
and apt to become rancid, as butter does in the (lo-
machs of many perfons; yet in certain cafes it ferves
to the nourifhment and reparation of the body. Ani¬
mals certainly become lean, and live upon their fat,
when they have too little food, and when they have
difeafes which prevent digeftion and the produdion
the nutritive juice ; and in thefe cafes the fatter animals
hold out longer than the leaner. The fat appears to
be then abforbed by the yeiTels defigned for this ufe, and
to be transformed into nutritive juice.
Fat, in the fea-language, fignifies the fame with
broad, Thus a Ihip is laid to have a fat quarter, if the
truffing-in or tuck of her quarter be deep.
Fat is ufed alfo for feveral utenfils; as, i. A great
wooden vefiel, employed/or the meafuring of malt, and
containing a quarter or eight bufhels. 2. A large
brewing veflei, ufed by brewers to run their wort in,
3. A leaden pan or veflei for-the making of fait at
Droit wich.
Fat likewife denotes an uncertain meafure of capa¬
city. Thus a fat of ifingglafs contains from 3^ hun¬
dred weight to 4 hundred weight; a fat of unbound
books, half a maund or four bales; of wire, from 20 tQ
25 hundredweight; and of yarn, from 220 to 221
bundles.
FATE, fatutn, denotes an inevitable neceffity de¬
pending upon a fuperior caufe. The word is formed
a fando, from “ fpeaking ,and primarily implies the
fame with effatum, viz. a word or decree pronounced
by God; or a fixed fentence whereby the Deity has
preferibed the order of things, and allotted to every
perfon what lhall befal him.
The Greeks called it as it were a chain or
neceflary feries of things indifiblubly linked together.
It is alfo ufed to exprefs a certain unavoidable defig-
nation of things, by which all agents, both neceflary
and voluntary, are fwayed and diredled to their ends
See Necessity.
In this )all fenfe, fate is dillinguifhed into, J . Aftror
logical, arifing from the influence and pplition of the
heavenly bodies; which (it is fuppoled) give laws both
to the elements and mixed bodies, and to the wills ojf
men. 2. Stoical fate, defined by Qicero an order of
feries of caufes, wherein, caufe being linked to caufe,
each produces another, and thus all things flow from
one prime caufe. To this fate the Stoics fubjefl even
the gods.
Fate is divided by later authors'into pbyficai anti
divine. 1. Phyfical fate is an order and feries,of na¬
tural caufes appropriated to their effedls. By this fate
it is that fire warms, bodies communicate motion fq
each other. See. and the effetls of it ape all the events
and phenomena of nature. See Nature, 2. Divine
fate is what is more ufually called Providence. Sep
Providence.
FATES, in mythology. See Parcje.
FATHEMITES, Fatemites, or F^thimites,
the defeendants of Mahomet by Fathema, or Fatipia,
his daughter. They never enjpyed.thekbalifat qf Mecca
or Bagdad, hut reigned in Barhary and Egypt. See
the hiltory of thefe countries.
FATHER, a term of relation denoting a perfon
who hath begot a child. See Parent and Child.
* 17 C 2 By
F A U [ 2960 ] F E A
Father By the laws of Romulus, a father had an unlimited
II _ power over his children. Amongft the Lacedemo-
Faunalia. n;ans> as we learn from Ariftotle’s politics, the father of
three children was excufed from the duty of mounting
guard for the fecurity of the city ; and a father of
four children, was exempted from every public bur¬
den. The Poppsean law amongft the Romans, granted
t|aany valuable privileges to the fathers of three children ;
amongft which one was, that he fhould be excufed
from civil ofhees, and that the mother ftiould have
liberty, in her father’s life-time, to make a will, and
manage her eftate without the authority of tutors.
Natural Yathuk, is he who has illegitimate chil¬
dren. See Bastard; and Law, N° clxi. 33. clxxxii.
3> 4-
Father, in theology, is ufed in fpeaking of the
Firft Perfon of the Trinity.
Father, is alfo ufed in fpeaking of fpiritual and
moral things. Thus, Abrahana is called the father
of the faithful.”
Father, in church-hiftory, is applied to ancient
authors who have preferved in their writings the tra¬
ditions of the church. Thus St Chryfoftom, St Ba-
fil, &c. are called Greek fathers, and St Auguftine
and St Ambrofe Latin fathers. No author who
wrote later than the 12th century is dignified with
the title of Father.
Father, is alfo a title of honour given to prelates
and dignitaries of the church, to the fuperiors of con¬
vents, to congregations of ecclefialtics, and to perfons
venerable for their age or quality. Thus we fay, the
right reverend father in God, the father-general of
the Benediflines, the fathers of the council of Nice,
father of his country, &c.
FATHERLASHER, in ichthyology. See Cot-
TUS.
FATHOM, a long meafure containing fix feet,
ufed chiefly at fea for meafuring the length of cables
and cordage.
FATNESS. See Corpulency.—It is obferved,
that for one fat perfon in France or Spain, there are
an hundred in England and Holland. This is fup-
pofed to be from the ufe of new malt liquors, more
than from the difference of climates or degrees of per-
fpiration. Indolence may caufe fatnefs in fome few
conftitutions ; but, in general, thofe who are difpofed
to this habit will be fat in fpite of every endeavour to
the contrary, but that of deftroying health.
FATUA.RII, in antiquity, were perfons, who,
appearing infpired, foretold things to come. The word
is formed of Fatua, wife of the god Faunns, who was
fuppofed to infpire women with the knowledge of fu¬
turity, asFaunus himfelf did the men.—Fatua had her
name from fart, q. d. vaticinari, “ to prophefy.”
FATUUS ignis, in phyfiology, a meteor other-
yvife called WiL^-nvith-a-nvifp. See that article.
FAVISSiE, in antiquity, were, according to Fef-
tus and Gellius, cifterhs to keep water in : but the
favilfte in the Capitol at Rome were dry cifterns or
fubterraneous cellars, where they laid up the old fta-
tues, broken veffels, and other things ufed in the
temple. Thefe were much the fame with what, in
fome of the modern churches, are called the archives
and treafury.
FAUNALIA, in Roman antiquity, three annual
feftivals in honour of the god Faunus; the firft of Famu
which was obferved on the ides of February, the fe- II
cond on the 16th of the calends of March, and the Feaf'
third on the nones of December. The principal fa-
crifices on this occafion were lambs and kids. Faunus
was a deity of the Romans only, being wholly un¬
known to the Greeks.
FAUNS, a kind of rural deities, among the an¬
cient Romans. See Faunus.
FAUNUS, in fabulous hiftory, was king of the
Aborigines, or country of the Latins, and fucceeded
his father Picus, about 1220 B. C. He is faid to
have inftituted a great number of religious ceremonies,
and to have kept himfelf almoft always concealed, on
which account he was confounded with the god Pan.
His children called Fauni, or Fauns, were vifionary
beings, much like the fatyrs, and were ufually crowned
with pine ; but both Faunus and they were only wor-
fliipped in Italy, and were wholly unknown to the
Greeks.
FAVORINUS, an ancient orator and philofopher
of Gaul, who flourifhed under the emperor Adrian,
and taught with high reputation both at Athens and
Rome. Many works are attributed to him ; among
the reft, a Greek mifcelianeous hiftory often quoted
by Diogenes Laertius.
FAUSTUS. See Fust.
FAWN, among fportfmen, a buck or doe of the
firft year; or the young one of the buck’s breed in its
firft year.
FE, fo, or Fohi, the name of the chief god of the
Chinefe, whom they adore as the fovereign of heaven-
They reprefent him fhining all in light, with his
hands hid under his robes, to fliew that his powe*
does all things invifibly. He has at his right-hand
the famous Confucius, and at his left Lanza orLanca,
chief of the fecond fed! of their religion.
FEALTY, in law, an oath taken on the admit¬
tance of any tenant, to be true to the lord of whom he
holds his land : by this oath the tenant holds in the
freeft manner, on account that all who have fee hold
per fidem et fiduciatn, that is, by fealty at the leaft.
This fealty, at the firft creation of it, bound the
tenant to fidelity, the breach of which was the lofs of
his fee. It has been divided into general and fpecial:
general, that which is to be performed by every fub-
jedt to his prince ; and fpecial, required only of Inch
as, in refpedl of their fee, are tied by oath to their
lords. To all manner of tenures, except tenancy at
will, and frank-almoign, fealty is incident, though it
chiefly belongs to copyhold eftates held in fee and
for life. The form of this oath by flat. 17 Edw. Il¬
ia to run as follows. “ I A. B. will be to you my
lord D. true and faithful, and bear to you faith for
the lands and tenements which I hold of you ; and I
will truely do and perform the cuftoms and fervices that
I ought to do to you. So help me God.”
FEAR, one of the paffions of the human mind.
See Passion.
Fear (Metus, Favor, or Timor)', was deified by
the Pagans. Tullus Hoftilius brought the worlhip of
this deity to Rome. The Ephori of Sparta erefted a
temple to Fear, near their tribunal, to ftrike an awe
into thofe who approached it. Fear was likewife wor¬
shipped at Corinth. The poets did not forget this.
dinar-
F E A [ 2961 J F E C
Feaft, Imaginary deity. Virgil places her in the entrance of
Ffathgr- hell, in company with difeafes, old age, &c. IE71. vi.
273.—Ovid places her in the retinue of Tifiphone one
of the furies, Met. iv. 483.
FEAST, or Festival, in a religious fenfe, is a
day of feafting and thankfgiving.
Among the ancients, feafts were inftituted upon
varions accounts, but efpecially in memory of fome
favourable interpofition of Providence. Thus, the
Jews had their feaft of paflbver, pentecoft, and taber¬
nacles ; the Greeks their cerealia, panathenaea, &c.
and the Romans their faturnalia, ambarvalia, &c. See
Passover, Cerealia, &c.
In the ancient Chriftian church, befides the high
feftivals of Chriftmas, Eafter, Pentecott, Anuncia-
tion, &c. there were others inllituted in honour of the
apoftles and martyrs: all which are retained by the
church of England. See the articles Christmas,
Easter, &c. In the church of Rome, there are
double, half-double, and fimple feafts almoft without
number, i he name of double feajls is given to fuch
whofe fervice is fuller and more folemn than the reft,
which likewife conftitutes the difference between the
others; the churches being embellifhed, and the altars
adorned, according to the rank which each faint holds
in his refpe&ive church. All high feftivals have an
otfave, confiding of the feaft itfelf, and the feven fol¬
lowing days.
In Italy, certain feftivals are celebrated folely by
lovers. When a lover wants to give his miftrefs the
higheft teftimony of his gallantry, lie immediately
makes her the idol of his devotion ; procuring vef-
pers, and even maffes, to be faid to her honour.
For this purpofe he makes choice of the feftival of
fome faint whofe name the bears ; and though the
faint has the fame name, they manage matters fo,
that the devotion of the feftival is plainly relative to
the lover’s miftrefs.
The four quarterly feafts, or dated times, whereon
rent on leafes is ufually referved to be paid, are Lady-
day, or the annunciation of the bleffed virgin Mary,
or 251I) of March ; the nativity of St John the Bap-
tift, held on the 24th of June; the feaft of St Michael
the arch-angel, on the 29th of September ; and Chrift¬
mas, or rather of St Thomas the apoftle, on the 21ft
of December. See Annunciation, &c.
FEATHER, in phyliology, a general name for
the covering of birds ; it being common to all the ani¬
mals of this clafs to have their whole body, or at leaft
the greateft part of it, covered with feathers or
plumage.
Feathers make a confiderable article of commerce.
Thofe from Somerfetftn're are -efteemed the bed, and
thofe from Ireland the word.—Eider down is imported
from Denmark, the ducks that fupply it being inha¬
bitants of Hudfon’s bay, Greenland, Ireland, and
Norway. Our own Iflands weft of Scotland breed
numbers of thefe birds, and might turn out a profitable
branch of trade to the poor inhabitants. Hudfon’s
bay alfo furnifties very fine feathers, fuppofed to be
of the goofe-kind. The down of the fwan is brought
from Dantzit . The fame place alfo fends us great
quantities of the feathers of the cock and hen. The
London poulterers Itil a great quantity of the feathers
of thofe birds, and ol ducks and turkies: thofe of
ducks being a weaker feather, are inferior to thofe of Febrifuge
the goofe ; and turkies feathers are the worft of any. II
The bed method of curing feathers is to lay them in Fce'
a room, in an expofure to the fun ; and when dried, to
put them in bags, and beat them well with poles to
get the dirt off.
FEBRIFUGE, an appellation given to fuch me-
d icines as mitigate or remove a fever.
FEBRUARY, in chronology, the fecond month
of the year, reckoning from January, firft added to
the calendar of Romulus by Numa Pompilius.
February derives its name from Februa, a feaft
held by the Romans in this month, in behalf of the
manes of the deceafed ; at which ceremony facrificea
were performed, and the laft offices were paid to the
fhades of the defunft.
February, in a common year, confifts only of 28
days ; but in the biffextile year, it has 29, on account
of the intercalary day added that year.
FECIALES, or Foeciales, a college of priefts
inftituted at Rome by Numa, confiding of 20 perfons,
fele&ed out of the beft families. Their bufinefs was
to be arbitrators of all matters relating to war and
peace, and to be the guardians of the public faith. It
is probable that they were ranked among the officers
of religion, to procure them the more deference and
authority, and to render their perfons more facred
among the people. If the commonwealth had re¬
ceived any injury from a foreign ftate, they imme¬
diately difpatched thefe officers to demand fatisfaflion,
who, if they could not procure it, were to atteft the
gods againfl that people and country, and to denounce
war: otherwife they confirmed the alliance, or con-
trafted a new one, which they ratified by facrificing
a bog.
FECUNDITY, the fame with Fertility.
FEE, in law, fignifies a complete feudal property.
Hence, where the bare liferent of any feudal fubjeft
is meant to be conveyed to A, and the ablolute pro¬
perty to B, that meaning is expreffed thus ; “ to A in
liferent, and to B in fee.” See Law, N° Ixix. clxiv.
Fees are commonly divided into ctbfolutey otherwife
called fees-fimple; and limited, one fpecies of which
we ufually call fee-tail.
I. Tenant in fee-fimple (or, as he is frequently Blacbjl.
ftiled, tenant in fee).h that he hath lands, tenements. Comment,
or hereditaments, to hold to him and his heirs for ever;
generally, abfolutely, and fimply ; without mention¬
ing what heirs, but referring that to his own pleafure,
or to the difpolition of the law. The true meaning of
the word fee (feodum) is the fame with that of feud or
fief * and in its original fenfe it is taken in contradi- * See Fachi
ftinftion to allodium ; which latter the writers on this
fubjeft define to be every man’s own land, which he
poffeffeth merely in his own right, without owing any
rent or fervice to any fuperior. This is property in its
higheft degree ; and the owner thereof hath abfolutum
et dir edit m dominium, and therefore is faid to be feifed
thereof abfolutely in dominico fuo, in his own demefne.
But feodum, or fee, \% that which is held of fome fupe¬
rior, on condition of rendering him fervice ; in which
fuperior the ultimate property of the land refides. And
therefore Sir Henry Spelman defines a feud or fee to
be, The right which the vaffal of tenant hath in lands
io ufe the fame, and take the profits thereof to him
and
1 E E [ 2962 1 FEE
and his heirs, rendering to the lord his dae fervices ;
the mere allodial propriety of the foil always remain¬
ing in the lord. This allodial property no fubjedl in
Britain has; it being a received and now undeniable
principle in the law, that all the lands are holden me¬
diately or immediately of the king. The king there¬
fore only hath' abfolutum et dire Slum dominium ; but all
fubje&s lands are in the nature of feodum or fee, whe¬
ther derived to them by defcent from their anceftors,
or purchafed for a valuable conlideration: for they
cannot come to any man by either of thofe ways, un-
■lefs accompanied with thofe feodal clogs which were
laid upon the firft feudatory when it was originally
.granted. A fubjtcl therefore hath only the ufufruA,
and not the abfolute property, of the foil; or, as Sir
Edward Coke exprelfes it, he hath dominhm utile,
but not dominium dire Slum. And hence it is that, in
the moft folemn a&s of law, we exprefs the ft range ft
and higbeft eftate that any fubjedl can have, by thefe
words, “ he is feifed thereof in his deniefue, as of fee.”
It is a man’s demefne, dominkum, or property, fince
it belongs to him and his heirs for ever : yet this do-
mhricum, property, or demefne, is ftridtly not abfo-
Inte or allodial, but- qualified or feodal : it is in his
demefne, as of fee ; that is, it is not purely and Amply
his own, fince it is held of a fuperior lord, in whom
the ultimate property refides.
This is the primary fenfe and acceptation of the
word fee. But (as Sir Martin Wright very juftly ob-
ferves) the do&rine, “ that all lands are holden,” ha¬
ving been for fo many ages a fixed and undeniable axi¬
om, the Englifti lawyers do very rarely (of late years
efpecially) ufe the word/ee in this its primary original
fenfe, in contradiftin&ion to allodium or abfolute pro¬
perty, with which they have no concern ; but gene¬
rally ufe it to exprefs the continuance or quantity of
eftate. A/£•<? therefore, in general, fignifies an eftate
of inheritance; being the higheft and moft extenfive
intereft that a man can have in a feud: and, when the
term is ufed Amply, without any other adjundt, or has
the adjundt of/w//f? annexed to it, (as, a fee, ora fee-
fimple) it is ufed in contradiftindlion to a fee condi¬
tional at the common law, or a fee-tail by the ftatute;
importing an abfolute inheritance, clear of any condi¬
tion, limitation, or reftridlions to particular heirs, but
defcendible to the heirs-general, whether male or fe¬
male, lineal or collateral. And in no other fenfe than
this is the king faid to be feifed in fee, he being the
feudatory of no man.
Taking therefore fee in this its fecondary fenfe, as a
ftate of inheritance, it is applicable to, and may be
had in, any kind of hereditaments either corporeal or
incorporeal. But there is this diftindtion between the
two fpecies of hereditaments; that, of a corporeal in¬
heritance a man ftiall be faid to be feifed in his demefne,
as of fee; of an incorporeal one he lhall only be faid to
be feifed as of fee, and not in his.demefne. For, as in¬
corporeal hereditaments are in their nature collateral
to, and iflue out of, lands and houfes, their owner hath
no property, dominicum, or demefne, in the thing itfelf,
but hath only fomething derived out of it; refembling
the fervitutes, or fervices,'of the civil law. The domi-
nicum, or property, is frequently in one man, while the
appendage or fervice is in another. Thus Gaius may
be feifed as of fee, of a way going over the land, of
which Titius is feifed in,his demeflie as 6f fee. .
The fee-fimple or inheritance of lands and tenements
is generally vetted and^efides in feme perfon or other;
though divers inferior eftates may be carved out of it.
As if one grants a leafe for z\ years, or for one or two
lives, the fee-fimple remains yelled in him and his heirs;
and after the determination of thofe years or lives, the
land reverts to the grantor or his heirs, who thall hold
it again in fee-fimple. Yet fometimes the fee may be
in abeyance, that is (as the word fignifies) in expe&a-
tion, remembrance, and contemplation in law; there
being no perfon inejfe, in whom it can veft and abide:
though the law confidcrs it as always potentially exift-
ing, and ready to veft whenever a proper owner ap¬
pears. Thus, in a grant to John for life, and after¬
wards to the heirs of Richard, the inheritance is plainly
neither granted to John nor Richard, nor can it veft in
the heirs of Richard till his death, nam nemo ejl hceres
viventis: it remains therefore in waiting, or abeyance,
during the life of Richard. This is likewife always
the cafe of a parfon of a church, who hath only an
eftate therein for the term of his life; and the inheri¬
tance remains in abeyance. And not only the fee, but
the freehold alfo, may be in abeyance ; as, when a par¬
fon dies, the freehold of his glebe is in abyeance until
a fuccefibr be named, and then it vefts in the fuc-
ceffor.
The word, heirs, is necefiary in the grant or dona¬
tion in order to make a fee or inheritance. For if
land be given to a man for ever, or to him and his af-
figns for ever, this vefts in him but an eftate for life.
This very great nicety about the infertion of the word
heirs in all feoffments and grants, in order to veft a fee,
is plainly a relic of the feodal ftriftnefs: by which it
was required, that the form of the donation ftiould be
pun&ually purfued ; or that, as Craig expreffes it, in
in the words of Baldus, “ donationes ftnt flrifti juris,
“ ne quis plus donajfe prsefumatur quam in donatione
“ exprejferit.” And therefore, as the perfonal abili¬
ties of the donee were originally fuppofed to be the
only inducements to the gift, the donee’s eltate in the
land extended only to his own perfon., and fubfifted no
longer than his life; unlefs the donor, by an exprefs
provifion in the grant, gave it a longer continuance,
and extended it alfo to his heirs. But this rule is row
foftened by many exceptions.
For, 1. It does not extend to devifes by will; in
which, as they were introduced at the time when the
feodal rigour was apace wearing out, a more liberal
conftru&ion is allowed: and/therefore by a devife to a
man for ever, or to one and his affigns for ever, or to
one in fee-fimple, the devifee hath an' eftate of inheri¬
tance; for the intention of the devifor is fufficiently
plain from the words of perpetuity annexed, though he
hath omitted the legal words of inheritance. But if
the devife be to a man and his affigns, without annex¬
ing words of perpetuity, there the devifee fhall take
only an eftate for life ; for it does not appear that the
devifor intended any move. Z. Neither does this rule
extend to fines or recoveries, confidered as a fpecies cif
conveyance; for thereby an eftate in fee paljes by act
and operation of law without the word heirs: as it does
alfo, for particular reafons, by certain other methods of
conveyance, which have relation to a former grant
or eftate, wherein the word heirs was expreffed. 3. In
crea-
FEE [ 2963 ] FEE
f>«. creations of nobility by writ, the peer fo created hath
an inheritance in his title, without expreffing the word
heirs; for they are implied in the creation, unlefs it be
otherwife fpecially provided: but in creations by pa¬
tent, which are Jirifti juris, word heirs muft be in-
fertedi othefwife there is no inheritance: 4: In grants
of lands’to foie corporations and their fucceflbrs, the
word fuccejjfors fupplies the place of heirs ; for as heirs
take from the anceftor, fo doth the fucceffor from the
predeceffor. Nay, in a grant to a bilhop, or other
fple-fpiritual corporation, in frankalmoign; the word
frank-ahimgn fupplics the place of fucceffors (as the
word, fuccejfors fupplies the place of heirs)'ex vi ter¬
mini ; and in all thefe cafes a fee-limple veils in fuch
foie corporation. But, in a grant of lands to a Corpo¬
ration aggregate, the word fucceffors is not necedary,
though ufually inferted: for, albeit fuch fimple grant
be ftridlly only an eftate for life, yet as that corpora¬
tion never dies, fiich ettate for life is perpetual, or equi¬
valent to a fee-fimple,- and therefore the law allows it
to be one. Laftly, in the cafe of the king, a fee-iimple
will veil in him, with out the word heirs or fuecefbrs in
the grant ; partly ifom prerogative royal, and partly
from a reafon iisnilar to the lalt, Becaufe the king, in
judgment of law, never dies. But the general rule is,
that the word heirs is neceffary to create an eftate of
inheritance.
II. We are next to ebrtfider limited fees, or fueh
eftates of inheritance as are clogged and Confined with
conditions or qualifications of any fort. And thefe
we may divide into two forts: t. Qualified, or bafe
fees; and, 2. Fees conditional, fo called at the common
law; and afterwards fees-to/7, in confequence of the
fiatute de donis.
1. A base, or qualified, fee is fuch a one as has a
qualification fubjoihed thereto, and which mutt be de¬
termined whenever the qualification annexed to it is at
an end. . Asy in the cafe of'a grant to A and his heirs,
tenants in the manor of Dale; in this inftanee, when¬
ever the heirs of A ceafe to be tenants of that manor,
the grant is entirely defeated. So, when Henry VI.
granted fo John Talbot, lord of the manor of King-
fton-Lifle in.Berks, that he and his heiri, lords of the
faid manor, fliould: be peers of the realm, by the title
of barons of Life; here John Talbot had a bafeor qua¬
lified fee in that dignity; and the inttant he or his
heirs quitted the feignory of this manor, the dignity
was at an end. This eftate is a fee, becaufe by poffi-
bility it may endure for ever in a man and his heirs ;
yet as that duration depends upon the concurrence of
collateral circumftanoes, which qualify and debafe the
purity of the donation, it is therefore a qualified or
bafe fee..
1 2. As 60 fees-co>ulitional, or feeS-to/7, fee the article
Tail.
Fee alfo fignifies a certain allowance to phyficians,
barritters, attorn res, and other officers, as a reward for
their pains and labour.
Ifa perfon refufe to pay an officer his due fees, the
Court will grant an attachment-againll him, to be com¬
mitted till the fees arc paid; and an attorney may
bring an aft ion of the eafe for hi's fees, againft’ the
client that retained him in his caitfe.
Fee alfo denotes a fettle perquifite of public officers,
payable by thofe who employ them.
The fees due to the officers of the cuftom-houfe, are F«fers
exprefsly -mentioned in a fchedule, or table, which is l|.
hung up in public view in the faid office, and in all Fe 1X’
other places where the faid fees are to be paid or re¬
ceived. And, if ahy officer fhall offend, by acting con¬
trary to the regulations therein contained, he ttiall for¬
feit his office and place, and be for ever after inca¬
pable of any office in the cuftom-boufe.
The other public offices have likewife their fettled
fees, for the feveral branches of bufinefs tranfafted in
them.
L:zz-Farm, a kind of tenure without homage, feal¬
ty, or other fervice, except that mentioned in the feoff¬
ment ; which is ufually the full rent, or at leatt a fourth
part of it.
The nature of this tenure is, that if the rent be be¬
hind, and unpaid for two years, then the feoffor and his
heirs may have an aftion for the recovery of the lands.
FEELERS, in natural hiftory, a name ufed by fome
for the horns of insects.
FEELING, one of the five external fenfes, by
which we obtain the ideas of folid, hard, foft, rough,
hot, cold, wet, dry, and other tangible qualities. See
Anatomy, n° 408.
FEET. See Foot.
Feet, in Poetry. See Poetry, n° 117, 175.
FEINT, in fencing, a fhew of making a th-ruft at
one part, in order to deceive the enemy, that you may
really ftrike him in another.
A fimple feint is a mere motion of the vvrift, without
flirring the foot.
FELAPTON, in logic, one of the fix firft modes
of the third figure of fyllogifms; whereof the firft pro-
pofition is an univerfal negative, thefecond an univerfal
affirmative, and the third a particular negative.
FELIBIEN (Andre) , was born at Chartres in 16 r 9,
and went fecretary under the marquis de Fontenay Ma-
reuil ambaffador to the court of Rome in 1647. On
his return, M. Colbert procured him the places of hi-
ftoriagrapher to the king, fuperintendent of his build¬
ings, and of the arts and manufaftures in France.' He
became afterwards deputy comptroller-general of the
bridges and dykes in that kingdom; and died in 1695..
He wrote feveral pieces relating to the fine arts, the
principal of which is his “ Dialogues on the lives and
works of the moft eminent painters.”
FELICIT AS, (Felicity, ox Hnpfmefs,) was deified
by the ancient Pagans. Lucullus built a temple to her-
She had another erefted by Lepidus. The Greeks
paid divine worfhip to Macaria, daughter of Hercules,
the fame with Felieitas. This deity is often piftured
upon medals, and generally with a Cornucopia in one
hand and a Caducius in the other. The inferip-
tions are, Felicit as Temporum, Felieitas Augufi, Fe¬
lieitas Publica, Sec.
FELIX, proconful, and governor- of Judea in the
firft: century, was brother to Pallas the freedman of the
emperor Claudius. He arrived in Judasa about the
year 53, when he eonceived a violent pafikm fof'Dru-
filla the daughter of Agrippa and wife of Azizes, and
married her. For this reafoii St Paul, on hirf fpeaking
before him, difeourfed of chaftity arid the judgment to
come with fuch energy, tbat'Felix'trembled. Sometime
after, Nero recalled him bn account of his ill conduft,
and fent Fortius FeiFus id fucceed him.
Fells
F E L [ 2964 ] F E L
Jftlisr Felix (Minutius), a father of the primitive church,
who flourilhed about the beginning of the third cen¬
tury. He was an African by birth, and a lawyer by
profeflion $ and has written a very elegant dialogue in
defence of the Chriftian religion, intitled Oclavius, from
the name of the principal fpeaken This work was
long attributed to Arnobius ; but was afcribed to the
genuine author by Balduinus, a celebrated lawyer, in his
edition of 1560 printed at Heidelberg. The bell edi¬
tion of it is that at Cambridge, in 1712, by Dr Davis,
FELIS, the Cat, a genus of quadrupeds belong¬
ing to the order of ferae, the chara&ers of which are
thefe : The fore-teeth are equal; the molares or grin¬
ders have three points; the tongue is furnilhed with
tough fharp prickles, and pointing backwards; and the
claws are Iheathed, and retra£lile. This genus compre¬
hends feven genera, viz.
1. The Lee, or Lion. The largeft lions are from
Lion, eight to nine feet in length, and from four to fix
feet high: thofe of a fmaller fize are generally about
j-|- feet long, and about 3-j- high. His head is very
thick, and his face is befeton all fides with long bulhy
yellowilh hair; this lhaggy hair extends from the top
of the head to below the ihoulders, and hangs down to
his knees: the belly and bread are likewife covered
with long hair. The red of the body is covered with
very fhort hair, excepting a bulh at the point of the
tail. The ears are roundilh, Ihort, and almod entire¬
ly concealed under the hair of his front. The (haggi-
nefs of the fore-part of his body makes the hinder part
have a naked appearance. The tail is long and very
ftrong ; the tegs are thick and ftefhy; and the feet
are Ihort; the length of the claws is about an inch and
a quarter, are of a whitilh colour, very crooked, and
ean be extended or retraced into the membranous
fheath at pleafure: their points are feldom blunted, as
they are never extended but when he feizes his prey.
The female, or lionnefs, has no mane, or long hair
about her head or Ihoulders ; in her we fee didinftly
the whole face, head, ears, neck, fhoulders, bread,
&c. all thefe parts being in fome meafure concealed
under the long hair of the male, give the female a
very different appearance: befides, fhe is confiderably
lefs than the male. The hair of both male and female
is of a yellowifh colour, and whitifh on the fides and
belly.
In warm countries, quadrupeds in general are larger
and ftronger than in the cold or temperate climates.
They are likewife more fierce and hardy ; all their na¬
tural qualities feem to correfpond with the ardour of
the climate. The lions nourifhed under the fcorching
fun of Africa or the Indies, are the mod ftrong, fierce,
and terrible. Thofe of mount Atlas, whofe top is
fometimes covered with fnow, are neither fo ftrong nor
fo ferocious as thofe of Biledulgerid or Zaara, whofe
plains are covered with burning fand. It is in thefe
hot and barren defarts, that the lion is the dread of
travellers, and the fcourge of the neighbouring pro¬
vinces. But it is a happy circumftance that the fpecies
is not very numerous: they even appear to diminifh
daily. The Romans, fays Mr Shaw, brought many
more lions out of Libya for their public (hews, than are
now to be found in that country. It is likewife re¬
marked, that the lions in Turky, Perfia, and the In¬
dies, are lefs numerous than formerly. As this formi¬
dable and courageous animal makes a prey of moft FelU.
other animals, and is himfelf a prey to none, this dimi-
uution in the number of the fpecies can be owing to
nothing but an increafe in the number of mankind :
for it muft be acknowledged, that the ftrength of this
king of animals is not a match for the dexterity and
addrefs of a negro or Hottentot, who will often dare
to attack him face to face, and with very flight wea¬
pons.
The ingenuity of mankind augments with their
number; that of other animals continues always the
fame. All the noxious animals, as the lion, are re¬
duced to a fmall number, not only becanfe mankind
are become more numerous, but likewife becaufe they
have become more ingenious, and have invented wea¬
pons which nothing can refift. This fuperiority in the
numbers and induliry of mankind, at the fame time
that it has broke the vigour of the lion, feems likewife
to have enervated his courage. This quality, though
natural, is exalted or lowered according to the good
or bad fuccefs with which any animal has been accu-
flomed to employ his force. In the vaft defarts of Za¬
ara ; in thofe which feem to feparate two very different
races of men, the Negroes and Moors, between Sene¬
gal and the boundaries of Mauritania; in thofe unin¬
habited regions above the country of the Hottentots ;
and, in general, in all the meridional parts of Africa
and Afia, where mankind have difdained to dwell,
lions are ftillas numerous and as ferocious as ever. Ac-
cuftomed to meafure their ftrength by that of all other
animals which they encounter, the habit of conquering
renders them haughty and intrepid. Having never expe¬
rienced the ttrength of man, or the power of his arms,
inftead of difeovering any figns of fear, they difdain
and fet him at defiance. Wounds irritate, but do not
terrify them: they are not even difconcerted at the
fight of numbers. A firigle lion of the defart has been
known to attack a whole caravan ; and if, after a vio¬
lent and obftinate engagement, he found himfelf wea¬
kened, he retreats fighting, always keeping his face
to the enemy.. On .the other hand, the lions which live
near the villages or huts of the Indians or Africans, be¬
ing acquainted with man and the force of his arms, are
fo daftardly as to fly and leave their prey at the fight
of women or children.
This fofteningnn the temper and difpofuion of the
lion, {hows that he is capable of culture, and fufeep-
tible, at leaft to a certain degree, of the imprefiions
that he receives: accordingly, htilory informs us of
Hons yoked in triumphal chariots, trained to war, or
the chace ; and that, faithful to their mafters, they
never employed their ftrength or courage but againft
their enemies. It is, however, certain, that a lion
taken young, and brought up among domeftic animals,
will eafily be accuftomed to live and fport with them;
that he is mild and careffing to his matter, efpecially
when he is young; and that, if his natural ferocity
fometimes breaks out, it is rarely turned againft thofe
who have been kind to him. But, as his pafiions are
impetuous and vehement, it is not to be expetfted that
the imprefitons of education will at all times be fuffi-
cient to balance them c for this reafon it is dangerous
to let him fuffer hunger long, or to vex him by ill-
timed teazings: bad treatment not only irritates him,
but he remembers it long, and meditates revenge. On
F E L [ 2965 ] F E L
Felis. the other hand, he Is exceedingly grateful, and feldom
forgets benefits received. He has been often obferved
to difdain weak or infignificant enemies, to defpife their
The Lion, infults, and to pardon their ofFenfive liberties. When
led into captivity, he will difcover fymptoms of unea-
finefs, without anger or peeviihnefs : on the contrary,
his natural temper foftens, he obeys his matter, caref-
fes the hand that gives him food, and fometimes gives
life to fuch animals as are thrown to him alive for prey:
by this aft of generofity he feems to confider himfelf as
forever bound to proteft them ; he lives peaceably
with them; allows them a part, and fometimes the
whole, of his food; and will rather fubmit to the pangs
of hunger, than fill his ftomach with the fruit of his
beneficence. We may likewife obferve, that the lion
is not a cruel animal: he kills rather from necefiity
than choice, never deftroying more than he eats; and
whenever his appetite is fatisfied, he is mild and
peaceable.
The afpeft of the lion does not detraft from the
noble and generous qualities of his mind. His figure
is refpeftable ; his looks are determined ; his gate is
(lately; and his voice is tremendous. In a word, the
body of the lion appears to be the bed model of ftrength
joined to agility. The force of his mufcles is exprefs-
ed by his prodigious leaps and bounds, often 20 feet
at once ; by the brifk motion of his tail, a fingle fw’eep
of which is fufficient to throw a man to the ground ;
by the eafe with which he moves the fkin of his face,
and particularly of his forehead ; and, laftly, by the
faculty of erefting and agitating the hair of his main
when irritated.
Lions are very ardent in their amours : when the fe¬
male is in feafon, (he is often followed by eight or ten
males, who roar inceffantly, and enter into furious en¬
gagements, till one of them completely overcomes the
reft, takes peaceable poffefiion of the female, and car¬
ries her off to.fome fecret recefs. The lionnefs brings
forth her young in the fpring, and produces but once
every year.
All the pafiions of the lion, the foft paffion of love
not excepted, are exceffive ; the love of offspring is ex¬
treme: the lionnefs is naturally weaker, lefs bold, and
more gentle than the lion ; but (he becomes perfeftly
rapacious and terrible when (lie has young. Then (he
exhibits more courage than the male ; (he regards no
danger ; (he attacks indifferently men and all other
animals, kills them, and carries them to her young
ones, whom (he thus early inftrufts to fuck their blood
and tear their fleftr. She generally brings forth in the
moft fecret and inacceffible places; and, when afraid
of a difcovery, (he endeavours to conceal the traces of
her feet, by returning frequently on her fteps, or rather
by effacing them with her tail; and, when the danger
is great, (he carries off her young, and conceals them
fomewhere elfie. But, w'hen an aftual attempt is made
to deprive her of her young, (he becomes perfeftly fu¬
rious, an'd defends them till (he be torn to pieces.
The lion feldom goes abroad in the middle of the
day ; he goes round in the evening and night, in queft
of prey. He is afraid of fire, and never approaches the
artificial fires made by the (hepherds for the proteftion
of their flacks; he does not trace other animals by the
fcent, but is obliged to truft to his eyes. Many hifto-
rians have even mifreprefented him as incapable of find-
Vol. IV.
ing onthis prey; but that he is obliged to the jackal, Fcii?-
an animal of exquifite fcent, in order to provide for “
him, and that this animal either accompanies or goes
before him for this purpofe. The jackal is a native of
Arabia, Libya, &c. and, like the lion, lives upon prey:
perhaps fometimes he follows the lion, but it is with a
view to pick up what he leaves behind, not to provide
for him ; for, being a fmall and feeble animal, he ought
rather to fly from than to fevve the lion.
The lion, when hungry, will attack any animal that
prefents itfelf: but he is fo very formidable, that all
endeavour to avoid his rencounter ; this circumftance
often obliges him to conceal himfelf, and lie in wait till
fome animal chances to pafs. He lies fquat on his belly
in a thicket; from which he fprings with fuch force
and velocity, that he often feizes them at the firft
bound. He endures hunger longer than third; he fel¬
dom paffes water without drinking, which he does by
lapping like a dog. For his ordinary fubfiftence, he
requires about 15 pounds of raw fleflr each day.
The roaring of the lion is fo ftrong and loud, that
it refembles the rumbling of diftant thunder. His
roaring is his ordinary voice; but when he is irritated,
his cry is (horter, repeated more fuddenly, and is dill
more terrible than the roaring : befides, he beats his
fides with his tail, (lamps with his feet, erefts and agi¬
tates the hair of his head and main, moves the (kin
of his face, (hows his angry teeth, and lolls out his
tongue.
The gait of the lion is (lately, grave, and (low, tho*
always in an oblique direftion. His movements are not
equal or meafured, but confift of leaps and bounds ;
which prevents him from (lopping fuddenly, and makes
him often overleap his mark. When he leaps upon
his prey, he makes a bound of 12 or 15 feet, falls above
it, feizes it with his fore-feet, tears the flelh with his
claws, and then devours it with his teeth.
The lion, however terrible, is hunted by large dogs,
well fupported by men on horfeback: they diflodge
him, and oblige him to retire. But it is neceffary that
both the dogs and horfes be trained before-hand; for
almoft every animal frets and flies as foon as he feels
the very fmell of a lion. His (kin, although hard and
firm, does not refift either a ball or a javelin: however,
he is feldom killed by a fingle (troke; and is more fre¬
quently taken by addrefs than force. They put a live
animal above a deep pit covered with light fubftances,
and thus decoy him into the fnare.
jfl. The Tigris, or Tiger. The fize of this ani-The Tiger,
mal, according to fome authors, is larger, and, ac¬
cording to others, fomewhat lefs, than the lion. M. de
la Landemagon affures us, that he has feen a tiger in
the Eaft-Indies 15 feet long, including undoubtedly
the length of the tail, which, fuppofing it to be four
feet, makes the body of the tiger about 10 feet in
length. The Ikeleton preferved in the cabinet of the
French king, indicates that the animal was about feven
feet long from the point of the muzzle to the origin of
the tail; but then it mud be confidered that he was
caught young, and lived all his days in confinement.
The head of the tiger is large and roundifh; and the
ears are (liort, and at a great diftance from each other.
The form of the body has a great refemblance to that
of the panther. The (kin is of a darkiih yellow co¬
lour, ftriped with long black ftreaks; the hair is (hort,
17 D ex-
F E L [ 2966 ] F E L
Feiis. excepting on the Cdes of the head, where it is about
' four inches long. The point of the tail is black, and
the reft of it is interfperfed with black rings. His
legs and claws refemble thofe of the lion, only the legs
are much ftiorter in proportion to the fize of the animal.
The Tiger. The tiger is more ferocious, cruel, and favage than
the lion. Although gorged with carnage, his thirft
for blood is not appeafed ; he feizes and tears in pieces
a new prey with equal fury and rapacity, the very mo¬
ment after devouring a former one; he lays wafte the
country he inhabits; he neither dreads the afpeft nor
the weapons of men ; puts to death whole troops of
domeftic animals; and attacks young elephants, rhi¬
noceros’s, and fometimes even braves the lion himfelf.
The tiger feems to have no other inftinft but a con-
ftant thirft after blood, a blind fury which knows no
bounds or ditlinftion, and which often ftimulates him
to devour his own young, and to tear the mother in
pieces for endeavouring to defend them. He lies in
wait on the banks of rivers, &c. where the heat of
the climate obliges other animals to repair for drink.
Here he feizes hjs prey, or rather multiplies his maf-
(acres; for he no fooner kills one animal, than he flies
with equal fury upon the next, with no other view but
to plunge in his head into their bodies and drink their
blood. However, when he kills a large animal, as a
horfe or a buffalo, he fometimes does not tear out the
entrails on the fpot; but, to prevent any interruption,
he drags them off to the wood, which he performs with
incredible fvviftnefs. This is a fufficient fpecimen of the
ftrength of this rapacious animal.
Neither force, reftraint, or violence, can tame the ti¬
ger. He is equally irritated with good as with bad
treatment: he tears the hand which nourifhes him with
equal fury as that which adminifters blows: he roars
and is enraged at the fight of every living creature.
Almoft every natural hiftorian agrees in this horrible
charafter.
It is happy for other animals, that the fpecies of the
tiger is not numerous, and that they are confined to the
warm climates. They are found in Malabar, Siam,
Bengal, the interior parts of Africa, and, in general,
in all the regions that are inhabited by the elephant
and rhinoceros.
The tiger has always been a more rare animal than
the lion; and yet brings forth an equal number of
young, namely, four or five at a litter. The female is
furious at all times; but, when her young are attempted
to be taken from her, her rage is redoubled : the braves
every danger; (lie purfues the ravifhers, who are obliged,
when hard prelfed, to drop one of the young in order to
retard her motion; fhe flops, takes it up, and carries it
into fome fecret part of the foreft ; but flie inftantly re¬
turns and purfues the hunters into their villages or boats.
The tiger moves the fkin of his face, grinds his teeth,
and roars, like the lion; but the found of his voice is
different.
III. The ParJus,or Panther.—It is about the fize
of a large dog, and has a great refemblance to a do-
naefticcat. The tongue is rough, and remarkably red ;
the teeth are ftrong and (harp; the fkin is exceedingly
beautiful, being of a yellow colour, variegated with
roundifh black fpots, and the hair is fhort.
The panther inhabits Africa, from Barbary to the
mnoteft parts of Guinea. It has a cruel and feroci¬
ous afpeft 5 his motions are brifk and lively ; his Cry Fells,
refembles that of an enraged dog, but is more ftrong and
rough. He is not fo perfectly ungovernable as the ti¬
ger: but, notwithllanding all attempts to render him
obedient and traffable, he may rather be faid to be fub-
dued than tamed; for he never entirely lofes his natu¬
ral ferocity. Accordingly, when kept with a view to the The pat
hunting of bucks, goals, or other animals, great care is ^5^ an"
neceffary in training him, and Hill greater in conducing
him. When leading out to the field, they put him in
a cage and carry him on a cart. When the game is
fprung, they open the door of the cage; he inftantly
fprings towards the animal, often feizes him in a few
bounds, throws him to the ground, and ftrangles him.
But, if he happens to mifs his aim, he becomes mad
with rage, and fometimes falls upon his mafter, who,
in order to prevent accidents of this kind, generally
carries along with him pieces of flefh, or perhaps a
lamb or a kid, which he throws to him in order to ap-
peafe his fury.
The panther, according to Buffon, is no where to be
found but in Africa, and the regions of the Indies.
The ancients were well acquainted with thd'e ani¬
mals. Thefe, and the leopards, were the Vari* and
Pardi of the old writers: one fhould think that the
Romans would have exhaufted the defarts of Africa
by the numbers they drew from thence for their public
(hews. Scaurus exhibited at onetime 150 panthers;
Pompey the Great, 410; Auguftus, 420. Probably
they thinned the coalls of Mauritania of thefe animals,
but they dill fwarm imthe fouthern parts of Guinea.—
Oppian defcribes two fpecies of panthera, a large fpe¬
cies and a fmall one ; the firft of which has a fhorter
tail than the lefler, and may poflibly be this kind.—
An animal of this fpecies is found in Buckharia, called
there Bair: it isfeven feet long, very deftrudlive tohor-
fes,and even camels: the fkin is fine,and valued in Rullia
at il. Sterling.—In China there is a moft remarkable
kind, called there Loucbu, whofe (kins fell for 61. Ster¬
ling a-piece. It muft here alfo be obferved, that there
are in the furriers (hops in London, flrins in moft re-
fpedfs refembling thole of the panther; which, they
allure us, come from the Spanilh fettlements in the
Weft Indies: Thefe Ikins equal thofe of the old con¬
tinent in beauty and fize.
Though Mr Buffon denies the panther to be an in¬
habitant of America, yet Mr Pennant is of opinion
that the fame, or a variety at leaft, inhabits that coun¬
try. ' 1. The figure of the fpecies defcribed by Faber,
(Hift. An. Nov. H'tfp. p. 498.) under the name of Tigris
Mexicana, agrees exatfly with that of the panther, as
does alfo the defcription in general. 2. Every other ani¬
mal of this genus, which has yet been difeovered in
America, is far inferior in fize and ftrength to this;
whofe common height, Faber fays, is four or five feet,
and whofe prey is wild cattle, horfes, &c. M. Cort-
dami tie, and Le Pere Cajetan Cattaneo, fpeak of the
tigers (/.>. the panthers) of America, as equal,and
even fuperior in fize to thofe of Africa, and the colour
as bright as gold; and Ulloa defcribes them as big as
little horfes. 3. Notwithftanding the venders of furs
are not entirely to be relied on as to the countries their
goods come from, yet the general opinion of the whole
trade, that thefe Ikins were the produft of Spanilh A-
merica, is a further proof of their being common to
both
F E L [ 2967 1 F E L
Fells. both continents.
 — jv# The Onca, or Once, is lefs than the panther;
The Once. t})e ta;| is longer ; the hair is likewife longer, and of
a whitilh grey colour. The once is eafily tamed ; and
is employed in hunting in feveral parts of Alia, where
dogs are very fcarce. He has not the delicate fcent
of a dog ; does not trace other animals by the fmell;
neither can he run them down in a fair chace ; but lies
in wait for their approach, and then darts upon them
unawares. He leaps fo nimbly, that he eafily clears a
ditch or a wall feverahfeet high; befides, he often
climbs trees, waits till fome animal pafies, and inflant-
ly leaps upon them. This method of catching their
prey, is pradiifed by the panther and leopard, as well as
by the once.—The once inhabits Barbary, Perfia, Hyr-
cania, and China ; from which laft place the Ikins are
brought into Ruffia, and fold for 20 s. a-piece.
The V. The Pardalis, or Leopard, differs from the
Leopard, panther and the once, in the beauty of his colour,
which is a lively yellow, with fmaller fpots than thofe
of the two latter, and difpofed in groups. He is larger
than the once, and lefs than the panther. The leopard
inhabits the Eaft Indies ; one kept fome years ago in
the Tower, feemed a good-natured animal.—A varie¬
ty called the hunting leopard, is about the fize of a large
gre-hound ; of a long make, narrow cheft, legs very
long. He inhabits India, where he is tamed and train¬
ed for the chace of antelopes; carried in a fmall kind
of waggon, hood-winked and chained, till it approaches
the herd : when tirft unchained, does not make its at¬
tempt, but winds along the ground, flopping and con¬
cealing itfelf, till it gets a proper advantage; then
darts on the animals with, furprifing fwiftnefs; over¬
takes them by the rapidity of its bounds; but if it
does not fucceed in its fir ft efforts, confi fling of five or
fix amazing leaps, miffefc its prey : lofing its breath,
and finding itfelf unequal in fpeed, it Hands ftill, gives
up the point for that time, and readily returns to its
matter.
The Lynx. VI. The Lynx is about 2^ feet long and 15 inches
high. He has a great refemblance to the cat ; but his
cars are longer, and his tail is much ftiorter; his hair
is ftreaked with yellow, white, and black colours.
The lynx is an inhabitant of Mufcovy, Poland, Cana¬
da, &c. PI is eyes are brilliant, his afpeft is foft, and his
air is gay and fprightly : like the cat, he covers his
urine with earth ; he howls fomething like the wolf,
and is heard at a confiderable diftance ; he does not run
like the dog or wolf, but walks and leaps like a cat;
he purfues his prey even to the tops of trees ; neither
wild cats nor fquirrels can efcape him ; he lies, in wait
for flags, goats, hares, &c. and darts fuddenly upon
them ; he feizes them by the throat and fucks their
blood, then opens the head and eats the brain ; after
this, he frequently leaves them, and goes in queft of
frefh prey. The colour of his fkin changes according to
the feafon or the climate ; the winter-furs are more
beautiful than thofe of fummer. Thefe furs are valu¬
able for their foftnefs and warmth : numbers are an¬
nually imported from North America, and the north
of Europe and Afia ; the farther north and eatt they
are taken, the whiter they are, and the more diftinft
the fpots. Of thefe the moft elegant kind is called />-
t P/i». viii. wbofe ikin fells on the fpot for one pound Sterling.
8. xxviii. 8. r-The ancients * celebrated the great quicknefs of the
lynx’s fight; and feigned that its urine was converted Felis.
into a precious ftone.
VII. Tht Catus, or Cat, wild, and domeftic. The Cat
1. The ’wild cat differs not fpecifically from the
tame ; the latter being originally of the fame kind,
but altered in colour, and in fome other trifling ac¬
cidents, as are common to animals reclaimed from the
woods and domefticated.
The cat in its favage ftate is three or four times as
large as the houfe-cat; the head larger, and the face
flatter. The teeth and clawsare tremendous: its mufcles
very ftrong, as being formed for rapine : the tail is of
a moderate length, but very thick, marked with alter¬
nate bars of black and white, the end always black :
the hips and hind part of the lower joints of the leg,
are always black : the fur is very foft and fine. The
general colour of thefe animals is of a yellowilh white,
mixed with a deep grey : thefe colours, though they
appear at firft fight confufedly blended together, yet
on a clofe infpe£Hon will be found to be difpofed like
the ftreaks on the Ikin of the tiger, pointing from the
back downwards, rifing from a blaak lift that runs
from the bead along the middle of the back to the tail.
This animal may be called the Britijh tiger ; it is
the fierceft and moft deftrudtive beaft we have; ma¬
king dreadful havock among our poultry, lambs, and
kids. It inhabits the moft mountainous and woody
parts of thefe iflands, living moftly in trees, and feed¬
ing only by night. It multiplies as faft as our com¬
mon cats ; and often the females of the latter will quit
their domeftic mates, and return home pregnant by the
former.
They are taken either in traps, or by fliooting •
in the latter cafe, it is very dangerous only to wound
them ; for they will attack the perfon who injured
them, and have ftrength enough to be no defpicable
enemy. Wild cats were formerly reckoned among the
beafts of chace; as appears by the charter or Ri¬
chard II. to the abbot of Peterborough, giving him
leave to hunt the hare, fox, and wild cat. The
ufe of the fur was in lining of robes : but it was e-
fteemed not of the moft luxurious kind ; for it was or¬
dained, “ that no abbefs or nun ftrould ufe more coftly
apparel than foch as is made of lambs or cats fkins.”
In much earlier times it was alfo the objedl of the
fportfman’s diverfion.
2. The fame or domejlic cat is fo well known, that
it requires no defeription. It is an ufeful, but deceitful
domeftic. Although when young they are playful and
gay, they poffefs at the fame time an innate malice and
perverfe difpofition, which increafes as they grow up,
and which education learns them to conceal, but never
to fubdue. Conftantly bent upon theft and rapine,
though in a domeftic ftate, they are full of cunning
and diffimulation ; they conceal all their defigns;
feize every opportunity of doing mifehief, and then fly
from punifhment. They eafily take on the habits of
fociety, but never its manners; for they have only the
appearance of friendfliip and attachment. This difin-
genuity of chara&er is betrayed by the obliquity of
their movements, and the ambiguity of their looks.
In a word, the cat is totally deftitute of friendfliip ; he
thinks and afls for himfelf alone. He loves eafe,
fearches for the fofteft and warmeft places to repofe
himfelf. The cat is likewife extremely amorous; and,
17 D 2 which
F E L [ 2968 ] F E L
Feits. which is very Angular, the female is more ardent than
the male ; (he not only invites, but fearches after and
The Cat. calls upon him to fatisfy the fury of her delires ; and,
if the male difdains or flies from her, (he purfues, bites,
and in a manner compels him. This heat of paffion in
females lafts but nine or ten days, and happens twice
in the year, namely, in the fpring and autumn ; how¬
ever, in fome it happens thrice or four times in the
year. The female goes with young 55 or 58 days,
and generally produces four or five at a litter. As the
male has an inclination to deftroy the young, the fe¬
male takes care to conceal them from him ; and, when
flie is apprehenfive of a difcovery, (he takes them up in
her mouth one by one, and hides them in holes orinac-
ceffible places. When (he has nurfed a.few weeks, (lie
brings them mice, fmall birds, &c. in order to learn
them to eat flefh. But it is worth notice, that thefe
careful and tender mothers fometimes become unnatu¬
rally cruel, and devour their own offspring.
The cat is incapable of reftraint, and confequently
of being educated to any extent. However, we are
told, that the Greeks in the ifland of Cyprus trained
this animal to catch and devour ferpents, with which
that ifland was greatly infefted. This, however, was
not the effeft of obedience, but of a general tafte for
flaughter ; for he delights in watching, attacking, and
deftroying all kinds of weak animals indifferently. He
has no delicacy of fcent, like the dog ; he hunts on¬
ly by the eye: neither does he properly purfue; he
only lies in wait, and attacks animals by furprife: and
after he has caught them, he fports with and torments
them a long time, and at laft kills them (when his
belly is full) purely to gratify his fanguinary appetite.
The eye of the cat differs greatly from that of moil
other animals. The pupil is capable of a great degree
of contra&ion and dilatation; it is narrow and contrac¬
ted like a line during the day, round and wide in the
dark ; it is from this conformation of the eye that the
cat fees beft in the night, which gives him a great ad¬
vantage in difcovering and feizing his prey.
Although cats live in our houfes, they can hardly be
. called domejiic animals; they may rather be faid to en¬
joy full liberty; for they never a£t but according to
their own inclination. Befides, the greateft part of
them are half wild ; they do not know their matters,
and frequent only the barns, out-houfes, &c. unlefs
when preffed with hunger.
Cats have a natural antipathy at water, cold, and
bad fmells. They love to bade in the fun, and to lie in
warm places. They likewife have an affedf ion for.cer-
tain aromatic fmells; they are tranfported with the
root of the valerian.
Cats take about 18 months before they come to their
full growth ; but they are capable of propagation in
12 months, and retain this faculty all their life, which
generally extends to nine or ten years. They eat flow-
ly, and are peculiarly fond of fifti. They drink fre¬
quently ; their fleep is light; and they often affume the
appearance of fleeping, when in reality they are medi-
tating mifehief. They walk foftly, and without ma¬
king any noife. As their hair is always dry, it eafily
gives out an ele&rical fire, which become^ vifible when
rubbed a-crofs in the dark. Their eyes likewife fparkle
in the dark like diamonds.—The cat, when pleafed,
purres, and.moves its tail: when angry,itfpits, hiffes.
and ftrikes with its foot. It drinks little : is fond of Fell,
fi(h : it wadies its face with its fore-foot, (Linnaeus Felling,
fays, at the approach of a ftorm :) it always lights on "
its feet: it is even proverbially tenacious of life.
Our anceftors feem to have had a high fenfe of the
utility of this animal. That excellent prince Hoel
dda, or Howel the Good, did not think it beneath
him (among his laws relating to the prices, &c. of ani¬
mals*), to include that of the cat; and to deferibe ** Leges
the qualities it ought to have. The price of a kitten Walliu,
before it could fee was to be a penny; till it caught a I’,147)»48.
moufe, two-pence ; when it commenced moufer, four-
pence. It was required befides, that it (hould be per-
feft in its fenfes of hearing and feeing, be a good mou¬
fer, have the claws whole, and be a good nurfe : but
if it failed in any of thefe qualities, the feller was to
forfeit to the buyer the third part of its value. If any
one ftole or killed the cat that guarded the prince’s
granary, he was to forfeit a milch-ewe, its fleece and
lamb ; or as much wheat as, when poured on the cat
fufpended by its tail (the head touching the floor),
would form a heap high enough to cover the tip of the
former. This laft quotation is not only curious, as be¬
ing an evidence of the fimplicity of ancient manners,
but it almott proves to a demonftration, that cats are
not aborigines of thefe iflands, or known to the ear-
lieft inhabitauts. The large prices fet on them, (if we
confider the high value of fpecie at that time f), and | Anno90$.
the great care taken of the improvement and breed of
an animal that multiplies fo fall, are almoft certain
proofs of their being little known at that period.
The cat is found in almoft every country in the world;
and all the varieties in their appearance may be reafon-
ably enough attributed to the climates which produce
them.
The Cat of Angora, is a variety with long hair, of
a filvery whitenefs, and filky texture ; very long, efpe-
cially about the neck, where it forms a fine ruff: the
hair on the tail very long and fpreading: it is a large
variety, found about Angora, the fame country which
produces the fine-haired goat. It degenerates after the
firft generation in this climate.
See figures of the principal fpecies of felis, on plates
CV. CVI. CVII.
FELL (Dr John), a very learned Englifh divine
and biftiop, entered a ftudent at Chrift-church, Oxford,
1636. In 1648, he was ejefted by the parliamentary
vifitors, being then in holy orders : and from that time
to the reftoration lived at Oxford a retired and ftudious
life. He was inftalled canon of Chrift-church, July
1660 ; and the year following, dean of that church;
in which places he did great fervices to the college, and
reformed feveral abufes. He was confecrated bi/hop
of Oxford in 1675 5 anc* ^eave t0 Scanty in
commendam, that he might continue his fervices to the
college and univerfity. He publiftied feveral works, and
died in 1686.
FELLING o/-Timber.—Many circumftances are
well known and conftantly obferved in the felling of
timber for building, which, though to a hafty obfer-
ver they might appear trifling, yet prove, on experi¬
ence, to be of the utmoft confequence. One thing ob¬
ferved by Mr De Buffon, which very greatly increafes
the folidity and ftrength of timber, is, that the trees
intended to be felled for fervice {hould firft be ftripped
Tlate. CV.
Tlafe CVX.
*
Tlafe CViL ;
/ Flil.lH PARDUri
I’axtjirk
v
' 2. IFxT.aS liaOEARDTJg t.
X.E OTy\fO)
F E L [ 2969 ] F E L
I'dlowfhip of their bark, and fuffered to ftand and die upon the
II fpot before the cutting. The fappy part or blea of
the oak, becomes by this means as hard and firm as
the heart; and the real ftrength and denfity of the
wood has been proved, by many experiments, to be
reatly increafed by it : nor is this a pradtice of any
etriment to the proprietor, fince the remaining ftumps
of thefe trees fend up their young .(hoots as vigorouf-
]y as if they had been cut down in their natural con¬
dition.
When any tree is to be cut down for timber, the firft
thing to be taken care of is a fkilful dilbranching of
fuch limbs as may endanger in its fall: many trees are
utterly fpoiled for want of a previous care of this kind.
In arms of timber that are very great, it is always ne-
ceffary to chope or fink in them clofe to the bole, and
then, meeting it with down-right ftrokes, it will be
fevered from the tree without iplitting. In felling the
tree, take care always to cut it as clofe to the ground
as poffible, unlefs it is intended to be grubbed up: and
the doing that is of advantage both to the timber, and
to the wood ; for timber is never fo much valued, if it
be known to grow out of old ftocks.
FELLOWSHIP, Company, or Dijiributive-Pro¬
portion, irr arithmetic. See Arithmetic, n° 15.
FELO de se, in law, a perfon that lays'deliberate¬
ly violent hands on himfelf, and is the occafion of his
untimely death, whether by hanging, drowning, {tab¬
bing, {hooting, or any other way.
FELON, in law, a perfon guilty of felony. See
Felony.
FELONY, in the general acceptation of the law,
comprifes every fpecies of crime, which occafioned at
common law the forfeiture of lands or goods. This
molt frequently happens in thofe crimes, for which a
Comment caP'ta^ peniftiment either is or was to be inflicted : for
ommen . fe]on;es that are called clergyable, or to which the
benefit of clergy extends, were anciently punilhed with
death in all lay, or unlearned, offenders; tho’ now, by
the ftatute-law, that punifhment is for the firft offence
univerfally remitted. Treafon itfelf, fays Sir Edward
Coke, was anciently comprifed under the name of fe¬
lony ; and in confirmation of this we may obferve,that
the ftatute of treafons, 25 Edw. III. c. 2. fpeaking
of fome dubious crimes, directs a reference to parlia¬
ment ; that it may be there adjudged, “ whether they
be treafon or other felony.” All treafons, therefore,
ftri&ly fpeaking, are felonies ; tho’ all felonies are not
treafon. And to this alfo we may add, that all offen¬
ces, now capital, are in fome degree or other felony t
but this is likewife the cafe with fome other offences,
which are not punilhed with death ; as filicide, where
the party is already dead ; homicide by chance-med¬
ley, or in felf-defence ; and petit-larceny, or pilfering;
all which are, (ftridtly fpeaking) felonies, as they fub-
jeft the committers of them to forfeitures. So that,
upon the whole, the only adequate definition of felony
feems to be that which is before laid down ; viz. an
offence which occafions a total forfeiture of either lands,
or goods, or both, at the common law ; and to which
capital or other puniftiment may be fuperadded, accord¬
ing to the degree of guilt.
To explain this matter a little farther: The wotA fe¬
lony, or felonia, is of undoubted feodal original, being
frequently to be met with in the books of feuds, &c;
but the derivation of it has much puzzled the juridical Felony.
lexicographers, Pratseus, Calvinus, and the reft : fome
deriving it from the Greek, “ an impoftor or de¬
ceiver;” others from the Latin,/a/Zo fefelli, to counte¬
nance which they would have it called fellonia. Sir Ed¬
ward Coke, as his manner is, has given us a ftill ftranger
etymology ; that it is crimen animo felleo perpetratuvi,
“ with a bitter or gallifti inclination.” But all of them
agree in the defeription, that it is fuch a crime as works
a forfeiture of all the offender’s lands or goods. And
this gives great probability to Sir Henry Spelman’s
Teutonic or German derivation of it: in which lan¬
guage indeed, as the word is clearly of feodal original,
we ought rather to look for its fignification, than a-
mong the Greeks and Romans. Fe-lon then, accord¬
ing to him, is derived from two northern words:
fee, which fignifies (we well know) the fief, feud,
or beneficiary eftate; and lon, which .fignifies price
or value. Felony is therefore the fome aspretium feu-
di, the confideration for which a man gives up his
fief ; as we fay in common fpeech, fuch an adl is as
much as your life, or eftate, is worth. In this fenfe
it will clearly fignify the feodal forfeiture, or aft by
which an eftate is forfeited, or efeheats, to the lord.
To confirm this, we may obferve, that it is in this
fenfe, of forfeiture to the lord, that the feodal writers
conftantly ufe it. For all thofe afts, whether of a cri¬
minal nature or not, which at this day are generally
forfeitures of copyhold eftates, are ftyled felonix in the
feodal law: “ feilicet, per quas feudum amittitur.”
As, ft domino defervire noluerit;—-ft per annum et diem
cejfaverit in petenda inveftitura ;—ft dominum cjuravit,
i. e. negavit fe a domino feudum habere ft a domino, in
jus eum vocante, ter citatus non comparuerit f—all thefe,
with many others, are ftill caufes of forfeiture in our
copyhold eftates, and were denominated felonies by the
feodal conftitutions. So likewife injuries of a more
fubftantial or criminal nature were denominated felonies,
that is, forfeitures: as aflaulting or beating the lord j
vitiating his wife or daughter, 11 ft dominum cucurbi-
t aver it, i. e. cumuxore ejus concubueritaft thefe are
efteemed felonies, and the latter is exprefsly fo deno¬
minated, “ ft fecerit feloniam, dominum forte cucurbi-
tando." And as thefe contempts, or fmaller offences,
were felonies or adts ©f forfeiture, of courfe greatei'
crimes, as murder and robbery, fell under the fame de¬
nomination. On the other hand, the lord might be
guilty of felony, or forfeit his feignory to the vaffal, by
the fame aft as the vaffal would have forfeited his feud
to the lord. “ Si-dominns commifit feloniam, per quam
vafallus amitteret feudum ft earn cemmiferit in domi¬
num, feudi proprietatem eiiam dominus perdere debet.’>
One inftance given of this fort of felony in the lord is
beating the fervant of his vaffal, fo as that he lofes his
fervice ; which feems merely in the nature of a civil in¬
jury, fo far as it refpefts the vaffal. And all thefe felo¬
nies were to be determined, il per laudamentusn fve ju¬
dicium pariumfuorumf in the lord’s court; as with us-
forfeitures of copyhold lands are prefentable by the
homage in the court-baron.
Felony, and the aft of forfeiture to the lord, being
thus fynonymous terms in the feodal law, we may eati-
ly trace the reafon why, upon the introduftion of that
law into England, thofe crimes which induced fuch
forfeiture or efeheat of lands (and, by a fmall deflexion-
from:
File
F E M [ 2970 ] FEN
from the original fenfe, fuch as induced the forfeiture
of goods alfo) were denominated felonies. Thus it was
that filicide, robbery, and rape, were felonies; that is,
the confequence of fuch crimes was forfeiture ; till by
long ufe we began to -fignify by the term of felony
the adlual crime committed, and not the penal confe¬
quence. And upon this fyftem only can we account
for the cayfe, why treafon in ancient times was held
to be a fpecies of felony ; viz. becaufe it induced a for¬
feiture.
Hence it follows, that capital punifhment does by no
means enter into the true idea and definition of felony.
Felony may be without inflidiing capital punilhment,
as in the cafes inftanced of felf-murder, excufable ho¬
micide, and petit larciny : and it is poffible that capi¬
tal punifhments may be infli&ed,. and yet the offence
be no felony; as in. cafe of herefy by the common
law, which, though capital, never worked any forfei¬
ture of lands or goods, an infeparable incident to felo¬
ny. And of the fame nature was the punifhment of
Handing mute, without pleading to an indidtment ;
which at the common law wascapital, but without any
forfeiture, therefore fuch Handing mute was no felony.
In fhprt, the true criterion of felony is forfeiture: for,
as Sir Edward Coke juflly obferves, in all felonies
which are punifhable with death, the offender lofes all
his lands in fee-fimple, and alfo his goods and chattels;
in fuch as ax-e not punifhable, his goods and chattels
only.
The idea of felony is indeed fo generally connedled
with that of capital punifhment, that we find it hard
to feparate them; and to this ufage the interpretations
of the law do now conform. And therefore, if a Hatute
makes any new offence felony, the law implies that it
fhall be punifhed with death, viz. by hanging, as well
as with forfeiture : unlefs the offender prays the bene¬
fit of clergy ; which all felons are entitled once to
have, unlefs the fame is exprefsly taken away by Ha¬
tute.
Felonies by flatute are very numerous ; and as this
work will not admit of a proper enumeration, wemufl
refer to the Table of the quarto edition of the Statutes,
where they are fet forth in alphabetical order.
FELT, in comxnerce, a fort of fluff deriving all
its confiflence merely from being fulled, or wrought
with lees and fize, without either fpinning or wea-
ving.
Felt is made either of wool alone, or of wool and
hair. Thofe of French make, 3F yards long, and 14-
broad, for cloaks, pay each 2 1. 14 s. i-r^d. on im¬
portation ; and draw back 1 1. 12 s. 3 d. on exporting
them again.
FELTRIA, (anc. geog.) a town on the borders
of Rhastia towards Italy. Now Feiitri, in the terri¬
tory of Venice, on the Riava. E. Long. 12. 16. N.
Lat. 46°.
FELUCCA, in fea-affairs, a little veffel armed with
fix oars, frequent in tlie Mediterranean; which has this
peculiarity, that its helm may be applied either in the
head or Hern, as occafion requires.
FEMALE, (f^emina,) a term peculiar to animals,
fignifying that fex which conceives and generates its
young within itfelf. See Sex and Generation.
Female is alfo applied, figuratively, to things with¬
out life, from the rcfemblance they bear to the females
of animals. Thus we fay a Femms
FEMALE-iSirrew. See Screw. . II
FEMALE-F/saiw. See Femineus Flos. Fcn*
Female-R/£j«r. See Feminea Planta.
FEMME covert, in law, a married woman. See
Coverture.
Femme Sole, an unmarried woman, whofe debts,
contra&ed before marriage, become thofe of her huf*
band after it.
A femme-fole merchant, is where a woman, in Lon¬
don, ufesa trade alone, without her hufband; on which
account fhe fhall be charged without him.
FEMININE, in grammar, one of the genders of
nouns. See Gender.
The feminine gender is that which denotes the noun
or name to belong to a female. In the Latin, the fe¬
minine gender is formed of the mafculine, by altering
its termination; particularly by changing us into a.
Thus, of the mafculine bonus equus, “ a good horfe,,,
is formed the feminine bona equa, “ a good mare ; *
fo, of parvus homo, “ a little man,” is formed parva
Jamina, “ a little woman,” &c.
In French, the feminine gender is expreffed, not
by a different termination, but by a diffei-ent article;
thus, le is joined to a male, and la to a female.
In Englifh, we are generally more Arid, and ex-
prefs the difference of fex, not by different termina¬
tions, nor by different particles, but different words ;
as boar and fow, boy and girl, brother and fifler, &c.
—though fometimes the feminine is formed by varying
the termination of the male mlo efs ; as in abbot, ab-
befs, &c'.
FEMUR, os femoris, in anatomy. See there,
n° 57-
FEN, a place overflowed with water, or abounding
with bogs. See Bog and Draining.
Fens are either made up of a congeries of bogs; or
conlifl of a multitude of pools or lakes, with dry fpots
of laud intermixed, like fo many little iflands.
Several ffatutes have been made for the draining of
fens,-chiefly in Kent, Cambridgefhire, Bedfordfhire,
and Lincolnfhire ; and by a late adl, 11 Geo. II. com-
miffioners fhall be appointed for the effeCfually drain¬
ing and preferving of the fens in the ifle of Ely, who are
authorifed to make drains, dams, and proper works
thereon ; and they may charge the landholders there¬
in with a yearly acre-tax, and, in default of payment,
fell the defender’s lands.
The wet grounds called fens, in Lincolnfhire and
elfewhere in England, bring many advantages to the
inhabitants of tbofe counties. Fowl and fifh are very
plentiful in them. The pike and eels are large and
eafily caught, but they are ufually coarfe. The duck,
mallard, and teal, are in fuch plenty as is fcarce to be
conceived. They are taken in decoys by prodigious
flocks at a time. They fend thefe fowl from Lincoln¬
fhire to London, twice a-week, on horfeback, from Mi¬
chaelmas to Lady-day; and one decoy will furnifh 20
dozen, or more, twice a-week, for the whole feafon in
this manner. The decoy-men contradf with the people,
who bring them to London at a certain rate, and they
are obliged to take off their hands the whole number
that is catched. Two teal are ufually reckoned equal
to one duck; and fix ducks and 12 teal are accounted
a dozen of wild-fowl; and the ufual market-price is
about
FEN [ 2971 ] FEN
Fen, about 93. for fuch a dozen. About midfummer, du-
Fetice- ring the moulting feafon, a great number alfo are de-
ftroyed by the people in the neighbourhoods. The
poor birds at this feafon are neither able to fwim nor
fly well ; and the people going in with boats among
the reeds where they lie, knock them down with long
poles. A little before Michaelmas, vafl; flights of thefe
birds arrive at the decoys from other places; they foon
grow fat in them, and continue there a prey to the
mafters or owners, as long as the decoys are unfrozen;
but, when they are iced over, they fly away again, and
go to the neighbouring feas for food.
The fens alfo abound in a fort of herbage that is very
nourilhing to cattle. Sheep and horfes always grow
fat upon it. Thefe fens are common, and the owners
of cattle mark them that they may be known. It is
remarkable, that, though all is open, the cattle ufed to
one particular fpot of ground feldom leave it, but the
owner may always find them in or near the fame place.
The fens have many large and deep drains. In thefe
the pike and eels grow to a vafl: fize: and they are full
of geefe which feed on the grafs; but thefe eat rank
and muddy, and may even be fmelt as foon as a perfon
comes into the room where they are rOafting. But the
people have another very great advantage from thefe
birds befides the eating of them, namely, their feathers
and quills; and the produce of thefe is fo great, that
the cuitomhoufe-books in the town of Bolton fhew,
that there are frequently fent away in one year 300
bags of feathers, each containing a hundred and a half
weight. Each pound of feathers brings in the owner
twopence; and it may be thought ftrange by people
unacquainted with thele things, but it is a certain
truth, that the owners pull them five or fix times a-
year for the feathers, and three times for the quills.
Each pulling comes to about a pound, and many peo-
le have 1000 geefe at a time, or more. They are
ept at no charge, except in deep fnowy weather,
when they are obliged to feed them with corn.
Oats alfo grow very well in many of the fen coun¬
tries, and in good feafons bring great increafe and ad¬
vantage to the owners. There is alfo another vegetable
of great profit to them. This is the rapum Jiive/ire;
the feed of which they call cole-feed; and they make
an oil from it of great ufe in trade. They grind the
feed between two large ftones, the one Handing per¬
pendicularly on the other. The ftones are made of a
fort of black marble, and are brought from Germany.
They fometimes turn them by fails, and fometimes by
the drains which carry off the water from the fen lands.
The fens lying low, and being of a vaft extent, are
very fubjedi to be overflowed by waters from the neigh¬
bouring high countries; and though great care and
expence is ufed to keep them dry, they are often like
a fea ; and the iheep are obliged to be carried off in
boats, and the people to live in their upper rooms, and
to be fupplied with provifions alfo with boats.
FENCE, in gardening and hufbandry, a hedge, wall,
ditch, bank, or other inclofure, made round gardens,
fields, woods, See.
In hot climates, where they have not occafion for
walls to ripen their fruit, their gardens lie open, where
they can have a water-fence, and profpedfs ; or elfe
they bound their gardens with groves, in which are
fountains, walks, &c. whieh are much more pleafing
to the fight than a dead wall: but, in colder countries. Fence,
we are obliged to have walls to flielter and ripen our ““
fruit, although they take away much from the pleafant
profpeft of the garden. Brick-walls are accounted
the heft and warmeit for fruit: and thefe walls, being
built pannelwife, with pillars at equal diftances, will
fave a great deal of charge, in that the walls may be
built thinner than if they were made plain without thefe
pannels, for then it would be neceflary to build them
thicker every where; and, betides, thefe pannels make
the walls look the handfomer. StonC-walls, however,
on account of their durability, are to be preferred to
thofe of brick, efpecially thofe of fqtiare hewn ftones,
Thofe that are made of rough ftones, though they are
very dry and warm, yet, by reafon of their unevennefs,
are inconvenient to nail tip trees to, except pieces of
timber be laid in them here and there for that pur-
pofe.
But, in large gardens, it is better to have the profpeft
open to the pleafure-garden; which fhould be fur-
rounded with a foffe, that from the garden the adja¬
cent country may be viewed. But this muft depend on
the fituation of the place: for, if the profpeft from the
garden is not good, it had better be Ihut out from the
fight than be open. As alfo, when a garden lies near
a populous town, and the adjoining grounds are open
to the inhabitants; if the garden is open, there will be
no walking there in good weather, without being ex-
pofed to the view of all paffengers, which is very dif-
agreeable.
Where the foffes are made round a garden which is Miller's
fituated in a park, they are extremely proper;, becaufe Gardener’s
hereby the profpedl of the park will be obtained in the Diftionary.
garden, which renders thofe gardens much more agree¬
able than thofe that are confined.—In the making
thefe foffes there have been many inventions; but, up¬
on the whole, none feem preferable to thofe which have
an upright wall next the garden, which (where the
foil will admit of a deep trench) fhould be five or fix
feet high; and, from the foot of this wall, the ground
on the outfide fhould rife with a gradual eafy flope, to
the diftance of 18 or 20 feet; and where it can be al¬
lowed, if it flopes much farther it will be eafier, and
lefs perceptible as a ditch, to the 'eye, when viewed at
a diftance: but, if the ground is naturally wet, fo as
not to admit a deep foffe, then, in order to make a
fence againft cattle, if the wall be four feet high, and
flight pofts of three feet high are placed juft behind
the wall, with a fmall chain carried on from poft to
poft, no cattle or deer will ever attempt to jump againft
it; therefore it will be a fecure fence againfl them; and
if thefe are painted green, they will not be difeerned
at a diftance, and at the fame time the chain will fe¬
cure perfons walking in the garden from tumbling
over.
In places where there are no good profpe&s to be
obtained from a garden, it is common to make the in¬
clofure of park-paleing; which, if well performed, will
laft many years, and has a much better appearance
than a wall: and this pale may be hid from the fight
within, by plantations of Ihrubs and evergreens; or
there may be a quick-hedge planted within the pale,
which may be trained up, fo as to be an excellent fence
by the time the pales begin to decay.
Fences round parks, are generally of paleing; which.
FEN
if well made of winter-fallen oak, will laft many years.
But a principal thing to be obferved, in making thefe
pales, is not to make them too heavy; for, when they
are fo, their own weight will caufe them to decay :
therefore the pales (hould be cleft thin ; and the rails
fhould be cut triangular, to prevent the wet lodging
upon them; and the polls fhould be good, and not pla ¬
ced too far afunder. If thefe things are obferved, one
of thefe pales will laft, with a little care, upwards of
40 years very well. The common way of making thefe
fences is, to have every other pale nine or ten inches
above the intermediate ones; fo that the fence maybe
fix feet and a half high, which is enough for fallow
deer; but, where there are red deer, the fence (hould
be one foot higher, otherwife they will leap over.
Some inclofe their parks with brick walls; and, in
countries where ftone is cheap, the walls are built with
this material; fome with, and others without, mortar.
A kitchen-garden, if rightly contrived, will contain
walling enough to afford a fupply of fuch fruits as re¬
quire the affiftance of walls, for any family ; and this
garden, being fituated on one fide, and quite out of
fight of the houfe, may be furrounded with walls, which
will fcreen the kitchen-garden from the fight of per-
fons in the pleafure-garden; and, being locked up, the
fruit will be much better preferved' than it can be in
the public garden ; and the having too great a quan¬
tity of walling is often the occafion that fo many ill-
managed trees are frequently to be feen in large gar¬
dens.
The height of garden walls fhould be 12 feet, which
is a moderate proportion; and, if the foil be good, it
may in time be well furnifhed with bearing-wood in
every part,cfpecially that part planted with pears, not-
withftanding of the branches being trained horizontally
from the bottom of the walls.
With regard to the more common kinds of fences,
Mr Anderfon gives the following directions, in his Ef-
fays on Agriculture, &c. “ The fences that are moft uni-
verfally employed, are either ftone-dikes or hedges (a).
Dikes, if well built, as effe&uaUy preferve a Geld from
the intrufion of domeftic animals, as any other kind of
fence whatever; but they afford little warmth or fhel-
ter to the field: whereas hedges, if good, anfwer both
thefe purpofes equally well. But the moft material di-
ftinftion between dikes and hedges is, that dikes are
in their higheft degree of perfection as foon as they are
reared, and from that moment begin to tend towards
decay; fo that the perfon who builds this kind of fence
immediately receives the full benefit thereof: whereas
hedge?, being at firft weak and tender, ftand in need
of attention and care, and do not become a fence for
feveral years after they are planted; and, as they con¬
tinue to increafe in ftrength, and gradually acquire a
higher and higher degree of perfeftion, it is long be¬
fore they begin to fall towards decay; fo that they are,
in general, infinitely more durable than dikes, altho’
they are longer of becoming of ufe to the perfon who
FEN
plants them. Which of thefe two kinds of fences may,
upon the whole, be moft eligible, muft, in general, be
determined by the circumitances and views of the pof-
feffor of the ground to be inclofed. If he is a tenant
who has a fhort leafe, without a profpeCx of getting it
renewed; or, if he has immediate occafion for a com¬
plete fence; it will be, in general, moft prudent in him
to make choice of dikes, if the materials for rearing
thefe are at hand: but, if there is any probability that
his pofterity may reap any advantage from thefe inclo-
fures, it will be almoft always more for his advantage
to make choice of hedges.
“ A dike built of freeftone atrd lime will be almoft
as durable as.a hedge; although, in general, it will nei¬
ther be fo cheap nor agreeable. But dry -ftone dikes,
unlefs built of the fineft quarried ftone, are of fuch a
perifhable nature, as to be hardly ever worth the ex¬
pence of rearing; and never, excepting where the field
that you would wifh to inclofe has plenty of (tones up¬
on its furface, which you are under a neceffity of car¬
rying away before the field can be improved. In this
fituation a man may, in fome meafure, be excufed, if he
fhould be tempted to put them into dikes; becaufe the
carriage of thefe (tones may be faid to coft him no¬
thing; and he may, perhaps, be at fome lofs how to
difpofe of them in any other manner. But, in all other
circumftances, it is very bad oeconomyto rear fences of
this kind, as feal (b) dikes can always be built at one
fourth of the expence that thefe would coft—will an¬
fwer all purpofes equally well; and, if carefully built,
will be kept in repair for any number of years at as
fmall an expence as they could be.
“ The want of durability generally complained of
in thefe dikes is owing to their bad conftrudtion. The
greateft part of them are made of a confiderable thick-
nefs, with a ditch on each fide; the heart of the dike
being made up with the earth that is taken from thefe
ditches; and only a thin wall, on each fide, is built of
folid feal from top to bottom: the confequence of
which is, that as the loofe earth that, is thrown into the
middle of the dike fubfides much more than the feal
on each fide, the top of the dike finks down; and, of
courfe, the two fide-walls are preffed too much upon
the infide, fo as to bilge (fwell) out about the middle,
and quickly crumble down to duft. To avoid this in¬
convenience, I have always chofen to build my dikes
of this fort thinner than ufual: they being only three
feet and a half thick at the bottom ; one foot, or a
very little more, at top; and five feet high: taking care
to have them built in fuch a manner, as tfiat every fod
(feal), from top to bottom binds the joinings of the
others below it, with as much accuracy as the bricks in
a well-built wall. The uppermoft courfe of feal is cut a
little longer than thofe that are immediately below it,
and placed with the graffy fide uppermoft, fo as to pro-
jedl a little on each fide; which not only helps to throw
the water a little off the dike, but alfo to prevent
(heep or cattle from attempting to jump over it fo rea-
[ 2972 ]
(a) Dike is a term employed to denote any kind of wall reared for the purpofe of inclofing a field and nothing
elfe.
(b) Feal is a provincial word, which may perhaps have many fynonyma. It here means any kind of fod dug by
the fpade from the furface of grafs-ground, confiding of the upper mould rendered tough and coherent by the matted
roots of the grafs thickly interwoven with it. If only a very thin bit of the upper Surface is pared off with a paring
fpade, the pieces are here called divots- Thefe being of a firmer confidence, are more durable when built into dikes
than feal, but much more expenfive alfo.
FEN [ 2973 I FEN
Fence, dily as they otherwife might do. At the foot of the
dike, on each fide, is dug a fmall ditch, about a foot
and a half or two feet deep ; leaving a ledget of a few
inches broad, on each fide, that the dike may not be
undermined by the crumbling down of the loofe earth
into the ditch. Thefe ditches not only help to give
the dike an additional height, and keep its foundation
dry; but are alfo of ufe to prevent cattle from coming
clofe to it and rubbing upon it, or tearing it down
with their horns, which they are very apt to do if this
precaution be omitted. The earth that is taken out of
the ditches may be thrown outwards into the place that
was occupied by the feal that has been taken to build
the dike; and, if the field is in grafs, a few feeds may
be fowed upon it, and it will foon be covered as well
as the reft of the field.
“ By having the joints bound in every dire&ion,
the fabric is rendered much firmer than it could be by
any irregular manner of working, while it is at the
fame time more eafily reared. If the ground is foft,
and the feal rife well, I get a fence of this kind
done for one penny halfpenny per yard ; but, if it
is not good to work, a little more than that mull be
allowed. As to the time that a fence of this kind may
Hand without needing any repair, I cannot fpeak with
certainty, as it is not long fince I fell into this method
of building them. The oldeft has juft now ftood ten
years, and feems to be nearly as firm as when firft built.
I have feen fome walls of poor cottages which have
been built fomewhat after this manner, that have been
good after Handing 40 or 50 years: but their durabi¬
lity depends greatly upon the nature of the feal of
which they are formed. The beft is that which is ta¬
ken from poor ground of a fpungy quality, which is
generally covered with a ftrong fward of coarfe benty
grafs. And, in fituations where this can be had, I
would have no hefitation in recommending this as the
cheapeft and beft temporary fence that could be reared.
“ The greateft inconvenience that attends this fpe-
cies of fence, is the danger it runs of being torn down
by the horns, or wafted away by the rubbing, of cattle
upon it; which they will fometimes do notwithftand-
ing of the ditches- This may be effedtually prevented
by planting a row of fweet-briar {eglantine) plants be¬
tween the firft and fecond courfe of feal when the
dike is built, which will not fail to grow with luxuri¬
ance, and in a fhort time defend the dike from every
attack of this kind. But, if Iheep are to be kept in the
indlefures, this plant ought not, on any account, to be
employed ; for, as that animal naturally flies to the
fences for (helter in ftormy weather, the prickles of the
ftraggling branches of the briar will catch hold of the
wool, and tear it off in great quantities, to the great
detriment of the flock and lofs of the proprietor. In
thefe cafes, if the polfeffor of the ground is not afraid
of the bad confequences that may be dreaded from the
fpreading of whins (furze), it would be much better
to foatter a few of the feeds of this plant along the led¬
get at the foot of the dike, which would quickly become
a prefervative for it, and be otherwife of ufe as a green
food for his fheep during the winter feafon. But, be¬
fore he ventures to fow this plant, let him remember,
that where it is once eftabliftied, it will hardly fail to
fpread through the adjoining fields, and can hardly be
ever afterwards throughly rooted out.
Vol. IV.
“ I have often imagined that this kind of fence Ffrce-
might be greatly improved both in beauty andftrength,
by planting a row of ivy plants beneath the firft courfe
of feal in building the dike; which would, in a Ihort
time, climb up the fides of the dike and cover the
whole with a clofe and beautiful network of woody
fibres, covered with leaves of the moft beautiful ver¬
dure ; which would tend to preferve the dike from be¬
ing eat away by froft, and other viciffitudes of wea¬
ther. And when it is arrived at the top, it would there
fend out a number of ftrong woody branches, forming
a fort of hedge, that would afford fome fhelter to the
fields, and break the force of the wind confiderably;
but, as I never have yet had an opportunity of trying
the experiment, I only here offer it as a probable con-
jefture. I have feen a garden-wall that had been built
of {tone and clay, ornamented and ftrengthened in this
way. I have had the experience of ivy growing well
upon a dry-ftone dike: and have likewife feen it grow¬
ing up the walls, and covering whole cottages built 6f
feal; which have by this means been preferved entire,
long after the walls that had been naked have fallen to
decay. But, not having had plants of this kind at
hand, I have not had an opportunity of trying it in the
manner propofed; although, I think, there is the great-
eft reafon to hope for fuccefs.
“ Whins (furze) have been often employed as a
fence when fowed upon the top of a bank. They are
attended with the convenience of coming very quickly
to their perfedlion, and of growing upon a foil on
which few other plants could be made to thrive: but,
in the way that they are commonly employed, they are
neither a ftrong nor a lading fence. The firft of thefe
defefls may, in fome meafure, be removed, by making
the bank upon which they are fowed (for they never
Ihould be tranfplanted) of a confiderable breadth; in
order that the largenefs of the aggregate body, confi-
dered as one mafs, may in fome meafure make up for
the want of ftrength in each individual plant. With
this view, a bank may be raifed of five or fix feet in
breadth at the top, with a large ditch on each fide of
it; raifing the bank as high as the earth taken from
the ditches will permit; the furface of which (hould be
fowed pretty thick with whin-feeds. Thefe will come
up very quickly; and in two or three years will form
a barrier that few animals will attempt to break thro’,
and will continue in that ftate of perfedlion for fome
years. But the greateft objedlion to this plant as a
fence is, that, as it advances in fize, the old prickles
always die away; there being never more of thefe alive
at any time upon the plant, than thofe that have been
the produce of the year immediately preceding: and
thefe thus gradually falling away, leave the Hems na¬
ked below as they advance in height; fo that it very
foon becomes an exceeding poor and unfightly fence;
the ftems being entirely bare, and fo flender withal as
not to be able to make a fufficient refiftance to almoft
any animal whatever. To remedy this great defedl,
either of the two following methods may be adopted.
The firft is, to take care to keep the bank always fto-
red with young plants; never allowing them to grow
to fuch a height as to become bare below: and it was
principally to admit of this, without lofing at any
time the ufe of the fence, that I have advifed the bank
to be made of fuch an unufual breadth. For, if one
17 E fide
FEN [29
Fence, fide of the hedge be cut quite clofe to the bank, when
it is only two or three years old, the other half will
remain as a fence till that fide become (Irong again;
and then the oppofite fide may be cut down in its turn;
and fo on alternately as long as you may incline:, by
which means the bank will always have a llrong hedge
upon it without ever becoming naked at the root. And
as this plant, when bruifed, is one of the moll valuable
* See A rl w‘nter-food yet known for all kinds of dome-
culture ^ ft‘c animals*, the young tops may be carried home
n° 46. and employed for that purpofe by the farmer; which
will abundantly compeniate for the trouble of cutting,
and the watte of ground that is occafioned by the
breadth of the bank.
“ The other method of preferving a hedge of whins
from turning open below, can only be pradtifed where
fheep are kept; but may be there employed with great
propriety. In this cafe it will be proper to fow the
feeds upon a conical bank of earth, fhoved up from the
furface of the ground on each fide without any ditches.
If this is preferved from the Iheep for two or three
years at firft, they may then be allowed free accefs to
it; and, as they can get up clofe to the foot of the
bank upon each fide, if they have been aCcuftomed to
this kind of food; they will eat up all the young Ihoots
that are within their reach, which will occafion them
to fend out a great many lateral {hoots; and thefe be¬
ing continually browfed upon, foon become as clofe as
could be defired, and are then in no fort of danger of
becoming naked at the root, although the middle part
fhoukl advance to a confiderable height.
“ The fences hitherto mentioned are only intended
to preferve fields from the intrufion of cattle; but, on
fome occafions, it is necefiary to have a fence that would
even refift the efforts of men to break through it: as
around bleaching-fields, orchyards, &c.; the want of
which often fubjefts the proprietor of fuch fields to
very difagreeable accidents. And, as fuch a fence
might, on fome occafions, be procured at no great ex¬
pence or trouble, it were to be wifhed that the method
of doing this were more generally known than it is at
prefent.—To efi'edluate this, it is neceffary to begin by
trenching up or ploughing a large belt all around the
field you mean to inclofe, of 40 or 50 feet or more in
breadth, if you find it convenient: the outer edge of
which fhould be inclofed by a good dike, or a ditch
and hedge. This belt fhould be kept in culture one
year, and well manured, if your fituation will admit of
it; and laid up before winter in fuch a manner that no
water may be allowed to lodge upon it; and planted
in the winter-time all over with plants of eglantine fo
thick as not to be above two feet from one another ;
and between thefe put a good number of young birch
plants not above two years old, interfperfed with ha¬
zels, oak, a(h, rawn (wild fervice), and other trees that
you think will thrive upon your foil; together with
thorns, hollies, brambles, and wood-bine (honey-
fuckle): and having then fenced it from cattle,'and
kept down the weeds that may rife upon its furface by
the hoe, as long as you can conveniently get accefs in¬
to it, leave it afterwards to nature. If this is done, and
your foil be not extremely bad, the belt in a very few
years will be entirely filled with a clofe bufh of trees,
fo intermixed with the bending branches of the eglan¬
tine, and bound together by the trailing {hoots of the
74 ] .FEN
bramble and woodbine, that no animal above the fize Fence,
of a cat could penetrate; efpecially when it is of fuch "
a depth as I have recommended.
“ The firlt hint that I got for a fence of this kind
was from a fmall thicket of brulhwood that I had plant¬
ed for ornament, pretty much in the manner above de-
feribed ; which in a {hort time became fo much inter¬
woven with the fweet-briar, that it w'us impofiible to
to find any accefs into it. But as all kinds of trees and
fhrubs, if planted very clofe upon one another, become
naked at the root when they arrive at any confiderable
fize, care {hould be taken to prevent it from ever co¬
ming to that itate, by cutting it down whenever it be¬
comes in danger of being open at the root. And as it
would be improper ever to leave the field entirely de-
fencelefs, it is a great advantage to have the belt as
broad as it conveniently may be, fo that the one half
of it may be a fufficient fence ; by which means, we
will have it in our power to cut down the intide and
the outfide of the belt alternately, fo as ftill to keep
the thicket young, and never to want at any time a
fufficie.nt fence; and the brulh-wood that this affordid
at each cutting would, in almoft every fituation, yield
fuch a revenue as would do much more than indemnify
the proprietor for the rent of the ground that was oc¬
cupied by this fence. And if the field was in fuch a
fituation as required ihelter, fome trees might be al¬
lowed to grow to their' full lize about the middle, with¬
out any inconvenience, if the belt were of a fufficient
breadth.
“ There is one other fpecies of fencing as ufeful as
any of thofe already mentioned, which is in general
much lefs underftood, and more diffic ult to execute pro¬
perly, that deferves here to be taken notice of; viz.
the method of fecuring the banks of rivers from being
waffied away by the violence of the ftream, and of pre¬
venting the damages that may otherwife be occafioned
by the fwelling of the waters.
“ It frequently happens that, when a river runs in
a bed of rich vegetable mould, the lead accident that
may chance to divert the ftream towards any particular
part of the bank, caufes it to fweep away large tracts
of fine ground, to the very great detriment of the pro¬
prietor, as well as the public; as this fine mould is
ufually carried to the fea, and the place that the water
leaves to occupy the new bed that it thus forms for it-
felf is generally of a much worfe quality ; confiftfng
chiefly of ftoues, fand and gravel. In fome cafes, where
the whole force of the current is quite clofe to the bank,
and the materials neceflary for fencing it are not to be
found, it may perhaps be impoffible or very difficult
totally to prevent this evil; but, for the molt part, it
admits of a cure that can be obtained at a pretty mo¬
derate expence.
“ Thefe ravages are always greateft where the bank
rifes perpendicularly to a pretty confiderable height
above the ordinary furface of the water, and never at
tnofe places where the banks {helve down gradually to¬
wards the water's edge: for, when the river is fwtlled
to a great height by rains, and runs with a force and
rapidity greater than ufual, it ftrikes violently againft
thefe perpendicular banks that direftly oppofe its
courfe, which being compofed of earth quite bare and
uncovered, are eafily foftened by the water, and quick¬
ly waffied away ; fo that the upper part of the bank
FEN [ 2975 ] FEN
being thus undermined, falls by its own weight into any future encroachments. This bank ought to conti-
the river, and is carried on in prodigious quantities:
whereas, at thofe parts of the bank that ftielve gradu¬
ally downwards to the water’s edge, when the river riles
to any confiderable height, it gently glides along its
furface; which being defended by the matted roots of
the grafs with which it is covered, fcarcely fultains any
damage at all; and is nearly the fame after the water
has retired within its banks as before the inundation.
Theie facts, which no one who has bellowed the
leaft attention to this fubjedt can fail to have obferved,
clearly point out, that the iirll and moll neceffary ftep
towards a cure, is to level down the edge of the bank
that is next to the water, fo as to make it dope gra¬
dually down towards the river. If the bank is very high,
and you have no other particular ufe for the earth that
mult be taken from it, the ealielt method of difpofing
of it, will be to throw it into the river: but, in what¬
ever manner you may difpofe of the earth, the dope of
the bank mull be continued until the inner edge of it
is as low as the furface of the water at the drielt time
of the year, and be made to afeend gradually upwards
from the.water with an eafy dope, till it comes to the
level of the ground, or at leatt rifes to fuch a height as
that the water never exceeds. This operation ought
to be performed as early in fummer as podible, and
dioujd be either immediately covered with turf, pared
from the furface of fome field that has a very ttrong
fward upon it; taking care to lay thefe in fuch a man¬
ner as to be in as little danger as poffible of being
walked away by any accidental dood that might hap¬
pen before they had grown together; or, if the turf
of this kind cannot be eafily had, it Ihould be fowed
very thick with the feeds of fome fmall matt-rooted
grafs, that Ihould be kept in readinefs for this pur-
pofe (c).
“ If the dream has not been extremely rapid at the
foot of the bank, fome of the earth that was thrown
into the water will be allowed to fubfide to the bottom,
and will there form a bank of loofe foft earth, which
will be of great ufe afterwards in preventing the face
of the bank under water from being wafhed away;
but, in order to fecure this bulwark effe&ually for the
future, the furface of this foft earth ought to be in-
llantly duck full of the roots of bog-reeds, dags, wa-
ter-fpiderwort, rulhes, and other matt-rooted aquatic
plants; which, if allowed to remain till they have once
ftruck root, will afterwards form a barrier that nothing
will ever be able to dedroy. But, if the dream be too
rapid to admit of this, and the bank of foft earth is
much deeper than the furface of the water, it will be
of ufe to fill up the bread of the bank with loofe dones
carelefsly thrown in, till they rife near the furface of
the water; which would mod edeftually fecure it againd
any future encroachments, if the bank is doped away
above.
“ If it fhould fo happen that dones cannot be eafily
got for this purpofe, the only refource which in this cafe
remains, is to dig the bank fo low, that, at the under-
mod edge, it may be always below the furface of the
water, and carry it out in this way for a confiderable
didance, and then dick the whole furface that is below
the water full of matt-rooted aquatic plants; which
will in a great meafure, if not entirely, defend it from
(c) The creeping meadow-grafs, poa re,
nue to (helve downwards even where it was below wa¬
ter, and thofe aquatics that will grow in the greated
depth of water be planted on the innermod brink,
and the others behind them. The water-fpiderwort
will grow in four feet depth of water, and the roofs of
the common yellow-dowered water-iris forms fuch a
drong and compact covering upon the furface of the
foil on which it grows, as would defend it from being
affe&ed by the water almod as well as if it were a
rock: it is likewife an advantage attending this plant,
that it grows upon a firm bottom, and chiefly delights
in running water.
“ If the ftratum of foft earth is not fodeep as to reach
to the furface of the water, and lies upon a dratum of
rock or hard gravel, there will be no oceafion for throw¬
ing in dones of any kind. But, as it is difficult to
unite the vegetable mould to any of thefe drata, there
will alway be fome danger of its feparating from thefe
in violent inundations ; and if the water once get an
entry, it will not fail to grow larger and larger by
every future inundation. To prevent this inconveni¬
ence, it will be neceffary, after you have (loped the earth
away till you reach the gravel or rock, to cover the
place where the edge of the earth joins the inferior
dratum, with a good many fmall dones, if they can be
found; fowing between them the feeds of any kind of
plants that you think are mod likely to thrive, which
have drong matted roots with as fmall and dexible tops
as poffible. You will eafily obferve, that from the im-
poffibility of ever making earth adhere firmly to done
of any kind, it mud always be an improper pra&ice to
face the banks of a river to a certain height with done,
which is coped at top with earth.”
For the mod proper methods of railing hedges of
different kinds, fee Hedge.
¥ me.?.-Month, the month wherein deer begin to
fawn, during which it is unlawful to hunt in the fo-
red.
It commences 15 days before mid-fummer, and ends
15 days, after it. This month, by ancient foreders, is
called defence-month.
FENCING, the art of making a proper ufe of the
fword, as well for attacking an enemy as for defending
one’s felf.
This art is acquired by pradtifing with foils, called
in Latin rudes; whence fencing is alfo denominated
gladiatura rudiaria.—It is one of the exercifes learnt
in the academies, (fee Exercise and Academy) ; and
is an accomplidiment both agreeable and ufeful:—A-
greeable, as it affords gentlemen a noble and didin-
guiflied amufement:—Ufeful, as it forms their body ;
and furnidies them with the faculty of defence, whether
it be of their honour or their life, when the one or
the other is attacked by thofe turbulent and dangerous
perfons whofe correction is of fervice to fociety in
general.
Pyrard affures us, that the art of fencing is fo high¬
ly edeemed in the Ead-Indies, that none but princes
and noblemen are allowed to teach it. They wear a
badge or cognizance on their right arms, called in their
language ^/ara; which is put on with great ceremony,
like the badges of our orders of knighthood, by the
kings themfelves.
17 E 2 Fen-
pea/, is a proper grafs for this purpofe.
Fencing.
Fenelon
Fenton.
FEN
[ 2976 ]
F E O
Fencing is divided into two parts, fimple and am-
found.
. Simple is that performed direftly and nimbly, on
the fame line; and is either offenfive or defenfive.—
The principal objedt of Jhe firft, is whatever may be
attempted, in pufhing or making paffes, from this or
that point, to the moft uncovered part of the enemy.
The fecond confifts in parrying and repelling the
thrufts aimed by the enemy.
The atnpound includes all the poflible arts and in¬
ventions to deceive the enemy, and make him leave holy orders. After he quitted the univerfity, he was
that part we have a defign on bare and unguarded, fecretary to the earl of Orrery; but feems to have
upon finding we cannot come at it by force, nor by the fpent the moft of his life amongft his friends and rela-
agilityof the fimple play. The principal means here- tions, and ufed to pay an annual vifit to his elder bro-
Guicciardim’s Hijlory of the Wars of Italy, dedicated
to queen Elizabeth in 1579. He died at Dublin in
1608; after having married his daughter to Mr Boyle, _
afterward the great earl of Corke.
Fenton (Elijah), defceuded from an ancient fami¬
ly, was born at Shelton near Newcaftle, but in what
year is uncertain. He was the youngeft of 12 chil¬
dren, and was intended for the miniftry ; but embra-
cing principles contrary to the government, while at
Cambridge, he became difqualified for entering
Fenton
Feodal.
of are, on the offenfive fide, feints, appeals, claihings,
and entanglings of fwords, half-thtufts, &c.; and, on
the defenfive, to pufti in parrying. Of all which a detail
would be here ufelefs, as they are only to be under-
ftood and acquired from perfonal inftrudtions conjoined
with practice.
FENELON (Francis de Salignac de la Motte),
was of an ancient and illuftrious family, and born at
thecaftle of Fenelon in Perigord in 1651. In 1689, he
was appointed tutor to the dukes of Burgundy and An¬
jou ; and in 1695 was confecrated archbifhop of Cam-
bray. After this preferment, a ftornvrofe againft him,
that obliged him to leave the court for ever, occafion-
ed by his performance intitled, yin explication of the
maxims of the faints concerning the interior life; in
which he was fuppofed to favour the extravagant no¬
tions of Madam Guyon, and the principles of Quict-
ifm. A controverfy on this occafion was for fome time
ther, who enjoyed an eftate of 1000I. a-year. He was
a man of great tendernefs and humanity, enjoyed the
faireft reputation, and was much efteemed by Mr
Pope; who, when he died in 1730, paid him the tri¬
bute of a very elegant epitaph. He publifhed a volume
of poems in the year 17x7 ; and, in 1723, was adled
his tragedy of Mariamne, built upon her ftqry collec¬
ted from Jofephus in the third volume of the Speftator,
FENUGREEK. See Trigonella.
FEOD, or Feud, is defined to be a right which a
vaffal hath in lands or fome immoveable thing of his
lord’s, to ufe the fame, and take the profits thereof
hereditarily, rendering unto the lord fuch feodal du¬
ties and fervices as belong to military tenure, &c. and
the property of the foil always remaining to the lord.
FEODAL, of or belonging to a Feud or Fee.
Feodal Syjlem, the conftitution of Fiefs or Feuds.
This remarkable fyftem, fo' univerfally received
carried on between him and M. Boffuet, biihop of throughout Europe upwards of 12 centuries ago, that
Meux : which terminated in an appeal to the pope;
when his holinefs condemned the archbiihop’s book, by
a brief dated March 12th, 1699. Some friends indeed
pretend, that there was more of court-policy than reli¬
gious zeal in this affair: but be this as it may, the
archbilhop fubmitted patiently to this determination ;
and, retiring to his diocefe of Cambray, acquitted
himfelf punctually in all the duties of his ftation, and
led a moft exemplary life. The work that gained him
the greateft reputation, and which will render his me¬
mory immortal, is his Adventures of Telemachus; the
ftyle of which is natural, the fictions well contrived, the
Sir Henry Spelman does not fctuple to call it the law
of nations in our weftern world, forms a fubjedt that
merits particular attention ; as, without a general
knowledge of the nature and dodtrine of feuds, it is
impofiible to underftand, with any degree of accuracy,
either the civil conftitution of this kingdom, or the
laws which regulate its landed property. ,
The conftitution of feuds had its original from Origin of
the military policy of the northern or Celtic nations, feuds-
the Goths, the Huns, the Franks, the Vandals, and
the Lombards ; who, all migrating from the fame offi-
cinagentium, or “ ftorehoufe of nations,” as it has been
moral fublime, and the political maxims tending all to juftly called, poured themfelves in vaft multitudes in-
the happinefs of mankind. Hence it is thought, as the
printing of this work was flopped at Paris, that the
prelate’s herefy was in politics inftead of religion ; and
though his difgrace was prior to this work, he had,
while he was tutor to the young princes, taught them
the fame principles afferted and exemplified in Telema¬
chus. Fenelon died in 1715; and a colledtion of all
his religious works was afterwards printed at Rotter¬
dam, under the care of the marquis de Fenelon his
all the regions of Europe at the declenfion of the
Roman empire. It was brought by them from their
own countries, and continued in their refpe&ive colo¬
nies as the moft likely means to fecure their new ac-
quifitions : and, to that end, large diltrifts or parcels
of land were allotted by the conquering general to the
fuperior officers of the army, and by them dealt out
again in fmaller parcels and allotments to the inferior
officers and moft deferving foldiers. Thefe allotments
grand-nephew, when ambaffador to the States-General, were aWedifeoda, “ feuds,” “ fiefs,” or “ fees;” which
FENNEL, in botany. SccAnethum.
FENTON (Sir Geoffrey), privy-counfellor and fe¬
cretary in Ireland during the reigns of queen Elizabeth
and king James I. is well known for his tranflation of
appellation, in the northern languages, fignifies a c
ditional ftipend or reward (a). Rewards, or ftipends,
they evidently were : and the condition annexed to
them was, that the poffeffors fhould do fervice faith¬
fully,
(a) Potitippodan, in his hiftory of Norway (p. 290.) obferves, that, in the northern languages, o fignifies/>r<3-
prietas, and all totum. Hence he derives the odh al right in thofe countries ; and hence too, perhaps, is derived
the udal right in Finland. (See Macdowal’s Inft. part a.) Now, the tranfpofition of thefe northern fyllables, AL lodh,
will give us the true etymology of the allodium or ahfolute property of the feodifts; as, by a fimilar combina¬
tion of the latter fyllable with the word fee (which fignifies, as we have feen, a conditional reward or ftipend),
cee odh, ox feodum, will denote Jlipendiary property.
Feodal
SyfUm.
General na1
ture of the
feudal aflb-
eutiou.
3
Of allodia-
F E O [ 2977 ] F E O
We muft not, however, imagine that thefe allodial Feodal
proprietors had no fhare in the defence of their conn- syftet11'
try, or that the former were its only guardians. In Stuart,$
the feudal times, the great conditions of fociety were obferv. con-
liberty and fervitude. To be free, was to have a title reming the
to go to the wars, and to feek renown. To be ^ la-w md con-
Have, was to be doomed to toil in the houfe, to fweat^“^’”^f
in the field, and to know neither eafe nor glory. p i7>
While the fubordinations of men in the arrangements
of feudality were the peculiar guardians of the kingdom,
there was yet, in every perfon who was free, an in¬
herent obligation to defend it againft uncommon and 4
urgent dangers. The necefiities of the Hate gave the National
alarm to all the ranks of the citizens; and the brave milltia*
made hafte to repel the enemy, and to fpill their
blood.—There were thus the militia of fiefs, and the
militia of the nation.
Of the free, it was a charafteriftic, that they might
poffefs property ; and while the train of the vaflalage
filled up the feudal army, the militia of the nation
was neceflarily to con lift of the proprietors of allodia-
lity. But though, in general, an allodial poffefiion is
to be applied to a property in land, it was likewife
to denote an eftate in moveables, or in money; and
proprietors of the latter clafs, as well as thofe of the
former, were, in the feafons of peril, to bear arms,
and to range themfelves in battle. s
But there was this diftindlion between the feuda-Different fi-
tories and the allodial proprietors, with regard to the tuations of
circumftance in qudtion, that the latter could only be the feu‘!a'f
called out in foreign wars, and again ft: the enemies [heaflodial
the ftate : as they held of no fuperior or lord, they proprietor,
had no concern in private quarrels, and made no part
in the feudal affociation. A circumftance which, if
judged by modern ideas, might appear advanta¬
geous. It was in faft, however, the reverfe ; and
operated as a caufe of the converfion of allodium into
tenure.
In the imperfeftion of government, when the ma-
giftrate could not extend his power with equal force
over all the orders of men in the fociety ; while the
weak were expofed to the infults and the paffions of
the ftrong; while nobles, haughty and independent,
could legally profecute their refentments with the
fword,
(b) The curious reader may fee the remote fources of the feodal laws particularly traced in the manners of the
Germanic tribes before they left their woods, by the learned and fpirited author of A view of Society in Europe, «
Book I. chap. ii. fedt. 1. The members of a German nation, according to Tacitus, cultivated, by turns,
for its ufe, an extent of land corefponding to their number ; which was then parcelled out to individuals in pro¬
portion to their dignity. When a German tribe obtained pofFtflion of a Roman province, they continued to be
governed by ffrhir ancient principles in the diftribution of their pofieffions. The king or fovereign, as the perfon of
greatefl dignity, had the moft confiderable portion; which came to conftitute his domain. Each citizen and war¬
rior had his lot or fhare; which gave rife to allcdiality. That part of the territory which was not txhaufted
by partitions to individuals, was confidered, agreealy'y to the ancient ideas, as belonging to the community; and was
called, in the barbaric codes, the lands of the fife. The fitua'ion of a German ftate, which had acquired a
fettlement, produced the necefiity of drawing clofer the connexion of the fovereign and the chiefs, and of the
chiefs and the people. The lands of the ffc were the medium which was employed in efTefting this defign.
The fovereign took the direction of thefe: hence pofTtflions flowed to the chiefs, under the burden of prefent-
ing themfelves in arms at the call of the fovereign; hence the chiefs dealt out lands to their retainers, under the
like injunction of continuing to them their aid; and thus a political fyftem was founded, which was to aCt in
fociety with infinite efficacy.
“ Of this fyftem (fays Dr Stuait) the intention and the fpirit were national defence and domeftie indepen¬
dence. While ’t called out the inhabitant and the citizen to defend his property, and to fecure his tranquil¬
lity, it oppofed barriers to defpotifm. Growing out of liberty, it was to promote the freedom of the fubjefl.
The power of the fovereign was checked by the chiefs, who were to form a regular order of nobility; and
the aviftocracy, or the power of the chiefs, was reprefled by the retainers and vaflals, who, conftituting their
greatnels, were to attradl their attention. The chief who opprefied his retainers, was tojeftroy his own im¬
portance. It was their number, and their attachment, which made him formidable to his prince and to his
equals.”
fully, both at home and in the wars, to him by whom
-they were given ; for which purpofe, he took the ju-
ramentum fidelitatis, or oath of fealty: (fee the ar¬
ticle ivoi/rf/Tenure) : and in cafe of the breach of
this condition and oath, by not performing the ftipu-
lated fervice, or by deferring the lord in battle, the
lands were again to revert to him who granted them.
Allotments, thus acquired, naturally engaged fuch
as accepted them to defend them : and as they all
fprang from the fame right of conqueft, no part could
fubfift independent of the whole; wherefore all givers
as well as receivers were mutually bound to defend
each other’s pofftffions. But as that could not effec¬
tually be done in a tumultuous irregular way, govern¬
ment, and to that purpofe fubordination, was necef-
fary Every receiver of lands, or feudatory, was
therefore bound, when called upon by his benefa&or,
or immediate lord of his feud or fee, to do all in his
power to defend him. Such benefa&or or lord was
likewife fubordinate to or under the command of his
immediate benefaftor or fuperior ; and fo upwards to
the prince or general himfelf. And the feveral lords
were a!fo reciprocally bound in their refpe&ive gra¬
dations, to protedt the poffeffions they had given.
Thus the feodal connexion was eftablifhed ; a proper
military fubjeftion was naturally introduced ; and an
army of feudatories were always ready enlifted, and
mutually prepared to mufter, not only in defence of
each man’s own feveral property, but alfo in defence
of the whole and of every part of this their newly ac¬
quired country : the prudence of which conftitution
was foon fufficiently vifible in the ftrength and fpirit
with which they maintained their conqueils.
But while poffeflions were to flow in the range of
feudality, and were to uphold a regular militia, there
were alfo eftates which were to be received and to be
retained under more enlarged maxims. To thefe every
perfon who was free had a title. He could lay claim to
his lot or partition of territory, and could difpofe of it
at his pleafure (b). In contradiftin&ion to the feodal
grant, which, as we have feen, was burdened with
fervice and confined by. limitation, thefe lands were
known by the name of allodiality ; a term which denoted
their entire freedom and exemption from fuperiority.
$ E O
Feudal fwovd, revenge their wrongs, and gratify their avarice
Syftcm. and cruelty, the holders of fiefs enjoyed a fupreme ad-
Stuart’s vantage over allodial proprietors. A lord and his re-
Vie-w of So- Uiners, conne&ed together in an intimate alliance, fol-
c'eiyinEu- lowing the fame ftandard, and adopting the fame paf-
rs/ie, p. 41 > fions, could aft with concert and efficacy. But alio*
C* dial proprietors were altogether diiqualified to defend
themfelves. Being difiant and difengaged, they could
form and fupport no continued or powerful 'confede¬
racy ; and the laws, in fa£t, did not permit them to
enter into fa&ions and hoftilities. The violence of
the times created an abfurdity. It gave to gifts un¬
der fervice and revertible to the grantor, a value fu-
perior to lands which were held in full property and
at the difpofal of the proprietor. It made neceffary
the converfion of propriety into tenure.
Nor was this the only confederation which had
weight with the pofleffors of property. In every mo¬
narchy, but in one more particularly that is governed
by feudal ideas, rank and pre-eminence attraft chiefly
the attention, and excite the ambition of individuals.
The king being the fountain of honour, and diitinc-
tions flowing from his favour, the ranks of men were
nicely adjufted ; and in proportion as they approached
to his perfon, they exafted and received refpefi.-
From this principle it naturally proceeded, that allo¬
dial proprietors were treated with contempt. Hold-
ing by no tenure, and occupying no place in the feu-
E E O
dal arrangements, they could not draw obfervation. Feudal
Their pride was alarmed, and they wifhed for the re- syfteiT1,
fpeff and fecurity of vaffals. &
Princes, bent on the extenfion of fiefs, difeou- Converfion
raged thefe proprietors. Their ambition, their abi- of allodium
lilies, and their prerogatives, furnifhed them with theint0 tellUre•
greateft influence ; and they employed it to give uni-
verfality to a fyftem, which was calculated to fupport
the royal.dignity and the national importance. Com-
pofitions for offences inferior to thofe which were al¬
lowed to a vaflal, were deemed fufficknt for the pro¬
prietors of allodiality. In the courts of juftice, they
felt the difadvantages of their condition. Mortified
with regal negjedt ; without fufficient prote&ion from
the laws; expofed to the capricious infolence, and the
deftruftive ravages, of the great; difgufted with rude-
nefs, contempt, and indignity, they were driven into
the circle of fiefs. They courted the privileges and
prote&ion which were enjoyed by vaffals. They fub-
mitted their eftates to tenure, feletling to themfelves
a fuperior the moft agreeable, granting to him their
lands, and receiving them back from him as a feudal
donation.
In this direftion of affairs, the extenfion of the
feudal inftitutions was unavoidable. The landed pro¬
perty was every where changed into feudality. The
empire of fiefs was univerfal (c).
While the greatnefs and fimplicity of thofe maxims
which
[ 2978 ]
(c) It has puzzled the learned to difeover the nation of the barbarians which firft gave a beginning to fiefs. No
inquiry, in Dr Stuart’s opinion, could be more frivolous. In all of them they muft have appeared about the fame
period. And they prevailed in all of them in confequence of the fimilarity of their (itnation on their conquefts, and
in confequence of their being governed by the fame cuftoms. It is not, therefore, to the principle of imitation that
their univerfality is to be aferibed.
* Giannone The annals of France make mention of fiefs in the age of Childebert. The Longobards at an early period intrq-
Hijiory of duced them into Italy ; and the cuftoms and laws which relate to them feem to have advanced rapidly among this
Naples, people*.
hook iv. jn Spain, the introduction of feudal tenures preceded the devaftations of the Saracens or Moors, which began in the
+ r r *'wr ^ear 7IO' ■^mong t^le Goths, who eftablifhed the monarchy of Spain, lands were granted for fervice and attachment;
' , ' Jv- and the receiver was the retainer of the granter. He was faid to be in patrocinio\ and if he refufed his fervice, he
fit % lib iv fu'fvited his grant. It alfo appears, that the retainer, or vaflal, fwore fealty to his patron or lord. And it was on
tit! 7. l.xx! fcheme that their militia was regulated f.
$ Vid. alfo ' Jn England, there is little doubt that the feudal law was known in the Saxon times, as we fliall fee above §.
Whittaker's In Scotland, the hiftory of fiefs is ftill more obfeure than in any other nation. This imperfection has been aferibed
hiftory of partly to the melancholy condition of the Scottifla records, but chiefly to the want of able antiquaries of that nation.
Manchefter. But, according to Dr Stuart 1, “ the two great divifions of landed pYoperVy, feudality and allodial poffeffion, were co-
1 Ohfcrv on eval with its monarchy. And they muft have fprung from the fame peculiarity of manners, and of fituation, which
the taw and had given them exiftence in other nations. It has been conceived, indeed, that Malcom II building upon fome fo-
eonflituiion reign model, introduced thefe cuftoms into Scotland; and the great body of the Scottilh hiftorians and lawyers have
of Scotland, fubferibed to this notion. It haslikewife been thought, that they were imported thither exprefsly from England; and
p. », 12. p0iiCy 0f Malcolm III. has been highly extolled as the effective caufe of their eftablifhment. But it feems to Dr
Stuart, that no reafons of any authority fupport thefe opinions.
“ They bear either exprefsly, or by implication, that thefeudal fyftem was introduced into Scotland,in confeqnence
of a principle of adoption or imitation. Now, the peculiarities of fiefs are fo ftrong, and fo contradictory to all t he
common maxims which govern men, that they could not pofiibly be carried, in any ftage of their progreflion, from
one people to another. To tranfplant the feudal ufages, when the grants of land were precarious, or at the will of
the prince, to a country where fuperiority and vaffalage had been unknown ; to alter the orders of men, from the fo-
vereign to the peafant; and to produce the correfponding chain of cuftoms, with refpeCt to legiflation, and the details
of the higher and the lower jurifdiCtion, muft have been an attempt infinitely wild, and altogether impracticable. To
tranfplant fiefs in their condition of perpetuity, muft have been a project, involving an equal, or rather a greater,
number of abfurdities.
“ But, while it is to be imagined, that fiefs could not be tranfported with fuccefs, in any period of their prouref-
fion, from one people to another; it is alfo obvious, that a nation fo cuitivated, as to have the knowledge and the
practice of them in any degree, could not be inclined to make a conqueft for the purpofe of a fettlement. The exif¬
tence of fiefs implies an eftablilhment and a fixed refidence; and hiftory has no notice of any tribe or people under
this defeription, who ever wandered from home to fight for a trad of country which they might inhabit.
“ Wherever feudality was to flourifh, it was to grow from the root. The tree could not be carried to a foreign
foil. Its native earth could alone preferve it in exiftence, and give the aliment that was to make it rife into height,
and {hoot into branches.
“ Scotland was a feudal kingdom; and we can point pretty exactly to the time when fiefs were hereditary there.
Feodal
Syftem.
1
The feodal
incidents.
Happinef*
of the feo¬
dal affocia-
F E O [ 2979 ] F E O
which the conquerors of Rome brought with them
from their woods continued to animate their pofterity,
the feudal affociation was noble in its principles, and
ufeful in its pra&ice. It was an exercife of bounty on
the part of the lord, of gratitude on that of the vaflal.
On the foithdation of their connection, and of that of
the land or fief which the former bellowed on the lat¬
ter, a train of incidents was to arife, the unequivocal
expreffions of friendlhip and habitude, the tender and
affectionate fruits of an intercourfe the molt devoted
and zealous^
While the grants of lands were precarious, or for
life, the fuperior chofe to educate, in his hall, the ex¬
pectants of his fiefs. And, when they defeended to
heirs, he was careful, on the death of his vaffal, to take
the charge of his fon and his eftate. He protected his
perfon, directed his education, and watched over his
concerns. He felt a pride in obferving his approaches to
manhood, and delivered to him, on his majority, the lands
of his anceftor, which he had been ttudioiis to improve.
Thefe cares were expreffed in the incident of •ward/hty.
The vaffal, on entering to his fief, confcious of gra¬
titude, and won with the attention of his lord, made
him a prefent. This acknowledgment, fo natural, and
fo commendable; produced the incident ol relief.
Grateful for the pall, and anxious for the future fa¬
vour of his chief, the vaffal did not incline to ally him-
felf with a family which was holtile to him. The chief
was ambitious to add to bis power and fplendor, by
confulting the advantageous alliance of his vaffal. They
joined in finding out the lady whofe charms and whofe
connections might accord with the paffions of the one
and the pohcy of the other. This attention gave efta-
blilhment to the incident of marriage.
When the fuperior was reduced to diftrefs and cap¬
tivity in the courfe of public or of private wars, when
he was in embarraffment from prodigality or wafte,
when he required an augmentation of means to fupport
his grandeur, or to advance his fcbemes and ambition,
the vaffal was forward to relieve and affift him by the
communication of his wealth. On this foundation there
grew the incident of aid.
When the vaffal gave way to violence or diforder, or
when by cowardice, treachery, or any (triking delin-
quence, he, rendered himfelf unworthy of his fief, the
facred ties which bound him to his lord were infringed.
It was neceffary to deprive him of his land, and give
it to a more honourable holder. This was the origin
of the incident of efcheat.
Amidil the contention of friendfliip and the mutua¬
lity of mind which informed the lord and his vaffal,
there was experienced a condition of aClivity, liberty,
and happinefs. The vaffals attended to the retainers
who were immediately below them. In their turn,
they were courted by the lords, whofe itrength they
conftituted. And the lords gave importance to the
fovereign. A fubordination was known, which was
regular, compaCl, and powerful. The conftituent parts
interefted in government as well as war, were atten- y fm‘
tive, in their feveral departments, to the purpofes of
order and juftice; and, in national operations, they
aCted with an uniformity which made them formidable.
Of this affociation public liberty was the refult. And,
while this fortunate ftate of things continued, the peo¬
ple, in every country of Europe, came in arms to their
national affembly, or appeared in it by their reprefen-
tatives.
Such, in a more particular manner, was the condi¬
tion of the Anglo-Saxon period of our hiftory ; and
the people, happy alike in their individual and politic
capacity, as men and as citizens, were to bear more re-
lu&antly the oppreffions of the Normans. 9
But the original manners which the conquerors of the h^declen-
Romans brought from their forefts, were to fpend their
force. The high fentiments which had refulted from IM. p. ?j.
the limited ideas of property, were to decay. The ge¬
nerous maxims of the feudal affociation, and the dif-
interefted wildnefsof chivalry -J-, were to fuffer with time, f See Ch\~
Property was unfolded in all its relations, and in all its
ufes. It became a difiindtion more powerful than me- *
rit, and was to alter the condition of fociety. By fe-
parating the interefts of the lord and the vaffal, it was
to dettroy for ever the principles of their affociation ;
and the incidents) which, in a better age, had foftered
their friendfhip, were to feed their rage, and to pro¬
long their animofity. As their confederacy had been
attended with advantages and glory, their difafteftion
was marked with debafement and fubjeftion. Out of
the fweets of love, a fatal bitternefs was engendered.
Sufferance was to fucceed to enjoyment; oppreflion to
freedom. Society and government were to be tumul- '
tuous and diforderly ; and difeafes and infirmities were
to threaten their decay. 10
In the prevalence of property and of mercenary The per-
views, the ’ward of the infant-vaffal, which the fupe- Terf10" of;
rior once confidered as a facred care and an honourable jents
trull, was to be regarded in no other light than as a
lucrative emolument. The acquifitions of the vaffal,
which, in their (late of agreement and cordiality, were
a ftrength to the lord, feemed now to detract from his
domains. He committed fpoil on the ellate which, of
old, it was his pride to improve. He negle&ed the
education of the heir. He gave repeated infults to his
perfon. The relations of the vaffal were often to buy
from the fuperior the cuftody of his perfon and his
lands. This right was more frequently to be let out
to exercife the rapacity of ftrangers. The treafury of
princes was to increafe with this traffic; and fubjefl-
fuperiors were to imitate, as well from neceffity as
from choice, the example of princes. The heir, on his
joylefs majority, received the lands of his anceftor;
and, while he furveyed, with a melancholy eye, his
cattles, which bore the marks of neglect, and his fields,
which were deformed with wafte, new grievances were
to
Now, in that form, they could not be imported by any of its princes; and, it is evident, that no conquering nation,
advanced to the praftice of fiefs in this degree, made a conqueft and eftablifhment in Scotland. In conl'equence,
therefore, of a natural progrefs, fiefs muft have grown to this condition of refinement. And, before fiefs were here¬
ditary, they were for a feries of years; before they were for a feries of years, they were for life; and, before they were
for fife, they had been precarious or at pleafure.
“ In every feudal country, the progrefs from the precarious grant, to the gift in perpetuity, was experienced. In
Scotland, the fame progrefs muft have been known; and the confideration of it carries us back to a remote antiquity.
For fiefs, in this kingdom, being hereditary about the days of Malcolm II. or Malcolm III. fome centuries muft have
palled away in the production of the previous fteps of feudality.”
F E O
Teodal
Syftem
[
to embitter his complaints, and to fwell his paffions.
   The relief, which originally was no more than a pre-
,, fent, at the pleafure of the vaflal, on his entering into
Opprtfled the fief, was confolidated into a right. An exprefiion
fituation of of gratitude was converted into a debt and a burden,
vaffals. Yhe fuperior, before he invefted the heir in his land,
made an exa&ion from him, in which he had no rule
but his. rapacity. His demand was exorbitant and
grievous. And, if the heir delayed too long to extin-
gui(h this fine of redemption, or was unable to pay it,
the fuperior continued his pofiefiion of the eftate. Ri¬
gours, fo humiliating, and fo frantic, produced cla-
2980 ] F E O
and he was to be aftive to enforce them. TrefpafTes
and trifles were to be fufficient grounds for the feifure
of lands, of which the pofleflbr was offenfive. The
vaffal held a p’ecarious and dangerous territory; and,
with a mind difpofed to be hottile to his chief, was to
obferve to him an attentive and pumftilious demeanour.
If he refufed too long to attend the court pf the fupe¬
rior, and to give his oath of fidelity; if he happened
to commit the flighteft infringement of his oath ; if he
forefaw any misfortune that was to befal his lord, and
negledted to inform him of it; if, by any aft, he was
to affeft the credit or the reputation of his fuperior;
Feodat
Syftem.
mour, difcontent, and outrage. Mitigations were to if he fhould chance to reveal any private circumftance
be applied to them, and to prove ineffeftual. Laws  . —
were to be made again ft them, and to be difregarded.
The marriage of the vaflal, which could not-be abu-
fed while their aflbciation was firm and their intereft
mutual, became a moft ruinous perquifite, when their
aflbciation was broken, and their intereft difcordant.
The fuperior could give his. vaflal in marriage to whom
he pleafed. This right he exerted as a property. It
might be purchafed from him by the vaflal himfelf, or
by a ftranger. The marriage of the vaflal, without the
confent of the fuperior, involved the forfeiture of the
eftate, or was punifhed with oppreflive penalties. It
was a rule, indeed, refulting out of their former habi¬
tudes, that the heir Ihould not be married to his dif-
paragement. But this rule was overlooked amidft the
violence of the times. The fuperior had no check but
from his humanity, the vaflal no relief but in remon-
flrance.
This right, fo mortifying to the male heir, was a
ftretch of ftill wilder oppreflion, and more ferocious .
cruelty, when exercifed on xhffemale ’ward. Her hand
might be tendered at the will of the fuperiqr. He
might pay no attention to her affeftions. She was to
fubmit, at his mandate, to indecent embraces, unfanc-
tioned with love. Her beauty was to lofe Its fweeis,
and her heart its enjoyments, to feed his avarice, and
to gratify his whim. Her relations were often to buy
from him a privilege fo frightful ; and the unfeeling
tyrant was to paint the horrors of its exertion, to ex¬
tort his demand.
The aid which, in happier times, the vaflal beftowed
out of benevolence to relieve the diftrefs and to aflift
the grandeur of his lord, became a burden and a tax in
the mifery of their difaffeftion. It was arrogated as a
duty and a tax. The lord called for an aid or contri¬
bution, when his eldeft daughter was married, when
concerning him; if he ftiould grant an infeudation in
any other form than that in which he held his own; if
he ftiould make love to the wife or the daughter of his
lord, or fhould carefs his After, while yet a virgin and
unmarried; thefe, and reafons ftill more abfurd, were
to forfeit the eftate to the fuperior, and to involve the
ruin of the vaflal and that of his family. tt
But though the cordiality of the lord and the vaflal Consequent
was decayed, the grant of land from the former to the degeneracy
latter continued its obligations. The vaflal was held ^
by a tie, which he could not renounce without forfa-
king his importance. His property and fubfiftence
fattened him to an enemy. His pafiions and his duties
were at variance. He might hate the perfon of his
lord, but he was to bow to him as his fuperior. The
grant of land he enjoyed, bound him to the perfor¬
mance of military fervice. With a cold heart, he was
to buckle himfelf in his armour; and, with reluftant
fteps, he was to follow the march of his chief. Of old,
it had been his fondeft attention to carry all his ftrength
againft an enemy, that he might difplay hisbwngreat-
nefs, and add to the magnificence of his fuperior. He
now furnilhed unwillingly the leaft affiftance in his
power. The fervour of his former conduft was never
more to advance the meafures of ambition. And, in
this ftate of things, the feudal militia was to obftruft
and retard, rather than to forward, the operations of
princes.
In the heart of a populous kingdom, and furrounded
with fubjefts accuftomed to arms, the feudal fovereign
was thus to feel an unnatural weaknefs. A malady,
fo formidable, could not but produce an anxiety for its
cure. And, 'what is no lefs certain than peculiar, in
the different countries of Europe the fame remedy was
applied to it.
Fiefs, or the grants of land under military fervice.
his eldeft fon was made a knight, and when, having had advanced from being annual to be for life; and,
been taken in war, bis own perfon was to be ranfomed.
Thefe were efteemed the legal occafions when exac¬
tions could be made. But cuftom and praftice autho-
rifed the requifition of aids on pretences the moft fri¬
volous. When the crown or the lord was difpofed to
from being donations for life, they were to proceed to
be hereditary. It was before the eftablifhment of this
ultimate point in their progreflion, that the happinefs
of the feudal affociation was difturbed. And, it was
the eftablifliment of this point which was to afford the
be oppreflive, they could find a reafon for an aid; and opportunity to princes of recovering, in feme degree,
   _ «   a. *         _ rp Cl ...   a. I- ~ ri afn li ,1a 4- V, a ,-^-1 1 ol 1 frvr f- mro /To 1 lITtl G
their greatnefs. While the cordiality of the vaffal was Expedient
maintained, a general obligation of military fervice was for its reco-
fufficient to induce him to marflial all his force in the very‘
wants, not his own, were to affeft every moment the
fubftance of the vaffal.
While their confederacy was maintained, it was not
on any flight foundation that the fief could be taken field. When this cordiality was deftroyed, policy w
from the vaffal. Cowardice, dilhonour, treachery, or to extort what his generofity and attachment had con-
treafon, were then the caufes of efcheat. The lord was ferred. Lands were to be burdened with a full and
not to be fo offended with leffer delinquencies, as to take exaft proportion of foldiers. The giving them out in
poffeffion of the eftate. In the times, however, of their perpetuity was the feafon for annexing this burden.
difagreement, the caufes of forfeiture were to multiply,
An expedient, natural, and not to be oppofed, fug-
gefted
F E O [ 2981 ] F E O
FeotUl gefted itfclf. The tenure of knight-fervice was in- effect. But, palliatives, feeble or forced, were not to Feodai
Syt en1' vented. controul the fpirit of the fyltem and the times. Fiefs, syfleni'
>4 A portion of land, of which the grant, by the agree* while they foftained, in the tenure of knight-fervice,
of knTohT nieilt t^le S’ver an<^ l^e tcceiver, entitled to the fer- the grandeur of tlie European Hates, were wafting with
ftfvicc. v,ce °fa foldier or a knight, was a inight’s fee. An internal debilities. And the eye, in furveying their
eftate, of 200 fees, furnilhed, of confequence, 200 ftrength and magnificence, can trace the marks of an
knights. Manours, baronies, and earldoms, were thus approaching weaknefs and decline. ij
powerful, in proportion to their extenfivenefs. The Thus, in the hiftory of the feudal inftitutions, there Twoserasin
grants from the fovereign to the nobles claimed the are two remarkable periods ; the epoch which pre- the^hiftory
fervice of fo many knights.; and the fub-infeudations ceded the invention of knight-fervice (d), and the ° 6 S‘
of the nobles enabled them to perform this fervice. The epoch during which it prevailed.
tenants of the crown who were not noble, had alfo their From the conquefts of the barbarians till the ninth
fees, andfurnifhedproportionally their knights. Grants century, fiefs were in their ftate of flu&uation. It was
in capite, or from the fovereign, and the fub-infeuda- about the year 877 that the perpetuity of the fief was
tions of vaffals, called out the force of the kingdom, eftablifhed in France; and it was known in every couu-
The prince, the nobility, and the people, were in the try of Europe, in the commencement of the tenth,
capacities of a general, officers, and foldiers. A call The tenure of knight-fervice foon followed the perv
to arms put the nation into motion. An army, nume- petuity of the fief, and was conne&ed with it. There
rous and powerful, could be affembled w'ith expedition, is an inftance of a knight-fee in the 880 *. In the *
exad in its arrangements, and in a ftate for defence and reign of Hugh Capet, who was raifed to the throne ^°ce
boftility. in the year 987, this tenure extended itfelf over
Such, Dr Stuart conceives, was the origin and na- France; and after having appeared in other nations,
ture of ^n\GHT-fervice: A tenure which came to re- it was introduced into England (e). But, in this laft
cover the feudal militia at a time when it was periihin£ country, there are peculiarities, concerning the begin-
in weaknefs. But though it bound more clofely, in nings and the progrefs of fiefs, which have been the fub<- ,5
the conne&ion of land, the fnperior and the vaftal, by je& of much inquiry and conje&ure. Many learned wri- Doubts
the fixednefs of the fervice it enjoined, it could not ters are pofitive that the Anglo-Saxons were ftrangers concerning
bring back their ancient cordiality. It gave a ftrength to fiefs, which they aflert were introduced into Eug-
and coufiftency to the military department of the feu- land by William duke of Normandy. There are wri- the feodal
dal inftitutions; but it removed none of their civil in- ters not lefs learned who affirm, that fiefs were not laws into
conveniencies and burdens. Thefe, on the contrary, introduced into England by the duke of Normandy, England,
were to increafe during its prevalence. It was to but prevailed among the Anglo-Saxons in the condi- &c*
brace, only, with a temporary vigour, a fyftem which tion in which they were known under William. Dr
no prudence or art could accommodate to refining Stuart f obferves, that it cannot be true, that the t v‘ew °f
manners. Saxons who fettled in England fhould be ftrangers to Soc'et!i»
The incidents, which had grown with the progrefs fiefs. The hereditary grant of land, as well as the I>'
of fiefs, ftill continued their operation. Every grant grant in its preceding fluduations, was known to our
by the tenure of knight-fervice, was attended with ho- Saxon anceftors. Of this, the conformity of maimers
mage and fealty, and was expofed to wardfhip and re- which muft neceflarily have prevailed between the
lief, to marriage, aid, and efeheat. The fuperior had Saxons and all the other tribes of the barbarians, is
ftill his pretenfions and his claims; the vaffal was ftill a moft powerful and a fatisfa&ory argument. Nor is
to fufter and to complain. Promifes of the relaxation it Angle and unfupporled. Hiftory and law come in
of the feudal perquiiites, were to be made by princes, aid to a> alogy ; and thefe things are proved by the
and to be forgotten. Legal folemnities of reftraint fpirit and text of the Anglo-Saxon laws, and by adual
were to be held out, and, occafionally, to produce their grants of hereditary eftates under military fervice ( f).
Vol. IV. 16 F But
(p) For the difference between the knights produced by this fervice and the more ancient knights or knights of
honour, fee the word Knight.
(e) Knight-fervice was eftabliftied in Scotland before the time of Malcolm IV. anno 1153. Records fof his reign
inftnnft its exiftence, and do not mention it as a novelty. It even appears probable that this tenure was known in
the times ot David I. See Dr Stuart’s Obferv. on the Lain and Conjiit. Htji. of Scotland, p. 16. and 156—160.
(f) The ufe of entails, which was not unknown in the Anglo-Saxon times, and the fucceffioft which obtained in
allodial eftates, muft have contributed very much to the eftablilhment of the perpetuity of the fief; LL. JElfredi, ap.
Wilkins. The general tendency of the fief to this ultimate ftep, and the immenfe power of many of the Anglo-
Saxon nobles, feem alfo to confirm the idea, that the exiftence of its perpetuity might, in fome cafes, be known in
the Anglo-Saxon times. But prefumptive arguments, though of great weight, are not to be entirely relied upon in
queftions of this fort.
There is atftual evidence that Ethelred poffeffed, as an hereditary fief and earldom, the territory which had
conftituted the kingdom of Mercland. He had this grant from king Alfred, when he married his daughter Ethelfleda ;
Selden, Tit. Hon. part a. ch. 5. It is teftified out of records, that the earldom of Leicefter was an inheritancein the
days of F.thelbald ; and the regular fucceffion of its earls, for a long period, is to be pointed out: Camden's Bri¬
tannia, by Gibfon, vol. I. p. 542. It is known from old hiftorians of credit, that Deireland and Bernicia were Saxon
earldoms, which were not only feudal, but inheritable ; Tit. Hon. part 2. ch. j.
The grant of Cumberland by king Edmund to Malcom king of Scotland, was alfo feudal and inheritable ; and
this appears from the Saxon Chronicle, and from the following verfion of the terms employed in it. “ Eadmundus
Rex totam Cumberland praedavit et contrivit, et commendavit earn Malcolmo Regi Scotiae, hoc pa£to quod in auxi-
lio fibi foret terra et mari. H. Huntindon, ap. Prxfat. Efifc. Derrenf. ad LL. Anglo-Sax. p. 7. The expreffion
cm-
Feortal
Syflem.
Diftin£Hon
concerning
fiefs in the
Anglo-
Saxon and
the Anglo-
Norman
F E O [ 29S2 ] F E O
But although fiefs prevailed in the Anglo-Saxon man 10 the crown of the Confefibr. The fituation of
times, yet their condition was different then, from the Anglo-Saxons in an illand, and the Danifh inva-
what it afterwards became. Under the Anglo-Saxon lions, had obtlrudted their refinement. In the memo-
princes, no mention is made of thofe feudal feverities Fable year 1066, when they loft king Edward, and
which fhook the throne under William and bis fuc- acquired duke William, they knew the perpetuity of
ceffors. The varying fpirit of the feudal affociation, the fief; but they were altogether Itrangers to knight-
which Dr Stuart has been careful to remark, accounts lervice and a knight’s fee. ihe duchy of Normandy,
for this difference. When the connexion between when granted to Rollo by Charles the Simple, in the
the fuperior and vaffal was warm and generous, the year 912, had yet experienced all the viciffitudes of
feudal incidents were a£ts of cordiality and affe£fion. ^s. And William, being the iixth prince in the
When the. introdmftion of luxury, and an acquaintance duchy, was familiar with the molt extended ideas of
with the ufe of riches, had given birth to thofe in- t^e feudal fyftem. Theie he brought with him into
terefted paffions which fet the fuperior and vaffal at England, and they were to govern and direA his con-
variance, the, fame incidents became a£ls of opprefiion dutt.
and feverity. This was more remarkably the cafe ^ followers of Harold having forfeited their e-
under William and his immediate fuccefibrs; and un- ftates, they reverted to the crown. An immenfe num-
till the time of king John, the people of'England com- her lordfhips and manors being thus in the dilpolal
plained loudly of the feudal feverities, and to their of William, he naturally gave them out after the forms
complaints always joined the requeft, that the laws of Normandy. Each grant, whether to a baron or a
Edward the Confelfor fhould be rcitored. “ What thefe gentleman, was computed at fo many fees ; and each
laws of Edward the Confefibr were (fays Mr Hume), !ee gave the fervice of a knight. To the old benefi-
which the Englilh, every reign, duringa centuryand a ciary tenants, he was to renew their grants under this
half, defired f'o paffionately to have reftored, is much tenure. By degrees, all the military lands of the king-
difputed by antiquarians; and our ignorance of them dom were to iubmit to it. And with a view, doubt-
feems one of the greateft defefts of the ancient Englilh lefs> 10 this extenfion, the book of Domesday was un-
hiftory.” The train of thinking into which Dr Stuart •f' dertaken, which was to contain an exaA ftate of all
Feudal
Syftem.
Introduc¬
tion of
knight-fer-
■' has been led, points to an explanation of this myftery.
By the laws or cuftoms of the Confeflbr, that condi¬
tion of'felicity was expreffed, which had been enjoyed
during the fortunate ftate of the feudal affociation.
The cordiality, equality, and independence-, which
then prevailed among all ranks in fociety, continued
the landed property in the kingdom. Inftead, there¬
fore, of bringing fiefs into England, this prince was
only to introduce the laft fttp of their progrefs, the
invention of the knight’s fee, or the tenure of knight-
fervice.
In fa&, it is to be feen by his laws, that he intro-
to be remembered in lefs profperous times, and occa- duced knight-fervicet and not fiefs. Nor let it be fan-
fioned an ardent defire for the revival of thofe laws cied, that this improvement was made by his fingle
and ufages which had been the fources of fo much hap- authority and the power of the fword. His laws not
pinefs (g). only exprefs its enadtment in his reign, but mention
But, while the times of duke William and his fuc- 11 was fan&ioned with the confcnt of the common-
ceffors were diferiminated from thofe of the Confeffor council of the nation. It was an a& of parliament,
and the Anglo-Saxon princes, by the different ftates and not the will of a defpot, that gave it validity and
they difplayed of the feudal affociation, there is ano- eftablilhment (h).
ther circumftance in the progrefs of fiefs, by which The meafure, it is to be conceived, was even highly
they were to be diftinguilhed more obvioufly. acceptable to all orders of men. For, a few only of
Knight-fervice, which, in France, and in the other the benefices of the Anglo-Saxon princes being in
kingdoms of Europe, was introduced in the gentle gra- perpetuity, the greateft proportion oi the beneficiary
dation of manners, was about to bedifeovered in Eng- or feud'al tenants mult have enjoyed their lands during
land, after the fame manner, when the battle of Haft- life, or to a feries of heirs. Now, the advancement of
ings facilitated the advancement of William the Nor- fuch grants into hereditary fiefs, under knight-fervice,
was
commendare, indeed, is faid by Spelman not to mean a feudal homage; {Feuds and Tenures, p. 35.) But the original
Saxon evinces this fenfe ; and in fa<5t the word commendare, notwithftanding the authority of this learned gloffogr:--
pher, is ufed with the utmoft propriety to exprefs a feudal homage. Commendare fe aticui, was even the marked
exprefiion {or faire /’ homwage a un fuferain. See Du Cange, \oc. Commendare et BruJJel, Ufage general des fiefs,
P- 35, »76.
(g) There are laws which bear the name of Edward ; hut it is acknowledged on every h.and, that their authority
is not to be fully trufted. And in the queftion treated, they «are not of any ufe; unlefs it be, perhaps, that they il-
luftrate the exifter.ee of fiefs among the Anglo-Saxons. This compilation, however, though pofterior to the age of
the Confeflbr, deferves to be examined with more attention than has hitherto been beftowed upon it. M. Honard*
a foreign lawyer, whofe acquaintance with the Norman cuftoms is more intimate than with thofe of the Anglo-Sax¬
ons, is the lateft writer who feems to have made a ftudy of it.
(h) The following very curious law of William the Norman makes exprefs mention of the knight's fee and knight-
fervice. It does more, It alludes to a prior law which actually eftablilhed this temjre, and which was the adt of
William and his parliament. It is, of confequence, a decifive proof of the introdu&ion of the knight's fee, or of
knight-fervice, by this prince, and of this only. “ Statuimus etiam et firmiter prcecipimus, ut omnes comites, et
“ barones, et milites, et fervientes, et univerfi liberi homines totius regni noftri prsedidti, habeant et teneant fe fern-
“ per bene in armis, et in equis, ut decet et oportet, et quod lint femper prompti et bene parati ad fervitiumfuum
“ integrum nobis explencjum, et peragendum, cum femper opus adfuerit, fecundum quod nobis debent de feodis.
tenementis fuis de jure facere, et ficut illis ftatuimus per commune con ft Hum totius regni noftri prffididti, et
“ dedimus et conceffimus in feodo jure htereditario,” LL. Guill. c. 38.
F E O [ 2983 ] F E R
Feoihl was an important advantage and acquifition. While
Syftem. 0perate(j to the convenience and the grandeur dfthe
~ ’ fovereign, it bettered the property, and fecured the
10 independence, of the fubjeft.
Idea of the When the feudal afibciation was cordial, there exifted
food a! mi-l no neceflity for the knight’s fee. The vafials of a chief
htia. gave p]eafure their affiftance. When the aflbcia-
tion was dilcordant, different interefts aftuating the fu-
Ibld. p. tor, perior and the vaffal, art and policy -were to prefcribe
*rc’ the exadt fervice to be performed. Nothing was to be
left to friendfhip and cordiality. A rule, certain and
definite, pointed out the duties of the vaffal. This rule
was the tenure of knight-fervice.
A duchy, barony, or earldom, were the eftates pof-
fefied by the nobles; and, being divided into fees,
each of thefe was to fupply its knight. A tenant of
the crown, who was not created into nobility, but en¬
joyed a grant of land, furnifhed alfo his knights in pro¬
portion to his fees. The nobles and the gentry of a
feudal kingdom were thus its defenders and guardians.
And they granted out territory to pexfons inferior to
them in the divifions of fees, and under the burden of
knights. In proportion, therefore, to the extent of
its lands, there was, in every feudal date, an army, or
a body of militia, for its fupport and protection.
But while a force, numerous and fufficient, was in
this manner created, a care was alfo beftowed to hold
it in readinefs to take the field. The knights, who
were to appear in proportion to the fees of each eftate,
were bound to affemble at a call, in complete armour,
and in a date for a&ion. The feudal militia, of con-
fequence, could be marched,, with expedition, to de¬
fend the rights of its nation, to fupport its honour, or
to fpread its renown.
The ufual arms of a knight were the fhield and hel¬
met, the coat of mail, the fword, or the lance. It
was, alfo, his duty to have a horfe. For, agrowing
luxury, and the pafiion for fhow, encouraged by tour¬
naments, had brought difcredit to the infantry, which
had didinguilhed the barbarians in their originals feats,
and facilitated their vi&ories over the Romans. The
horfemen were called the battle, and the fuccefs of eve¬
ry engagement was fuppofed to depend upon them.
No proprietor of a fee, no tenant by knight-fervice,
fought on foot. The infantry confided of men, fur-
nilhed by the villages and the towns in the demefnes of
the prince or the nobles. The bow and the fling were
the arms of thefe; and tho’, at fird, of little confide-
ration, they were to grow more formidable.
During the warmth of the feodal affociation, the mi¬
litary fervice of the vaffal was every moment in the
command of the fuperior. When their afibciation was
decayed, it was not to be depended on; and, when af¬
forded, was without zeal, and without advantage. The
invention of knight-fervice, which was to recover, in
fome’ degree, the vigour of this connexion, while it
afcertained the exaft duty to be rendered, was to fix its
duration. Each pofleflbr of a fee was, at his own ex¬
pence, to keep himfelf in the field during 40 days.
To this obligation, the great vafials of the crown were
bound, and inferior proprietors were to fubmit to it.
When a Angle battle was commonly to decide the fate
and the difputes of nations, this portion of time was
confiderable and important. And, if any expediency
demanded a longer duty, the prince might retain his
troops, but under the condition
their extraordinary fervice.
Such was the military fyftem,
period of time, was to uphold the power of the mo¬
narchies of Europe ; a fyftem, of which it was the ad¬
mirable confequence, that thofe who were the proprie¬
tors of the land of a kingdom, were to defend it.
They were the moft interefted in its welfare and tran¬
quillity ; and, while they were naturally difpofed to
aft with union and firmnefs againft a foreign enemy,
they were induced not lefs ftrongly to guard againft
domeftic tyranny. Their intereft and happinefs, their
pleafure and convenience, urged them equally to op-
pofe invafions from abroad, inteftine commotions, and
the ftretches of prerogative. A ftrength, fo natural,
and which could never be exhaufted ; a ftrength, in
which the prince was to have lefs authority than the
nobles, and in which the power of both was checked
by the numerous clafs of inferior proprietors; a ftrength,
which had direftly in view the prefervation of civil li¬
berty, feems, on a flight obfervation, the perfeftion of
military difcipline.
But, notwithftanding this advantage, the feudal mi- [ts ;ne({;ca-
litia was found incompatible with refining manners. Itcy and cor-
had been ufual, from the earlieft times, for the fupe- ruption.
rior to levy a fine from the military tenant, who refu-
fed to take the field at his fummons. As luxury en-
creafed, men became lefs willing to join the army.
Hence the commutation of fervice for money, and the
introduftion of the tenure oi efcuage, which, inftead of
exafting the perfonal attendance of the knight, only
obliged him to pay an annual fum to his fuperior *. * See the
As the king was lord paramount of the whole kingdom,
the money thus collefted ultimately centered in him ; ces of this,
and princes, inftead of recruiting their armies, filled under the
their exchequers. In order to defend their dominions, art>cle
they hired mercenaries, compofed of the dregs of
people. Thefe were dilbanded at the end of every
campaign ; and the difturbances which fuch numbers of
idle banditti occafioned all over Europe, (hewed the
neceflity of Handing armies. The ufe of mercenaries Rife of
gave birth to taxations, which began to be levied ir,;dan<lingar*
every kingdom of Europe at the. will of the prince. m‘cs’ e'
This produced contentions between fovereigns and their
fubjefts. In moft countries of Europe the kings ac¬
quired the right of taxation, which, united to the
command of the military force, forms the completion
of defpotifm. In England, the prerogative of taxa¬
tion, which the prince had aflumed, was wrefted from
him by the great charter of liberties. He was to
command his mercenaries; but he was to depend, for
their fupport and their pay, on the generofity of his
people.
FEOFFMENT, in law, is a gift or grant of
any manors, meffuages, lands, or tenements, to an¬
other in fee ; that is, to him and his heirs for ever,
by delivery of feifin, and poflefiion of the eftate grant¬
ed. See Fee.
FERiE, in zoology, an order of quadrupeds. See
Zoology.
FERALIA, in antiquity, a feftival obferved among
the Romans on February 21ft, or, according to Ovid,
on the 17th of that month, in honour of the manes of
their deceafed friends and relations. During the cere¬
mony, which confifted in making prefents at theic
17 F 2 graves,
of giving them pay for Feodat
i which, during a long  L.
F E R [ 2984 ] F E R
Fcr graves, marriages were forbidden, and the temples of
!! the divinities fhut up ; becaufe they fancied, that, du-
ergu on, this fefttval, the ghofts fuffered no pains in hell,
but were permitted to wander about their graves, and
feaft upon the meats prepared for them.
FER de fou-rchette, in heraldry, a crofs having
at each end a forked iron, like that formerly ufed by
foldiers to rett their mufkets on. It differs from the
crofs-fourche, the ends of which turn forked, whereas
*SeeHaal- this has that fort of fork fixed upon the fquare end *.
Fer deMulin, Milrinde, Inks de Moulin, in heraldry,
is a bearing fuppofed to reprefent the iron-ink, or ink
of a mill, which fuftains the moving mill-itone.
FERDINAND V. king of Spain, called the Catho¬
lic, which title was continued to his fucceffors. He
married Ifabella of Caftile, by which that kingdom
was united to the Spanifh crown. This illuitrious
couple, laid the foundation of the future glory and
power of Spain. The conqueft of Granada, and the
difcoveries of Chriftopher Columbus, make this reign
a celebrated sera in the hiitory of Spain. He died in
1516, aged 63. See (HiJIory ok) Spain.
FERENTARII, in Roman antiquity, were auxi¬
liary. troops, lightly armed; their weapons being a
fword, bow, arrows, and a fling.
FERENTINUM, (anc. geog.), a town of the
Hernici in Latiunv, which the Romans, after fubduing
that nation, allowed to be governed by its own laws.
Now Feretino, an epifcopal city in the Campania of
Rome. E. Long. 14. 5. N. Lat. 41. 45.
FERENTUM, or Forentum, (anc. geog.), a
town of Apulia in Italy. Now Forenza, in the Baiili-
cata of Naples.
FERETRUM, among the Romans, the bier ufed
in carrying out the bodies of the dead, which duty
was performed by the neareft male relations of the
deeeafed : thus, fons carried out their parents, bro¬
thers their fillers, &c.
FERGUS, the name of three kings of Scotland.
See (Hiftory of) Scotland.
FERGUSON, (James), an eminent experimental
philofopher and mechanic, was born in Scotland, of
very poor parents. At the earlieft age his extraordi¬
nary genius began to exert itfelf. He find learned to
read, by overhearing his father teach his elder brother:
and he had made this acquifition before any one fufpec-
ted it. He foon difeovered a peculiar tafte for mecha¬
nics, which firil arofe on feeing his father ufe a lever.
He pur hied this ftudy a confiderable length, even whilil
very young; and made a watch in wood-work, from
having once feen one. As he had no inftrn&or, nor
any help from books, every, thing he learned had all
the merit of an original difeovery ; and fuch, with in¬
finite joy, he believed it to be. As foon as bis age
would permit, he went to fervice ; in which he met with
hardlhips, which rendered his eonllifution feeble thro’
life. Whilft he was fervant to a farmer, ('whofe good-
nefs he acknowledges in the modeft and humble ac¬
count of himfelf which he prefixed to his laft publica¬
tion), he frequently contemplated the liars; and began
the tuidy ot aftronomy, by laying down, from his
own o! serrations only, a celeftial globe. His kind ma¬
iler, obferving^thefe marks of his ingenuity, procured
him the countenalnce and affiltance of bis fnperiors. By
their help and icftruflions, he wen® on- gaining farther
knowledge, and was fent to Edinburgh. There he Feriar,
began to take portraits; an employment by which he Feria.
fupported himfelf.aud family for feveral- yeai-s, both in
Scotland and England, whilft he was purfuing more
ferious iludies. In London he firll publifhed fbme cu¬
rious aftronomical tables and calculations; and after¬
wards gave public lectures in experimental philofophy,
which he repeated (by fubfeription) in moll of the
principal towns in England, with the higheft marks of
general approbation. He was ekdled a Fellow of the
Royal Society, without paying for admiffion (an ho¬
nour fcarcely ever conferred on a native); and had a
penfion of 50 1. per ann. given him, vmfolkited, by
our gracious king, at his acceffion, who had heard
lectures from him, and frequently fent for and conver-
fed with him on curious topics. He alfo received fe¬
veral prefents from his majefty, the patron of real me¬
rit. To what a degree of costfideration Mr Fergufon
mounted by the ftrength of his natural genius, almoft
every one knows. He was univerfally conftdered as at
the head of allronomy and mechanics in this nation of
philofophers. And he might jnftly be ftyled felf-
taught, or rather heaven-taught; for in his whole life
he had not above half a-year’s iwftru&ion at fchool.
He was a man of the cleared judgment, and the moil
unwearied application to ftudy ; benevolent, meek, and
innocent in his manners as a child : humble, courteous,
and communicative ; inftead of pedantry, philofophy
feemed to produce in him only diffidence and urbanity,
— a love for mankind and for his Maker. His whole
life was an example of refignation and Chriftian piety.
He might be faid to be an enthufiaft in his love of God,
if religion, founded on foch fubftantial and enlighten¬
ed grounds as his was, could be ftyled enthufiafni. He
died in 1776.
FERINE, in Roman antiquity, holidays, or days
upon which they abftained from work.
The Romans had two kinds of feriae: r. the pub¬
lic, common to all the people in general ; 2. The
private, which were only kept by fome private fami¬
lies.
The public ferise were fourfold : 1. Stativa feriit,
holidays which always fell out upon the fame day of
the month, and were marked in. the calendar ; of thefe
the chief were the agonalia, cavrnentalia, and luperca-
lia. 2. Comparitiva feme, holidays appointed every
year upon certain or uncertain days by the magiftrates
or the pontiff; fuch were the latinte, paganalin, com-
pitalia, &c. 3. Imperatives fer ice, holidays command¬
ed or appointed by the authority of the Confuls or prae¬
tors; of this kind we may reckon the letfcifternimn.
4. Nundines, the days for fairs. See Nundinj®, drc.
Feriae Latince, were inftitwted by Tarquinius Su-
perbus; who, having overcome the Tufcans, made a
league with the Latins, and propofed to them to build
a temple in common to Jupiter Latialis, in which
both nations might meet, and offer facrifke for their
common fafety. At this feftrval a white bull was fa-
crifked; and each town, both of the Latins and Ro¬
mans, provided a certain q-uantky of meat, wine, and
fruits. At firft the folemhity continued but one day ;
after the expnlfion of the kings, the fenate added a
third, a fourth, and fo on to ten days.
FERIA, in the Ronvifti breviary, is applied to the
feveral days of the week; thus Monday is the feria fe-
cunda.
F E R
[ 29ss ]
F E R
Fermanagh ctinrla, Tuefday the feria tertla; though thefe days not fo eafily fail into without previoufly undergoing Fermenta-
" are not working days, but holidays. The occafion of the fiilt and fecond. The produce of the firft flage is tion>
this was, that the firft Chriftians were ufed to keep
— the eafter-week holy, calling Sunday the priina feria,
&c. whence the term feria was given; to the days of
every week. But befides thefe, they have extraordi¬
nary ferke, viz. the three laft days of paffion-week,
the two following eafter-day, and the fecond ferise of
rogation.
FERMANAGH, a county of Ireland, in the pro¬
vince of Ulfter; bounded by Cavan on the fouth, Tir-
Oen on the north and nortb-eaft, by Tyrconnel on
the .north-weft, Leitrim on the fouth-weft, and Mo¬
naghan on the eaft. It is 38 miles long and 24 broad.
A great part of it is taken up with bogs, and the great
lake called Lough-Earne, which is near 20 miles in
length, and in fome places *4 in breadth, diverfified
with upwards of 300 iftands, moft of them well wood¬
ed, inhabited, and covered with cattle. It abounds
alfo with great variety of filh, fuch as hnge-pike, large
bream, roach, eels, trout, and falmon. The water of
the lake in fome places is faid to have a particular foft-
nefs and fliminefs, that bleaches linen much fanner
than could be done by other water. The lake is divided
into the Upper and Lower, between which it contradfs
itfelf for five or fix miles to the breadth of an ordinary
river. In one part of the county are marble rocks 50
or 60 feet high. This county fends four members to
parliament, viz. two for the Ihire, and two for Inniikil-
kn the capital. Fermanagh gives the title of vifcount
to earl Verney.
FERMENT, ffubji.) any body which, being ap¬
plied to another, produces fermentation.
Ferments are either matters already in the a& offer-
mentation, or that foon run into this ad. Of the firft
kind are the flowers of wine, yeaft, fermenting beer,
or fermenting wine, &e. and of the feepridare the new
expreffed vegetable juices "of fummer-fruit.
Among dill filers, ferments are all thofe bodies
which, when added to the liquor, only-correct fome
fault therein, and, by removing fome obftacle to fer¬
mentation, forward it by fecondary means s as alfo-
fuch as, being added in time of fermentation, make the
liquor yield a larger proportion of fpirit, and give it
a fisrer flavour.
FERMENTATION, may be defined a fenfible in¬
ternal motion.of: the Cbrtftituent particles of a moift,
fluid, mixed. Or compoimd body : by the continuance
of which motion; thefe particles are gradually removed
from their former fituation or combination, and again,
after fome vilible firparafkin-' is made, joined together
in a different order and arrangement, fo that a newi
compound is formed, having, qualities very knfibly dif¬
ferent from thofe of the original fluid.
Fermentation, properly fo Called, is confined to>
the vegetable and animal kingdoms ; for the eflervef-
Oences between atfds and alkalies, however much they
may refemble the fermentation of vinous liquors, are
neverthelefs exceedingly different. It is divided into
three kinds; or rather, there are three different flages
of it, viz. the vinous, the acetous, and the putrefac¬
tive. Of the firft, vegetables alone are fufceptible; the
fleffi of young animals is in feme flight degree fofeep-
tible of the feeond : but animal-fubiiances are parti¬
cularly fofceptibk of the third, which veg-etabV * Ho-
fome other vinous liquor; of the fecond, vi- _
negar; and of the third, volatile alkali. See Brew¬
ing, Vinegar, &c;
Fermentation is one of the moft obfeure proceffes
in nature, and no attempt has been made to folve
it with any degree of probability. All that we
know with regard to it is, that the liquor, however
clear and tranfparent at firft, no fooner begins to fer¬
ment, than it becomes turbid, depofits a fediment,
emits a great quantity of fixed air, and throws up a
feum to the top, acquiring at the fame time fome de¬
gree of heat. The heat of the vinous ftage, however,
is but moderate, feldom or never exceeding that of the
human body. The heat of the acetous is confiderably
greater; and that of the putrefa&ive is the greateft of
all, infomuch that putrefying fubftances, when heaped
together in great quantities, will fometimes break forth
into aftual flame.
From thefe phenomena, fermentation would feem
to be a procefs ultimately tending to the entire dif-
folution of the fermenting fubftance, and depending
upon the action of the internal heat, etherial fluid, or
whatever elfe we pleafe to call it, which pervades, and
makes an effentiai ingredient in, the compofition of all
bodies. From fuch experiments as have been made up¬
on this fubje<ft, it appears, that whether fixed air is the
bond of connexion between the particles of terreftrial
bodies or not, yet the emiffion of it from any fubftance
is always attended with adilfolution of that fubftarce.
We cannot, however, in the prefent cafe, fay that the
emiffion of the fixed air is the caufe of the fermenta¬
tion. It is in faft otherwife. Fixed air hath no ten¬
dency to fly off from terreftrial fubftances with which,
it is united'; on the contrary, it will very readily leave
the atmofphere, after it hath been united with it, to
join itfelf to fuch terrefti ial fubftances as are capable of
abforbing it. The emiffion of it, therefore, muft de¬
pend upon the aftiou of fome other fluid ; moft pro¬
bably the fire or heat, which is difperfed thro’ all fub-
ftances in a latent ftate, and in the prefent cafe be¬
gins fenfibly to manifeft itfelf. But from what caufe
the heat originally begins to operate in this manner,
feems to be entirely unknown and inexplicable, except
that it appears fome bow or other to depend on the air;
for, if that ii totally excluded, fermentation will not
go on.
FERN, riuix, in botany. See Filices.
Fern is very common in dry and barren places. It
is one of the worft weeds for lands, and very hard ta
deftroy where it has any thing of a deep foil to root in.
In fome grounds, the roots of it are found to the depth
of eight feet. One of the moft efteiftual ways to de-
ftfoy it is, often- mowing the grafs; and, if the field is
ploughed up, plentiful dunging thereof is very good:
but the moft certain remedy for it is urine. However,
fern, eut while the fapis in it, and left to rot upon the
ground, is a very great improver of land.
In fome places of the north, the inhabitants mow it
green ; and, burning it to afhes, make thofe afhes up
into balls with a little water. They then dry them in
the fun, and make ufe of them to clean their linen with;
looking upon it to be near as good as foap for that
-T‘ ' ~ ■ that the frequent treading them
down.
F E R [ 2986 1 F E R
Fern down by flieep, while that fort of cattle feed upon
II , them, is an infallible method of killing them.
Fernelms. The ancients ufed the root of the fern and the whole
plant, in deco&ions and diet-drinks, in chronic difor-
ders of all kinds arifing from obttruftions of the vifce-
i'a, particularly in hypochondriac cafes, and in obftruc-
tions of the fpleen and pancreas. There are not want¬
ing modern authors who give it as high a charadter in
thefe cafes as the ancients have done; but it is an ill-
tahed medicine, and in no great ufe in the (hops. The
country-people efteem it as a fovereign remedy for that
troublefome dittemper the rickets in children; and they
give it alfoasa powder, after drying it in an oven, to
deftroy worms. As aperients and anthelmintics, the
roots have been in high eftimation with fome ; and
Simon Pauli tells us, that they have been the grand fe-,
cret of fome empirics againli the broad worm, called
tania. In the Medical Commentaries, vol. vi. p. 307.
are given fome inftances of the fuccefs of this remedy,
by Dr Duncan of Edinburgh.
Female Eern. See Pteris.
FERNANDO, or Fernandes, an ifland in the Pa¬
cific Ocean. See Juan Fernandes.
FERNELIUS (John), phyfician to Henry II.
king of France, was born in Picardy, in the latter end
of the 15th or the beginning of the 16th century.
Being fent to Paris to ftudy rhetoric and philofophy, he,
applied himfelf in a moil intenfe manner. All other
pleafure was infipid to him. He cared neither for play
nor for walking, nor for entertainments, nor even for
converfation. He read Cicero, Plato, and Ariftotle.
The reading of Cicero procured him this advantage,
that the le&ures he read on philofophical fubjefts were
as eloquent, as thofe of the other matters were barba¬
rous at that time. He alfo applied himfelf very ear-
neftly to the mathematics.
This continual ttudy drew upon him a long fit of
ficknefs, which obliged him to leave Paris. On his re¬
covery, he returned thither with a defign to ftudy phy-
fic; but before he applied himfelf entirely to it, he
taught philofophy in the college of St Barbara. Af¬
ter this he fpent four years in the ftudy of phyfic; and,
taking a doctor’s degree, confined himfelf to his clofet,
in order to read the heft authors, and to improve him¬
felf in the mathematics; that is, as far as the bufinefs
of his profeffion would fuffer him. Never was a man
more diligent than Fernel. He ufed to rife at four
o’clock in the morning, and ftudied till it was time ei¬
ther to read le&ures or to vifit patients. He then ex¬
amined the urine that was brought him; for this was
the method of thofe times, with regard to the poor peo¬
ple, who did not fend for the phyfician. Coming home
to dine, he (hut himfelf up among his books, till they
called him down to table. Rifing from table, he re¬
turned to his ftudy, which he did not leave without ne-
cefiary occafions. Coming home at night, he did juft
as at noon ; he ftaid among his books, till they called
him to fupper; returned to them the moment he had
fupped; and did not leave them till eleven o’clock,
when he went to bed.
In the courfe of thefe ftudies, he contrived mathe¬
matical inftruments, and was at great charges in ma¬
king them. But his wife murmuring at the expence,
he difmiffed his inftrurfient-makers, and applied him-
felf in good earneft to praftife pfiv*"’- ‘Put as vifitiner
patients did not employ his whole time, he read public Feronia,
le&ures upon Hippocrates and Galen. This foon gain- Farrars.
ed him a great reputation through France, and in fo¬
reign countries. His bufinefs increaling, he left off
reading leftures; but as nothing could make him ceafe
to ftudy in private, he fpent all the hours he could fpare
in compofing a work of phyfic, intitled Phyfiologia,
which was foon after publifhed. He was prevailed
with to read ledhires upon this new work, which he did
for three years: and undertaking another work, which
he publilhed, De ven# fettione, he laid himfelf under a
neceffity of reading ledtures fome years longer, in or¬
der to explain this new book to the youth.
While he was thus employed, he was fent for to court,
in order to try whether he could cure a lady, whofe
recovery was defpaired of. He was fo happy as to cure
her ; which was the firft caufe of that efteem which
Henry II. who was then but dauphin, and was in love
with that lady, conceived for him. This prince offered
him, even then, the place of firft phyfician to him; but
Fernel, who infinitely preferred his ttudies to the hurry
of a court, .would not accept the employment. When
Henry came to the throne, he renewed his intreaties:
but Fernel reprefented, that the honour which was of¬
fered to him was due, for feveral reafons, and as an here¬
ditary right, to the late king’s phyfician; and that, as
for himfelf, he wanted fome time to make experiments
concerning feveral difcoveries he had made relating to
phyfic. The king admitted this: but as foon as Fran¬
cis I.’s phyfician died, Fernel was obliged to go and
fill his place at Henry II.’s court. And here juft the
contrary to what he dreaded came to pafs: for he en¬
joyed more reft and more leifure at court, than he had
done at Paris; and he might have confidered the court
as an agreeable retirement, had it not been for the jour¬
neys which the new civil war obliged the king to take.
He died in 1558, leaving behind him a great many
works, befides what have been mentioned; as, De ab-
ditis rerum caujis, feven books of Pathology, a book
on Remedies, &c. . They have been printed feveral
times; with his life prefixed, written by William Plan-
tius his difciple.
FERONIA, the pagan goddefs of woods and orch¬
ards. The deity took her name from the town Fero¬
nia, fituated at the foot of mount Sarode in Italy,
where was a wood and temple confecrated to her. 1 his
town and wood are mentioned by Virgil, in the cata¬
logue of Turnus’s forces. Strabo relates, that thofe,
who facrificed to this goddefs, walked barefoot upon
burning coals, without being hurt. She was the guar¬
dian deity of freed-men, who received their cap of li¬
berty in her temple.
FERRARS (George), a lawyer, poet, hiftorian,
and accomplifhed gentleman, was defcended from an,
ancient family in Hertfordfhire, and born about the
year 1510, in a village near St Alban’s. He was edu¬
cated at Oxford, and thence removed to Lincoln’s inn;
where applying with uncommon diligence to the ftudy
of the law, he was foon diftinguilhed for his elocution .
at the bar. Cromwell earl of Eflex, the great minifter
of Henry VIII. introduced him to the king, who em¬
ployed him as his menial fervant, and, in 1535, gave
him a grant of the manor of Flamftead in his native
county. This is fuppofed to have been a profitable
eftate; neverthelefs, Mr Ferrars being a gay courtier.
F E R [ '2987 ] F E R
Ferrars, and probably an expenfive man, about feven years af-
Ferrara- ter, was taken to execution by a Iheriff’s officer for
a debt of 200 marks, and lodged in the compter. Be¬
ing at this time member for Plymouth, the houfe of
commons immediately interfered, and he foon ob¬
tained his liberty. He continued in favour with the
king to the end of his reign, and in that of Ed¬
ward VI. he attended the lord protedlor Somerfet
as a commiffioner of the army in his expedition
to Scotland in 1548. In the fame reign, the young
king being then at Greenwich, Mr Ferrars was pro¬
claimed lord of mifrule, that is, prince of fports and
pa Himes; which office he discharged during 12 days,
in Chriftmas holidays, to the entire fatisfadtion of the
court. This is all we know of Mr Ferrars; except that
he died in 1579, at Flamftead in Hertfordlhire, and
was buried in the pariih-church. He is not lefs cele¬
brated for his valour in the field, than for his other ac-
compKlhments, as a gentleman and a Scholar. He
wrote, 1. Hiftory of the Reign of queen Mary; pub-
liihed in Grafton’s chronicle, 1569, fol. 2. Six Tra-
* gedies, or dramatic poems ; publtihed in a book called
the Mirror for magif rates, firft: printed in 1559, af¬
terwards in 1587, and again in 1610.
Ferrars (Henry), a Warwicklhire gentleman of a
good family, was eminent in antiquities, genealogies,
and heraldry. Mr Wood fays, that out of the collec¬
tions of this gentleman, Sir William Dugdale laid part
of the foundation of his celebrated Antiquities' of War-
nuickfhire. Camden alfo makes honourable mention of
his affiftance in relation to Coventry. Some fcattered
poems of his were publilhed among others in the reign
of queen Elizabeth; and he died in 1633.
FERRARA, a city of Italy, in the territory of the
pope, capital of a duchy of the fame name. It is feat-
ed in an agreeable and fertile plain ; watered by the ri¬
ver Po, which is a defence on one fide ; and on the other
is encompaffed by a ftrong wall, and deep broad ditches
full of w'ater, as well as by a good citadel, finilhed by
pope Paul. In the middle of the city is a magnificent
caftle, which was formerly the palace of the dukes, ahd
is not now the leafl ornament of Ferrara. It is quite fur-
rounded with water; and the arfenal, which is near it,
deferves the obfervation of travellers. Over-againft. the
palace is the duke’s garden; with .a park, called Belvi-
dere on account of its beauty. Behind the garden
there is a palace,' built with white marble, called the
palace of diamonds, becaufe all the Hones are cut dia¬
mond falhion.
Ferrara had formerly a confiderable trade ; but it is
now almoft: deferted, being very poor, infomuch that
there is hardly a perfon to be feen in the ftreets. This
is owing to the exa&ions of the popes. The fortifica-
tions are now negle&ed, and the ancient univerfity is
dwindled into a wretched college of the Jefuits. How¬
ever, .in 1735, it was advanced to an archbilhopric by
pope Clement XII. The country about it is fo marfhy,
diat a (bower or two of rain renders the roads almoft
impaffable. It is 24 miles north-eaft of Bologna, 38
north-weft of Ravenna, 70 north-by-weft of Florence,
and 190 north of Rome. E. Long. 12. 14. N. Lat.
44. 36.
Ferrara, the duchy of a province in the pope’s
territory, bounded on the north by the ftate of Venice;
on the weft, by the duchies of Mantua and Mirandola;
on the fouth, by the Boulognefe, and by Romania, of Ferret
which it w’as formerly a part; and on the eaft, by the per|^ ;
Gulph of Venice. It is 50 miles in length, and 43 in
breadth along the coaft; but grows narrower and nar-  
rower towards the Mantuan. This country is almoft
furrounded by the branches of the Po, which often over¬
flow the country, and form the great morafs'of Coma-
chio, which has a bad effe£t on the air. It is thin of
people, and indifferently cultivated, though fit for corn,
pulfe, and hemp. The Po and the lake of Comachio
yield a large quantity of fi(h. Ferrara is the capital
town; befides which, there are Arano, Comachio, Mag-
navacca, Belriguardo, Cento, Buendeno, and Fiche-
rola. This duchy was formerly poffeffed by the houfe
of Efte. But the pope took poffeffion of it in 1598,
after the death of Alphonfo II. duke of Ferrara, it be¬
ing a fief of the church.
FERRET, in zoology. See Mustela.
Ferrets, among glafs-makers, the iron with which
the workmen try the melted metal, to fee if it be fit to
work.— It is alfo ufed for thofe irons which make the
rings at the mouth of the bottles.
FERRETTO, in glafs-making, a fubftance which
ferves to colour glafs.
This is made by a fimple calcination of copper, but
it ferves for feveral colours: there are two ways of ma¬
king it. The firft is this. Take thin plates of copper,
and lay them on a layer of powdered brimftone, in the
bottom of a crucible; over thefe lay more brimftone,
and over that another layer of the plates, and fo on al¬
ternately till the pot is full. Cover the pot, lute it well,
place it in a wind-furnace, and make a firong fire about
it for two hours. When it is taken out and cooled, the
copper will be found £0 calcined, that it may be crum¬
bled to pieces between the fingers, like a friable earth.
It will be of a reddiffi, and, in fome parts, of a black-
ifh colour. This muft be powdered and lifted fine for
ufe.
FERRI (Cibo), a fkilful painter born of a good
family at Rome, in 1634. He was bred under Peter
Cortona; and the works of the fcholar are often mifia-
ken for thofe of the mailer. The great duke of Tuf-
cany nominated him chief of the Florentine fchool;
and he was as good an architeft as a painter. He died
in 1689.
FERRO, (W. Long. 190, N. Lat. 28°,) the moft
wefterly of the Canary iflands, near the African coaft,.
where the firft meridian was- lately fixed in molt maps;
but now, the geographers of almoft every kingdom make-
their refpedtive capitals the firft meridian, as we do Lon¬
don. It is a dry and barren fpot, affording no water
except: what is fupplied in a very furprifing manner by
a tree which grows in thefe iflands. See Fountain-
Tree.
Ferro, or Faro, Ifands ; a clufter of little iflands ly¬
ing in the Northern ocean, between 6i ° and 63° N. Lat.
and between 50 and 8° W. Long. They belong to
Denmark, and have about 3000 or 4000 inhabitants.
FERROL, a fea-port town of Spain, in the pro¬
vince of Gallicia, feated on a bay of the Atlantic ocean.
It has a good harbour, and is frequented by the Spa-
nifti fleet in time of war. W. Long. 8. 46. N. Lat.
43. 26.
lERRUGINOUS, any thing partaking of iron, or
which contains particles of that metal.
FER-
FES [ 2988 ] FEU
Femigo FERRUGO, rust. See Rust.
pjjj. FERRUM, Iron. See Iron.
* L_ FERRY, a liberty by prtfcription, or by theking^s
grant, to have a boat for paffage, on a frith or river,
for carrying paffengcrs, horfes, &c. over the fame for
a reafonable toll.
FERTILITY, that quality which denominates a
thing fruitful or prolific.
Nothing can produce fertility in either fex, but what
promotes perfeft health : nothing but good blood,
fpirits, and perfect animal fundfions, that is, high
health, can beget perfect fecundity; and therefore, all
means and medicines, all noftrums and fpecifics, to pro¬
cure fertility, different from thofe which procure
good blood and fpirits, are arrant quackery. Dr
Cheyne fays, that water-drinking males are very rarely
infertile; and that if any thing in nature can prevent
infertility, and bring fine children, it is a milk and
feed diet .perfevered in by both parents.-
To increafe the fertility of vegetables, fays lord Ba¬
con, we muft not only increafe the vigour of the earth
and of the plant, but alfo preferve what would other-
wife be loft: whence he infers, that there is much faved
by fetting, in comparifon of fowing. It is reported,
Continues he, that if nitre be mixed with water to the
thicknefs of honey, and after a vine is cut, the bud be
anointed therewith, it will fprout within eight days.
If the experiment be true, the caufe may be in the
opening of the bud, and contiguous parts, by the fpi-
rit of the nitre; for nitre is the life of.vegetables.
How far this may be true, is not perhaps fufficiently
fhewn, notwithlLnding the experiments of Sir Kenelm
Digby and M. Homberg. Confult Mr Evelyn’s Syl-
va, the Philofophical Tranfadiions, the French Me¬
moirs, and Dr Stahl’s Philofophical Principles of Che-
miftry; but a proper fet of accurate experiments feems
ftill wanting in this view.
FERULA, fennel giant; a genus of the digy-
nia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
There are nine fpecies; all of them herbaceous peren¬
nials, riling from three to ten or twelve feet high, with
yellow flowers. They are propagated by feeds, which
fhould be fown in autumn; and, when planted out,
ought to be four or five feet diilant from each other,
or from any other plants; for no other will thrive un¬
der their (hade.
FESSE, in heraldry, one of the nine honourable
ordinaries. See Heraldry.
Fesse-Pc/*/, is the exadl centre of the efcutcheon.
See Point.
Fesse-IThyr, or in fesse, denotes any thing borne
after the manner of a feffe ; that is, in a rank acrofs
the middle of the (hield.
Party per Fesse, implies a parting acrofs the middle
of the (hield, from fide to fide, through the fefle point.
FESTI dies, in Roman antiquity, certain days in
the year, devoted to the honour of the gods.
Numa, when he diftributed the year into 12 months,
divided the fame into the dies fejii, dies profcJU, 'and
dies intereiji.
The fefti were again divided into days of facrifices,
banquets, games, and ferise. See Sacrifice, Epu-
hM, Ludi, and Ferije.
The profejli were thofe days allowed to men for the
adminiftration of their affairs, whether of a public or
private natute: thefe were divided into fafli, comitia- FefKrto
les, &c. See Fasti, Comitiales, &c. i!
The intereiji were days common both to gods and Feu^*
men, fome parts of which were allotted to the fervice
of the one, and fome to that of the other.
FESTINQ, in logic, the third mood of the fecond
figure of the fyllogifm, the firft propofition whereof is
an univerfal negative, the fecond a particular affirma¬
tive, and the third a particular negative; as in the fol •
lowing example:
FES No bad man can be happy,
TI Some rich men are bad men.
NO Ergo, fome rich men are not happy.
FESTIVAL, the fame with feaft. See Feast.
FESTOON, in archite&ure and fculpture, &c. an
ornament in form of a garland of flowers, fruits, and
leaves, intermixed or twilled together.
It is in the form of a firing or collar, fomewhatbig-
geft in the middle, where it falls down in an arch; be¬
ing extended by the two ends, the extremities of which
hang down perpendicularly.
Fefioons are now chiefly ufed in friezes, and other
vacant places which want to be filled np and adorned j
being done in imitation of the long clufiers of flowers,
which the ancients placed on the doors of their temples
and houfes on fefiival occafions.
FESTUCA, fescue ; a genus of graffes of the di*
gynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants.
—There are 16 fpeeies; two of which, as being the
mod remarkably ufeful, are deferibed under the article
Agriculture, n° 51—56. Another fpecics, called
the fluitans, or floting, from its growing in wet ditches
and ponds, is remarkable for the ufes that are made of
its feeds. Thefe feeds are fmall, but very fweet and
nourilhing. They are colle&ed in feveral parts of
Germany and Poland, under the name of manna feeds f
and are ufed at the tables of the great, in foups and
gruels, on account of their nutritious quality and grate¬
ful flavour. When ground to meal, they make bread
very little inferior to that in common ufe. The bran,
feparated in preparing the meal, is given to horfes
that have worms; but they muft be kept from water
for fome hours afterwards. Geefe are alfo very fond
of thefe feeds.—Mr Lightfoot recommends this as a
proper grafs to be fown in wet meadows.
FESTUS (Pompeius), a celebrated grammarian of
antiquity, who abridged a work of Verrius Flaccus,
De Significatione Verborum; but took fuch liberties in
caftration and criticifing, as, Gerard Voffius obferves,
are not favourable to the reputation of his author. A
complete edition of his fragments was publiflied by M.
Dacier in i68l, for the ufe of the Dauphin. Scaliger
fays, that Feftus is an author of great ufe to thofe who
would attairr the Latin tongue with accuracy.
FETLOCK, in the manege, a tuft of hair growing
behind the pattern joint of many horfes; for thofe of a
low fize have fcarce any fuch tiift.
FETTI (Domenico), an eminent painter in the
ftyle of Julio Romano, was born at Rome in 1589, and
educated under Ludovico Civoli of Florence. He
painted but little for churches, but excelled in hiftory;
his piftures are much fought after, and are fcarce. He
abandoned himfelf to diforderly courfes; and put an
end to his life, by exceffes, in the 35th year of his age.
FEUD (Feida), fignifies, in the German tongue,
guerram,
F E V [ 2989 ] FEZ
FcuJ gutrram, Lat. helium; and, according to Lambard,
Jl capitales inimteitias; and feud ufed in Scotland is a
*cvre combination of kindred to revenge the death of any of
their blood againft the kiler, and all his race, or any
other great enemy.
Feud (Feoda), Feed, Fief or Fee. See Feodau
Syjlem.
Feuds are called by various names, according to
their refpe£live natures; as, Feudum Antiquum, a
feud defeending to a fon, &c. from his anceftors.
Feudum Apertum, a feud refulting back again to
the lord of the fee; where the blood of the perfon
Jail feized in fee-fimple is utterly extinft and gone.
Feudum Honorarium, (and Feudum individuum), an
honorary feud, or title of nobility, of an indivifible
nature, and defcendible to the eldeft fon in exclufion
of all the reft. Feudum Improprium, an improper
or derivative feud; and feoda impropria, are all fuch
feuds as do not fall within the defeription of feoda
propria. Feudum Maternutn, a feud defeending to the
fon from the mother. Feudum Novum, a feud newly
acquired by the fon; to which, in ancient times, only
the defeendents from his body could fucceed, by the
known maxims of the early feodal conftitutions. Feu¬
dum Novum, held ut antiquum; defcendible in the
fame manner as a feudum novum. Feudum Paternum,
a feud defcendible from father to fon. Feudum Pro-
prium, a proper feud diftinguiftied from an hnproper,
which are the two grand divifions.
FEUDAL, or Feodal. See Feodal.
FEUDATORY, or Feodatory, a tenant who
•SeeFcodalformerly held his eftate by feoda) fervice*.
Tenure. FEU-duty, in Scots law, is the annual rent or duty
which a vaflal, by the tenor of his right, becomes
bound to pay to his fuperior.
Y-zv-Holding, in Scots law, is that particular tenure
by which a vaflal is taken bound to pay an annual rent
or feu-duty to his fuperior.
FEVER. See (Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
The ancients deified the difeafes as well as the paf-
fions and affeftions of men. Virgil places them in the
entrance into hell, Mn. vi. 273. Among thefe, Fe¬
ver had a temple on mount Palatine, and two other
parts of ancient Rome ; and there is ftill extant an in-
feription to this goddefs. FEBRI. DIViE. FEBRI.
SANCTA5. FEBRI. MAGNAL CAMILLA. A-
MATA. PRO. FILIO. MALE. AFFECTO.
Fever, in farriery. See there, $ -iv.
FEVERFEW, in botany. See Matricaria.
FEVERSHAM, a town of the county of Kent in
England, fituated on a branch of the river Thames,
which is navigable for hoys. It is a member of the
einque-port of Dover. Oyfters, and many other
articles, are fent from hence to the London market.
E. Long. o. 38. N. Lat. 51. 20.
Fevre (Tanegui le), of Caen, in Normandy, born
1615, an excellent fcholar in the Greek and Roman
learning. Cardinal de Richelieu gave him a penfion of
2O00 livres to infpeift all the works publifhed at the
Louvre, and defigned to have made him principal of a
college he was about to ere£t at Richelieu. But the
cardinal’s death cut off his hopes; and cardinal Maza¬
rine having no great relifh for learning, his penfion was
.ill-paid. Some time after, the Marquis de Franciere,
governor of Langres, took him along with him to his
Vol. IV.
government, and there he.embraced the Proteftant re- Fcv
ligion; after which he was invited to Saumur, where J cI-
he was chofen Greek profeffor. He there taught with
extraordinary reputation. Young men were fent to
him from all the provinces in the kingdom, and even
from foreign countries, while divines and profeffors
themfelves gloried in attending bis leftures. He was
preparing to go to Heidelberg, whither he was in¬
vited by the prince Palatine, when he died, aged 57.
He wrote, 1. Notes on Anacreon, Lucretius, Longi¬
nus, Phasdrus, Juftin, Terence, Virgil, Horace, &c.
2. A ftiort account of the lives of the Greek poets.
3. Two volumes of letters; and many other works.
Fevre (Claud le), an eminent French painter, wai
born at Fountainbleau in 1633, anc^ ftudied in the pa¬
lace there, and then at Paris under Le Sueur and Le
Brun ; the latter oF whom advifed him to adhere to
portraits, for which he had a particular talent, and in
his ftyle equalled the beft mafters of that country. He
died in England in 1675, aged 42.
FEZ, the capital of a kingdom of the fame name in
Barbary, in Africa. It is a very large place, fur-
rounded with high walls, within which there are hills
and valleys, only the middle being level and flat. The
river, which runs through the city, is divided into two
ftreams, from which canals are cut into every part of
the town; fo that the mofques, colleges, palaces, and
the houfes of great men, are amply fupplied with wa¬
ter. They have generally fquare marble bafons in the
middle of the court of their houfes, which are fupplied
with water by marble pipes that pafs through the
walls: they conftantly run over, and the ftream returns
back into the ftreet, and fo into the river. The houfes
are built with brick or ftone; and are adorned on the
outfide with fine Mofaic work, or tiles like thofe of
Holland. The wood-work and cielings are carved,
painted, and gilt. The roofs are flat; for they fleep
on the tops of the houfes in fummer. Moft of the
houfes are two ftories high, and fome three. There are
piazzas and galleries running all round the court on the
infide, fo that you may go undercover from one apart¬
ment to another. The pillars are of brick, covered
with glazed tiles, or of marble, with arches between.
The timber-work is carved and painted with gay co¬
lours, and moft of the rooms have marble cifterns of
water. Some of the great men build towers over theif
houfes feveral ftories high, and fpare no expence to ren¬
der them beautiful; from hence they have a fine pro-
fpedl all over the city.
There are in this city 700 mofques, great and final!;
50 of which are magnificent, and fupported with mar¬
ble pillars, and other ornaments. The floors are covered
with mats, as well as the walls to the height of a man.
Every mofque has a tower or minaret, like thofe in
Turky, with a gallery on the top, from whence they
call the people to prayers. The principal mofique is
near a mile and a half in circumference. The middle
building is 150 yards in length, and 80 in breadth,
with a tower proportionably high. Round this to the
eaft, weft, and north, there are great colonades 30 or
40 yards long. There are 900 lamps lighted every
night; and in the middle of the mofque are large
branches, which are capable of holding 500 lamps
each. Along the walls are feven pulpits, from which
the do&ors of the'law teach the people. The bufinefs
F I C [ 2990 ] F I C
Fewel of the priefl is only to read prayers, and diftribute alms
ji to the people; to fupport which, there are large reve-
BU'S. ^ 1 ■ i'P S
Befides the mofques, there are two colleges built in
the Moorifh manner, and adorned with marble and
paintings. In one of them there are too rooms, be¬
fides a magnificent hall. In this there is a great marble
vafe full of water, adorned with marble pillars of vari¬
ous colours, and finely polifhed. The capitals are gilt,
and the roof fliines with gold, azure, and purple. The
walls are adorned with Arabic verfes in gold charac¬
ters. The other colleges are not near fo beautiful, or
rather all are gone to ruin fince the negledt of learning.
There are hofpitals in the city, where formerly all
ftrangers were maintained three days gratis. But the
eftates belonging to them are confifcated for the em¬
peror’s ufe. There are above 100 public baths, many
of which are ftately buildings. People of the fame
trade or bufinefs live in ftreets by themfelves.
Though the country about Fez is pleafant and fer¬
tile, and in many places abounding with corn and cat¬
tle, yet a great part of it lies wafte and uncultivated,
not fo much for want of inhabitants, as from the op-
preffion of the governors; which makes the people choofe
to live at fome diftance from the high roads, where
they cultivate juft as much land as is neceffary for their
own fubfiftence.
Round the city there are fine marble tombs, monu¬
ments, and gardens full of all manner of fruit-trees.
Fez is feated on the river Cebu, W. Long. 4. 25.
N. Lat. 33. 58.
FEWEL. See Fuel.
FIASCONE, a town of Italy in the territories of
the pope, remarkable for its good wine. E. Long.
13. 12. N. Lat. 42. 20.
FIAT, in law, a ftiort order or warrant figned by a
judge, for making out and allowing certain proceffes.
FIBRARIiE, a clafs of fofiils, naturally and efien-
tially fimple, not inflammable nor foluble in water; and
eompofed of parallel fibres, fome fhorter, others longer;
their external appearance being bright, and in fome
degree tranfparent: add to this, that they never give
fire with- fteel, nor ferment with or are foluble in acid
menftrua.
FIBRE, in anatomy, a perfeftly fimple body, or at
lead as fimple as any thing in the human ftrufture;
being fine and flender like a thread, and ferving to
form other parts. Hence fome fibres are hard, as the
bony ones; and others foft, as thofe deftined for the
formation of all the other parts.
The fibres are divided alfo, according to their fitua-
tion, into ftich as are ftraight, oblique, tranfverfe, an¬
nular, and fpiral; being found arranged in all thefe
directions in different parts of the body.
Fibre is alfo ufed to denote the flender Filaments
which compofe other bodies, whether animal, vege¬
table, or mineral; but more efpecially, the capillary
toots of plants.
FIB-ROSE, fomething confifting of fibres, as the
roots of plants. See Root.
FICINUS-(Marcilius), of Florence, born 1433, ap¬
plied himfelf particularly to the ftudy of the Greek and
Latin tongues; followed the Platonic feCt; and tranf-
lated into Latin the works of Plato, and of feveral
jjreat men who maintained that philofophy, as Jam-
blichus, Plotinus, Proclus, &c. He died in 1449. Ficotfes
FICOIDES, a name given to feveral diftinft plants, y
as the mefembryanthemum, mufa, and opuntia. See Ficos.
Mesembryanthemum.
FICTION. See Fable, and Poetry.
FICUS, the fig-tree; a genus of the trioecia or¬
der, belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants. There
are ten fptcies, of which the following are the moft
remarkable.
1. The carica, or common fig, with an upright ftem
branching 15 or 20 feet high, and garniflied with
large palmated or hand-flisped leaves. Of this there
are a number of varieties; as the common fig, a. large,
oblong, dark purplifh blue fruit; which ripens in
Aguft either on ftandards or walls, and the tree carries
a great quantity of fruit.—The brown or cheftnut fig;
a large, globular, cheftnut-coloured fruit, having a
purplilh delicious pulp, ripening in July and Auguft.
—The black ifchia fig; a middle-fized, fliortifli, flat-
crowned, blackifli fruit, having a bright pulp ; ripening
in the middle of Auguft.—The green ifchia fig; a
large, oblong, globular-headed, greenifti fruit, flightly
ftained by the pulp to a reddifh-brown colour; ripens
in the end of Auguft.—The brown ifchia fig; a fmall,
pyramidal, brownilh-yellow fruit, having a purplifti
very rich pulp; ripening in Auguft and September.—
The Malta fig; a fmall flat-topped brown fruit, ripe-
uing in the middle of Auguft or beginning of Sep¬
tember.— The round brown Naples fig; a globular,
middle-fized, light-brown fruit, and brownifh pulp;
ripe in the end of Auguft.—The long, brown, Naples
fig; a long dark-brown fruit, having a reddiih pulp;
ripe in September.—The great blue fig; a large blue
fruit, having a fine red pulp.—The black Genoa fig ;
a large, pear-ihaped, black-coloured fruit, with a bright
red pulp; ripe in Auguft.
2. The fycamorus, or fycamore of fcripture. Ac¬
cording to ^Tr Haffelquift, this is a huge tree, the
ftem being often 50 feet round. The fruit is pier¬
ced in a remarkable manner by an infedt. There
is an opening made in the calyx, near the time
the fruit ripens, which is occafioned in two different
ways. 1. When the fquamae, which cover the calyx,,
wither and are bent back; which, however, is more
common to the carica than the fycamore. 2. A little
below the fcales, on the fide of the flower-cup, there
appears a fpot before the fruit is ripe: the fruit in this
place is affedted with a gangrene which extends on
every fide, and frequently occupies a finger’s-breadth.
It withers; the place affedied becomes black; the flefhy
fubftance in the middle of the calyx, for the breadth of
a quill, is corroded; and the male bloflbms, which are
neareft to the bare fide, appear naked, opening a way
for the infedl, which makes feveral furrows in the in-
fide of the fruit, but never touches the ftigmata, thougli
it frequently eats the germen. The wounded or gan¬
grenous part is at firft covered or flint up by the blof-
foms; but the hole is by degrees opened and enlarged
of various fizes in the different fruits; the margin and
fides being always gangrenous, black, hard, and turned
inwardly. The fame gangrenous appearance is alfa
found near the fquamae, after the infedl has made a hole
in that place. The tree is very common in the plains-
and fields of Lower Egypt. It buds in the latter end
of March, and the fruit ripens in the beginning of
June.
F I C [ 2991 ] FIE
Ficus. June. It is wounded or cut by the inhabitants at the
time it buds; for without this precaution, they fay, it
would not bear fruit.
3. The religiofa, or banian-tree, Is a native of fe-
veral parts of the Eaft Indies. It hath a woody ftem,
branching 20 or 30 feet high, with heart-fhaped entire
leaves, ending in acute points.—It is called by the
Dutch, dtviV s-tree; and by the inhabitants of Ceylon,
budughaha,, and budughas. Budda, according to the
tradition of thefe countries, was the name of the pro¬
phet who firil taught the Indians under the grateful
fhade of this tree: for this reafon, they not only give
this fpecies of fig a name commemorative of their pro¬
phet, but likewife pay it a particular veneration, by ce¬
lebrating all their facrifices under its (hade.
Culture. The carica is the fpecies moft frequently
cultivated in this country, and the only one which does
not require to be kept in a ftove. It may be propa¬
gated either by fuckers arifing from the root, by layers,
or by cuttings.—The fuckers are to be taken off as
low down as poffible ; trim off any ragged part at bot¬
tom, leaving the tops entire, efpecially if for ftan-
dards ; and plant them in nurfery-lines at two or three
feet diftance from each other, or they may at once be
planted where they are to remain ; obferving, that if
they are defigned for walls or efpalfers, they may be
headed to fix or eight inches in March, the more effec¬
tually to force out lateral (hoots near the bottom; but,
if intended for ffandards, they muft not be topped,
but trained with a ftem, not lefs than 15 or 18 inches
for dwarf-ftandards, a yard for half-ftandards, and
four, five, or fix feet for full ftandards. Then they muft
be fuffered to branch out to form a head ; obferving,
that, whether againft walls, efpaliers, or ftandards, the
branches or (hoots muft never be (hortened unlefs to
procure a neceffary fupply of wood: for the fruit is al¬
ways produced on the upper parts of the young (hoots;
and if thefe are cut off, no fruit can be expefted.—
The beft feafon for propagating thefe trees by layers
is in autumn ; but it may be alfo done any time from
October to March or April. Choofe the young pli¬
able lower (hoots from the fruitful branches: lay them
in the ufual way, covering the body of the layers three
or four inches deep in the ground, keeping the top en¬
tire, and as upright as poffible ; and they will be root¬
ed and fit tofeparate from the parent* in autumn; when
they may be planted either in the hurfery, or where
they are to remain, managing them as above dire&ed.
The time for propagating by cuttings is either in au¬
tumn at the fall of the leaf, or any time in March:
choofe well-ripened (hoots of the preceding fummer ;
(hort, and of robuft growth, from about 12 to 15
inches long; having an inch or two of the two-years
wood at their' bafe, the tops left entire; and plant
them fix or eight inches deep, in a bed or order of good
earth, in rows two feet afunder: and when planted in
-autumn, it will be eligible to protedf their tops in time
of hard froft, the firft winter, with any kind of Ions'
loofe litter.
U/es. Figs are a confiderable article in the materia
medica, chiefly employed in emollient cataplafms and
pe&oral decodions. The beft are thofe which come
from Turky. Many are alfo brought from the fouth
of France, where they prepare them in the following
manner. The fruitjis firft dipped in fealding-hot ley
made of the alhes of the fig-tree, and then dried In the Fi<hlW
fun. Hence thefe figs flick to the hands, and fcour . ;
them like lixivial falls; and for the fame reafon they ^ ’“S’
excite to ftool, without griping. They are moderate¬
ly nutrimental, grateful to the ftomach, and eafier to
digeft than any other of the fweet fruits. They have
been faid to produce lice, when eaten as a common
food ; but this feems to be entirely without founda¬
tion. The reafon of this fuppofition feems to be, that
in the countries where they grow naturally, they make
the principal food of the poor people, who are general¬
ly troubled with thefe vermin. The wood of the fyca-
more is not fubjed to rot; and has therefore been ufed
for making of coffins, in which embalmed bodies were
put. Mr Haffelquift affirms, that he faw iu Egypt, cof¬
fins made of this kind of wood, which had been prefer-
ved found for 2000 years.
FIDDLE. See Violin.
FIDDES {Richard), a learned divine and polite
writer, was born in 1671, and educated at Oxford.
He was prefented to the living of Halfham, in York-
(hire, where he was fo admired for the fweetnefs of hii
voice, and the gracefulnefs of his delivery, that the
people for feveral miles round flocked to his fermons.
Coming to London in 1712, he was, by the favour of
dean Swift, introduced to the earl of Oxford, who
made him one of his chaplains, and the queen foon af¬
ter appointed him chaplain to the garrifon at Hull :
but lofing his patrons upon the change of the miniftry,
he loft his chaplainftiip ; and being obliged to apply
himfelf to writing, compofed, 1. A body of Divinity ;
2. The life of Cardinal Wolfey ; 3. A treatifeof mo¬
rality, &c. He died in 1725.
FIDEI-commissum, in Roman antiquity, an eftate
left in truft with any perfon, for the ufe of another.
See Trustee.
FIDES, or Faith, one of the virtues, deified by
the Pagans. She had a temple near the Capitol,
founded by Numa Pompilius; but no animals were
offered, or blood fpilt, in her facrifices. During the
performance of her rites, her priefts appeared in
white veftments, with their heads and hands covered
with linen, to (hew that fidelity ought to be fecret.
FIDIUS, in Pagan worfhip, a god who prefided
over alliances and promtfes. This deity, which the Ro¬
mans borrowed from the Sabines, was alfo called Sanc-
tus, Semon, and Semi-pater.
FIELDING (Flenry), a well-known writer of the
prefent age, fon of lieutenant-general Fielding who
ferved under the duke of Marlborough, was born in
1707. He had four fifters; of whom Sarah is well
known, as-writer of “ The adventures of David Sim¬
ple.” On the death of his mother, his father married
again; and Sir John Fielding who fucceeded him in the
commiffion of the peace for Middlefex, is his brother
by this marriage. £Ienry was fent to ftudy at Leyden;
but a failure in his remittances obliged him to return
in two years, when hris own propenlity to gaiety and
profufion drove him to write for the ftage at 20 years
of age. His firft dramatic piece “ Love in feveral
iKafques,” which was well received, appeared in 1727:
and all his plays and farces, to the amount of 18, were
written before the year 1737 ; and many of them are
(till afted with applaufe. While he was thus employ¬
ed, he married a young lady-with 15001. fortune, and
FIE [ 2992 ] F I F
Fielding inherited au eftate of 2001- a-year from his mother:
p. II all which, thoirgh on the plan of retiring into the
lt'nus‘ country, he contrived to diffipate in three years ; and
then applied himfelf to the Itudy of the law fora main¬
tenance. In lofing his fortune, he acquired the gout:
which rendering it impoffible for him to attend the bar,
he with a fliattered conftitution had recourfe to many
extempore applications of his pen for immediate fup-
plies; until, foon after the late rebellion, he accepted
the office of afting juftice for Middlefex, an employ¬
ment much more profitable than honourable in the pub¬
lic efteem. Reduced at length by the fatigues of this
office, and by a complication of diforders, he by the
advice of his phyficians went to Lifbon, where he died
in 1754. He wrote a great number of fugitive pam¬
phlets and periodical effays ; but is chiefly diftinguilhed
by his “ Adventures of Jofeph Andrews,” and “ Hi-
itory of Tom Jones in the former he took his chtu-
radler of parfon Adams from the reverend Mr Young,
one of his mod learned and efteemed friends; who was
remarkable for his acquaintance with the Greek au¬
thors, and had as paffionate a veneration for .ZEfchylus
as parfon Adams had, the overflowings ofhis beneficence
were as ftrong, and his fits of reverie and abfence of
mind occurred too upon the moft interefting occafions.
His works have been colleded and publilhed, with his
life prefixed, by Mr Murphy.
FIELD, in agriculture, a piece of ground inclofed,
whether for tillage or pafture.
Field, in heraldry, is the whole furface of the
fliield, or the continent, fo called becaufe it contain-
eth thofe atchievements anciently acquired in the field
of battle. It is the ground on which the colours, bear¬
ings, metals, furs, charges, &c. are reprefented. A-
mong the modern heralds, field is lefs frequently ufed
in blazoning than Ihield or efcutcheon. See the article
Shield, See.
Field -Book) in furveying, that wherein the angles,
flations, diftances, &c, are fet down.
FiELD-CVcarr, in war, are fmall flags of about a foot
and half fquare, which are carried al«ng with the quar¬
ter-mailer general, for marking out the ground for the
fquadrons and battalions.
Field-FW/v, in ornithology. See Turdus.
Field-#$£W, in the art of war. See Officer.
FiELD-P/Vce/, fmall cannons, from three to twelve
pounders, carried along with an army in the field.
Y\h\.x>-Staff, a weapon carried by the gunners, about
the length of a halbert, with a fpear at the end; ha¬
ving on each fide ears ferewed on, like the cock of
a match-lock, where the gunners ferew in lighted
matches, when they are upon command ; and then the
field-Itaffs arefaid to be armed.
FiELD-IFcT-^f, in fortification, are thofe thrown up
by an army in befieging a fortrefs, or by the befieged
to defend the place. Such are the fortifications of
camps, highways, &c.
Elyfian Fields. See Elysiah.
F1ENUS (Thomas), an ingenious and learned phy-
fician, born at Antwerp in 1566. He went into Italy
to ftudy phyfic under Mereurialis and Aldrovandus ;
and on his return diftinguilhed himfelf fo much in the
tiniverfity of Louvain, that he was there chofen profelfor
of phyfic, and was afterwards made phyfician to the
duke of Bavaria. He wrote feveral works, among
which were, “ De viribus imaginationis and “ De Fieri,
formatione fetus.” He died at Louvain in 1631. rife*
FIERI facias, in law, a writ that lies where a
perfon has recovered judgment for debt or damages in
the king’s- courts againft one, by which the fiieriff is
commanded to levy the debt and damages on the defen¬
dant’s goods and chattels.
FIFE, in mufic, is a fort of wind-inftrument, be¬
ing a fmall pipe. See Pipe.
FIFE, in geography, a county of Scotland bounded
by the Frith of Tay on the north, by the German fea
on the eaft, by the Frith of Forth on the fouth, and
by Monteith and Stirling on the weft. It is above 40
miles in length, and 17 in breath. The face of the
country is various. Towards the weft it is mountain¬
ous ; the middle is moft proper for pafture ; but the
northern and fouthern parts are plain and fertile, pro¬
ducing excellent corn, full of towns, and indented with
good bays and harbours. The whole coaft is almoft
covered with filhing-towns; breed a great number of
hardy feamen; and, being all royal boroughs, fend
many members to parliament. The inland parts of
the county are adorned with plantations and woods, af¬
fording (belter to deer and all forts of game. The hills
are covered with (beep, whofe wool is excellent; and
the paftures feed plenty of black cattle. This county
alfo produces quarries of excellent free-ftone, coal¬
mines, and lead-ore in great quantity; together with
variegated cryftals. It is well watered by many lakes
and rivers, the principal of which are the Leven and
the Eden, both of which abound with falmon. On the
prefent condition of the county of Fife Dr Campbell
has the following obfervations *. “ One would be apt s^r°v'el,e\
to imagine, that from fuch an excellent fituation, this
country muft have been diftinguiftied by being wonder¬
fully populous, crowded with towns, and thtfe towns
abounding with commerce. Anciently, it feems, it was
fo : and if it be not in this condition now, the reafona
may eafily be affigned ; it would be well if they could
be eafily removed. After the acceffion of king
James VI. to the throne of England, the court lords
extended what they called the power of the crown ; but
which, refting in their hands, was, in reality, theirs
beyond meafure ; and this was oppofed, for purpofes
merely their own, by others, who, in right of popula¬
rity, exercifed alfo a power more detrimental to the
public peace, and not at all -piore dire&ed to the public
good ; and thus the true principles of policy were in a
manner loft. On the other hand, an unreafonable and
ill-timed zeal for forms produced as unreafonable an
averfion for things indifferent in themfelves; and thus,
while religion was all the cry, the true fpirit of the
Chriftian faith was in a manner extinguifhed. Party-
difputes in church and date, deftroying, as they ever
will do, all fenfe of public fpirit, made way for a civil
war, which ruined the fmall remains of pad profperity.
After the reftoration, an oppreffive government in one
part of the country, which connived, for its own fup-
port, at the eftabliftiment of a more oppreffive arifto-
cracy in the other, extirpated all feeds of induftry, and
brought on that general decay in Agriculture,, manu-
faftures, and commerce,, which, however vifible, was,
till very lately, rather to be lamented, even by the moft
difintereded patriots, than with any rational hopes of
fuepefs to be put in any train of being recovered.
How-
F I G
FJrm. of
Gril.tifm*
However diftafteful, in one light, the contemplation of
its former greatnefs may be, it cannot but afford us
 fatisfa&ion in another; for what has once been, may
molt certainly be again. The country and the climate,
without quettion, are as good as ever ; and though the
fame thing cannot be faid of its ports, yet, with fome
labour and a little expence, even thefe may be madefo;
after which, if any method can be found to employ in
manufactures, and thereby engage the youth to remain
at home, there is no doubt that an indefatigable appli¬
cation may quickly reftore what a feries of unfortunate
accidents, fucceeded by fupine negledt, have brought
into fo melancholy a condition.”
Fife-RuUs, in a fhip, are thofe that are placed on
banifters, on each fide of the top of the poop, and fo
along with haunces or falls. - They reach down to the
quarter-deck, and to the flair of the gang-way.
FIFTH, in mufic. See Interval.
FIG, or Fig-tree. See Ficus.
FIGWORT, a plant called by thebotanifls Scro-
PHULARIA.
FIGURAL, Figurate, or Figurative, a term
applied to whatever is exprefied by .obfcure refem-
blances. The word is chiefly applied to the types
and myfteries of the Mofaic law; as alfo to any ex-
preffion which is not taken in its primary and literal
fenfe.
FIGURE, in phyfics, expreffes the furface or termi¬
nating extremities of any body.
Figures, in arithmetic, are certain charaflers
whereby we denote any number which may be exprefs-
ed by any combination of the nine digits, &c. See
Arithmetic.
Figure, among divines, is ufed for the mylteries
reprefented under certain types.
Figure, in dancing, denotes the feveral fleps which
the dancer makes in order and cadence, confidered as
they mark certain figures on the floor. See Dancing.
Figure, in painting and defigning, denotes the
lines and colours which form the reprefentation of any
animal, but more particularly of a human perfonage,
See Painting, n° 61—92.
Figure, in logic, denotes a certain order and dif-
pofition of the middle term in any fyllogifm.
Figures are fourfold. 1. When the middle term is-
the fubjedt of the major propofition, and the predicate
of the minor, we have what is called the firlt figure.
2. When the middle term is the predicate of both the
premifles, the fyllogifm is faid to be in the fecond fi¬
gure. 3. If the middle term is the fubjeft of the two
premifles, the fyllogifm is in the third figure •, and
tallly, by making it the predicate of the major, and
fubjeA of the minor, we obtain fyllogifms in the fourth
figure. Each of thefe figures has a determinate num¬
ber of moods, including all the poflible ways in which
propofitions differing in quantity' or quality can'be
combined, according to any difpofition of the middle
term, in order to arrive at a juit conclufion. See Lo¬
gic.
Figure, in compofition. See Oratory ; alfo Al¬
legory, Apostrophe, Hyperbole, Metaphor,
Personification, See.
^Figure, the vie an s or hiflrument conceived to be
the agent. When we furvey a number of connedled
objeds, that which makes thegreatefl figure employs
I 2993 ]
F I G
chiefly our attention; and the emotion it raifes, if Figure,
lively, prompts us even to exceed nature in theconcep- ^
tions we form of it. Take the following examples.
For Ntleus’ fon A Icicles’ rage had flain.
A broken rock the force of Pirus threw.
In thefe inftances, the rage of Hercules and the
force of Pirus, being the capital circumflances, are fo
far exalted as to be conceived the agents that produce
the effects.
In the following inllances, hunger being the chief
circumflance in the defeription, is itfelf imagined to
be the patient.
Whofe hunger has not tafted food thefe three days.
Jane Shore*
 As when the force
Of liibtcirauean wind tranfports a hill. Paradife loji.
 As-when the potent rod
Of Amram’s fon, in Egypt’s evil day
Wav’d round the coaii, upeall’d a pitchy cloud
Of locufts. Paradife loft.
A Figure, which, among related objefis, extend?
the properties of one to another. This figure is not dig¬
nified with a proper name, becaufe it has been over¬
looked by writers. It merits, however, a place in*
this work ; and mud be diftinguifhed from the others-
elfewhere treated, as depending on a different principle.
Giddy brink, jovialwine, daring wound', are examples of
this figure. Here are adjectives that cannot be made
to fignify any quality of the fubftantives to which
they are joined : a brink, for example, cannot be
termed giddy in a fenfe, either proper or figurative,,
that can fignify any of its qualities or attributes. When:
we examine attentively the exprefiion, we difeover,
that a brink is termed giddy from producing that effedl
in thofe who ftand on it: in the fame manner, a wound
is faid to be daring, not with refpeCfc to itfelf, but
with refpeCl to the boldnefs of the perfon who inflifts
it: and wine is faid to be jovial, as infpiring mirth and
jollity. Thus the attributes of one fubjeCl are extended'
to another with which it is connedted ; and the expref-
fion of fuch a thought muft be confldered as a figure,,
becaufe the attribute is not applicable to the fubjedl
in any proper fenfe.
Flow are we to account for this figure, which we*
fee lies in the thought, and to what principle {hall we
refer it ? Have poets a privilege to alter the nature of
things, and at pleafure to bellow attributes upon a
fubjedl to which they do not belong ? It is obferved f, -
that the mind pafleth eafily and fweetly along a criticif
train of connedled objedls; and, where the objefts chap. ii.’
are intimately connecled, that it is difpofed to carry pan 1. §, ff,.
along the good or bad properties-of one to another;
efpecially when it is in any degree inflamed with
thefe properties. From this principle is derived the
figure under confideration. Language, invented fer¬
tile communication of thought, would be imperfedl,.
if it were not expreffive even of the {lighter pro-
penfities and more delicate feelings t but language
cannot remain fo imperfedi among a people who have
received any pol-ifh ; becaufe language is regulated by
internal feeling, and is gradually improved to exprefs
whatever pafles in the mind. Thus, for example,
when a fword in the hand of a coward is termed a
coward fword, the exprtffion is fignificative of an in¬
ternal operation 5 for the mind, in paffing from the agent
F I G
Figure, to Its inftmment, is difpofed to extend to the latter
the properties of the former. Governed by the fame
principle, we fay lijlening fear, by extending the at¬
tribute HJlening of the man who liftens, to the paflion
with which he is moved. In the expreflion, bold deed,
or audax/acinus, we extend to the effedt what pro¬
perly belongs to the c-aufe. But not to wafte time by
making a commentary upon every expreffion of this
kind, the beft way to give a complete view of the
fubjedl, is to exhibit a table of the different relations
that may give oecafion to this figure. And in view¬
ing the table, it will be obferved, that the figure can
never have any grace but where the relations are of
the mod intimate kind.
1. An attribute of the caufe expreffed as an attri¬
bute of the effedi.
Audax facinus.
■Of yonder fleet a bold difcovery make.
An impious 'mortal gave the daring wound.
  —To my advcnt'rous fong,
That with no middle flight intends to foar.
Pamdife loji.
2. An attribute of the effedl expreffed as an attri¬
bute of the caufe.
Quos periifle ambos mifero cenfebam in mari. P/aulus.
No wonder, fallen fuch a pernicioui height.
Paradife loft.
3. An effedl expreffed as an attribute of the
caufe.
Jovial wine, Giddy brink, Drowfy night. Milling midnight.
Panting height, Altonilh’d thought, Mournful gloom.
Calling a dim religious light. MiLTOit, Comus.
And the merry bells ring round.
And the jocund rebecks found. Milton, Allegro.
4. An attribute of a fuhjedl beftowed upon, one of
its parts or members.
Longing arms.
It was the nightingale, and not the lark,
That pieic’d the/ear/a/hollow of thine ear.
Romeo and Juliet, aB %.fc. 7.
 Oh, lay by
Thofe mod ungentle looks and angry weapons;
TJnlefsyou mean my griefs and killing fears
Should ftretch me out at your relentlefs feet
Fair Penitent, aB 3.
    And ready now
To (loop with wearied wing, and willing feet.
On the bare outfi4e of this world. Faradife loft, b. 3.
5. A quality o( the agent given to the inftrument
with which it operates.
Why peep your coward fwords half out their (hells ?
6. An attribute of the agent given to the fubjefit
upon which it operates.
High-climbing hill. Milton.
ft. A quality of one fubjedt given to another.
Icei, heath nunc Arabum invides
Gazis. Horat. Carm. 1. 1. ode 29.
When faplefs age, and weak unable limbs.
Should bring thy father to his drooping chair.
Shahefpear.
By art, the pilot through the boiling deep.
And howling temped, deers the/ear/e/s (hip.
Iliad xxtii. 385.
Then, nothing loath, th’ enamour’d fair he led,
Aud funk tranfported on *he confcious bed.
Odyjfey viii. 337-
Aftupid moment motionlefs (he ftood.
Summer, l. 133c.
F I G
8. A circumftance connefted with a fubjeS, ex- Figure,
preffed as a quality of the fubjedt.
Breezy fummit.
’Tis ours the chance of fighting fields to try.
IHadi. 301.
Oh! had I dy’d before that well-fought wall.
Odyjfey v. 39J.
From this table it appears, that the adorning a
caufe with an attribute of the effedt, is not fo agree¬
able as the oppofite exprefiion. The progrefs from
caufe to effedt is natural and eafy : the oppofite pro¬
grefs fefembles retrograde motion*; and therefore * See Per*
panting height, qftonijh’d thought, are ftrained and tin- ^and^Ideasin
couth exprefiions, which a w riter of tafte will avoid. a Lrain.
It is not lefs ftrained, to apply to a fubj’edf in its
prefent ftate, an epithet chat may belong toitiu fome
future ftate:
Submerfafque obiue puppes. AEneidi. 73.
And mighty ruins fall. Iliad v.'411.
Impious fons their mangled fathers wound.
Another rule regards this figure, That the pro¬
perty of one fubjedt ought not to be beftow'd upon
another with which that property is incongruous;
K. Rich. How dare thy joints forget
To pay their awful duty to our prefence ?
Richard II aB 3. ft. €.
The connexion between an awful fuperiorand his fub-
miffive dependent is fo intimate, that an attribute may
readily be transferred from the one to the other : but
awfulnefs cannot be fo transferred, becaufe it is incon-
fiftent with fubmifiion.
ItiGVK'e. of Speech, as peculiarly diftinguiftied from
the above and from thofe firft referred to.J Under
the article Metaphor and Allegory, a figure of
fpeech is defined, “ The ufing a word in a fenfe
different from what is proper to itand the new or
uncommon fenfe of the word is termed the figurative
fetife. The figurative fenfe muft have a relation to
that which is proper ; and the more intimate the re¬
lation is, the figure is the more happy. How orna¬
mental this figure is to language, will not be readily
imagined by any one who hath not given peculiar at-
tention ; and therefore we (hall endeavour to unfold its ft, f*”’ V
capital beauties and advantages. In the firlt place, ^
a word ufed figuratively, or in a new fenfe, fuggefts at
the fame time the fenfe it commonly bears t and thus
it has the effedl to prefent two objedts ; one figni-
fied by the figurative fenfe, which may be termed the
principal oh j eel; and one fignified by the proper fenfe,
which may be termed accejfory: the principal makes a
part of the thought -r the acceffory is merely ornamen¬
tal. In this refpedt, a figure of fpeech is precifely
fimilar to concordant founds in mufic, which, without
contributing to the melody, make it harmonious.
To explain the matter by examples. ‘Touth, by a
figure of fpeech, is termed the morning of life: This
expreffion fignifies youth, the principal objedt which
enters into the thought; it fuggefts, at the fame time,
the proper fenfe of morning; and this acceffory objedt,
being in itfelf beautiful, and connedted by.refemblance
to the principal objedt, is not a little ornamental.
Imperious ocean is an example of a diffetent kind,
where an attribute is expreffed figuratively: Together
with Jiormy, the figurative meaning of the epithet im¬
perious, there is fuggefted its proper meaning, viz. the
[ 2994 ]
FIG [ 2995 ] FIG
Figure, ftern authority of a defpotlc prince ; and thefe two
are ftrongly connefted by refemblance. Upon this
figurative power of words, Vida defcants with ele¬
gance, Poet. lib. iii. 44.
In the next place, this figure pofielfes a fignal power
of aggrandifing an objedt, by the following means.
Words, which have no original beauty but what arifes
from their found, acquire an adventitious beauty from
their meaning: a word fignifying any thing that is
agreeable, becomes by that means agreeable ; for the
agreeablenefs of the objedl is communicated to its
name. This acquired beauty, by the force of cuftom
adheres to the word even when ufed figuratively ; and
the beauty received from the thing it properly figni-
fies, is communicated to the thing which it is made
to fignify figuratively. Confider the foregoing ex-
preffion Imperious ocean, how much more elevated it
is than Stormy ocean.
Thirdly, This figure hath a happy effeft by pre¬
venting the familiarity of proper names. The fami¬
liarity of a proper name, is communicated to the thing
it fignifies by means of their intimate connedHon ; and
the thing is thereby brought down in our feeling.
This bad effedl is prevented by ufing a figurative
word inftead of one that is proper ; as, for example,
when we exprefs the Iky by terming it the blue vault
of heaven / for though no work of art can compare
with the fky in grandeur, the exprefiion however is
relifhed, becaufe it prevents the objedt from being
brought down by the familiarity of its proper name.
With refpedt to the degrading the familiarity of pro¬
per names, Vida has the following paffage.
Hinc fi dura mihi pafiiis dicendus Ulyfles,
Non ilium vero memorabo nomine, fed qnl
Et mores hominum multorum vidit, et urbes,
Naufragus everfae port faeva incendia Trojie.
Voet. lib. ii. 1. 46.
Laftly, By this figure, language is enriched, and
rendered more copious; in which refpedf, were there
no other, a figure of fpeech is a happy invention.
This property is finely touched by Vida ; Poet. lib.
iii. 90.
The beauties we have mentioned belong to every
figure of fpeech. Several other beauties peculiar to
one or other fort, we fhall have occafion to remark af-
• terward.
Not only fubjedis, but qualities, adlions, effedis, may
be expreffed figuratively. Thus, as to fubjedts, the
gates of breath for the lips, the watery kingdom for the
ocean. As to qualities, fierce for ftormy, in the ex-
preffion Fierce winter ; altus for profundus, Altus pu-
teus, Altum mare; breathing for perfpiring, Breathing
plants. Again, as to adlions, The fea rages. Time
will melt her frozen thoughts, Time kills grief. An ef¬
fedl is put for the caufe,. as lux for the fun ; and a
caufe for the effedl, as bourn labores for corn. The
relation of refemblance is one plentiful fource of figures
of fpeech; and nothing is more common than to ap¬
ply to one objedl the name of another that refembles
it in any refpedl: Height, fize, and worldly greatnefs,
referable not each other; but the emotions they pro¬
duce referable each other, and, prompted by this re¬
femblance, we naturallly exprefs worldly greatnefs by
height or fize : One feels a certain uneafinefs in feeing
a great depth ; and, hence depth is made to exprefs
any thing difagreeable by cxcefs, as depth of grief. Figure,
depth of defpair : Again, height of place, and time ~~
long pad, produce fimilar feelings ; and hence the ex-
preffion, Ut altius repetam: Diftance in pall time,
producing a ftrong feeling, is put for any ftrong feel¬
ing, Nihil mihi antiquius nofira amicitia : Short nefs
with relation to fpace, for fhortnefs with relation to
time, Brevis efife laboro, obfeurus fio: Suffering a pu-
nifhment refembles paying z debt; hence pendere pce-
nas. In the fame manner, light may be put for glory,
funfhine for profperity, and weight for importance.
Many words, originally figurative, having, by long
and conftant ufe, loft their figurative power, are de¬
graded to the inferior rank of proper terms. Thus the
words that exprefs the operations of the mind, have in
all languages been originally figurative : the reafon
holds in all, that when thefe operations came firft un¬
der confideration, there was no other way of deferibing
them but by what they refembled: it was not practi¬
cable to give them proper names, as may be done to
objeCts that can be afeertained by fight and touch. A
foft nature, jarring tempers, weight of wo, pompous
phrafe, beget compaffion, ajfuage grief, break a vow,
bend the eye downward, Jhower down curfes, drown'd
in tears, wrapt in joy, warm'd with eloquence, loaded
with fpoils, and a thoufand other expreffions of the like
nature, have loft their figurative fenfe. Some terms
there are, that cannot be faid to be altogether figura¬
tive or altogether proper: originally figurative, they
are tending to fimplicity, without having loft altoge¬
ther their figurative power. Virgil’s Regina faucia cu~
ra, is perhaps one of thefe expreffions: with ordinary
rzz&ers, faucia will be confidered as exprefling (imply
the effeCl of grief; but one of a lively imagination will
exalt the phrafe into a figure-
For epitomifing this fubjed, and at the fame time
for giving a clear view of it, lord Kaims * gives a lift * Elem.ef
of the feveral relations upon which figures of fpeech ^rtt‘c‘/my
are commonly founded. This lift he divides into two It' 3°5’
tables; one of fubjeCls expreffed figuratively, and one
of attributes.
Tab. I. Subjcfls expreffed figuratively-.
1. A word proper to one fubjed employed figura¬
tively to exprefs a refembling fubjed.
There is no figure of fpeech fo frequent, as what is
derived from the relation of refemblance. Youth, for
example, is fignified figuratively by the morning of life-
The life of a man refembles a natural day in feveral
particulars: the morning is the beginning of a day,
youth the beginning of life; the morning is chearful,
fo is youth, &c. By another refemblance, a bold war¬
rior is termed the thunderbolt of war; a multitude of
troubles, a fea of troubles.
This figure, above all others, affords pleafure to the
mind by variety of beauties. Befides the beauties
above-mentioned, common to all forts, it poffeffes m
particular the beauty of a metaphor or of a limile : a
figure of fpeech built upon refemblance, fuggefts always
a comparifon between the principal fubjeCl and the ac-
ceffory ; whereby every good. effeCl of a metaphor or
fimile, may, in a fhort and lively manner, be produced
by this figure of fpeech.
2. A word proper to the effeCl employed figura¬
tively to exprefs the caufe.
fane:
Figure.
FIG [ 2996 1 FIG
Lux for the fun ; Shadow for cloud. A helmet is
"fignified by the expreffion glittering terror; a tree by
Jbadow or ujnbrage. Hence the expreffion:
Nec habet Pelion umbras. Ovid.
Where the dun umbrage hangs. Spring, /. 1013.
A wound is made to fignify an arrow:
Vulnere non pedibus te confequar. Ovid.
There is a peculiar force and beauty in this figure :
the word which fignifies figuratively the principal fub-
je&> denotes it to be a caufe by fuggefting the effect.
3. A word proper to the caufe, employed figura¬
tively to exprefs the effe&.
Boumque laborer for corn. Sorrow or grief for
tears.
Again Ulyfles veil’d his penfive head;
Again, unmann’d, a Ihow’r of forreiv ihed.
Streaming Grief his faded cheek bedew’d.
Blindnefs for darknefs:
Caecis erramus in undis. JEncid. iii. Joe.
There is-a peculiar energy in this figure, fimilar trt
that in the former; the figurative name denotes the
fubjett to be an effeft, by fuggefting its caufe.
4. Two things being intimately connefted, the pro¬
per name of the one employed figuratively to fignify
the other.
Day for light. Night for darknefs; and hence, A
fudden night. Winter for a ftorm at fea:
Intsrea magno mifeeri murmnre pontum,
Emiflamque Hyeniem fenfit Neptunus. JEncid. i. 118.
This laft figure would be too bold for a Britifh writer,
as a ftorm at fea is not infeparably connefted with win¬
ter in this climate.
5. A word proper to an attribute, employed figu¬
ratively to denote the fubje<ft.
Vouth and beauty for thofe who are young and beau¬
tiful:
Youth and beauty fhall be laid in dufl.
Majejly for the king:
What an thou, that ufurp’ft this time of night,
Together with that fair and warlike form
In which the Mtijefly of buried Dcnma-k
" Did fometime march ? Hamlet, aft i._/c, 1.
— — Or have ye chofen this place
After the toils of battle, to repofe
Your weary’d virtue. Paradife toft.
Verdure for a green field. Summer, l. 301.
■Speaking of cranes.
The pigmy nations wounds and death they bring.
And all the -war defeends upon the wing. Iliad m. 10.
Cool age advances venerably wife. Iliad\\\. 149.
The peculiar beauty of this figure arifes from fug¬
gefting an attribute that embellifhes the fubjeft, or puts
it in a ftronger light.
6. A complex term employed figuratively to denote
one of the component parts.
Funtis for a dead body. Burial for a grave.
7. The name of one of the component parts inftead
of the complex term.
Tceda for a marriage. The Eajl for a country fi-
tuated eaft from us. Jovis vejligia fervat, for imita¬
ting Jupiter in general.
8. A word fignifying time or place, employed figu¬
ratively to denote what is conne&ed with it.
Clime for a nation, or for a conftitution of govern¬
ment: hence the expreffion, Merciful clime, Fleecy win¬
ter for fnow, Seculum felix.
9. A part for the whole.
The pole for the earth. The head for the perfon:
Triginta minas pro capite tuo dedi. Plautus.
Tergum for the man:
Fugiens tergum. Ovid.
Vultus for the man:
Jam fulgor armorum fugaces
Terret equos, equitumque vultus. Herat.
Quis defiderio fit pudor ant modus
Tam chari capitis d Herat.
Dumque virent ^esao.* Hot at.
Thy growing virtues juftify’d my cares,
And promis’d comfort to my filver hairs. Iliad ix. 6x6.
——   Forthwith from the pool he rears
His mighty ftature. Paradife Loft.
The filent heart which grief aflkils, Parnell.
The peculiar beauty of this figure confifts in marking
that part which makes the greateft figure.
10. The name of the container, employed figura¬
tively to fignify what is contained.
Grove for the birds in it, Vocal grove. Ships for the
feamen, Agonizing fsips. Mountains for the fheep pa-
fturing upon them. Bleating mountains. Zacynthus,
Ithaca, &c. for the inhabitants. Ex nuefis domi-
bus, Livy.
11. The name of the fuftainer, employed figura¬
tively to fignify what is fuftained.
Altar for the facrifice. Field for the battle fought
upon it, Well-fought feld.
12. The name of the materials, employed figura¬
tively to fignify the things made of them.
Ferrutn for gladius.
13. The names of the Heathen deities, employed
figuratively to fignify what they patronife.
Jove for the air, Mars for war, Venus for beauty,
Cupid for love, Ceres for corn, Neptune for the fea,
Vulcan for fire.
This figure beftows great elevation upon the fubjeft;
and therefore ought to be confined to the higher drains
of poetry.
Tab. II. Attributes expreffedfiguratively.
When two attributes are connefted, the name of the
one may be employed figuratively to exprefs the other.
Purity and virginity are attributes of the fame per¬
fon: hence the expreffion, Virgin fnow, for pure fnow.
2. A word fignifying properly an attribute of one
fubjedt, employed figuratively to exprefs a refembling
attribute of another fubjedt.
Tottering ftate. Imperious ocean. Angry flood.
Raging tempeft. Shallow fears.
My Cure divinity (hall bear the (bield,
And edge thy fword to reap the glorious field.
Odfifey xx. Sr.
Black omen, for an omen that portends bad fortune.
Ater odor. Virgil.
The peculiar beauty of this figure arifes from fug¬
gefting a comparifon.
3. A word proper to the fubjedf, employed to ex¬
prefs one of its attributes.
Mens for intelledlus. Mens for a refolution,:
Iftam,
Figure.
* See
Metaphor.
FIG [ 2997 ] FIG
Tftam, oro, exue mentem.
4. When two fubje&s have a refemblance by a com¬
mon quality, the name of the one fubjeft may be em¬
ployed figuratively to denote that quality in the other:
Summer life for agreeable life.
5. The name of the inftrument made to fignify the
power of employing it:
 Melpomene, cui liquidam pater
Vocem cum cithara dedit.
The ample field of figurative expreffion difplayed in
thefe tables, affords great fcope for reafoning. Several
of the obfervations relating to metaphor*, are appli¬
cable to figures of fpeech: thefe fhall be flightly re¬
touched, with fome additions peculiarly adapted to the
prefetit'fubjeft.
1. As the figure under confideration is built upon
relation, we find from experience, and it muft be ob¬
vious from reafon, that the beauty of it depends on the
intimacy of the relation between the figurative and
proper fenfe of the word. A flight refemblance, in
particular, will never make this figure agreeable: the
expreffion, for example, Drink down afecret, for liften-
ing to a fecret with attention, is harfh and uncouth,
becaufe there is fcarce any refemblance between liften-
vtg and drinking. The expreffion weighty crack, ufed
by Ben Johnfon for loud crack, is worfe if polfible : a
loud found has not the flighted refemblance to a piece
of matter that is weighty.
Phemius! let afts of gods, and heroes old,
What ancient bards in hall and bow’r have told.
Attemper’d to the lyre, your voice employ,
Such the pleas’d ear -will drink with filent joy.
Odyffcy i. 433-
Strepitumque exterritus haufil. JEnrid vi. 559.
 Write, my queen,
And with mine eyes I’ll drink the words you fend.
CymbeUnc, aft i.fc. i.
As thus th’effulgence tremulous I drink.
Summer, l. 1C84.
Neque tfadit currus habenas. Georg, i. J14.
O prince! (Lycaon’s valiant fon reply’d).
As thine the (feeds, he thine the talk to guide.
The horfes practis’d to their lord’s command,
Shall hear the rein, and anfwer to thy hand. Iliad v. 283.
The following figures of fpeech feem altogether wild
and extravagant, the figurative and proper meaning ha¬
ving no connexion whatever. Moving foftnefs, Frefh-
nefs breathes, Breathing profpeft. Flowing fpring,
■Dfi,'iwy light, coolnefs, and many others of this
falfe coin, may be found in Thomfon’s
2. The proper fenfe of the word ought to bear
fome proportion to the figurative fenfe, and not foar
much iibove it, nor fink much below it. This rule, as
well as the foregoing, is finely illuflrated by Vida,
Poet. iii. 148.
3. In a figure of fpeech, every cireumftance ought
to be avoided that agrees with the proper fenfe only,
not with the figurative fenfe ; for it is the latter that ex-
preffes the thought, and the former ferves for no other
purpofe but to make harmony:
Zacynlhus green with ever-fhady groves,
And Ithaca, prefumptuous boafl their loves;
Obtruding on my choice a fecond lord.
They prefs the Hymenean rite abhorr’d.
Odyffey, xix. jjt.
Zacynthus here itanding figuratively for the inhabi-
Vol. IV.
tants, the defcription of the ifland is quite out of place:
it puzzles the reader, by making him doubt whether
the word ought to be taken in its proper or figurative
fenfe.
 ——Write, my queen,
And with mine eyes I’ll drink the words you fend,
Though ink be made of gall. Cymbeline, aft i.fc. 1.
The difguft one has to drink ink in reality, is not to
the purpofe where the fubjed is drinking ink figura¬
tively.
4. To draw confequences from a figure of fpeech,
as if the word were to be underftood literally, is a
grofs abfurdity; for it is confounding truth with fic¬
tion :
Be Moubray’s fins fo heavy in his bofom,
That they may break his foaming courier’s back,
And throw the rider headlong in the lifts,
A caitiff recreant to my coufin Hereford.
Richard \\. aft 1. fc. 3.
Sin may be imagined heavy in a figurative fenfe: but
weight in a proper fenfe belongs to the accelfory only;
and therefore to deferibe the effe&s of weight, is to
defert the principal fubjed, and to convert the accefibry
into a principal:
Cromviell. How does your Grace ?
Wolfey. Why, well;
Never lo truly happy, my good Cromwell.
I know myfelf now, and I feel within me
A peace above all earthly dignities,
A ftill and quiet conscience. The King has cur’d me,
I humbly thank his Grace; and, from thefc (boulders,
Thefe ruin’d pillars, out of pity, taken
A load would fink a navy, too much honour.
Henry VIII. aft 3. S.
Ulyfies fpeaking of Hedor:
1 wonder now how yonder city (lands.
When we have here the bafe and pillar by us. .
Troilus and Crejfida, aft 4. fc. 9.
Othello. No; my heart is turn’d to ftone: I ftrike it,
and it hurts my hand. Othello, aft 4. fc. s.
Not lefs, even in this defpicable now,
' Than when my name fill’d Afric with affrights.
And froze your hearts beneath your torrid zone.
Don Sebaflian King of Portugal, aft 1.
How long a fpace, fince firft I lov’d, it is!
To look into a glafs I fear,
And am furpris’d with wonder, when I mifs.
Grey hairs and wrinkles there.
Cowley, vol. 1. p. 86,
I chofe the flourifiiing’ft tree in all the park,
With frelheft boughs, and faireft head :
I cut my love into his gentle bark.
And in three days behold ’tis dead;
My very written flames fo violent be.
They’ve,burnt and wither’d up the tree.
Cowley, volt s. p. 136.
Ah, mighty Love, that it were inward heat
Which made this precious limbeck'fweat!
But what, alas! ah what does it avail
That fbe weeps tears fo wond’rous cold,
As fcarce the afs’s hoof can hold.
So cold, that I admire they fall not hail ?
Cowley, vol. 1. p.s 31.
Such a play of words is pleafant in a ludicrous poem,
Almeria. O Alphonfo, Alphonfo !
Devouring ftas have walk’d thee from my fight,
No time fhall rafe thee from my memory;
No, I will live to he thy monument:
The cruel ocean is no more thy tomb;
But in my heart thou art interr’d.
Mourning Bride, aft, i.fc, t.
This would be very right, if there were any in con fi ft-
17 H voce
Ligar
Figure.
FIG [ 2998 ] FIG
eoce, in being interred in one place really, and in ano¬
ther place figuratively.
From confidering, that a word ufec| in a figurative
fenfe fuggefts at the fame time its proper meaning, we
difcover a fifth rule, That we ought not to employ a
word in a figurative fenfe, the proper fenfe of which is
inconfiftent or incongruous with the fubjeft : for every
inconfiftency, and even incongruity, though in the ex-
preffion only and not real, is unpleafant:
Interea genitor Tyberini ad fluniinis undam
Vulnera jkcaiat lymphis    
JEneid. x. 833.
Tres adeo incertos cseca caligitie foies
Erramuspelago, totidem fine fiderenoftes.
JEneid. Hi. 203.
Eife fhall our fates be number’d with the dead. Figure,
Iliad v. 2J4- Figured.
Commutual death the fate of war confounds.  
lliad ym. 85. and xi. x 17,
Speaking of Proteus.
Inftant he wears, elufive of the rape,
The mimic force of every favage ihape.
Odjtfey iv. j<Jj.
Rolling convulfive on the floor, is feen
The piteous objeit of a proftrate queen.
Ibid. iv. 6$i.
The mingling temped weaves its gloom.
Autumn, 337.
A various fweetnefs fwelle the gentle race. Ibid. 640
A fober calm fleeces unbounded ether. Ikd. 967.
The diflant water-fall fwells in the breeze.
The foregoing rule may be extended to form a
fixth, That no epithet ought to be given to the figu¬
rative fenfe of a word that agrees not alfo with its pro¬
per fenfe :
 Dicat Opunti*
Frater Megill®, quo beatus
Vultier?. Herat. Carm. lib. 1. ode iT.
Partus deornm cultor, et infrequens,
Jnfanientis dum fapientiae
Confultus erro. Herat. Carm. 1. 1. ode $4-
Seventhly, The crowding into one period or thought
different figures of fpeech, is not lefs faulty than crowd¬
ing metaphors in that manner: the mind is diitraCled
in the quick tranfition from one image to another, and
is puzzled in Head of being pleafed :
I am of ladies mod deitdf and wretched.
That fuck’d (he honey of his mufie vows. Hamlet.
My bleeding bofonv fickens at the found.
Odjfey t. 439.
— Ah mifer.
Quanta laboras in Cbaryb'di t
Digne puer meliore flamma.
Qnse faga, quis te folvere Theflaiis
Magus venenis, qnis poterit dcus ?
Vix illigatum te triformi
Pegafits expediet Chimera.
Horn! Carm. lib. 1. ode ty.
Eighthly, If crowding figures be bad, it is ftill worfe
to graft one figure upon another: Forinftance,
While his keen falchion drinks the warriors lives.
Iliad xi. H1.
A falchion drinking the warriors blood is a figure built
Upon refembl&nce, which is paffable. But then in the
expreflion, lives is again put for blood; and by thus
grafting one figure upon another, the expreffion is ren¬
dered obfeure and unpleafant.
Ninthly, Intricate and involved figures, that can
fcarce be analyfed, or reduced to plain language, are
leaft of all tolerable t
Votis incendimus aras. JEneid. iii. 179.
 Oncrentqpe canid’ris
Dona laboratse Cereris. JEneid. viii. i8o«
Vulcan to the Cyclopes:
Arma acri facienda viro: nunc viribus ufus,
Ntmc manibus rapidis, omni nunc arte magidra:
Precipitate moras. JEneid. viii. 441.
 Huic gladio, pevque aereafeuta
Pertuntcam fqualentem auro, latus haurit aportwn.
JEiuid. x. 313.
Scriberts Vario fortis, et hofliutn
Viftor, Maeonii carm inis alitc.
Marat.. Carni. lib. 1. ode 6.
Winter, 738.
In the tenth place, When a fubjeft is introduced by
its proper name, it is abfurdto attribute to it the pro¬
perties of a different fubjefl to which the word is fome-
times applied in a figurative fenfe :
Hear me, oh Neptune ! thou whofe arms are hurl’d
From (hore to fhore, and gird the folid world
OdyfTeyW. 617.
Neptune is here introduced perfonally, and not fi¬
guratively for the ocean : the defeription therefore,
which is only applicable to the letter, is altogether
improper.
It is not fufficient, that a figure of fpeech be regu¬
larly conftru&ed, and be free from blemilh : it re¬
quires tafte todifeern when it is proper, when impro¬
per; and tafte perhaps is our only guide. One, however,
may gather from refledtions and experience, that orna¬
ments and graces fuit not any of the difpiriting paf-
fions, nor are proper for exprefling any thing grave and,
important. In familiar converfation, they are in fome
meafure ridiculous: Profpero, in the Tenipeft, fpeak-
ing to his daughter Miranda, fays,
The fringed curtains of thine eyes advance,
And fay what thou feeft yond.
No exception can be taken to the Juftnefs of the fi¬
gure ; and circumftances may be imagined to make it
proper : but it is certainly not proper in familiar con¬
verfation..
In the laft place, Though figures of fpeech have a
charming effedt when accurately conftrudled and pro¬
perly introduced, they ought, however, to be fcattered
with a fparinghand ; nothing is more lufeious, and no¬
thing confequently more fatiating, than redundant or¬
naments of any kind.
FIGUREE), in general, fomething marked with
figures.
The term figured is chiefly applied to. fluffs, where¬
on the figures of flowers, and the like, are either
wrought or ftamped.
Figured, in mufic, is applied either to fimple notes
or to harmony t to fimple notes, as in thefe words
figured bafs, to exprefs a bafs whofe notes carrying
chords are fubdivided into many other notes of leffer
value; to harmony, when, by fuppofition and in a
diatonick procedure, other notes than thofe which
form the chord are employed *. * ®ee
To figure is to pafs feveral notes for one ; to form
runnings or variations; to add fome notes to the air*
in whatever manner it be done; in ftrort, it is to give
to harmonious founds a figure of melody* by connect¬
ing
F I L [ 2999 ] F I L
Filament. log them with other intermediate founds.
FILAMENT, in anatomy, natural hiftory, &c. a
term ufed in the fame fenfe with fibre, for thofe fine
threads whereof the flefh, nerves, Ikin, plants, roots,
&c. are compofed. See Fibre.
Vegetable Filaments form a fubftance of great
ufe in the arts and manufadlures; furnifhing thread,
cloth, cordage, &c.
For thefe purpofes the filamentous parts of the Can¬
nabis and Linum, or hemp and flax, are employed a-
• See Hemp mong us *. But different vegetables have been em-
alfo Cto/si pl°ye<i in different countries for the fame ufes. Putre-
’ ’ faftion deftroys the pulpy or flefhy matter, and leaves
the tough filaments entire: By curioufly putrefying
the leaf of a plant in water, we obtain the fine flexile
fibres, which conftituted the bafis of the ribs and mi¬
nute veins, and which now form as it were a fkeleton
of the leaf. Alkaline lixivia, in fome degree, pro¬
duce fimilar effedls to putrefa&ion.
The Sieur de Flacourt, in his hiftory of Madagaf-
car, relates, that different kinds of cloth are prepared
in that ifland, from the filaments of the bark of cer¬
tain trees boiled in ftrong ley ; that fome of thefe
cloths are very fine, and approach to the foftnefs of
filk, but in durability come fhort of cotton ; that
others are coarfer and ftronger, and laft thrice as long
as cotton ; and that of thefe the fails and cordage of
his veffel were made. See alfo the article Bark.
The fame author informs us, that the ftalks of
nettles are ufed for the like purpofes in his own coun¬
try, France. And Sir Hans Sloane relates, in one
of his letters to Mr Ray, that he has been informed
by feveral, that muflin and callico, and moft of the
Indian linens, are made of nettles.
In fome of the Swediih provinces, a ftrong kind of
cloth is faid to be prepared from hop-ftalks: and in
the tranfa&ions of the Swedifli academy for the year
1750, there is an account ©f an experiment made in
confequence of that report. Of the ftalks, gathered
in Autumn, about as many were taken, as equalled in
bulk a quantity of flax that would have produced a
pound after preparation. The ftalks were put into
water, and kept covered therewith during the winter.
In March they were taken out, dried in a ftove, and
drefled as flax. The prepared filaments weighed
nearly a pound, and proved fine, foft, and white :
They were fpun and woven into fix ells of fine ftrong
cloth, The author, Mr Shifter, obferves, that hop-
flalks take much longer time to rot than flax ; and
that, if not fully rotted, the woody part will not fepa-
rate, and the cloth will neither prove white nor fine.
Hemp, flax, and all other vegetable filaments, and
thread or cloth prepared from them, differ remarkably
from wool, hair, filk, and other animal produfh'ons,
not only in the principles into which they are refoluble
by fire, but likewife in fome of their more interefting
properties, particularly in their difpofition to imbibe
colouring matters ; fundry liquors, which give a beau¬
tiful and durable dye to thofe of the aaimal, giving no
ftain at all to thofe of the vegetable kingdom.
A folution of copper in aqua-fortis, which had
been changed blue by an addition of volatile fpirit, on
being mixed with a little folution of tin, became tur¬
bid and greenilh. Pieces of white filk and flannel
boiled, without any previous preparation, in this mix¬
ture, received a bright deep yellow dye, whilft pieces Eihmrnt,
of linen, prepared and unprepared, came out as Co- Fibnders.
lourlefs as they were put in.
Filhing-nels are ufually boiled with oak-bark or
other like aftringents, which render them more laft-
ing, Thofe made of flax receive from this deco&ion
a brownilh colour, which, by the repeated alterna¬
tions of water and air, is in a little time difeharged,
whilft the fine glofly brown, communicated by the
fame means to filken nets, permanently refifts both the
air and water, and ftands as long as the animal fila¬
ments themfelves. In like manner the ftain of ink, or
the black dye from folutions of iron, mixed with ve-
etable aftringents, proves durable in filk and woollen j
ut from linen, the aftringent matter is extra&ed by
waftiing, and only the yellow iron-mould remains.
The red decodtion of cochineal, which, heightened
with a little folution of tin, gives the fiery fcarlet dye
to wool or filk that have been previoufly impregnated
with folution of tartar, makes no imprelfion upon li¬
nen or cotton prepared in the fame manner. Mr du
Fay informs us in the Memoirs of the French Aca¬
demy for the year 1737, that having prepared a mixed
cloth whofe warp was of wool, and the woof of cot¬
ton, and thoroughly blended the two together by ful¬
ling, he ftill found the cotton to refift the aflion of
the fcarlet liquor, and the wool to receive the fame
colour from it as wool by itfelf, the fluff coming out
all over marbled fiery and white.
Many other inftances of this kind are known too
well to the callico-printer; whofe grand defideratum
it is, to find means of making linen receive the fame
colours that wool does. The phyfical caufe of the
difference is wholly unknown ; and indeed, of the
theory of dyes in general, we know as yet extremely
little. (SeeDvEiNG.) Are animal filaments tubular,
and the colouring atoms received within them ? Are
vegetable filaments folid, and the colour depofited on
the furface ? Or does not their different fufeeptibility
of colour depend rather on the different intrinfic pro¬
perties of the two? There are many inftances of alike
diverfity, even in the metallic kingdom, where a me¬
chanical difference in texture can fcarcely be prefumed
to be the caufe: Thus lilvcr receives a deep ftain
from fulphureous or putrid vapours, or the yolk of a
boiled egg, which have no effeft upon tin.
Filaments, among botanifts, particularly fignify
the (lamina. See Botany, p. 1294.
FILANDERS, in falconry, a difeafe in hawks,
&c. confiding of filaments or firings of blood coagu¬
lated ; and occafioned by a violent rupture of fome vein,
by which the blood, extravafating, hardens into thefe
figures, and incommodes the reins, hips, &c.
Filanders, are alfo worms as fmall as thread, and
about an inch long, that lie wrapt up in a thin (kin, or
net, near the reins of an hawk, apart from either gut
or gorge.
This malady is known by the hawk’s poverty; by
ruffling her tail ; by her draining the fift, or perch,
with her pounces; and laftly, by croaking in the
night, when the filanders prick her. The difeafe pro¬
ceeds from bad food; and muftbe remedied in time, to
prevent its fpreading over the whole body, and deftroy-
ingthe bird. Thefe muft not be killed as other worms
are, for fear of impofthumes from their corruption, be-
17 H 2 ing
TIL [ 3000 ] F I L
Til'hert Jng incapable of pafiing away witb tbe hawk’s meat.
II They muft only be ftupified, to preventtheirbeingof-
- 1 igrane. fenp1vp . anj js ^one by giving the hawk a clove
of garlic, after which (he will feel nothing of the (Han¬
ders for 40 days. It will be prudent in the falconer,
when he obferves the hawk poor and low, to give
her a clove of garlic once a-month by way of pre¬
vention.
FILBERT, or Filberd, the fruit of the corylus,
or hazel. See Corylus.
FILE, among mechanics, a tool ufed in metal, &c.
in order to fmooth, polifh, or cut.
This inftrument is of iron or forged fteel, cut in
little furrows, with chHTels and a mallet, this and that
way, and of this or that depth, according to the grain
or touch required. After cutting the file, it muft be
tempered with a compofition of chimney-foot, very
hard and dry, diluted and wrought up with urine, vi¬
negar, and fait; the whole being reduced to the con¬
fidence of mudard. Tempering the files confids in
rubbing them over with this compofition, and covering
them in loam ; after which they are put in a charcoal
fire, and taken out by that time they have acquired a
cherry colour, which is known by a fmall rod of the
fame fteel put in along with them. Being taken out
of the fire, they are thrown into cold fpring-water;
and when cold, they are cleaned with charcoal and a
rag ; and being clean and dry, are kept from ruft
by laying them up in wheat bran. Iron files require
more heating than fteel ones. Files are of different
forms, fizes, cuts, and degrees of finenefs, according
to the different ufes and occafions for which they are
made. See Flling.
File, in the art of war, a row of foldiers, (landing
one behind another, which is the depth of the batalion
or fquadron. The files of a batalion of foot are gene¬
rally three dep; as are fometimes thofe of a fquadron
of horfe. The files muft be ftraight and parallel one
to another.
File, in law, a thread, firing, or wire, upon which
writs and other exhibits in courts and offices are fa¬
ttened or filed, for the more fafe keeping, and ready
turning to the fame. A file is a record of the court;
and the filing of a procefs of a court makes it a record
of it. An original writ may be filed after judg¬
ment given in the caufe, iffued forth before ; decla¬
rations, &c. are to be filed, and affidavits muft be
filed, feme before they are read in court, and fome
prefently when read in court. Before filing a record
removed by the juflices of B. R. may refufe
to receive it, if it appears to be for delay, &c.; and
remand it back for the expe-dition of juttice t but if the
certiorctri be once filed, the proceedings below can¬
not be revived. An indidlment, &c. cannot be am-
mended after it is filed.
FILIAL, fomething belonging to the relation of
fon. See Son.
The divines ufually diftinguifh between a fervile
and a filial fear. The mod abandoned may have a
fervile fear of God, fnch as that of a (lave to his ma¬
tter; but not a filial fear, i. e. a fear refulting from
love and refpedl.
FILIGRANE, or Filigree, Work, any piece of
gold or filver work that is curioufly done with grains
or drops on the filaments, or threads.
FILICACIA (Vincent), a celebrated Italian poet, Filicacia
was born at Florence in 1642. He was a member of !!
the Academy della Crufca and of that of the Arcadi, Fllter-
and became fecretary to the duke of Tufcany. He died
in 1707. His poems are much efteemed for the deli¬
cacy and noblenefs of their fentiments. Scipio de Fi¬
licacia, his fon, had them all printed together, under
the title of Poefte Fofiano di Vincenzo da Filicacia, in
1707, ,410.
FILICES, (from filum “ a thread,” quaji filatim
incifa). Ferns; one of the feven tribes or families of
the vegetable kingdom, according to Linnaeus, by
whom it is thus charadlerized: “ having their fructifi¬
cation on the back fide of the frondes,’1 They conttuutd
the firft order in the clafs cryptogamia; and contift of
16 genera, which are divided intofruftificationes fpica-
tce, frondofa, <b radicales. This order comprehends
the entire xvith clafs of Tournefort, in whofe fyftem
the (dices make only a (ingle genus, in the firft fettion
of the above-mentioned clafs.
Filices, is alfo an order of plants in the fragmenta
metkodi naturalis of Linnaeus. See Botany, p. 1317.
FILING, one of the principal operations in fmith-
ery, &c. fucceeding to forging. See File.
The coarfer cut files are always to be fucceeded by
finer; and in all the kinds the rule is, to lean heavy
on the file in thrufting it forward, becaufe the teeth of
the file are made to cut forwards. But in drawing the
file back again for a fecond ftroke, it is to be lightly
lifted juft above the work, by reafon it cuts not coming
back.
The rough or coarfe-toothed file (which, when large,
is called a rubber) ferves to take off the unevenneffe*
of the work left by the hammer in forging.
The Pa (lard-toothed file is to take out too deep
cuts, and file ftrokes made by the rough file. The fine¬
toothed file takes out the cuts or file-ftrokes the ba-
ftard-file made ; and the fmooth file thofe left by the
fine file.
In this order, the files of feveral cuts are to fucceed
each other till the work is as fmooth as it can be filed.
After which it may be made yet fmoother with emery,
tripoli, &c. See Polishing.
FILIPENDULA, in botany. See Spiraea*
FILIX, in botany. See Filices.
F’lLLET, in anatomy. See Froenum.
Fillet, or Filet, in archite&ure, a little fquare
member, ornament, or moulding, ufed in divers places
and upon divers occafions, but generally as a crowning
over a greater .moulding.
Fillet, in heraldry, a kind of orle or bordure,
containing only a third or fourth part of the breadth
of the common bordure. It is fuppofed to be with¬
drawn inwards, and is of a different colour from the
field. It runs quite round, near the edge, as a lace
over a cloak.
Fillet, in the manege, the loins of an horfe, which
begin at the place where the hinder part of the faddle
relts.
FILLY, a term among horfe-dealers, to denote the
female or mare colt.
FILM, a thin (kin or pellicle. In plants, it is ufed
for that thin, woody (kin, which feparates the feeds in
the pods, and keeps them apart.
FILTER, or Filtre, in chemiftry, a drainer com¬
monly
FIN [ 3001 ] F ~ I N
Filtration tnonly made of bibulous or filtering paper in the form
II of a funnel, through which any fluid is pafled, in or-
rincll~ der to feparate the grofs particles from it, and render
it limpid.
Filter, is alfo a charm, fuppofed to have a virtue
of infpiring love. The word is derived from the
Greek which fignifies the fame thing, of
attio, “ I love.”
FILTRATION. See Chemistry, n° 69.
FIMBRIAE, denotes appendages difpofed by way
of fringe round the border of any thing.
FIMBRIATED, in heraldry, an ordinary with a
narrow border or hem of another tindlure.
FIN, in natural hitlory, a well-known part of fiihes,
confiding of a membrane fupported by rays, or little
bony or cartilaginous officles.
The office of the fins has commonly been fuppofed
to be analogous to that of feathers in fowls; and to af-
fid the fi(h in its progreffive motion, or fwimming :
but the later natnralids find this a miflake.
The tail is the great indrument of fwimming : the
fins only ferve to keep the fifh upright, and prevent va¬
cillation or wavering.
FINAL, in general, whatever terminates or con¬
cludes a thing; as_/?W judgment, final fentence, &c.
Final See Cause.
Final Ze/Zerx, among the Hebrew grammarians, five
letters fo called, becaufethey have a different figure at
the end of words from what they have in any other fi-
tuation.
Final, in geography, a port-town of Italy, fubjt A
to Genoa, and fituated on the Mediterranean, about 37
miles fouth-wed of that city. It was fold to the Ge-
noefe, in 1713, by the emperor Charles VI. E. Long.
9. 12. N. Lat. 44. 30.
FINANCES, in the French policy, denote the re¬
venues of the king and date: much the fame with the
treafury or exchequer of the Englifh, and the fifcus
of the Romans.—The word is derived from the Ger¬
man finantz, “ fcraping, ufury.” Tho’du Cange choo-
fes rather to deduce it from the barbarous Latinfinan-
cia, pneftatio pecuniaria.
Council of the Finances, correfponds to our lords-
commiffioners of the treafury: the comptroller-general
ol \.\\z finances* to our lord high treafurer, &c.
The French have a peculiar kind of figures, or nu¬
meral character, which they call chijfre de finance.
FINCH-kind, in ornithology, an appellation given
to a genus of birds known among authors by the name
of Fringilla.
Finch (Heneage), earl of Nottingham, the fon of
Sir Heneage Find), fome time recorder of London,
and of a younger branch of the Winchelfea family,
was born in 1621. By his good parts and diligence,
he became a noted proficient in the municipal laws ;
was made folicitor-general by Charles II. on his re-
ftoration, and was very aftive in the profecution of the
regicides. In 1670, he was appointed attorney-gene¬
ral ; about three years after, lord keeper of tbe great
feal, on the removal of the earl of Shaftelbury"; and
lord chancellor in 1675. He was created earl of
Northampton in 1681 ; and died the year following,
loeing quite worn out by the fatigues of bufinefs. He
publifhed feveral fpeeches on the trials of the judges of
king Charles I. with fome few other things; and.left
behind him Chancery Reports in MS.
FINE, in law, hath divers applications. Some¬
times it is ufed for a formal conveyance of lands or
tenements, or of any thing inheritable,; being in effe
temporis finis, in order to cut off all controverfies. Ci¬
thers define it to be a final agreement between per-
fons, concerning any lands or rents, &e. of which any
fuit or writ is depending between them in any court.
Fine, fometimes fignifies a fum of money paid for
entering lands or tenements let by leafe ; and fome¬
times a pecuniary mul& for an offence committed
againft the king and his laws, or againff tire lord of
the manor.
Fines for Alienation, in feodal law. One of the
attendants or confequences of tenure by vaffalfhip.
KNiGHT-iSW-u/Ve, was that of fines due to the lord for
every alienation, whenever the tenant had occafion
to make over his land to another. This depended
on the nature of the feodal conneftion 5 it not be¬
ing reafonable nor allowed, that a feudatory fhould
transfer his lord’s gift to another, and fubftitute'a new
tenant to do the fervice in his own Head, without the
confent of the lord : and, as the feodal obligation was
confidered as reciprocal, the lord alfo could not alie¬
nate his feignory without the confent of his tenant,
which confent of his was called an attornment. This
reftraint upon the lord foon wore away ; that upon the
tenant continued longer. For, when every thing came
in procefs of time to be bought and fold, the lords
would not grant a licence to their tenants to aliene,
without a fine being paid ; apprehending that, if it
was reafonable for the heir to pay a fine or relief on
the renovation of his paternal eftate, it was much more
reafonable that a ftranger fhould make the fame ac¬
knowledgment on his admiffion to a newly purchafed
feud. In England, thefe fines feem only to have-
been exacted from the king’s tenants in capite, who
were never able to aliene without a licence : but, as
to common perfons, they were at liberty, by magnet
chart a, and the ftatute of quia emptores, (if not ear¬
lier), to aliene the whole of their eftate, to be holden
of the fame lord as they themfelves held it of before.
But the king’s tenantscapite, not being included
under the general words of thefe ftatutes, could not
aliene without a licence: for if they did, it was in an¬
cient ftri&nefs an abfolute forfeiture of the land ; tho*
fome have imagined otherwife. But this feverity was
mitigated by the ftatute 1 Edw, III. e. 12. which
ordained, that in fuch cafe the lands fhould not be for¬
feited, but a reafonable fine be paid to the king. Up¬
on which ftatute it was fettled, that one third of the
yearly value fhould be paid for a licence of alienation ;
but, if the tenant prefumed to aliene without a li¬
cence, a full year’s value fhould be paid. Thefe fines
were at laft totally taken away by ftatute 12 Car. II.
c. 24. See Knight-Sc/wc.
Yxta's.-Drawing, or Rentering, a dexterous fewing
up or rejoining the parts of any cloth, fluff, or the
like, torn or rent in the dreffing, wearing, &c.
It is prohibited; to fine-draw pieces of foreign manu¬
facture upon thofe of our own, as has formerly been
praftifed. See Rentering.
FINERS of gold and silver, are thofe who fepa¬
rate thefe metals from coarfer ores. See Refiners.
FINERY, in the iron-works, one of the forges at
-■which
Fine
Finery
Btartfi.
Comment.
FIR [ 3002 ] FIR
Fmgal which the iron is hammered and faihioned into what
Jl they call a bloom, or fquare bar.
lrc' FINGAL, a Caledonian chief, the hero of Offian,
flourifhed about the end of the third century. Vid. Of-
Jinn's Poems.
FINGERS, in anatomy, the extreme part of the
hand divided into five members,
FINING of Liqjjors. See Clarification.
FINISTERRA, the moft wefterly cape or pro¬
montory of Spain, in 10. 15. W. Long, and 430 N.
Lat. This cape is likewife the molt wefterly part of
the continent of Europe.
FINITE, fomething bounded or limited, in con-
tradiftinftion to Infinite.
FINLAND (the duchy of), is bounded on the
weft by the gulph of Bothnia, on the call byMufcovy,
on the fouth by the gulph of Finland and Ingria, and
on the north by Bothnia and Lapland. It is about
200 miles in length, and almoft as much in breadth.
It contains many lakes; in which are feveral iflands,
which are generally rocks or inacceflible mountains.
The inhabitants are fmall of ftature, capable of endu¬
ring hardlhips, and good foldiers. The Ruffians have
for fome time rendered themfelves mailers of a good
part of this province ; the reft belongs to Sweden. It
is divided into feven provinces : 1. Finland; 2. Caja-
na ; 3. Thavafthia ; 4. Nyeland; 5. Savolaxia; 6. Ca-
relia ; and, 7. Kexholmia.
Finland Proper is an agreeable country, and lies
over-againft the city of Stockholm, near the place
where the gulphs of Bothnia and Finland meet. It
is divided into South and North Finland. It is di-
verfified with mountains, forefts, lakes, meadows, and
pleafant fields. The inhabitants fait the filh they do
not confume themfelves, and fertd it into foreign coun¬
tries.
FIR-tree, in botany. See Abies.
FIRE is that fubtle, invifible, fubllance, by which
all bodies are expanded, or enlarged in their dimenfions,
and then become hot to the touch ; fluid fubftances of
every kind are carried off in vapour ; folid bodies be¬
come luminous, and are likewife diffipated in vapour,
or, if incapable of being evaporated, become fluid, and
at laftare converted intoglafs. It feems likewife to be
the chief agent in nature, on which animal and vege¬
table life have an immediate dependence, and without
which it doth not appear that the fyftem of nature itfelf
could fubfift a Angle moment.
No queftion in natural philofophy feems more diffi¬
cult to be refolved than that concerning the nature of
fire, and none has been more agitated. One fet of phi-
lofophers, amongft whom are Lord Bacon, Mr Boyle,
Sir Ifaac Newton, &c, aflert, that fire is not any fub-
ftance of itfelf diftinA from terreftrial bodies, but that
it confifts only in a vehement vibratory motion of their
parts. Hence, lord Bacon defines heat, by which he
means fire itfelf, to be “ an expanlive undulatory mo¬
tion in the minute particles of a body, whereby they
tend with fome rapidity towards the circumference,
. ? and at the fame time tend a little upwards.” From
lord Bacon t^'s >nfers> that if in any natural body you can ex-
concerning cite a motion whereby it fliall expand or dilate itfelf,
fire. and can reprefs and direct this motion upon itfelf, in
fuch a manner, that the motion fliall not proceed uni¬
formly, but obtain in fome parts and be checked in
others, you will generate heat, or fire. Fire
To the fame purpofe Mr Boyle argues in a treatife ~
on the mechanical origin of heat and cold. “ In the of ^
production of heat, (fays he,) there appears nothing on B0yie.
the part either of the agent or patient, but motion, and
its natural effects. When a fmith brifkly hammers a
fmall piece of iron, the metal thereby becomes exceed¬
ingly hot : yet there is nothing to make it fo, except
the forcible motion of the hammer impreffing a vehe¬
ment and varioufly determined agitation on the fmall
parts of the iron ; which, being a co/d body before,
grows, by that fuperinduced commotion of its fmall
parts, lot—firft, in a more loofe acceptation of the
word, with regard to fome other bodies with which
it was cold before : then fenlibly hot, becaufe this
agitation exceeds that of the parts of our fingers:
and, in this inftance, oftentimes the hammer and anvil
continue cold after the operation; which ftiews, that
the heat acquired by the iron was not communicated
by either of thofe implements as heat; but produced
in it by a motion great enough ftrongly to agitate the
parts of fo fmall body as the piece of iron, without
being able to have an effedt upon fo much greater
maffes of metal as the hammer or anvil. Though, if
the percuffions were often and brilkly renewed, and
the hammer were fmall, this alfo might be heated.
Whence it is not neceflary that a body Ihould itfelf be
hot to give heat.
“ If a large nail is driven by a hammer into a plank
of wood, it will receive feveral ftrokes on its head
ere it grow hot; but when it is once driven to the
head, a few ftrokes fuffice to give it a confiderable
heat; for while, at every blow of the hammer, the
nail enters further into the wood, the motion produ¬
ced is chiefly progreffive, and is of the whole nail tend¬
ing one way ; but when that motion ceafes, the im-
pulfe given by the ftroke, being unable to drive it fur¬
ther on, or break it, muft be fpent in making a vari¬
ous, vehement, and inteftine commotion of the parts
among themfelves, wherein the nature of heat confifts.’’ ^
Sir Ifaac Newton conjedfures, that the fun and ftars Of Sir Ifiiac
are only great earths vehemently heated : for large Newton,
bodies, he obferves, “ preferve their heat the longeft,
their parts heating oneanother; and why may not great,
denfe, and fixed bodies, when heated beyond a certain
degree, emit light fo copioufly, as by theemiffion and
rea&ion thereof, and the refledfions and refraff ions of the
rays within the pores, to grow continually hotter, till
they arrive at fuch a period of heat as is that of the
fuu ? Their parts may be further preferved from fuming
away, not only by their fixity, but by the vaft weight
and denfity of the atmofphere incumbent on them,
ftrongly compreffing them, and condenfing the vapours
and exhalations arifingfrom them. Thus we fee, that
warm water, in an exhaufted receiver, fliall boil as ve¬
hemently as the hotteft water open to the air; the
weight of the incumbent atmofphere, in this latter
cafe, keeping down the vapours, and hindering the e-
bullition, till it has received its utmoft degree of heat.
So alfo a mixture of tin and lead, put on a red-hot
iron in vacuo, emits a fume and flame ; but the fame
mixture in the open air, by reafon of the incumbent
atmofphere, does not emit the lead fenfible flame.”
Agreeable to this. Sir Ifaac is of opinion, that
“ grofs bodies may be converted into light, by the
FIR [ 3003 ] FIR
Fire. agitation of their particles ; and light, again, into grofs
" bodies, by being fixed therein and he defines fire to
be “ a body heated fo hot, as to emit light copioufly;
^ for what, (fays he,) is a red-hot iron, but fire ?”
Of Doftor By others, fire is confidered as a fluid fui generis,
Gravef- an original element, which “ exifts in all bodies, and
ancle, Boer- raay feparated or procured from them by rubbing
'iVe’ c’ them againft each other, and thus putting their fire in
motion. But this motion by no means generates the
fire.” This is the account given by Dr s’Gravefande ;
with whom Lemery agrees, and endeavours to prove,
that it is equally diffufed through all fpace, is prefent
in all places, in the void fpaces between bodies,as well
as the infenfible interftices between their parts : of
j which opinion alfo was Dr Boerhaave.
Objcftions The firft hypothefis having been adopted by fuch
again ft the an eminent philofopher as Sir Ifaac Newton, hath
origin o'f^ ^rom t^ence received very confiderable weight, and
fife> been generally received by the philofophers in this
country. It is, neverthelefs, prtffed with almoft infur-
mountable difficulties. It can by no means be ex¬
plained upon the principles of mechanifm, becaufe
it dire&ly contradifts them.— It is certain, that if one
body gives motion to another that refills it, the quan¬
tity of motion produced will be lefs than that of the
fir 11 body ; becaufe as much will be taken off as the re¬
finance of the firlt body was equal to. Thus, fuppofe
a body moves in fuch a manner as to be able to raife
12 pounds ; if it meets with an obftacle equivalent to
fix pounds, it will not, after driving it out of the way,
be able to raife any more than fix pounds. The fame
rule muft bold equally,1 whether we fuppofe the parts
of matter in motion to be large or fmall. In the
above example, if we take ounces inftead of pounds,
we cannot fuppofe that the effedt will be in the lead
dilproportionatc. If inftead of ounces we take grains,
■or half grains, or the minuted particles, the effeft muft
dill be the fame. Let us now take Mr Boyle’s ex¬
ample of iron becoming red-hot by being hammered.
The momentum- or quantity of motion impreffed on
the iron, by the blows it receives from the hammer,
cannot be very great ; we (hall fuppofe them all. toge¬
ther to amount to 500 pound weight. The momen¬
tum of the fmall particles of fire fo produced, muft be
fomething lefs than 500 pound, on account of the re-
fi ft a nee of them to motion. If thefe particles'fo put
in motion, are employed to put in motion the particles
of other matter, the momentum of thefe mult be flill
lefs than that of the irorf, on account of the new refin¬
ance met with. Thus, on every accellion of new' fuel,
the fire muft decay, and at lad be quite extinguilhed.
For, let us fuppofe the quantity of motion originally
communicated to be great or fmall: if one part ol mat¬
ter gives motion to another, and that to a third, and
fo on, there is a conftant lofsof motion, occafioned by
the refiftance of the parts to be moved ; and let us
fuppofe this refiftance as fmall as we pleafe, as long as
it is a refiftance, an increafc of the fire muft be im-
poffible. The contrary to all this, however, is con¬
firmed by daily experience ; and there feems to be no
limit to the increafe of fire, but the want of fuel. We
cannot therefore mechanically account for the origin of
fire merely on thofe principles by which we account for
the motions of gravitating bodies.
To obviate in fome meafure obje&ions of this kind,
Sir Ifaac Newton feems to have fuppofed, that every Fire.
particle of matter is endowed with a fphere of at-
tradlion, and beyond that vvith a fphere of repulfion.
Hence, as foon as two particles of matter get without
the fphere of one another’s attra&iofi, they begin to
repel each other very ftrongly: and hence, fays he, as
in algebra, where affirmative quantities c^afe, negative
ones begin ; fo in mechanics, where attradlion ceafes,
there the repelling power muft fucceed.”
Upon this principle of repulfion alone it is that the
mechanical origin of heat is tenible : for if the minute-
particles of any body have a force imprefied upon
them, in fuch a manner as to put them without the
fphere of each other’s attra&ion, and then they begin
to repel one another ftrongly, it maybe fuppofed, that
putting the parts of other matter in a fimilar fituation,
and thefe again ailing upon others in a like manner, a
large mafs of matter might be refolved into its minuteft
particles, and thefe fcattered to an immenfe diftance
by the mutual repelling power between them, and thus-
produce the phenomena of heat and light.
Even this will be found quite unfatisfailory, if at¬
tentively examined ; for the repelling power with which
thefe particles are fuppofed to be endowed, will have
as great a tendency to drive them back upon the bo¬
dy from whence they came, as to drive them away
from it. To help our conceptions in this matter, let
us fuppofe, that the repulfive fphere round each of the
minute particles is an inch in diameter. Let us alfo
fuppofe, that this rCpulfive force is fufficiently great to
throw the particle to the dillance of 1000 miles, when
it comes within the repulfive power of another. If,
therefore, a particle is driven off from any hard fub-
ftance, fuppofe iron, it will indeed drive another be¬
fore it, which is already in the way, but will as cer¬
tainly drive back upon the iron thofe which are fiiaken
off from it afterwards : for re-adlion is always equal to
aftion; and if we fuppofe a number of'fuch particles ex¬
tricated from the body, their mutual a&ion and re-
adlion being always equal,: the motion among them
muft very foon ceafe.
Upon this principle, however, the Newtonians ex¬
plain the emiffion of light from luminous bodies. “ A
ray of light (fays Sir Ifaac), as foon as it is call off
from the luminous body by the vibrating motion ofits
parts, and is got out of the fphere of its attraction, is
propelled" with an immenfe velocity.”—Now', with all
due fubmiffion to fuch a great name as that of Sir Ifaac
Newton, what he advances here is utterly impoffible.
All the partit of the fun have a mutual attraction to¬
wards one another, by which they are kept together;
and it is impoffible that a particle of matter can be
both attraCled and repelled at the fame moment by one
body.—It is indeed inconceivable, how the particles of
matter can be endowed with two fuch contrary powers,,
and yet remain together in one mafs: for though thofe
which lie contiguous to one another may mutually at¬
tract, yet they muft alfo repell, and be repelled by,
thofe which lie at a greater diftance; and,-from fuch a
mixture of contrary forces, it does not feem that any
body could folidly cohere together.
In fupport of this hypothefis, we may however fnppofe,
that the vibratory motion of the parts of the fnn is fo
great, that the particles of light are thrown off by it an
immenfe-way beyond the orbit of Saturn. But granting:
this,.,
FIR [ 3004 ] FIR
-Fire, tills, no fopner would they come within the fphere of
~ one another’s repulfion, than ibme of them would be
thrown back with violence towards the fun ; and, in
their return, would meet with others, to which they
would give a like direftion; and in this they would be
afiifted by the attra&ive force of the fun himfelf, by
which means the force with which the light was emit¬
ted, muft at fir ft be refitted, and at laft entirely de-
ftroyed.
But, whatever might be the cafe with the fun, the
vibratory force of whofe parts we may fuppofe to
be inconceivably great, it is impofiible that upon
this principle any fire could be kindled by man: for
the vibratory motion induced among the particles of
any body by him, could never lie greater than the force
originally applied; and thus muft unavoidably de¬
cay, on account of the continual refiftance met with
in fetting the particles of other matter in the like mo¬
tion.
, To thefe obje&ions, we may alfo add, that, upon
this hypothefis, fire ought to burn beft in vacuo; be¬
cause there thepreflure of the atmofphere is taken off,
and there ftiould be the lefs refiftance to the vibrations
of the fmall particles. We find, however, that fire, fo
far from burning beft in vacuo, is immediately extin-
guiftied,; and that a free circulation of air is abfolutely
neceffary to preferve it.—Profeffor Hamilton,, indeed,
of the univerfity of Dublin, endeavours to account for
this, by faying, that air is neceffary only to blow off
the allies, &c. which would prevent the continuance of
the motion. But if there were no other occafion for
air than this, fixed or phlogifticated air would anfwer
the fame purpofe; and both of thefe are found to ex-
6 tinguilh fire. See Air.
Whether The property, indeed, that air hath of fupporting
the true pa- fire, has generally induced people to think that the true
firehT Qf pcobulum or fuel of fire is contained in the air.—O-
ta'ined'jn"" t^ers are ^ no 11:16303 inclined to admit this hypothe-
the air. fis> but n° conclufive argument hath yet been brought
againft it. Indeed, in a cafe where the agents are fo
exceedingly fubtile, it feems impoffible to prove the ne¬
gative in this queftion. We fee, that fire will not burn
without air; therefore air brings continually a new fup-
ply of matter which is converted into fire. Our fenfes
here give us pofitive evidence. Thofe who take the
other fide of the queftion, ought to bring a proof
equally ftrong againft this. Dr Hamilton, indeed,
fuppofes fire to be otherwife fufficiently provided with
pabulum; and, therefore, that air ads upon fire other-
wife than by fupplying it with fuel, as wo-have already
7 hinted.
Dr Hamil- “ Air (fays he) is not lefs neceffary for the fupport
ton s opi- of fire than of animal-life; for fire will not long con¬
tinue to burn without a circulation of air. Now, /
fuppofe, this happens, not from its adding any thing
to the pabulum of fire, (for fire feems to be otherwife
fufficiently provided with pabulum), but rather on this
account, That the air immediately about a body on fire
is heated, and made fpecifically lighter than the air at
fome diftance from it. This hot air, therefore, muft
afeend, and carry with it all thofe minute particles of
different kinds which are thrown off from the burning
body, and which would otherwife reft upon its furface,
and thereby clog and flop the fubtile vibrations of the
burning matter, in which the nature of fire partly con-
fifts. If, therefore, fire be confined in a clofe place, Fire.
where there can be no circulation of air, the air about 
it, being foon faturated with the particles arifing from
the burning matter, will not be able to take up any
more of them ; and therefore the fire muft go out,
fmbthered, as it were, with fuch particles as are no
longer combuftible. Hence it is that fire burns fatter
when air is ftrongly blown upon it: for then the
afties are carried off as faft as they are formed on the
furface of the burning body; and thereby the particles
that have juft taken fire, are kept quite free from every¬
thing that can impede or clog their vibratory motion.
The air in this cafe alfo will fpread the fire quickly
through the fuel, by blowing the particles that are
already kindled, among thofe that are not; and per¬
haps the motion of the air in this cafe may promote
the fubtile vibrations in the burning matter by which
the fire is propagated through its parts. As the air
contains many fubtile particles of the inflammable kind,
.it is not improbable, that thefe, mixing with the grofs
burning matter, may help to preferve and enliven the
fire: but I think it moft probable, that air fupports
fire chiefly by carrying off Inch particles as are burned
out, and would therefore obftrudt the progrefs of the
fire; becaufe we find, that the ftrong elaftic fteam of
water driven violently out of the pipe of an aeolipile,
which will carry off thofe particles, will alfo blow up
and increafe the fire as well as air driven from the bel¬
lows, although the fteam does not contain any inflam¬
mable particles-” g
Here we have no other reafon given in fupport of Deception
this hypothefis, than that fire may be blown up by the ’?'* rei'
fteam iffujng violently from an aeolipile; but this rea- n1"®'
fon is founded on a deception. This fteam only blows
up the fire by occafioning a violent motion in the air
through which it paffes; and thus forcibly drives it on
the fuel, at the fame time that it enters along with
it; and thus is, in fome meafure, fimilar to the blowing
up of a large fire by a ftream of water, which is ufed
in fome places inftead of bellows. Neverthelefs, if the
fteam of the aeolipile is only admitted to the fire, and
the air totally excluded from it, the fire will be as ef-
fedhially extinguiftied as if the ftream of water em¬
ployed to force the air into a large furnace was itfelf
diredted on the fuel.—Befides, on the Doctor’s hypo¬
thefis, fixed, and many other kinds of air ought to be
equally efficacious in preferving flame, as already ob-
ferved ; which are yet found to extinguifli it as effec¬
tually, if not more fo than water. -
Among other hypothefes, it may not be amifs to Hutchinfo-
mention the almoft forgotten and exploded one pub- nian hypo-
liflied by Mr Hutchinfon, and by him pretended to be thefts,
plainly revealed in the facred writings.—According to
this gentleman, the nature of fire, of light, and air, are
all at bottom the fame, being only three different
modifications of the fame fluid. When air is blown
upon a fire, then the groffer fluid is immediately redu¬
ced to its fineft parts, and attains the utmoft degree of
poffible fluidity, by the vehement attrition of its own
particles, and thofe of the fire already k,indled, againft
one another. Being continually preffed upon in this
ftate by the furrounding grofs air, it is fent out on all
fides in ftreams of light, which being detained among
the particles of the atmofphere, and having their mo¬
tion flopped, become part of the air itfelf, and are again
ready
FIR [ 3005 ] F I R
Fire. ready to reaffume their luminous and fiery appearance
on proper occafions.
Setting, afide the pretended authority of revelation,
many people have been of opinion, that f.l\is hypothe¬
cs might,be fupported by yery ftrOng arguments drawn
,0 from matter of.fa£t.v The principal are the fallowing.
Arguments i. It is well known, that in all mixtures of different
in favour of kinds of fluids thofe which are rareff, and confequently
this opinion jcj-s a&e(j uj30n [jy force Gf gravity than others, will
rife to the top, and occupy the uppermoft place in the
mixture. Thus, if water and oil are mixed.together,
they will foon feparate themfelves, and the ;oii will
fwim at the top. This reparation happens in confe-
quence of their different degrees of denfity, by which
the oil is lefs affetted by the forpe of gravity than, the
water; not through any principle pf innate levitys or
any power of repullion between this fluid and, the botr
tom of the veffel. In like manner, when we fee any
other two fluids mixed, and one pf them afeends, we
ought not to conclude, that there is any unknown
power of repulfion in that which afeends, mofe.than ip
the other. If only one of the two fluids is vifible, and
that happens to be the. afpending one, we ought pot
therefore to feek for the caufe of its afeent in unknown
and imaginary repulfions and vibrations, but rather to
conclude that it is preffed upwards by the tendency of
an invifible fluid of greater deiility downwards. In
moll cafes this is allowed by all philofopher^ to hold
good. The fmoke of a fire, for inftance, does not
afeend from it, on account of any principle of pofitive
levity, or on account of a repullive power betwixt it
and the fire from which it afeends, but from the greater
tendency of the air downwards ; in confequence of
which, it is driven upwards with a force equivalent to
the difference of their fpecific gravities. By analogy,
(fay they) we ought to apply this to the emiffton of
light itfelf. We have, no other proof of a repujfive
power between the particles of this fubftance, than its
conftant afeent from a luminous body; and invent it in
order to folve this phenomenon, when the fame thing
may be done with a much greater degree of probabi¬
lity, and more agreeable to the known laws of nature
in other cafes, by fuppofing the defeent of a denfer,
though invifible, fluid towards that body.
2. It can be proved by experiment, that the matter
of fire, or light, is convertible into a denfer fubllance,
fubjeCi to the laws of gravitation, and united to terr
reftrial bodies in fuch a manner as to become a part of
their compofition, while yet it i& capable of being af¬
terwards expelled by a renewal of heat, and of re¬
appearing in the form of air.—The proof here rells upon
the augmentation of weight obferved in metals, when
calcined either in the folar beams by means of aburn-
ing glafs, or in a common fire. Thus, regains of an¬
timony, calcined in the focus ’of a large burning-glafs,
gains almoll an eighth part of its whole weight ; red
lead, in calcination, gains a tenth part; and fome of
the other metals have been obferved to gain much more.
When thefe calces are fuffered to cool, and .are again
expofed to the action df a ffrong fire, they difeharge a
large quantity' of air. The fire, therefore, fay the
adopters of this hypothefis, has here been evidently
converted into air; it being impdflible that, during the
continuance of a violent heat, any thing could be im-
bibed from the air; for the fire would as effedliially
Vgl. IV.
prevent any fuch abforption at firft, as it could expel Fire.
the air afterwards.
3. The phenomena of ele&ricity Ihow, that there is
prefent between the groffer parts of bodies an inviiible
iubtile fluid, of exceeding great power, which on cer¬
tain occafions becomes vifible, and then difeovers itfelf
to be the real element of fire itfelf. It always appears
to our eyes as a ftream of fubtile fire, emitting a very
perceptible light. It will kindle inflammable fubftan-
ces; melt the moft difficultly fufed metals, platina it¬
felf not excepted ; and even turn gold into glafs, which-
hath never yet been done either by the fierceft furnace
or the flrongefl; burning mirror.
Though this hypothefis has been laid down in its
moll diltinft and plaufible form by Hutchinfon, or ra¬
ther fome of his followers, it appears very little if at
all different from that of Boerhaave and others, who
maintain the impoffibility of generating fire, and affirm
it to bp a fluidA diredl proof of this,
.however, as wxll as of other fuppofitions concerning if
the nature pf fire, is attended with great difficulties. Difficulties
Wxfe. we able to cQnv|ert fii e.by itfelf into air, and con- j|)t5n^ing
vprt air by itfelf into Are, the point would indeed be thefis/P
gained. But, though we blow ever fo much air into
a fire, unlefs we continually add new fuel, it will foon
be extinguifhed. But this ought not to be the cafe
on the Hutchinfonian hypothefis: for one quantity of
air being reduced to its utmoft degree of fluidity,
ought to reduce to the fame Hate every fucceeding
quantity which mixed itlielf with it; and not only
would fire be kept up without any grofs fuel, but there
might be fome danger of fetting the whole atmofphere
in a blaze at once.
Thus, while one party is at a lofs to account for the
ufefulnefs oi air in fupporting fire, the other is no lefs
diftreffed with the grofs fuel, fuch as wood, coals, &c.
which feem to be equally neceffary with the air itfelf
for the fupport of our fires. The Hutchinfonians, in¬
deed,.find no other ufe for the. fuel,but to keep off too
great a quantity of air, which would opprefs and ex-
tinguilh a fmall fire: but thispurpofe might be equally
well anfwered by pieces of brick or {tone; yet thefe
will effectually put out a fire. The ufe of the fuel,
therefore, which is continually to be added to our com¬
mon fires,, cannot be explained on the Hutchinfonian
hypothefis. n
The difeoveries of Dr Prieftley, however, have put It >s totally
the matter beyond a doubt with refpeit to air. He
bath made it apparent, that terreftrial fubftances are Prieflley’s
neceffary ingredients in the compofition of air much experi-
purer than what we breathe, and much more capable ments.
of fuftaining flame* ; fo that it is now an abfurdity * See Air.
.to talk of fire and air being convertible into one ano¬
ther.
The great proof on the Hutchinfonian fide, and
whjch they look upon as abfolutely unanfwerable, is
the increafe of weight in metalline calces when ex¬
pofed to the a&ion of a ftrong fire. This increafe is
found to be owing to air, as we have already men¬
tioned: and though it fliould by no means be found
either fit for refpiration, or for the purpofes of fup¬
porting flame; yet it will fufficient for their pur¬
pose to prove, that the element of fire is capable of be¬
ing converted into a gravitating fubftance; which, when
dilengaged, appears in the form of a permanently da-
17 I file
FIR [ 3006 ] FIR
Flte» ftic fluid, and thus becomes a certain fpecies of air.—
That it really doth fo, however, is very dubious: for
it is certain, that metals cannot be calcined without the
free accefs of air ; and therefore it cannot certainly be
known whether the air in the calx comes from the
fixation of the fire, or whether it is attradled from
the furrounding atmofphere, efpecially if, as fome al¬
ledge, the calx receives no increment in weight while
kept hot.
thoft of M ^ V°tfer mentions fome very fine experiments
l.a Yoilier * regard to the calcination of metals, which ought
to throw a confiderable light on this fubjedt.—Ha¬
ving put three drachms of lead in a ftone crucible placed
under a glafs-receiver inverted in quickfilver, he ex-
pofed it to one of Tfchirnhaufen’s great burning-glaf-
fes; keeping it, however, a full inch from the true
focus, that the heat might not be much greater than
was neceflary to melt the metal.
At the very inftant the lead melted, though It was
perfedUy clean and bright on every fide, a pellicle was
produced on its furface. In the progrefs of the cal¬
cination, this pellicle became of a yellow mafficot co¬
lour, and wrinkled on one fide. In ten or twelve minutes
the calcination (lopped, and no farther effedl was ob-
ferved; only when the heat was a little ftronger, the
yellow pellicle fufed in fome places, and formed a yel-
lowifh glafs. From the portions thus vitrified fumes
arofe plentifully, which tarnifhed the top of the cucur¬
bit. This evaporation he oppofed as much as poffible,
by removing the lead farther and farther from the true
focus of the lens.
, The metal having been expofed to the adlion of
this lens for an hour and 15 minutes, and the veflels
then perfedlly cooled, it was found to have gained
2tt grains. The mercury was found to have gained
2-1- lines above its former level. The diameter of the
receiver in that place was 4-ro inches, fo that the
whole quantity of air abforbed was cubic inches.
The proportion of the increafe of weight in the calx
then, had been \ of a grain for each inch of air,,
which is about one fourth more than the weight of an
equal quantity of atmofpherical air. Having made
fome experiments on the air which remained in the
receiver, he found that it would not precipitate lime-
water, and thus feemed to be deprived of its fixed
part.
To the fame purpofe Dr Prieflley hath made expe¬
riments on metallic calcinations ; and acquaints us,
that if a metal is calcined over lime-water, it doth not
become turbid ; becaufe, though the calcareous earth
attra&s the fixed air, yet the metallic calx doth it
much more ftrongly, and confequently no precipita¬
tion can enfue. The fame reafon he gives why me¬
tals cannot be calcined in nitrous air ; namely, that
there is then no fixed air with which the metallic calx
may combine, and upon which the calcination feemed
to him to depend ; neverthelefs, the metals fumed co-
pioufly, though the phlogifton was not feparated.
Thefe experiments feem totally unanfwerable by
the Hutchinfonians. It is well known, that fixed air
is one of the component parts of bur atmofphere ; and
from Mr la Voifier’s and Dr Prieftley’s experiments, it
would feem impoffible to deprive a metal of it's pblor
gillon, but by allowing the calx to combine with fixed
air ; and as the fire, though conftantly applied, is not
able to produce this fixed air, but muft have the af- Fire,
fiftance of the common atmofphere, this feems a de- “
mondration, that fire is not convertible into an elaftic
fluid of any kind.
The only reply which the Hutchinfonians can give
to this is, that metals will be increafed in weight tho’
kept over the fire in clofe vtflels. But this may very
reafonably be fuppofed to proceed from the fmall quan¬
tity of air contained in the veflels where they are put,
or from fome inacuracy in doling them, fo, that there
may be fome communication between the metals and the
external air. To make thefe experiments perfed, the
glades ought firft to be well exhaufted of their air, and
then hermetically fealed.
It doth not appear, therefore, that ever the element
of fire hath been by human art converted into a grofler
fluid of any kind; and confequently the only refource
left the Hutchinfonians is in arguments drawn from
the fimilarity of the eleftric fluid and the fubltance
of light or fire. The late difcoveries in ele&ricity,
indeed, have thrown fo much light upon that fubjed,
that there are now but few who deny the exiftence of
lire as a diftind element. It doth not, however, ap¬
pear, that this element can ever be converted into any
other fluid of a grolfer nature, as the Hutchinfonians
affirm. The eledric fluid feems to be equally fubtile,
and equally penetrating, with fire o'r light; and though
it Ihould remain ever fo long at reft, it doth not ap¬
pear that its fluidity is thereby loft in the fmalleft de¬
gree/ But for a full account of the experiments moil
likely to afcertain the identity of elementary and elec¬
tric lire, fee the articles Electricity, Heat, Igni¬
tion, Light, &c.
Wild Fire, a kind of artificial or faditfous fire,
which burns even under water, and that with greater
volence than out of it.
It is compofed of fulphur, naphtha, pitch, gum,
and bitumen ; and is only extinguilhable by vinegar
mixed with fand and urine, or by raw hides..
Its motion or tendency is faid to be contrary to that
of natural fire, and always follows, the diredion in
which it is thrown ; whether it be downwards, fide-
wife, or otherwife. The French call it Greek fire, or
feu Gregeoif, becaufe firft; ufed by the Greeks,, about
the year 660; as is obferved by, the Jefuit Petavius,
on the authority of Nicetas, Theophanes,. Cedrenus,
&c.
The inventor, according to the fame Jefuit, was an
engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, named Callinicus, who
firlt applied it in the fea-fi.ght commanded by Con-
ftantine Pogonates againft the Saracens, near Cyzicus,
in the Hellefpont; and with fuch effed, that he burnt,,
the whole fleet therewith, wherein were 30,000 men.
But others will have it of a much older date ; and
hold Marcus Gracchus the inventor: which opinion is
fupported by feveral paffages, both in the Greek and
Roman writers, which (hew it to have been anciently
ufed by both thofe nations in their wars. See Seaiiger
againft. Cardan.
Conftantine’s fuccefibrs ufed it on divers occafions,
with equal advantage as himfelf; and what is re¬
markable enough, is, that they were fo happy, as to
keep the fecret of the compofition to themfelves, fo
that no other nation knew it in the year 960.
Hugh, king of Burgundy,: demanding Ihips of the
emperofc
£ 1 R [ 1007 1 FIR
emperor Leo, for the fiege of Frefiie, defired likewife
the Greek fire. Chorier Hijl. tie Daupk.
F. Daniel gives us a good defcription of the Greek
fire, in his account of the fiege of Damfetta under St
Louis. Every body, fays that author, was aftonifhed
with the Greek fire, which the Turks then prepared;
and the fecret whereof is now loft. They threw it out
of a kind of mortar; and fometimes fhot it with an
odd fort of crofs-bow, which was ftrongly bent by
means of a handle, or winch, of much greater force
than the mere arm. . That thrown with the mortar,
fometimes appeared in the air of the fize of a tun, with
a long tail, and a noife like that of thunder. The
French by degrees got the fecret of extinguifhing it;
in which they fucceeded feveral times.
Machine for Prefsrving from Fire. This machine,
II7< confifts of a pole, a rope, and a bafket. The pole is
of fir, or a common fcaffold pole, of any convenient
length from 36 to 46 feet; the diameter at bottom, or
greateft end, about five inches; and at the top, or fmal-
left end, about three inches. At three feet from the
top is a mortife through the pole, and a pulley fixed
to it of nearly the fame diameter with the pole in that
part. The rope is about three quarters of an inch dia¬
meter, and twice the length of the pole, with a fpring
hook at one end, to pafs through the ri4 g in the handle
of the bafket when ufed: it is put through the mortife
over the pulley, and then drawn tight on each fide to
near the bottom of the pole, and made faft there till
wanted. The bafket fhould be of ftrong wicker-work,
three feet and a half long, two feet and a half wide,
rounded off at the corners, and four feet deep, round¬
ing every way at the bottom. To the top of the baf¬
ket is fixed a ftrong iron curve or handle, with an eye
or ring in the middle; and to one fide of the bafket,
near the top, is fixed a fmall cord, or guide-rope, of
about the length of the pole. When the pole is raifed,
and fet againft a houfe over the window from which
any perfons are to efcape, the manner of ufing it is fo
plain and obvious, that it needs not be defcribed. The
moft convenient diftance from the houfe, for the foot
of the pole to (land, where prafticable, is about 12 or
14 feet. If two ftrong iron ftraps, about three feet
long, rivetted to a bar crofs, and fpreading about 14
inches at the foot, were fixed at the bottom of the pole,
this would prevent its turning round or flipping on the
pavement. And if a ftrong iron hoop, or ferule, ri¬
vetted (or welded) to a femi-circular piece of iron
fpreading about 12 inches, and pointed at the ends,
were fixed on at the top of the pole, it woukl prevent
its Aiding againft the wall.
When thefe two laft mentioned irons are fixed on,
they give the pole all the fteadinefs of a ladder; and
becaufe it is not eafy, except to perfons who have been
ufed to it, to raife and fet upright a pole of 40 feet or
more in length, it will be convenient to have two fmall
poles, or fpars, of about two inches diameter, fixed to
the fides of the great pole at about two or three feet
above the middle of it, by iron eyes rivetted to two
plates, fo as to turn every way ; the lower end of thefe
fpars to reach within a foot of the bottom of the great
pole, and to have ferules and fhort fpikes to prevent
Aiding on the pavement, when ufed occafionally to fup-
port the great pole, like a tripod. There ftiould be
two ftrong afh trundles let through the pole, one at
four feet and one at five feet from the bottom, to ftand Fi
out about eight inches on each lide, and to ierve as
handles, or to twift the rope round in lowering a very
heavy weight. If a block and pulley were fixed at about
the middle of the rope, above the other pulley, and the
other part of the rope made to run double, it would
diminifti any weight in the balket nearly one half, and
be very ufeful in drawing any perfon up, to the afiift-
ance of thofe in the chambers, or for removing any ef-
fefts out of a chamber, which it might be dangerous
to attempt by the flairs.
It has been proved, by repeated trials, that fuch a
pole as we have been fpeaking of can be raifed from
the ground, and two or three perfons taken out of the
upper windows of an houfe and fet down fafely in the
ftreet, in the fpace of 35 feconds, or a little more than
half a minute. Sick and infirm perfons, women, chil¬
dren, and many others, who cannot make ufe of a lad¬
der, may be fafely and eafily brought down from any
of the windows of an houfe on fire by this machine,
and, by putting a (hort pole through the handles of the
bafket, may be removed to any diftance without being
taken out of the bafket. The pole muft always have
the rope ready fixed to it, and may be conveniently
laid up upon two or three iron hooks under any fhade
or gate-way, and the bafket fhould be kept at the
watch-houfe. When the pole is laid up, the two fpars
fhould always be turned towards the head of it. The
bafket fhould be made of peeled rods, and the pole and
fpars painted of a light ftone-colour, to render it more
vifible when ufed in the night.
Godfrey's Machines for Extinguifnng Fire. Of thefe
the following account is given by Mr Ambrofe God-
frey, grandfon to the inventor. “ The machine to
be employed, confifts of a fmall portion of gun-powder
clofely confined ; which, when animated by fire, a£ls
by its elaftic force, upon a proper medium, and not on¬
ly divideth it into the minuteft atoms, but difperfeth it
alfo in every dire&ion, foas immediately to extinguifli
any fire within a certain diftance. This medium is a
liquor ftrongly impregnated with a preparation of an-
tiphlogiftic principles, which, by their action up¬
on burning materials, extinguifh the flames, and re¬
duce them in general to a ftate of a black coal; and,
by its oppofite nature to fire, hinders the remaining
fparks, notwithftanding the admiflion of the air, from
kindling the flames afrefh. By this means, the great
point is obtained, in giving fufficient time for totally
extingufhing any remains of fire.
“ They who prefume that water only will perforin
this, will findthemfelves greatly miftaken, as the draught
of air will certainly rekindle the neighbouring mate¬
rials, which are very fit to receive a frefh flame, the
fire not being extinguifhed by the quantity of water,
but rather by the expanfion and rarefadlion of its par¬
ticles. There are feveral fizes of thefe machines, from
five to fifty pounds weight, in a portable and rather
fmall compafs, and may generally be carried to any
place where a man can go himfelf.
“ But tho’ thefe machines will prevent great fires by
a timely application, they will not extinguifh them af¬
ter they have reached a frightful height, and feveral
houfes, perhaps near a whole ftreet, are in flames. The
floors muft be ftanding, and accefs to the building
fafe, otherwife no perfon can be fuppofed to approach
17 I 2 near
FIR [ 3008 1 FIR
near enough to apply them in a proper manner. Every
fire has its beginning, for the moft part, in fome a-
partment; and as foon as difcovered, the family, in-
ftead of lofing all prefence of mind, (hould immediately
apply one or more of thefe machines, which will then
fully anfwer the intention. The proper time of ap¬
plying them, fuppofes that they are ready at hand. It
will be in vain to think of fetching them from any con-
iiderable diftance, as it will then be too late for them
to perform any important fervice; except indeed being
the probable means of faving fome adjacent houfe, by
extinguifliing the flames as often as they break out, till
the building firft on fire is totally confumed, and, by
falling into ruins, leaves the other in perfect fafety.”
On the 19th of May 1761, at noon, Mr Godfrey’s
experiment for extinguifhing fire, was tried in an houfe
ere&ed for that purpofe, near Mary-le-bone. Their
royal highneffes the duke of York, prince William
Henry, prince Henry Frederick, a great number of
perfons of rank and diftin&ion, and many of the learn¬
ed world, gave their attendance on this Angular occa-
fion. The houfe, which is of brick, confifts of three
rooms, one above another, a flair-cafe, chimney, lath-
and-plafter cielings, and a kind of wainfeottrng round
the rooms, of rough deal. Exa&ly at 12 o’clock the
ground-room, and that up one pair of flairs, were fet
on fire, by lighting the faggots and ihavings laid in
there for that purpofe: in about 15 minutes the wain-
fcot of the under room was thought to be fufficiently
in flames, and three of the machines were thrown in|;
which, by aimort immediate and fudden explofions, in-
ftantaneoirfly extfnguifhed the flames, and the very
fmoke in that apartment in a few minutes totally dif-
appeared. By this time, the firemen, &c. who had the
care of throwing in the machines, gave an alarm that
the flair-cafe had taken fire, and that it was neceflary
dire&ly to go to work upon the next room j which was
accordingly done, and with the fame efft£¥.' The expe¬
riment, however, hitherto did not univerfally fatisfy: in
the laft inftance efperially it was thought to be too ha-
flily put in execution ; and the populace, without-fide
the paling, who were fuppofed to amount to hear
20,000, and whofe curiofify, from the very nature of
their fituation, remained much dHFatisfied, began to
grow rather riotous, and talked of a fecond bottle-con-1
juror. For the fake of the experiment, therefore, and
to remove all manner of doubt, Mr Godfrey confented
to a third experiment in the upper room, which was.
entirely of wood. The flames were now fuffered to get
to a confiderable height, and even the window-frames
deftroyed, before the machines-were thrown in : which,
however, anfwered exa&ly as the former had: done;
and, being quite im fight of the out-ftandefs, met with
univerfal approbation.
In the year 1734, the ftates of Sweden offered a pre¬
mium of 20,000 crowns for the bed method of flop¬
ping the progrefs of accidental fires ; when one Mr
Fuches, a German phyfician, made a preparation for
that end, and the experiment was made on a houfe built
on purpofe, of dry fir, at Legard ifland. In the build¬
ings were placed feveral tubs of tar and pitch, and a
great quantity of chips, all which were fet on fire
flames tffuing through the top of the houfe, windows,
&c. when he threw in one of the barrels containing the
g eparation,, which immediately quenched the flames y
a fecond barrel entirely cleared the fmoke away ; and Fire,
the whole was executed to the fatisfadion of th? fpec- —1 ‘
tators, and to the no fimall fatisfa61 ion of the inventor,
who was about to return home, when unerpedtedly
the flames broke out again, fuppofed to be occafioned
by a fmall quantity of combufiibie matter being intro¬
duced and fet on fire fecretly by fome malicious per-
fon. Upon this the wrong-headed mob fell upon Mr
Fuches, and beat him molt unmercifully, fo that he
narrowly efcaped with his life. He foon after left the
country, and never could be prevailed on (cho’ flrong-
ly perfuaded by fome of the moft eminent citizens) to
return. It is faid, another experiment of the fame
kind was tried in the year 1761 in Holland ; but ren¬
dered abortive through the perverfenefs of the popu¬
lace.
Thefe machines of Mr Godfrey’s, it is evident, would
be of great ufe in extinguifliing fires on fhipboardj and
might be eohfidered as a no Id’s neceffary part of a flop’s
lading, than her ftores or ammunition.
The hint of thefe machines is faid to have been ta¬
ken by Dr Godfrey from the invention of one Zachary
Grey], who exhibited machines fimilar to thofe of Dr
Godfrey, before perfons of the firft rank, but without
meeting with any encouragement. His machines were
made of wood, and the liquor employed was only wa¬
ter, and consequently inferior to Dr Godfrey’s in its
power of extinguifhing fire. The latter is faid to have
mixed his water with a certain quantity of oil of vi¬
triol, or with fal ammoniac. Thefe machines, how¬
ever, are found to be only Serviceable in the beginning
of a fire. When the roof had fallen in, they had no
effect.
Ufatsr-EngihefirExtingjiiJl)ir.g Fire. See Hydro¬
statics, iU 33.
In uling this machine we have the following im¬
provement by Dr Hoffman, Which pro mites to be of
great efficacy. As- foon as the engine is in readinefs
to work, ftir into the water-that immediately is to be
difeharged, feven or eight pounds of pearl-afties in pow¬
der, and continue to add it in this manner as occafion
requires j taking care that it be directed againfl the
fimBerpr vvainfeot, &C; juft beginning to burn, and not
wafted againft the'brickwork : or, where time will ad¬
mit,idiffblve any quantity of pearl-afhesTn a copper with
water* and as fait as it diffolves, which will be in a few
minutes, mix a pailful with the water in the engine,
pretty often; and whatever.burning wood it is played
upon, will be extinguifhed as if it was dipped in wa¬
ter,and will not burn afrefh in the part extinguifhed.
Ufe of Gun-powder for Extingitjhhg Fires. It
is well known, that the inner parts or chimneys ear
fily take fire ; the foot that kindles therein emits a
greater flame, according as the tunnel is more eleva¬
ted, becaufe the inferior air feeds the fire. If this air
could therefore be fuppreffed, the fire would foon be
extinguifhed. In order to this, fome difeharge a pi-
ftol into the chimney, which produces noeffeft: others
lay under the chimney a copper full of water ; but the
vapours that rife from it, far from extinguifliing the
fire,, feem to give it new force- Water thrown into
the chimney at top is equally of no effedl, becau-fe it
comes down through the middle of the tunnel, and not
along the fides. It would be more advifeable to flop
with dung the upper orifices of the tunnel for quench¬
ing..
Fire.
FIR [ 3009 ] FIR
ing the fire. But the fureft and readieft method is, to
~ take a little gunpowder, and, having humedt'ed it with
fpittle for binding it, to form it into fmall maffes, and
fo throw it into the hearth of the chimney. When it
is burnt, and has produced a confiderable vapour, a fe-
cond, afterwards a third, are thrown, and fo on, as
much as is neceflary. In a little time the fire is ex-
tinguifhed, and, as it were, choaked by this vapour;
and cakes of inflamed foot are feen to fall from the
tunnel, till at laft not the lead: veftige of fire appears.
Fire, in theology. See Hell.
We read of the facred fire in the firlt temple of Jeru-
falem, concerning which the Jews have a tradition that
it came down from heaven: it was kept with the ut-
molt care, and they were forbidden to carry any ftrange
fire into the temple. This fire is one of the five things
which the Jews confefs were wanting in the fecond
temple.
The pagans had their facred fires, which they kept
in their temples with the rnoft1 religious care, and which
were never to be extinguished- Numa was the fird who
built a temple to Fire as a goddefs, at Rome, and in-
dituted an order of prielleffes for the prefervation of
it. See Vestals.
Fire was the fopreme god of the Chaldeans; the
Magi were'worfhippers of fire; and; the Greeks and
Armenians dill keep tip a cerem'ony called the A/f yfre,
upon-a perfuafion that every Ealter-day a miraculous
fire dcfiends' from heaven into the holy fepulchre, and
kindles all the lamps and candks-there..
Fire kindledfpontaneoufly in the Human Body- See
Extraordinary Cafes of Burning.
Barrel. See Fire- Ship, Note (b.)
Fire-5.7u//;/. Ibid. Note (d.)
Fire-Hnoivy in naval artillery, is a fmall iron dart
furnifhed with fprings and bars, together with a match
impregnated with fulphur and powder, which is wound
about its fhaft. It is intended to fire the fails of the
enemy, and is for this puvpofe difeharged from a tmif-
quetoon or fwivebgun, The match being kindled by
the explofion, communicates the flame to the fail againd
which it is direifted, where the arrow is fadened by
means of its bars and fprings. This weapon is pecu¬
liar to hot climates, particularly the Wed Indies,
where the fails being extremely dry by reafon of the
great heats, they indantly take fire, and of courfe fit
fire to the mails and rigging, and lailly to the veffel
itfelf.
Fire-Ball, a aompofition of meal-powder, fulphur,
falt-petre, pitch, &c. about the bignefs of a hand-
grenade, coated over with flax, and primed with the
flow compofition of a ftrze. This is to be thrown into
the enemy’s works in the night-time, to difeover where
they are ; or to fire houfes, galleries, or blinds of the
befiegers ; but they are then armed with fpikes or hooks
of iron, that they may not roll off, but dick or hang
where they are defired to have any effedt.
Fake - Cocks. Churchwardens in London and with¬
in the bills of mortality, are to fix fiivecocks at proper
didances in dreets, and keep-a large engine and hand-
engine forextinguidnng fire, under the penalty of rol.
flat. 6 Ann. c. 31.
On the breaking out of any fire in London or Wefl-
minfter, the conflab’es and beadles of parifhes fhall
repair to the glace with their Haves, and aflilt in cx-
tinguifhing it, and caiife the people to work for that
end, &c.
Fire.-Engine. See Steaei-Engine.
F\RE-Flaire, in ichthyology. See Raja.
Fire-Flies, a fpecies of flies common in Guiana, of
which there are two fpecies. The larged is more than
an inch in length, having a very large head connedled
with the body by a joint of a particular dru&ure, with
which at fome times it makes a loud knock, particular¬
ly when laid on its back. The fly has two feelers or
horns, two wings, and fix legs. Under its belly is a
circular patch, which, in the dark, fhines like a can¬
dle ; and on each fide of the head near the eyes, is a
prominent, globular, luminous body, in fize about one
third larger than a mudaid-feed. Each of thefe bo¬
dies is like a living ftar, emitting a bright, and not
fmall, light ; fince two or three of thefe animals, put
into a glafs-veffel, afford light fufficient to read without
difficulty, if placed clbfe to the book. When the fly
is-dead, thefe bodies will ftill afford confiderable light,
though it is Id's vivid than before; and if bruifed, and
rubbed over the hands or face, they become luminous
in the dark, like a board fmeared over with Englifli
phofphorus. They have a reduifh-brown or chefnut
colour; and live in rotten trees in the day, but are al¬
ways abroad in the night. The other kind is not
more than half as large as the former : their light pro¬
ceeds from under their wings, arid is feen only when
they are elevated, like fparks of fire appearing or dif-
appearing at every fecond. Of thefe the air is full in the
night, tho’they are never feen in the day. They are
common not only in the fouthern, but in the northern
parts of America, during the fummer.
FiRE-Lcck, or Fufil, a fmall gun which firs* with a
flint. It isdidinguilhed from an old. itnilquet,or .match¬
lock, which was fired with a match. 'The firelock is
now in common ufe in the European armies.
F\ee-Pots, in the military art, final! earthen pots,
into which is put a charged grenade, and over that
powder enough till the grenade is covered ; then the
pot is covered with a piece of parchment, and two
pieces of match acrofs lighted : this pot being thrown
by a handle of matches where it is deligned, it breaks
and fires the powder, and burns all that 'is near it,
and likewife fires the powder in the .grenade, which
ought to have no fufe, to'the end its operations may¬
be the quicker.
FiRE-Reeds. See the next article, Note (c.)
Fire-Ship, an old veffcl filled with combuflible.ma¬
terials, and fitted with grappling irons to hook, and;
ftt fire to, the enemies fhips in battle, &c.
As there is nothing particular in the condruflion-of
this fliip, except the apparatus by which the fire is in¬
dantly conveyed from one part to another, and from,
thence to the enemy, it will be fufficient to defcribe.the
fire-room, where thefe combudibles are enclofed, toge¬
ther with the indruments neccffary to grapple'the flop:
intended to be deflroyed1.
The fire-room is built between decks, and limited:
on the after-part by a lulk-hedd, L, behind the main-
mad, from which it extends quite forward,as reprefent-
ed in fig. 1. Plate CXIV. The train inqlofed in this;
apartment is contained in a variety of. wooden trdrtghs,.
D, G, which interfeft each other in different parts of;
the Ihip’s length j. being fupported at proper distances;
by/
Fire.
FIR [ 3^10 1 FIR
$1m. by crofs-pieces and ftanchions. On each fide of the fiiip
are fix or feven ports, H, about i8 inches broad, and
15 inches high; and having their lids to open down*
ward, contrary to the ufual method.
Againft every port is placed an iron chamber (a),
which, at the time of firing the fiiip, blows out the
port-lid, and opens a pafiage for the flame. Imme¬
diately under the main and fore■‘•fliroods is fixed a
wooden funnel M ; whofe lower end communicates
with a fire-barrel (b), by which the flame palling
through the funnel is conduced to the ftirouds. Be¬
tween the funnels, which are likewife ca\\e&fire trunks,
are two fcuttles, or fmall holes in the upper deck, fer-
Maririe S ving a^° to Iet out t*16 flames. Both funnels muft
Did'ienary. ft°PPed with plugs, and have fail-cloth or canvas
nailed clofe over them, to prevent any accident hap¬
pening from above to the combuftibles laid below.
The ports, funnels, and fcuttles, not only commu-
tiicate the flames to the outfide and upper-works of the
fhip and her rigging; but likewife open a paflage for
the inward air, confined in the fire-room, whicluis
thereby expanded fo as to force impetuoufly thro’ thofe
out-lets, and prevent the blowing up of the decks,
which muft of neceffity happen from fuch a fudden
and violent rarefadtion of the air as will then be pro¬
duced.
On each fide of the bulk-head behind is cut a hole
L, of fufficient fize to admit a trough of the fame di-
menfions as the others. A leading trough, L I, whofe
foremoft-end communicates with another trough with¬
in the fire-room, is laid clofe to this opening, from
whence it extends obliquely to a fally-port I, cut thro’
the (hip’s fide. The decks and troughs are well cover¬
ed with melted rofin. At the time of the firing ei¬
ther of the leading troughs, the flame is immediately
conveyed to the oppofite fide of the (hip, whereby both Fh*»
fides burn together.
The fpaces N, O, behind the fire-room, reprefent
the cabins pf the lieutenant and mafter, one of which
is on the (larboard, and the other on the larboard fide.
The captain’s cabin, which is feparated from thefe by
a bulk-head, is exhibited alfo by P.
Four of the eight fire-barrels are placed under the four
fire-trunks 5 and the other four between them, two on
each fide the fire-lkuttles, where they are fecurely cleat-
ed to the deck. The longed reeds (c) are put into
the fore and aft troughs, and tied down : the (horteft
reeds are laid in the troughs athwart, and tied down
alfo. The bavins (d), dipped at one end, are tied
fall to the troughs over the reeds, and the curtains are
nailed up to the beams, in equal quantities, on each fide
of the fire-room.
The remainder of the reeds are placed in a pofition
nearly upright, at all the angles of every fquare in the
fire-room, and there tied down. If any reeds are left,
they are to be put round the fire-barrels, and other va¬
cant places, and there tied fa ft.
Inftrudlions to prime.
Take up all your reeds, one after another, and ftrow
a little compofition at the bottom of all the troughs
under the reeds, and then tie them gently down againi
next ftrow compofition upon the upper part of the
reeds throughout the fire-room ; and upon the faid
compofition lay double quick-match upon all the
reeds, in all the troughs: the remainder of the com¬
pofition ft row over all the fire-room, and then layyouf
bavins loofe.
Caft off all the covers of the fire-barrels, and hang
the quick-match loofe over their fides, and place lead*
ers
(a) The iron-chambers are ten inches long, and 3.5 in diameter, They are breeched againft a piece of wood fix¬
ed acrofs the ports, and let into another a little higher. When loaded, they are almoft filled with corn-powder, and
have a wooden tompion well driven into their muzzles. They are primed with a fmall piece of quick-match thruft
through their vents into the powder, with a part of it hanging out. When the ports are blown open by means of
the iron-chambers, the port-lids either fall downward, or are carried away by the explofion.
(b1 The fire-barrels-ought to be of a cylindrical form, as mod Suitable to contain the reeds with which they are fill¬
ed, and more convenient for (towing therh between the troughs in the fire-rOom. Their infide chambers fhould not
be lefs than n inches, and 30 inches is fufticient for their length. The bottom parts are firft well ftored with (liort
double-dipped reeds placed upright 5 and the remaining vacancy is filled with fire-barrel compofition, well mixed
and melted, and then poured over them. The compofition ufed for this purpofe is a mafs of fulphur, pitch, tar, and
tallow.
There are five holes, of three-fourths inch in diameter, and three inches deep, formed in the top of the compofition
while it is yet warm ; one being in the centre, and the other four at equal diftances round the fides of the barrel.
When the compofition is eold and hard, the barrel is primed by filling thofe holes With fufe-compolition, which is firm¬
ly driven into them, fo as to leave a little vacancy at the top to admit a ftrand of quick-match twice doubled. The
centre-hole contains two ftrands at their whole length, and every ftrand muft be driven home with mealed powder.
The loofe ends of the quick-match being.then laid within the barrel, the whole is covered with a dipped curtain,faften-
ed on with a hoop that flips over the head of the barrel, to which it is nailed.
The barrels (hould be made very ftrong, not only to fupport the weight of the compofition before firing, when they
are moved or carried from place to place, but to keep them together whilft burning : for if the ftaves are too light
and thin, fo as to burn very foon, the remaining compofition will tumble out and be diffipated, and the intention of
the barrels, to carry the flame aloft, will accordingly be fruftrated.
The curtain is a piece of coarfe canvas, nearly a yard in breadth and length, thickened with melted compofition,
and covered with faw-duft on both fid'es.
(c) The reeds are made up in fmall bundles of about a foot in cifcumference, cut even at both ends, and tied to¬
gether in two places. They are diftinguiflied into two kinds, viz. the long and (hort; the former of which are four
feet, and the latter two feet five inches in length. One part of them are fingly dipped, i. e. at dne end : the reft are
dipped at both ends in a kettle of melted compofition. After being immerfed about feven or eight inches in this pre¬
paration, and then drained, they are fprinkled over with pulverifed fulphur upon a tanned hide.
(d) The bavins are made of birch, heath, or other brufh-wood, which is tough and readily kindled. They are
ufually two or three feet in length, and have all their bufti-ends lying one way, the other ends being tied together
with fmall cords. They are dipped in compofition at the bulh-ends, whofe branches are afterwards confined by the
hand, to prevent them from breaking offby moving about; and alfo to make them burn mere fiercely. After being
dipped in the fame manner as the reeds, they alfo are fprinkled with fulphur.
FIR [ 3011 ] FIR
Fire. ers of quick-match from the reeds into the barrels, and
from thence into the vent of the chambers, in fuch a
manner as to be certain of their blowing open the
ports, and fetting fire to the barrels. Two troughs of
communication from each door of the fire-room to the
fally-ports, mult be laid with a ftrong leader of quick-
match, four or five times double : alfo a crofs-piece to
go from the fally-port, when the fhip is fired, to the
communication trough, laid with leaders of quick-
match, that the fire may be communicated in both fides
at once.
What quick-match is left place fo that the fire may
be communicated to all parts of the room at once, e-
fpecially about the ports and fire-barrels, and fee that
the chambers are well and frefh primed. [N. B. The
port-fire ufed for firing the fhip, burns about 12 mi¬
nutes. Great care mufi; be taken to have no powder
on board when the fhip is fired.]
The fheer-hooks (reprefented by fig. 2.) are fitted fo
as to faften on the yard-arms of the fire-fhip, where
they hook the enemy’s rigging. The fire-grapplings,
(fig. 3.) are either fixed on the yard-arms, or thrown
by hand, having a chain to confine the fhips together,
or faften thofe inftruments wherever neceffary.
When the commanding officer of a fleet difplays the
fignal to prepare for atfion, the fire-fhips fix their
fheer-hooks, and difpofe their grapplings in readinefs.
The battle being begun, they proceed immediately to
prime, and prepare their fire-works. When they are
ready for grappling, they inform the admiral thereof
by a particular fignal.
To avoid being difabled by the enemy’s cannon do-
ring a general engagement, the fire-fhips continue
fufficiently diftant from their line of battle, either to
windward or to leeward.
They cautioufly fhun the openings or intervals of
the line, where they would be diredtly expofed to the
enemy’s fire, from which they are covered by lying on
the oppofite fide of their own fhips. They are atten¬
tively to obferve the fignals of the admiral, or his fe-
conds, in order to put their defigns immediately in ex¬
ecution.
Although no fliip of the line fhould be previoufly ap¬
pointed to protedl any fire-fhip, except a few of the
fmalleft particularly deftined to this fervice, yet the fhip
before whom fhe pafles in order to approach the ene¬
my, fhould efcort her thither, and affift her with an
armed boat, or whatever fuccour may be necefiary in
her fituation.
The captain of the fire-fhip fhould himfelf be parti¬
cularly attentive that the above inftru'&ions, are punc¬
tually executed, and that the yards may be fo braced
when he falls along-fide of the fhip intended to be de-
ftroyed, that the fheer-hooks and grapplings faftened
to the yard-arms, &c. may effe&ually hook the ene¬
my. He is expe&ed to be the laft perfon who quits the
veflel; and being furnifhed with every neceffary affift-
ance and fupport, his reputation will greatly depend
on the fuccefs of his enterprife-
Fire frum Cold Liquors. See Chemistry, n° 219.
Lambent Fires, as the fhining of meat at certain
feafons, the luminoufnefs of the fea, of infe&s, va¬
pours, &c. See the articles Light, Pholas, Me¬
dusa, Nereis, Fire-ZV/Vj-, Glow-IVorm, &c.
ZVif-Fiiu. See Port-Z7/t.
S/w-Fire. See Spur-Z/Vt. r,*'c
FIRING-iron, in farriery, an inflrument not tin-
like the blade of a knife ; which being made red-hot, ^
is applied to a horfe’s hams, or other places Handing
in need of ft, as in preternatural fwellings, farcy, knots,
&c. in order to difeufs them.
FIRKIN, an Englifh meafure of capacity for things
liquid, being the fourth part of the barrel: it contains
eight gallons of ale, foap, or herrings ; and nine gal¬
lons of beer. See Measure and Barrel.
FIRLOT, a dry meafure ufed in Scotland. The
oat-firlot contains 2i~ pints of that country; the
wheat-firlot contains about 2211 cubical inches ; and
the barley-firlot, 31 ftandard-pints. Hence it ap¬
pears that the Scotch wheat-firlot exceeds the Englifh
bufhel by 33 cubical inches.
FIRMAMENT, in the Ptolemaic aftronomy, the
eighth heaven or fphere, with refpedt to the feven
fpheres of the planets which it furrounds. It is fup-
pofed to have two motions : a diurnal motion, given
to it by the primum mobile, from eaft to weft, about
the poles of the ecliptic ; and another oppofite motion
from weft to eaft : which laft it finifhes, according to
Tycho, in 25412 years, according to Ptolemy in
36000, and according to Copernicus in 25800, in
which time the fixed liars return to the fame points fn
which they were at the beginning. This period is
commonly called the Platonic year, or the great year.
Firmament is alfo ufed, in divers places of feripture,
to denote the middle region of the air.
FIRMAN is a paffport or permit granted by the
great mogul to foreign veflels, to trade within the ter¬
ritories of his jurifdi&ion.
FIRMICUS maternus (Julius), a famous wri¬
ter, who compofed in Latin, about the year 345, an
excellent book in defence of Chriftianity, entitled De
errore profanarum religionum, which is printed with
the notes of John Wouver. There are alfo attributed
to him eight books of aftronomy, printed by Aldus
Manutius in 1501 ; but this laft work appears to have
been written by another Julius Firmicus, who lived at
the fame time.
FIRMNESS, denotes the confiftence of a body,
or that ftate wherein its fenfible parts cohere in fuch
a manner that the motion of one part induces a motion
in the reft.
FIRMIN (Thomas)., an eminent citizen of Lon¬
don, born in 1632, who diftinguifhed himfelf by his
public benefadions and extenfive charities, as alfo by
fome opinions contrary to the received do&rine of the
Trinity. The plague in 1665, the great conflagra¬
tion in 1666, with the arrival of the French prote-
ftants in 1680 and 1681, all furnifhed him with great
opportunities of exerting his benevolent difpofition.
He died in 1697 ; and was buried in the cluifters of
Chrift’s hofpital, where his virtues are recorded in a
monumental infeription.
FIRST-fruits, (primitive,) among the Hebrews,
were oblations of part of the fruits of the harveft, of¬
fered to God as an acknowledgement of his fbvereign
dominion. The firft of thefe fruits was offered in the
name of the whole nation, being either two loaves of
bread, or a fheaf of barley which was threfhed in the
court of the temple. Every private perfon was ob¬
liged to bring his firlt-fruits to the temple; and thefe
confifte (L
'FIS [ jot 2 ] FIS
Firft
11
Fifli.
confided of wheat, barley, grapes, figs, apricots, o-
lives, and dates.
There was another fort of firft-fruits which were
paid to God. When bread was kneaded in a family,
a portion of it was fet apart, and given to the prieft
or Levite who dwelt in the place : if there was no prieft
or Levhe there, it was call into the oven, and confumed
by the firt. Thefe offerings made a confiderable part
of the revenues of the Hebrew priefthood.
Firfl-fruits are frequently mentioned in ancient Chri-
ftian writers as one part of the church-revenue. One
of the councils of Carthage enjoins, that they fhould
confift only of grapes and corn ; which (hews, that
this was the pra&ice of the African church.
Flist-Fruits, in the church of England, are the
profits of every fpiritual benefice for the firft year, ac¬
cording to the valuation thereof in the king’s books.
FISC, fiscus, in the civil law, the treafmy of a
prince, or ftate ; or that to which all things due to
the public do 'fall. The word is derived from the
Greek a great bafket, ufed when they went to
market.—:By the civil law, none but a fovercign
prince has a right to have a 'fife or public treafury.
At Rome, under the emperors, the term ararium
was ufed for the revenues deftined for fapport of the
charges of the empire; fifeus for thofe of the empe¬
ror’s own family. The treafury, in effedd, belonged to
the people, and the fifeus to the prince.
FISCAL, in the civil law, fomething relating to
the pecuniary intereft of the prince or people. The
officers appointed for the management of the life, were
aWed. procuratores Jifci, and advocati fijci ; and among
the cafes enumerated in the conftitutions of the em¬
pire where it was their bufinefs to plead, one is againft
thofe who have been condemned to pay a fine to the
fife'on account of their litigioufnefs, or frivolous ap¬
peals.
FISH, in natural hiftory, an animal that lives in
the waters as the natural place of its abode.
The moft general divifion of fiffies is m\.o ft efh and
fait water ones. Some, however, are of opinion, that
all fiffies naturally inhabit the falt-waters, and that
they have mounted up into rivers only by accident.
A few fpecies only fwim up into the rivers to depofit
iheir fpawn ; but by far the greateft number keep in
the fea, and would foon expire in freffi water. There
are about 400 fpecies of fiffies (according to Linnteus)
• of which we know fomething ; but the unknown ones
ere fuppofed to be many more; and as they are thought
to lie in great depths of the fea remote from land, it
is probable that many fpecies will remain for ever un-
, * of known.
fifluSTadml- Naturalifts obferve an exceeding great degree of
rably fitted wifdom in the ftrudlure of fiffies, and in their conforma-
for (wife tion to the element in which they are to live. Moft
motion. 0f [hem have the fame external form, ffiarp at either
end, and fwelling in the middle, by which they are
enabled to traverfe the fluid in which they refide with
greater velocity and eafe. This ffiape is in fome mea-
fure imitated by men in thofe veffels which they defign
to fail with the greateft fwiftnefs; but the progrefs of
the fwifteft failing (hip is far inferior to that of fiffies.
Any of the large fiffies overtake a fliip in full fail with
the greateft eafe, play round it as though it did not
move at all, and can get before it at pleafure^
The chief inftruments of a fiffi’s motion have been Fiili.
fuppafed to be the fins ; which in fome are much more —
numerous than in others. A fiffi completely fitted for 1
fwimnaing with rapidity, is generally furnilhed with
two pair of fins on the fides, and three lingle ones, taiis 0f
two above, and one below. But it does not always fifties,
happen that the fiffi which has the greateft number of
fins, is the fvvifteft fwimmer. The ffiark is thought
to be one of the fwifteft fillies, and yet it has no fins
on its belly ; the haddock feems to be more completely
fitted for motion, and yet does not move fo fwiftly.
It is even obfervable, that fome fiffies which have no
fins at all, inch as lobfters, dart forward with pro¬
digious rapidity, by means of their tail ; and the in-
ftrument of progreffive motion, in all fiffies, is now
found to be the tail. The great ufe of the fins is to
keep the body in equilibrio: and if the fins are cut off,
the fifli can Hill fwim; but will turn upon its fides or
its back, without being able to keep itfelf in an ereft
pofture as before. If the fifli defines to turn, a blow
from the tail fends it about in an inftant ; but if the
tail llrikes both ways, then the motion is progreffive.
All fiflies are furniffied with a flimy, glutinous mat¬
ter, which defends their bodies from the immediate con-
ta& of the furrounding fluid, and which likewife, in all
probability, affifts their motion through the water. Be¬
neath this, in many kinds, is found a firong covering
of fcales," which, like a coat of mail, defends it ftill
more powerfully; and, under that, before we come.to
the mufeular parts of the body, lies an oily fubftance,
which alfo tends to preferve the requifite warmth and
vigour. 3
By many naturalifts fiffie; are confidered as of a na- Arguments
ture very much inferior to land-animals, whether beafts for the in-
or birds. Their fenfe of feeling, it is thought, muft of
be very obfeure on account of the fcaly coat of mail jan j anj_.
in which they are wrapped up. The fenfe of fmelling ma!s.
alfo, it is faid, they can have only in a very ftnall de¬
gree. All fiflies, indeed, have one or more noftrils; and
even thofe that have not the holes perceptible without,
yet have the bones within, properly formed for fmell¬
ing. But as the air is the only medium we know pro¬
per for the diftribution of odours, it cannot be fuppo¬
fed that thefe animals which refide conftantly in the
water can be affe&ed by them. As to tailing, they
feem to make very little diilindlion. The palate of
moft fiffies is hard and honey, and confequently inca¬
pable of the powers of relilhing different fubftances;
and accordingly thefe voracious animals have often
been obferved to fwallow the fiffierman’s plummet in-
ftead of the bait. Hearing is generally thought to be
totally deficient in fiffies, notwithstanding the difeo-
veries of fome anatomifts who pretend to have found
out the bones defigned for the organ of hearing in
their heads. They have no voice, it is faid, to com¬
municate with each other, and confequently have no
need of an organ for hearing. Sight feems to be that
fenfe of which they are poffeifed in the greateft degree;
and yet even this feems obfeure, if we compare it with
that of other animals. The eye, in almoft all fiffies, is
covered with the fame tranfparent Ikin which covers
the reft of the head, and which probably ferves to de¬
fend it in the water, as they are without eyelids. The
globe is more depreffed anteriorly, and is furniffied be-
ind with a mufcle which ferves to lengthen or flatten
FIS [ 3013 ] FIS
it as there is occafion. The cryftalline humour, which
in quadrupeds is flat, and of the fhape of a button-
mould, or like a very convex lens, in fifhes is quite
round, or fometimes oblong like an egg. Hence it is
thought that fiihes are extremely near-fighted; and
that, even in the water, they can perceive objefts only
at a very fmall didance. Hence, fay they, it is evi¬
dent how far fifhes are below terreitrial animals in
their fenfations, and confequently in their enjoyments.
Even their brain, which is by Tome fuppofed to be of
a fize with every creature’s underftanding, fhews that
4 fifhes are very much inferior to birds in this refpeft.
Objeflions Others argue differently with regard to the nature
to thcfe of fifhes.—With refpedt to the fenfe of feeling, fay
arguments, they, it cannot be juflly argued that fifhes are defi¬
cient, merely becaufe they are covered with fcales, as
it is pofiible thefe fcales may be endued with as great
a power of fenfation as we can imagine. The fenfe of
feeling is not properly connected with foftnefs in any
organ, more than with hardnefs in it. A fimilar
argument may be ufed with regard to fmelling ; for
though we do not know how fmells can be pro¬
pagated in water, that is by no means a proof that
they are not fo. On the contrary, as water is found
to be capable of abforbing putrid effluvia from the
*0s^e ■^!r’ air *, nothing is more probable than that thefe pu-
n 25‘ trid effluvia, when mixed with the water, would afFe&
the olfactory organs of fifhes, as well as they affedt
ours when mixed with the air.—With regard to tafte,
it certainly appears, that fifhes are able to diftinguifh
their proper food from what is improper, as well as
other animals. Indeed, no voracious animal feems
to be endued with much fenfibility in this refpeft ; nor
would it probably be confiflent with that way of pro-
mifcuoufly devouring every creature that comes within
its reach, without which thefe kinds of animals could
not fubfift.
With refpeft to the hearing of fifhes, it is urged, that,
when, they, kept in a pond may be made to anfwer at
the call of a whiffle or the ringing of a bell; and they
will even be terrified at any fudden and violent noife,
fuch as thunder, the,firing of guns, &c. and fhrink to
the bottom of the water. Among the ancients, many
wrere of opinion that fifhes had the fenfe of hearing,
though they were by no means fatisfied about the
ways or paffages by which they heard. Placentini
afterwards difcovered fome bones in the head of the
pike, which had very much the appearance of being
organs of hearing, though he could never difcover any
external paffages to them. Klein affirmed, from his
own experiments and obfervations, that all fifhes have
the organs of bearing ; and have alfo paffages from
without to thefe organs, though in many fpecies they
are difficult to be feen; and that even the mod minute
and obfcure of thefe are capable of communicating a
tremulous motion to thofe organs, from founds iffuing
from without. This is likewife aflerted by M. Geof-
t Differta- froy-j-, who gives a particular defcription of the organs
v^ancde ^ear‘nS belonging to feveral fpecies. i hefe organs
route,p.97,are a fet of little bones extremely hard, and white,
etfeq. like fine porcelain, which are to be found in the
heads of all fifhes : The external auditory pafiages
are very fmall ; being fcarce fufficient to admit a
hog’s brittle; though with care they may be di-
ftinguifhed in ahnod all fiihes. It can by no means
Von. IV.
be thought that the water is an improper medium FhTi
of found, feeing daily experience fhews us that founds
may be conveyed not only through water, but through
the mod folid bodies f. It feems indeed very dif¬
ficult to determine the matter by experiment. Mr
Gouan, who kept fome gold-fifhes in a vafe, in-1 See
forms us, that wdiatever noife he made, he could neither ■^couJtu
terrify nor diflurb them ; he halloo’d as loud as he
could, putting a piece of paper between his mouth and
the water, to prevent the vibrations from affe&ing the
furface, and the fifhes dill feemed infenfible: but
when the paper was removed, and the found had its
full effe£fc on the water, the cafe was then altered, and
the fifhes indantly funk to the bottom. This experi¬
ment, however, or others fimilar to it, cannot prove
that the fifhes did not hear the founds before the paper
was removed ; it only.fhews that they were not alarm¬
ed till a fenfible vibration was introduced into the wa¬
ter. The call of a whiffle may alfo be fuppofed to
affe£l the water in a fifh-pond with a vibratory motion :
but this certainly muff be very obfcure; and if fifhes
can be affembled in this manner when no perfon is in
fight, it amounts to a demonffration that they a&ually
do hear.
The arguments ufed againft the fight of fifhes are
the weakeft of all. Many inftances which daily occur,
{hew that fifhes have a very acute fight, not only of
obje&s in the water, but of thofe in the air. Their
jumping out of the water in order to catch flies is an
abundant proof of this ; and this they will continue
to do in a fine fummer-evening, even after it is fo dark
that we cannot diftinguifh the infefts they attempt to
catch.
Though fifhes are formed for living entirely in thepi^esc.
water, yet they cannot fubfift without air. On this not live
fubjedt Mr Hawkfbee made feveral experiments, which whh°ut
are recorded in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions. The
fifhes he employed were gudgeons; a fpecies that are
very lively in the water, and can live a confiderable
time out of it. Three of them were put into a glafs
veffel with about three pints of frefh water, which was
defigned as a ftandard to compare the others by. Into
another glafs, to a like quantity of water, were put
three more gudgeons, and thus the water filled the
glafs to the very brim. Upon this he ferewed down a
brafs-plate with a leather below, to prevent any com¬
munication between the water and the external air;
and, that it might the better refemble a pond frozen
over, be fuffered as little air as poffible to remain on
the furface of the water. A third glafs had the fame
quantity of water put into it; which, firft by boiling,
and then by continuing it a whole night in vacuo, was
purged of its air as well as poffible; and into this alfo
were put three gudgeons. In about half an hour, the
fifhes in the water from whence the air had been ex-
haufted, began to difcover fome figns of nneafinefs by
a more than ordinary motiqn in their mouths and gills.
Thofe who had no communication with the external
air, would at this time alfo frequently afeend to the
top, and fuddenly fwim down again: and in this ftate
they continued for a confiderable time, without any
fenfible alteration. About five hours after this obfer-
vation, the fifhes in the exhaufted water were not fo
active as before, upon {baking the glafs which con¬
tained them. In three hours more, the included fifhes.
17 K lay
FIS [ 3014 ] FIS
Filh. lay all at the bottom of the glafs with their bellies up-
   wards ; nor could they be made to (hake their fins or
tail by any motion given to the glafs. They had a
motion with their mouths, however, which (hewed that
they were not perfeftly dead. On uncovering the vef-
fel which contained them, they revived in two or three
hours, and were perfeftly well next morning; at which
time thofe in the exhaulted water were alfo recovered.
The veffel containing thefe laft being put under the
receiver of an air-pump, and the air exhaufted, they
all inftantly died. They continued at top while the
air remained exhaufted, but funk to the bottom on
the admiflion of the atmofphere.
The ufe of air to fifties is very difficult to be ex¬
plained ; and indeed their method of obtaining the fup-
ply of which they ftand conftantly in need, is not eafily
accounted for. The motion of the gills in fifties is
6 certainly analogous to our breathing, and feems to be
Motion of the operation by which they feparate the air from the
the gills of water. Their manner of breathing is as follows. The
fifties ana- takes a quantity of water by the mouth, which
our°breath- ^r*ven to g'^s » thefe clofe, and keep the water
ing. which is fwallowed from returning by the mouth;
while the bony covering of the gills prevents it from
going through them till the animal has drawn the pro¬
per quantity of air from it: then the bony covers open,
and give it a free paflage; by which means alfo the
gills are again opened, and admit a frefti quantity of
water. If the fifti is prevented from the free play of
its gills, it foon falls into convulfions, and dies. But
though this is a pretty plaufible explanation of the re-
fpiration of fifties, it remains a difficulty not eafily fol-
ved, what is done with this air. There feems to be
no receptacle for containing it, except the air-blad¬
der, or fwim; which, by the generality of modern
philofophers, is deftined not to anfwer any vital pur-
pofe, but only to enable the fifti to rife or fink atplea-
fure.
The air-bladder is a bag filled with air, compofed
Of the ufe fometimes of one, fometimes of two, and fometimes of
ef the air- three divifions, fituated towards the back of the tifti,
bladder in and opening into the maw or the gullet. The ufe of
fifties. this in raifing or deprefling the fifti, is proved by the
following experiment. A carp being put into the air-
pump, and the air exhaufted, the bladder is faid to
burft by the expanfion of the air contained in it; after
which, the fifti can no more rife to the top, but ever
afterwards crawls at the bottom. The fame thing alfo
happens when the air-bladder is pricked or wounded
in fuch a manner as to lei the air out; in thefe cafes
alfo the fifti continues at the bottom, without a poffi-
bility of rifing to the top. From this it is inferred,
that the ufe of the air-bladder is, by fwelling at the
will of the animal, to increafe the furface of the fifh’s
body, and thence diminifhing its fpecific gravity, to
enable it to rife to the top of the water, and to keep
there at pleafure. On the contrary, when the fifti
wants to defcend, it is thought to contraft the air-
bladder; and being thus rendered fpecifically heavier,
it defcends to the bottom.
The ancients were of opinion, that the air-bladder
in fifties ferved for fome purpofes eflentially neceffary
to life; and Dr Prieftley alfo conjectures, that the rai¬
fing or deprefling the fifli is not the only ufe of thefe
air-bladders, but that they alfo may fevve fome other
purpofes in the ccconomy of fifties. There are many Fifh-
arguments indeed to be ufed on this fide of the que- "
ftion: themoft conclufive of which is, that all the car¬
tilaginous kind of fifties want air-bladders, and yet they
rife to the top, or fink to the bottom, of the water,
without any difficulty; and though moft of the eel-kind
have air-bladders, yet they cannot raife themfelves in
the water without great difficulty.
Fifties are remarkable for their longevity. “ Moft 8
of the diforders incident to mankind (fays Bacon) arife Longevity
from the changes and alterations in the atmofphere ; of
but fifties refide in an element little fubjeft to change:
theirs is an uniform exiftence; their movements are with¬
out effort, and their life without labour. Their bones,
alfo, which are united by cartilages, admit of indefinite
extenfion; and the different fixes of animals of the fame
kind among fifties, is very various. They ftill keep
growing: their bodies, inftead of fuffering the rigidity
of age, which is the caufe of the natural decay of land-
animals, ftill continue increafing with frefti fupplies ;
and as the body grows, the conduits of life furnifti their
(lores in greater abundance. How long a fifh, that
feems to have fcarce any bounds put to its growth,
continues to live, is not afcertained ; perhaps the life
of a man would not be fufficient to meafure that of the
fmalleft.”—There have been two methods fallen upon 9
for determining the age of fifties; the one is by the
circles of the fcales, the other by the tranfverfe fedlfon jna tjje;r
of the back bone. When a fifh’s fcale is examined by
a microfcope, it is found to conlift of a number of cir¬
cles one within another, in fome meafure refembling
thofe which appear on the tranfverfe fe£lion of a tree,
and is fuppofed to give the fame information. For, as
in trees we can tell their age by the number of their
circles; fo, in fifties, we can tell theirs by the number
of circles in every fcale, reckoning one ring for every
year of the animal’s exiftence.— The age of fifties that
want fcales may be known by the other method,
namely, by feparating the joints of the back-bone, and
then minutely obfervingthe number of rings which the
furface, where it was joined, exhibits.
Fifties are, in general, the moft voracious animals 10
in nature. In moft of them, the maw is placed next Extrema
the mouth ; and, though poffeffed of no fenfible heat, is voranty of
endowed with a very furpriling faculty of digeftion. llleS’
Its digeftive power feems, in fome meafure, to increafe
in proportion to the quantity of food with which the
fifti is fupptied. A (ingle pike has been known to de¬
vour 100 roaches in three days. Whatever is poffeffed
of life, feems to be the moft defirable prey for fifties.
Some, that have very fmall months, feed upon worms,
and the fpawn of other fifti: others, whofe mouths are
larger, feek larger prey; it matters not of what kind,
whether of their own fpecies, or any other. Thofe
with the largeft mouths purfue almoft every thing that
hath life ; and often meeting each other in fierce oppofi-
tion, the fifti with the largeft fwallow comes off with
the viftory, and devours its antagonift.—As a coun- lt
terbalance to this great voracity, however, fifties are Their ama-
incredibly prolific. Some bring forth their young zing in-
alive, others produce only eggs: the former are rather
the lead fruitful; yet even thefe produce in great abun¬
dance. The viviparous blenny, for inftance, brings,
forth 200 or 300 at a time. Thofe which produce
eggs> which they are obliged to leave to chance, ei¬
ther
FIS [ 3015 ] FIS
Fifii. ther on the bottom where the water is fliallow, or
' ~ floating on the furface where it is deeper, are all much
more prolific, and feem to proportion their ftock to the
danger there is of confumption.—Lewenhoeck allures
us, that the cod fpawirs above nine millions in a feafon.
The flounder commonly produces above one million,
and the mackarel above 500,000. Scarce one in 100
of thefe eggs, however, brings forth an animal: they
are devoured by all the leffer fry that frequent the
Ihores, by water-fowl in lhallow waters, and by the
larger fillies in deep waters. Such a prodigious in-
creafe, if permitted to come to maturity, would over-
ftock nature; even the ocean itfelf would not be able
to contain, much lefs provide for, one half of its inha¬
bitants. But two wife purpofes are anfwered by this
amazing increafe: it preferves the fpecies in the midlt
of numberlefs enemies, and ferves to furnifli the reft
with a fuftenance adapted to their nature.
With refpeft to the generation of many kinds of
Generation fiihes, the common opinion is, that the female depofits
of fifhes. her fpan or eggs, and that the male afterwards ejedfs
bis fperm or male femen upon it in the water. The
want of the organs of generation in filhes, gives an ap¬
parent probability to this; but it is ftrenuoufly oppo-
fed by Linnseus. He affirms, that there can be no
poffibility of impregnating the eggs of any animal out
of its body. To confirm this, the general courfe of
nature, not only in birds, quadrupeds, and infecfs, but
even in the vegetable world, has been called in to his af-
fiftance, as proving that all impregnation is performed
while the egg is in the body of its parent: and he fup-
plies the want of the organs of generation by a very
ftrange procefs, affirming, that the males ejedt their fe-
men always fome days before the females depofit their
ova or fpawn; and that the females fwallow this, and
thus have their eggs impregnated with it. He fays, that
he has freqently feen, at this time, three or four females
gathered about a male, and greedily fnatching up into
their mouths the femen he eje&s. He mentions fome
of the efoces, fome pearch, and fome of the cyprini, in
which he had feen this procefs.
tMany opinions have been ftarted in order to account
Row it happens that fifties are found in pools, and
ditches, on high mountains, and elfevvhere. But
Gmelin obferves, that the duck-kind fwallow the eggs
of fifties ; and that fome of thefe eggs go down, and
come out of their bodies unhurt, and fo are propaga¬
ted juft in the fame manner as has been obferved of
plants.
As to the Divifion <yrFishes, fee Zoology, n° 10.
Breeding ^/'Fishes may be turned to great advan¬
tage ; for, befides furniftiing the table, obliging one’s
friends, and raifing money, the land will be thereby
greatly improved, fo as to yield more this way than by
any other employment whatever. See Fish-PW,
infra; and Breeding of Fifh.
Feeding of Fishes. When they are fed in large
pools or ponds, either malt boiled, or frdh grains, is
the heft food; thus carps may be raifed and fed like
capons, and tenches will feed as well. The care of
feeding them is heft committed to a gardener or the
butler, who ftiould be always at hand. When fed in
a ftew, any fort of grain boiled, efpecially peas, and
malt coarfely ground, are proper food; alffi the grains
after brewing, while frelh and fweet; but one buffiel
of malt not brewed, will go as far as of grains. Fifti.
Fish and Ffhing, as regulated by law. No filher-
man (hall ufe any net or engine for deftroying the fry
of fifties; and perfons ufing nets for that purpofe, or
taking falmon or trout out of feafon, or any fifti under
certain lengths, are liable to forfeit 20s. and jufticesof
peace, and lords of leets, have power to put the aiffs in
force. See x Eliz. c. 17. 3 Jac. I. c. iz. 30 Geo. II.
C. 2\. & pof. No perfon may fatten nets, &c. acrofs
rivers to deftroy fifh, and difturb the paffage of vef-
fels, on pain of 5I. fat. 2. Hen. VI. c. 15. None (hall
fifti in any pond or moat, &c. without the owner’s li¬
cence, on pain of three months imprifonment; 31 Hen.
VIII. c. 2. And no perfon (hall take any fifh in any
river, without the confent of the owner, under the pe¬
nalty of xos. for the ufe of the poor, and treble da¬
mage to the party aggrieved, leviable by diftrefs of
goods; and for want of diftrefs, the offender is to be
committed to the houfe of corredtion fora month : alfo
nets, angles, &c. of poachers, may be feized by the
owners of rivers, or by any perfons by warrant from a
juftice of peace, &c. 22 & 23 Car. II. c. 25. 4 & 5
IV. Sc M. c. 23. The flat. 4 & 5 Ann. 0. 21. was made
for the increafe and prefervation of fahnon in rivers in
the counties of Southampton and Wilts; requiring that
no falmon be taken between the firft of Auguft and
12th of November, or under fize, S.c. And, by 1 Geo.
I. c. 18. falmon taken in the rivers Severn, Dee, Wye,
Were, Oufe, &c. are to be 18 inches long at lead, or the
perfons catching them (hall forfeit 5I. And fea-fiflx
fold muft be of the lengths following; viz. bret and
turbot, 16 inches; brill and pearl, 14; codiin, bafs,
and mullet, 12; foie and plaice, 8; flounders, 7: whi-
ting, 6 inches long, &c. on pain of forfeiting 20 s. to
the poor, and the fifti. Fide the Statute. Perfons
importing any fi(h contrary to flat. 1 Geo. I. c. 18. for
better preventing frefti fifti taken by foreigners from
being imported into this kingdom, See. (hall forfeit
100I. to be recovered in the court at Weftminfter; one
moiety to informers, and the other to the poor; and
matters of fmacks, hoys, boats, &c. in which the fifti
(hall be imported, or brought on (hore, forfeit 501.
Alfo felling the fame in England, liable to 20I. penal¬
ty ; Stat. 9 Geo- II. c. 33.
By the flat. 22 Geo. II. c. 49. contracts for the buy¬
ing filh (except frefli falmon, or foies brought by land-
carriage, oytters, or fait or dried fifti) to be fold by
retail before the fame are brought to market, and ex-
pofed to fale, are declared void; and each party con-
tra&ing (hall forfeit 501. And fiftiermen not felling
their fifti within eight days after their arrival on the
coaft between North Yarmouth and Dover, (hall for¬
feit the cargo, veffel, and tackle, &c. And fea-fifli,
under the dimenfions prohibited by tht flat. 1 Geo. I.
may be expofed to fale, provided they are taken with
a hook, and fo not capable of being prefeYved alive.
But fee flat. 35 Geo. II. c. 27. made to regulate the
fale of fifti at the firft hand in the fiftimarkets in Lsn-
don and Weftminfter; and to prevent falefmen of fifti
Buying fifti to fell again on their own account; and to
allow bret, cod, turbot, brill, and pearl, although un¬
der the refpetftive dimenfions mentioned in 1 Geo. I.
c. 18. to be imported and fold; and to punifti perfons
who (hall take or fell any fpawn, brood, or fry of fi(h,
unfizeable filh, or fifti out of feafon, or fmelts under the
17 K 2 fize
Filh.
^"T
FIS [ 3016 ] FIS
fize of five inches. By this aft, every mafter of a vef- fluice,having a good fall, may not be too long in emp- F'^>
fel is to give a true account of the feveral forts of fifli tying. The bell way of making the head fecure, is to Fi^er'
brought alive to the Nore in his veffel ; and if, after drive in two or three rows of flakes above fix feet long,
fuch arrival, he fhall wilfully deftroy or throw away at about four feet diftance from each other, the whole
any of the faid fifh, not being unwholefome or un- length of the pond-head, whereof the firft row fhould
marketable, &c. he is liable to be committed to the be rammed at leaft about four feet deep. If the bot-
houfe of correftion, and kept to hard labour, for any tom is falfe, the foundation may be laid with quick-
time not exceeding two months, nor lefs than one. lime ; which flaking, will make it as hard as a ftone.
And fee farther, z Geo. Wl. c. 15. for the better fup- Some lay a layer of lime, and another of earth dug out
plying the citizens of London and Weflmintter with of the pond, among the piles and ftrakes ; and when
fifli, and to reduce the exorbitant price thereof, and to thefe are well covered, drive in others as they fee oc-
proteft and encourage fifhermen. cafion, ramming in the earth as before, till the pond-
Preferving. of for Cabinets. Linnaeus’s me- head be of the height defigned.
thod is, to expofe them to the air ; and when they ac- The dam fhould be made Doping on each fide, lea-
quire fuch a degree of putrefaftion that the fkin lofes ving a wafte to carry off the over-abundance of w'ater
its cohefion to the body of the fifli, it may be flid off in times of floods or rains ; and as to the depth of the
almoft like a glove: the two fides of this fkin may pond, the deepeft part need not exceed fix feet, rifing
then be dried upon paper like a plant, or one of the gradually in fhoals Jowards the fides, for the fifh to fun
fides may be filled wfith plafter of Paris to give the fub- themfelves, and lay their fpawn. Gravelly and fandy
jeft a due plumpnefs. bottoms, efpecially the latter, are beft for breeding ;
A fifh may be prepared, after it has acquired this and a fat foil with a white fat water, as the wafhings
degree of putrefaftion, by making a longitudinal inci- of hills, commons, ftreets, finks, &c. is beft for fat-
fion on the belly, and carefully diflefting the flefhy tening all forts of filh. For itoring a pond, carp is to
part from the fkin, which are but flightly attached to be preferred for its goodnefs, quick growth, and great
it in confequence of the putrefcency. The fkin is then increafe, as breeding five or fix times a-year. A pond
to be filled with cotton and the antifeptic powder of an acre, if it be a feeding and not breeding one,
as direfted for birds ; and, laftly, to be fewed up will every year feed .200 carps of three years old, 360
where the incifion was made. See Methods of Pre- of two years old, and 400 of a year old. Carps de-
yeri’/V/jr Birds. light in ponds that have marie or clay bottoms, with
Gilding on Fish. In the pofthumous papers of Mr plenty of weeds and grafs, whereon they feed-in the hot
Hooke, a method is defcribed of gilding live craw-fifli, months.
carps,&c. wuthout injuring the fifh. The cement for this Ponds fhould be drained every three or four years,
purpofe is prepared, by putting fome burgundy-pitch and the fifh forted. In breeding ones, the fmaller ones
into a new earthen pot, and warming the veflel till it are to be taken out, to ftore other ponds with ; lea-
receives fo much of the pitch as will flick round it ; ving a good (lock of females, at leaft eight or nine
then ttrewing fome finely-powdered amber over the years old, as they never breed before that age. In
pitch when growing cold, adding a mixture of three feeding ponds, it is beft to keep them pretty near of a
pounds of linfeed oil and one of oil of turpentine, co- fize. See Breeding of Fijh.
vering the veflel, and boiling them for an hour over a FISHER (John), biflrop of Rochefterj was bom
gentle fire, and grinding the mixture, as it is wanted, at Beverly in Yorkfhire, in the yfcar ^59, and educa-
with. fo much pumice-ftone in fine powder as will re- ted in the collegiate church of that place. In 1484,
duee it to the confiftence of paint. The fifh being he removed to Michael-houfe in Cambridge, of which
■W'iped dry, the mixture is fpread upon it; and the gold- college he was elefted mafter in the year 1495. Ha-
leaf being then laid on, and gently preffed down, the ving applied himfelf to the ftudy of divinity, he took
fifh may be immediately put into, water again, without orders ; and, becoming.eminent as a divine, atuafted
any danger of the gold coming off, for the matter the notice of Margaret, countefs of Richmond,, mother
quickly grows firm in water. of Henry VII. who made him her chaplain and con*
Fish, in a fliip, a plank or piece of timber, faftened feffor. In 1501, he took the degree of doftor of di-
to a (hip’s maft or yard, to ftrenthen it; which is. done vinity, and the fame year was elefted chancellor of the
by nailing it on with iron fpikes, and winding ropes hard univerfity. In the year following, he was appointed
about them. Lady Margaret’s firft divinity-profefibr; and, in 1504,
Fishes, in heraldry, are the emblems of filence and confecrated bifhop of Rochefter; which final! bifhoprie
vvatchfulnefs ; and are borne either upright, imbowed, he would never refign, though he was offered both Ely
extended, endorfed refpefting each other, furmounting and Lincoln. It is generally allowed, that the foum
one another, fretted, &.c. dation of the two colleges of Chrift-chureh and St
In blazoning fifties, tbofe borne feeding, fhould be John’s, in Cambridge, was entirely owing to bifhop
Itsn\tA devouring; all fifties borne upright and having . Fifher’s perfuafion, and influence with the countefs of
fin.s, fhould be blazoned hauriant; and thofe borne Richmond : he not only formed the defign, but fuper-
tranverfe the efcutcheon, m.uft be termed naiant. intended the execution. On the promulgation of Mar-
-Ponds, thofe made for the breeding or feed- tin Luther’s doftrine, our bifhop was the firft to enter
ing of fifh. the lifts againtt him. On this occafion he exerted all
Fifh-ponds are no fmall improvement of watery and his influence, and is generally fuppofed to have written
boggy lands, many of which are fit for no other ufe. the famous book by which Henry VIII. obtained the
in making of a pond, its head fliould be at the loweft title of Defetider of the Faith. Hitherto he continued
pa.rt of the ground, that the trench.of the flood-gate or in favour with the king; but in 1527, oppofing his di¬
vorce^
FIS [30
Fifher, voice, and denying his fupremacy, the Implacable
Filhery. Harry determined, and finally effected, his deftru&ion.
In 1534, the parliament found him guilty of mifpri-
fion of treafon, for concealing certain prophetic fpeech-
es of a fanatical impollor, called the Holy Maid of
relative to the king’s death; and condemned him,
with five'others, in lofs of goods, and imprifonment
during his majeity’s pleafure ; but he was releafed on
paying 300I. for the king’s ufe.
King Henry being now married to Anne Boleyn,
his obfequious parliament took an oath of allegiance
proper for the occafion. This oath the bifiiop of Ro-
cheiter fteadily refufed ; alleging, that his confcience
could not be convinced that the king’s firft marriage
was againft the law of God. For refufing this oath of
fucceffion, he was attainted by the parliament of 1534;
and committed to the Tower, where he was cruelly
treated, and where he would probably have died a na¬
tural death, had not the pope created him a cardinal.
The king, now pofitively determined on his deftruc-
tion, fent Rich, the folicitor-general, under a pre¬
tence of confulting the bilhop on a cafe of confcience,
but really with a deiign to draw him into a converfa-
tion concerning the fupremacy. The horieft old bi¬
fiiop fpoke his mind without fufpicion or referve, and
an indictment and conviction of high-treafon was the
confequence. He was beheaded on Tower-hill, on the
22d of June 1535, in the 77th year of his age. Thus
died this good old prelate ; who, notwithftanding his
inflexible enmity to the reformation, was undoubtedly
a learned, pious, and honeft man. He wrote leverul
treatifes againft Luther, and other works, which were
printed at Wurtzburgh, in 1597, in one volume folio.
FISHERY, a place where great numbers of fifli
are caught.
The principal fiflieries for falmon, herring, mackrel,
pilchards, &c. are along the coafts of Scotland, Eng¬
land, and Ireland ; for cod, on the banks of Newfound¬
land ; for whales, about Greenland ; and for pearls, in
the Eaft and Weft Indies.
Fishery, denotes alfo the commerce of fifti, more
particularly the catching them for fale.
- Were we to enter into a very minute and particular
confideration-of fifheries, as at prefent eftabliftied in
this kingdom, this article would fvvell beyond its pro¬
per bounds ; becaufe, to do juftice to a fubjeA of fuch
concernment to the Britifli nation, requires'a very am¬
ple and diftindl difeufilon. We fliall, however, ob-
ierve, that fince the Divine Providence hath fo emi¬
nently ftored the coalts of Great Britain and Ireland
with the moft valuable filh ; and fince fifheries, if fuc-
cefsful, become permanent mirferies for breeding ex¬
pert feamen ; it is not only a duty we owe to the Su¬
preme Being,, not to defpife the wonderful plenty he
hath afforded us, by negle&ing to extends this branch
of commerce to the utmoft ; but it is a duty we owe
to our country, for its natural fecurity, which de¬
pends upon the ftrength of our royal navy. No nation
can have a navy, where there is not a fund of bufinefs
to breed and employ feamen w'iihout any expence to
the public ; and no trade is fo well calculated, for
training up thefe ufeful members of this fociety, as
iifheries.
The fituation of the Britifh coafts is the moft advan¬
tageous in the world for catching fifhthe Scottifk
17 1 . F 1 s
iflands, particularly thofe to the north and weft, lie
moft commodious for carrying on the fiftiing trade to
perfeftion ; for no country in Europe can pretend to
come up to Scotland in the abundance of the fineft
fifh, with which its various creeks, hays, rivers, lakes,
and coafts, are replenifhed. King Charles I. was fo
fenfible of the great advantage to be derived from fiftt-
eries, that he began the experiment, together with ar
company of merchants ; but the civil wars foon occa-
fioned that projedf to be fet afide. King Charles II.
made a like attempt ; but his prefling wants made
him withdraw what money he had employed that
w ay, whereupon the merchants that joined with him
did the fame. Since the union, feveral attempts have
been made to retrieve the fifheries, and a corpora¬
tion fettled to that effe<ft, entitled the Royal Britijh
Fijhery.
In the year 1750, the parliament of Great Britain:
taking the ftate of the fiflieries into confideration, an
ad! was paffed for the encouragement of the white-her¬
ring fifhery, granting a charter, whereby a corpora¬
tion is created, to continue 21 years, by the name of
the Society of the Free Britijh Fifhcry, to be under the
direction of a governor, prelident, viceprefident, coun¬
cil, &c. who are to continue in office the fpace of three
years, w'ith power to make bye-law's, &c. and to raife
a capital of 500,000 1. by way of fubfeription. And
any number of perfons, who, in any part of Great
Britain, fiiall fubferibe lo.ocol. into the flock of this
fociety, under the name of the fijhing-chamber, and
carry on the faid fifhery on their own account of pro¬
fit and lofs, fhall he entitled to the fame bounty allow¬
ed to the fociety. The bounty is 30 s. the tun, to be
paid yearly, for 14 years, befides ^ per cent, for the
money advanced by each chamber. The aft contains
other proper regulations, relative to the nets, marks
on the herring-barrels, number of hands, and the
quantity of fait that is entitled to the bounty, &c. It
is, then, by the encouragement given by this aft, that
we now fee a laudable emulation prevailing over the
two kingdoms, and fifhing buffes fitted- out from al-
moft every port, in order to repair to the Shetland
iflands, where the herring-fifiiery is carried on with an
ardor becoming fo important a branch of trade. Scot¬
land, which fuffered incredibly from the negleft of this •
valuable and natural produce of the feas, has not been
backward to join in a fcheme that tends fo evidently to
its own advantage ; for the cities of Edinburgh, Glaf-
gow,. the towns of Montrofe, Dundee, Perth, Inver-
nefs, and fome other boroughs, have raifed the proper
fum, and chambers have been erefted in each of them;
the gentlemen of eftates adjoining to the refpeftive pla¬
ces above-mentioned, liberally contributing with mer¬
chants, towards the profecution of an undertaking
fo vifibly tending to the good of their country in ge¬
neral.
Fishery, inlaw, or an exclufive right of fifh¬
ing in a public river, is a royal franchife ; and is con-
fidered as fuch in all countries where the feodal po¬
lity has prvailed: though the making fuch grants, and
by that means appropriating, what it feems unnatural to
reftrain, the ufe of running water, was prohibited for
the future by king John’s Great Charter; and the ri¬
vers that wef? fenced in his time were direfted to be
laid, open, as well as the forefts to be disforefted. This
apea--
FIS [ 3018 ] FIS
Fishery, opening was extended by the fecond and third charters
" ’ of Henry III, to thofe alfo that were fenced under Ri¬
chard I.; fo that a franchife of free fifhery ought now
to be as old at leail as the reign of Henry II. This
differs from a Jeveralof pifcary, becaufe he that has a
TSlacift. feveral fifhery muff alfo be the owner of the foil, which
Comment. in a free-fifhery is not requisite. It differs alfo from
a common fifhery, in that the free fifhery is an exclu-
five right, the common fifhery is not fo : and therefore,
in a free fifhery, a man has a property in the fifh before
they are caught; in a common pifcary, not till after¬
wards. Some indeed have confidered a/w fifhery not
as a royal franchife; but merely as a private grant of a
liberty to, fifh in the feveral fifhery of the grauter. But
the confidering fuch right as originally a flower of the
prerogative, till reftrained by Magna Charta, and de¬
rived by royal grant (previous to the reign of Ri¬
chard I.) to fuch as now claim it by prefeription, may
remove fome difficulties in refpedl to this matter with
which our law-books are embaraffed.
£W-Fisher,y. There are two kinds of cod-fifh ;
the one green or white cod, and the other dried or cu-
f See red cod; tho’ it is all the fame fifhf, differently prepa-
Cadus, red; the former being fometimes faked and barrelled,
then taken out for ufe ; and the latter, having lain fome
competent time in fait, dried in the fun or fmoke.
We fliall therefore fpeak of each of thefe apart ; and
firft of the
Green- Cod Fishery. The chief fifheries for'green
cod are in the bay of Canada, on the great bank of
Newfoundland, and on the ille of St Peter, and the
ifle of Sable; to which places veffels refort from divers
parts both of Europe and America. They are from
100 to 150 tons burden, and will catch between 30,000
and 40,000 cod each. The moft effential part of the
fifhery is, to have a matter who knows how to cut up
the cod, one who is fkilied to take off the head pro¬
perly, and above all a good faker, on which the pre-
ferving of them, and confequently the fuccefs of the
voyage, depends. The beft feafon is from the begin¬
ning of February to the end of April; -the filh, which
in tfie winter retire to the deepeft water, coming then
011 the banks, and fattening extremely. What is
caught from March to June keeps well ; but thofe ta¬
ken in July, Auguft, and September, when it is warm
on the banks, are apt to fpoil foon. Every fiffier takes
but one at a time; the moft expert will take from 350
to 400 in a day ; but that is the moft, the weight of
the fifh and the great coldnefs on the bank fatiguing
very much. As foon as the cod are caught, the head
is taken off; they are opened, gutted, and faked ;
and the faker flows them in the bottom of the hold,
v bead to tail, in beds a fathom or two fquare ; laying
layers of fak and fifh alternately, but never mixing
fifh caught on different days. When they have lain
thus three or four days to drain off the water, they are
replaced in another part of the fliip, and faked again;
where they remain till the veffel is loaded. Sometimes
they are cut in thick pieces, and put in barrels for the
conveniency of carriage.
Dry-Cod Fishery. The principal fifhery for this
article is, from Cape Rofe to the Bay des Exports,
along the coaft of Placentia, in which compafs there
are divers commodious ports for the fifh to be dried in.
Thefe, though of the fame kind with the frefhcod, are
much fmaller, and therefore fitter to keep, as the fait Fifhery.
penetrates more eafily into them. The fifhery of both   
is much alike; only this latter is rnoft expenfive, as it
takes up more time, and employs more hands, and yet
fcarce half fo much fak is fpeut in this as in the other.
The bait is herrings, of which great quantities are
taken on the coaft of Placentia. When ieveral veffels
meet and intend to fifh in the fame port, he vvhofe fhal-
lop firft touches ground, becomes entitled to the qua¬
lity and privileges of admiral: he has the choice of his
ftation, and the refufal of all the wood on the coaft at
his arrival. As faft as the mafters arrive, they unrig
all their veffels, leaving nothing but the ffirouds to fu-
ftain the mails; and in the mean time the mates pro¬
vide a tent on fhore, covered with branches of trees,
and fails over them, with a fcaffold of great trunks of
pines, 12, 15, 16, and often 20 feet high, commonly
from 40 to 60 feet long, and about one third as much
in breadth. While the feaffold is preparing, the crew
are a-fifhing; and as faft as they catch, they bring their
fiffi afliore, and open and fak them upon moveable
benches; but the main faltingis performed on the fcaffold.
When the fifh have taken fak, they wafh and hang
them to drain on rails; when drained, they are laid on
kinds of ftages, which are fmall pieces of wood laid
acrofs, and covered with branches of trees, having the
leaves ftripped off for the paffage of the air. On thefe
ftages, they are difpofed, a fifh thick, head againft tail,
with the back uppermott, and are turned carefully four
times every 24 hours. When they begin to dry, they
are laid in heaps ten or twelve thick, in order to
retain their warmth; and every day the heaps are en¬
larged, till they become double their firft bulk ; then
two heaps are joined together, which they turn every
day as before: laftly, they are faked again, beginning
with thofe firft faked; and being laid in huge piles,
they remain in that fituation till they are carried on
board the fliips, where they are laid on the branches
of trees difpofed for that purpofe, upon the ballaft, and
round the fhip, with mats to prevent their contradling
any tnoifture.
There are four kinds of commodities drawn from cod,
viz. the zounds, the tongues, the roes, and the oil ex-
tradfted from the liver. The firft is faked at the fifhery,
together with the fifh, and put in barrels from 600 to
700 pound. The tongues are done in like manner, and
brought in barrels from 400 to 500 pounds. The roes
are alfo faked in barrels, and ferve to call into the fea
to draw fifh together, and particularly pilchards. The
oil comes in barrels, from 400 to 520 pounds, and is
ufed in dreffing leather.—In Scotland, they catch a
fmall kind of cod on the coafts of Buchan, and all along
the Murray frith on both Tides; as alfo in the frith of
Forth, Clyde, &c. which is much etteemed. They
fak and dry them in the fun upon rocks, and fometimes
in the chimney. They alfo cure fkait, and other fmaller
fifh in the fame manner; but moft of thefe are for home-
confumption.
Herring Fishery. For the migrations of herrings,
and the diredlions of their courfe, fee the article Clu-
pea. Our great Rations for this fifhery are off the
Shetland and Weftern Ifles, and off the coaft of Nor¬
folk; in which the Dutch alfo (hare. There are
two feafons for fiftting herring : the firft from June to
the end of Auguft; and the fecond in Autumn, when
Fifticry.
• Hlft. of
Commerce.
FIS [ 3019 ] FIS
the fogs become very favourable for this kind of fill¬
ing. The Dutch begin their herring-fifhing on the
24th of June, and employ a vaft number of vefiels
therein, called buj/h, being between 45 and 60 tons bur¬
den each, and carrying three or four ftnall cannon.
They never (Ur out of port without a convoy, unlefs
there be enough together to make about 18 or 20 can¬
non among them, in which cafe they are allowed to go
in company. Before they go out, they make a verbal
agreement, which has the fame force as if it were in
writing. The regulations of the admiralty of Holland
are partly followed by the French and other nations,
and partly improved and augmented with new ones;
as, that no fifher (hall cad his net within 100 fathoms
of another boat: that while the nets are caft, a light
fhall be kept on the hind-part of the veflel: that when
a boat is by any accident obliged to leave oft' fiftiing,
the light (hall be caft into the fea: that when the greater
part of a fleet leaves off fiftiing, and calls anchor, the
reft (hall do the fame, See.
Mr Anderfon * gives to the Scots a knowledge of
great antiquity in the herring-fifliery. He fays that the
Netherlanders reforted to thefe coafts as early as A.D.
836, to purchafe faked fifti of the natives; but, impo-
fing on the ftrangers, they learned the art, and took up
the trade, in after-times of fnch iramenfe emolument
to the Dutch.
Sir Walter Raleigh’s obfervations on that head, ex¬
tracted from the fame author, are extremely worthy
the attention of the curious, and excite reflections on
the vaft ftrength refulting from the wifdom of well ap¬
plied induftry.
In 1603, remarks that great man, the Dutch fold
to different nations, as many herrings as amounted to
L.. 1,759,000 Sterling.
In the year 1615, they at once fent out aooobuffes,
and employed in them 37,000 fifliermen.
In the year 1618, they fent out 3000 (hips, with
50,000 men to take the herrings, and 9000 more (hips
to tranfport and fell the fifti; which by fea and land
employed 150,000 men, befides thofe firft mentioned.
All this wealth was gotten on our coafts; while our at¬
tention was taken up in a diftant whale-fiftiery.
The Scottifh monarchs for a long time feemed to di-
reft all their attention to the prefervation of the falmon
fiftiery; probably becaufe their fubjeCls were fuch no¬
vices in fea-affairs. At length James III. endeavoured
to ftimulate his great men to thefe patriotic underta¬
kings; for by an ad of his third parliament, he com¬
pelled “ certain lords fpiritual and temporal, and bur¬
rows, to make (hips, buffes, and boats, with nets, and
other pertinents, for fiftiing. That the fame fhould be
made in each burgh; in number according to the fub-
ftance of each burgh, and the lead of them to be of
twenty tun: and that all idle men be compelled by the
(heriffs in the country to go on board the fame.”
But his fucctffors, by a very falfe policy, rendered
this wife inftitution of little effeCl: for they in. a man¬
ner prevented their fubjeCts from becoming a maritime
people, by direCling that no white fifh (hould be fent
out of the realm, but that ftrangers may come and buy
them; that free ports be firft ferved; the cargoes ibid
to the freemen, who are to come and tranfport the
fame. The Dutch at this very time had an open
trade.
It is well known that there have been many attempts Fifhery,
made to fecure this treafure to omfelves, but without "
fuccefs. In the late reign, a very ftrong effort was made,
and bounties allowed for the encouragement of Britilh
adventurers: the firft was of 30s. per ton to every bufs
of 70 tons and upwards. This bounty was afterwards
raifed to 50s, per ton, to be paid to fuch adventurers
as were entitled to it by claiming it at the places of
rendezvous. The buffes are from 20 to 90 tons bur¬
den, but the beft fize is 80. A veffel of 80 tons ought
to take ten lads, or 120 barrels of herrings, to clear
expences, the price of the fifti to be admitted to be a
guinea a barrel. A (hip of this fize ought to have 18
men, and three boats: one of 20 tons ftiould have fix
men ; and every five tons above, require an additional
hand.
To every ton are 280 yards of nets; fo a veffel of
80 tons carries 20,000 fquare yards: each net is 12
yards long, and 10 deep; and every boat takes out
from 20 to 30 nets, and puts them together, fo as to
form a long train : they are funk at each end of the
train by a (lone, which weighs it down to the full ex¬
tent: the top is fupported by buoys, made of (heeps-
(kin, with a hollow (lick at the mouth, fallened tight;
through this the (kin is blown up, and then (lopped
with a peg, to prevent the efcape of the air. Some¬
times thefe buoys are placed at the top of the nets; at
other times the nets are fuffered to fink deeper, by the
lengthening the cords faflened to them, every cord be¬
ing for that purpofe 10 or 12 fathoms long. But the
beft fiftieries are generally in more (hallow water.
Of the Scots fiftiery in the Weftern Ifles, the following * Voyage to
account is given by Mr Pennant *. “ The fiftiing is the Hebrides,
always performed in the night, uulefs by accident. The P-
buffes remain at anchor, and fend out their boats a little
before fim-fet; which continue out, in winter and fum-
mer, till day-light; often taking up and emptying their
nets, which they do 10 or 12 times in a night, in cafe
of good fuccefs. During winter it is a moft dangerous
and fatiguing employ, by reafon of the greatnefs and
frequency of the gales in thefe feas, and in fuch gales
are the moft fuccefsful captures: but, by the Providence
of heaven, the fiftiers are feldotn loll; and, what is won¬
derful, few are vifited with illnefs. They go out well
prepared, with a warm gieat coat, boots, and (kin a-
prons, and a good provilion of beef and fpirits. The
fame good fortune attends the buffes, which in the tem-
peftuous feafon, and in the darkeft nights, are conti¬
nually (hiking, in thefe narrow feas, from harbour to-
harbour.
“ Sometimes 80 barrels of herrings are taken in a
night by the boats of a Angle veffel. It once happened,
in Loch-Slappan, in Skie, that a bufs of 80 tons might
have taken 200 barrels in one night, with to,000 fquare
yards of net; but the mafter was obliged to' defift, for
want of a fufficient number of hands to preferve the
capture.
“ The herrings are preferved by faking, after the
entrails are taken out: an operation performed by the
country people, who get three-halfpence per barrel
for their trouble ; and fometimes, even in the winter,
can gain fifteen pence a-day. This employs both wo¬
men and children ; but the faiting is only entrufted to
the crew of the buffes. The fifti are laid on their backs
in the barrels, and layers of fait between them. The
entrails
FIS [ 3020 ] FIS
Fiftiery. entrails are not loft, for they are boiled into an oil:
—' 8000 fi(h will yield ten gallons, valued at one (hilling
the gallon.
“ A veffel of 80 tuns takes out 144 barrels of fait:
a drawback of 2 s. 8d. is allowed for each barrel ufed
by the foreign or Irifh exportation of the fifti; but
there is a duty of 1 s. per barrels for the home-con-
fumption, and the fame for thofe fent to Ireland.
“ The barrels are made of oak-ftaves, chiefly from
Virginia ; the hoops from feveral parts of our own ifland,
and are either of oak, birch, hazel, or willow: the laft
from Holland, liable to a duty.
The barrels coft about 3 s. each : they hold from 500
to 800 fifti, according to the fize of the fifti; and are
made to contain 32 gallons. The barrels are infpedled
by proper officers : a cooper examines if they are fta-
tutable and good; if faulty, he deftroys them, and
obliges the maker to ftand to the lofs.
“ The herrings in general are exported to the Weft-
Indies, to feed the negroes; or to Ireland, for the Irifh
are not allowed to fifti in thefe feas. By having a draw¬
back of yd. a barrel, and by repacking the fifti in new
barrels of 28 gallons, they are enabled to export them
to our colonies at a cheaper rate than the Scots can
do.
“ The trade declines apace ; the bounty, which was
well paid, originally kept up the fpirit of the fiftiery ;
but, for the laft fix years, the arrears have been very
injurious to feveral adventurers, who have fold out at
30 percent, lofs, befides that of their intereft.
“ Loch-Broom has been celebrated for three or four
centuries as the refort of herrings. They generally ap¬
pear here in July : thofe that turn into this bay are
part of the brigade that detaches itfelf from the We-
ftern column of that great army which annually deferts
the vaft depths of the ar£tic circle, and come, heaven-
dire&ed, to the feats of population, offered as a cheap
food to millions, whom waiteful luxury, or iron-hearted
avarice, hath deprived, by enhancing the price, of the
wonted fupports of the poor.
“ The migration of thefe fifti from their Northern
retreat is regular; their vifits to the Weftern ides and
coafts, certain; but their attachment to one particular
loch, extremely precarious. All have their turns: that
which fwarmed with fifti one year, is totally deferted
the following; yet the next loch to it maybe crowded
with the (hoals. Thefe changes of place give often
full employ to thebufles, who are continually (hifting
their harbour in queft of news refpe&ing thefe impor¬
tant wanderers.
“ They commonly appear here in July; the latter
end of Auguft they go into deep water, and continue
there for fome time, without any apparent caufe: in No¬
vember, they return to the (hallows, when a new fiftiery
commences, which continues till January; at that time
the herrings become full of roe, and are ufelefs as ar¬
ticles of commerce. Some doubt, whether thefe her¬
rings that appear in November are not part of a new
migration ; for they are as fat, and make the fame ap¬
pearance, as thofe that compofed the firft.
“ The figns of the arrival of the herrings are flocks
of gulls, who catch up the fifti while they (kim on the
furface; and of gannets, who plunge and bring them
up from confiderable depths. Both thefe birds are clofe*
ly attended to by the fiftiers.
“ Cod-fi(h, haddocks, and dog-fi(h, follow the her- riftiery,
rings in vaft multitudes ; thefe voracious fifh keep on ——
thedutfides of the columns, and may be a,concurrent
reafon of driving the (hoals into bays and creeks. In
fummer, they come into the bays generally.with the
warmed weather, and with eafy gales. During win¬
ter, the hard gales from north-well are fuppofed to af-
fift in forcing them into (belter. Eaft winds are very
unfavourable to the fiftiery.
“ In a fine day, when the fifti appear near the fur-
face, they exhibit an amazing brilliancy of colours ; all
the various corufeations that dart from the diamond,
fapphire, and emerald, enrich their tradl: but, during
night, if they break, i. e. play on the furface, the
fea appears on fire, luminous as the brighteft phof-
phorus.”
Herrings are cured either white or pickled, or red.
1. Of the firft, thofe done by the Dutch are the
mod efteemed, being diftinguiftied into four forts, ac¬
cording to their fizes; and the bed are thofe that are
fat, fleftiy, firm, and white, faked the fame day they
are taken, with good fait, and well barrelled. The
Britifh cured herrings are little inferior, if not equal,
to the Dutch ; for in fpite of all their endeavours to con¬
ceal the fecret, their method of curing, lading, or calk¬
ing the herrings, has been difeovered, and is as follows.
After they have hauled in their nets, which they drag
in the ftern of their veflels backwards and forwards in
traverfing the coaft, they throw them upon the (hip’s
deck, which is cleared of every thing for that pur-
pofe: the crew is feparated into fundry d’vifions, and
each divifion has a peculiar talk; one part opens, and
guts the herrings, leaving the melts and roes; another
cures and falls them, by lining or robbing their infide
with fait ; the next packs them, and between each row
and divifion they fprinkle handfuls of fait; laftly, the
cooper puts the finishing hand to all, by heading the
cades very tight, and (towing them in the hold.
2. Red herrings muft lie 24 hours in the brine, in
a$ much as they are to take all their fait there; and
when they are taken out, they are fpitted, that is,
fining by the head on little wooden fpits, and then
hung in a chimney made for that purpofe. After
which, a fire of brufh-wood, which yields a deal of
fmoke but no flame, being made under them, they
remain there till fufficiently fmoked and dried, and are
afterwards barrelled up for keeping.
Pe^rZ-FisHERY. See Pearl.
Pilchard Fishery. The chief-pilchard fiftieries
are along the coalls of Dalmatia, on the coaft of Bre¬
tagne, and along the coafts of Cornwall and Devon-
(hire. That of Dalmatia is very plentiful: that on.
the coafts of Bretagne employs annually about 300
(hips. Of the pilchard fhhery on the coaft of Corn¬
wall the following account is given by Dr Borlafe :
“ It employs a great number of men .on the fea,
training them thereby to naval affairs ; employs men,
women and children, at land, in faking, preffing,
waftiing, and cleaning •, in making boats, nets, ropes,
cafks, and all the trades depending on their conltruc-
tion and fale. The poor are fed with the offals of the
captures, the land with the refufe of the fifti and fait;
the merchant finds the gains of commiffion and honed,
commerce, the fifherman the gains of the fifti. Ships
are often freighted hither with fait, and into foreign
coun-
FIS [30
El/hery. countries with the fifh, carrying off at the fame time
part of our tin. The ufual produce of the great num¬
ber of hoglheads exported each year for ten years from
1747 to 1756 inclutive, from the four ports of Fowy,
Falmouth, Penzance, and St Ives, it appears that
Fowy has exported yearly 1732 hogfheads; Falmouth,
14,631 hogfheads and two thirds; Penzance and
Mounts-Bay, 12,149 hogfheads and one third; St
Ives, 1282 hogfh'eads: in all amounting to 29,79;
hogfheads. Every hogfhead for ten years laft pail,
together with the bounty allowed for each hogfhead
.exported, and the oil made out of each hogfliead, has
amounted, one year with another at an average, to the
price of one pound 13 {hillings and three pence; fo
that the cafli paid for pilchards exported has, at a me¬
dium, annually amounted to the fum of 49,532!. 10s.”
—The numbers that are taken at one fhooting out of
the nets are amazingly great. Mr Pennant fays, that
Dr Borlafe a flu red him, that, on the ;th of O&ober
1767, there were at one time inclofed in St Ives’s Bay
7000 hogfheads, each hogfhead containing 35,000 fifh,
in all 245 millions.
The pilchards naturally follow the light, which con¬
tributes much to the facility of the fifhery: the feafon
is from June to September. On the coalts of France
they make ufe of the roes of the cod-fifh as a bait;
which, thrown into the fea, makes them rife from the
bottom, and run into the nets. On our coatts there
are perfons pofled afhore, who, fpying by the colour
of the water where the fhoals are, make figns to the
boats to go among them to cafl their nets. When
taken, they are brought on fhore to a warehoufe,
where they are laid up in broad piles, fupported with
backs and fides; and as they are piled, they fait them
with bay-falt; in which lying to foak for 30 or 40 days,
they run out a deal of blood, with dirty pickle and
bittern ; then they wafn them clean in fea-water; and,
when dry, barrel and prefs them hard down to fqueeze
out the oil, which iffues out at a hole in the bottom of
of the calk.
* See Salmon * Fishery. The chief falmon-fiiheries in
Salmo. Europe are in England, Scotland, and Ireland, in the
rivers, and fea-coalts adjoining to the river-mouths.
The mod didinguifhed for falmon in Scotland are, the
river Tweed, the Clyde, the Tay, the Dee, the Don,
the Spey, the Nefs, the Bewly, &c. in mod of which
it is very common, about the height of fummer, efpe-
cially if the weather happens to be very hot, to catch
four or five fcore falmon at a draught. The chief ri¬
vers in England for falmon are, the Tyne, the Trent,
the Severn, and the Thames. Thefifhing is performed
with nets* and fometimes with a kind of locks or weirs
made on pnrpofe, which in certain places have iron or
wooden grates fo difpofed, in an angle, that being im-
pelled by any force in a contrary diredlion to the eourfe
of the river, they may give way and open a little at the
point of contaft, and immediately fhut again; clofing
the angle. The falmon, therefore, coming up into the
rivers, are admitted into thefe grates, which open, and
fuffer them to pafs through, but fhut again, and pre¬
vent their return. The faimon is alfo caught with a fpear,
which they dart into him when they feediim fwimming
near the furface of the water. It is eudomary like-
wife to catch them with a candle and lanthorn, or wifp
of draw fet on fire; for the fdh' naturally following the
Voi. IV.
21 ] FIS
light, are druck with the fpear, or taken in a net fpread Fiifie y.
for that purpofe, and lifted with a hidden jerk from ~
the bottom.
“ The capture of falmon in the Tweed, about the
month of July, (fays Mr Pennant*) is prodigious. In ^-ooL
a good fifhery, often a boat-load, and fometimes near l8p'
two, are taken in a tide: fome few years ago there were
above 700 fifh taken at one bawl, but from 50 to too
is very frequent. The coopers in Berwick then begin
to fait both falmon and gilfes in pipes and other large
veffels, and afterwards barrel them to fend abroad, ha¬
ving then far more than the London markets can take
off their hands.
“ Mod of the falmon taken before April, or to the
fetting in of the warm weather, is fent frefh to Lon¬
don in balkets: unlefs now and then the veffei is dif-
appointed, by contrary winds, of failing immediately; in
which cafe the fifh is brought afhore again to the coopers
offices, and boiled, pickled, and kitted, and fent to the
London markets by the fame fhip, and frefh falmon
put in the bafkets in lieu of the Hale ones. At the be¬
ginning of the feafon, when a fhip is on the point of
failing, a frefh clean falmon will fell from a (hilling to
eighteen pence a pound; and mod of the time that this
part of the trade is carried on, the prices are from five
to nine fliillings per done; the valuerifing and falling
according to the plenty of fifh, or the profpedt of a fair
or foul wind. Some fifh are fent in this manner to
London the latter end of September, when the weather
grows cool; but then the fifh are full of large roes,
grow very thin-bellied, and are not edeemed either pa¬
latable or wholefome.
“ The feafon for fifhing in the Tweed begins No¬
vember 30th, but the fifhermen work very little till
after Chridmas: it ends on Michaelmas-day; yet the
corporation of Berwick (who are confervators of the
river) indulge the fifhermen with a fortnight pad that
time, on account of the change of the dyle.
“ There are on the river 41 confiderable fiflieries,
extending upwards, about 14 miles from the mouth,
(the others above being of no great value), which are
rented for near540ol. per annnm: the expence attend¬
ing the fervants wages, nets, boats, &c. amount to 5000I.
more; which together makes up the fum 10,400]. Now,
in confequence, the produce mud defray all, and no lefs
than 20 times that fum offifh will effedl it; fo that 208,00a
falmon mud be caught there one year with another.
“ Scotland poffeffes great numbers of fine fifheries
on both fides of that kingdom. The Scotch in early
times had mod fevere laws againd the killing of this
fifh; for the third offence was made capital, by a law
of James IV. Before that, the offender had power to
redeem his life. They were thought in the time of
Henry VI. a prefent worthy of a crowned head; for
in that reign the queen of Scotland fent to the dutchefs
of Clarence, ten cafks of faked falmon ; which Henry
directed to pafs duty-free. The falmon are cured in
the fame manner as at Berwick, and a great quantity
is fent to London in the fpring; but after that time,
the adventurers begin to barrel and export them to fo¬
reign countries: but we believe that commerce is far
lefs lucrative than it was in former times, partly owing
to the great increafe of the Newfoundland fifhery, and
partly to the general relaxation of the difcipline of ab-
dinence in the Romifh church.
17 L " Ire-
FIS [ 3022 ] FIS
Fifhery. “ Ireland (particularly the north) abounds with this
* fiih: the moil confiderable fiihei-y is at Cranna, on the
river Ban, about a mile and an half from Coleraine.
When I made the tour of that hofpitable kingdom in
1754, it was rented by a neighbouring gentleman for
6201. a-year; who affured me, that the tenant, his
predecefibr, gave i6oo\. per annum, and was a much
greater gainer by the bargain, for the reafons before-
mentioned, and on account of the number of poachers
who deftroy the fifh in the fence-months.
“ The mouth of this river faces the north; and is
finely fituated to receive the fifh that roam along the
coaft, in fearch of an inlet into fome frefh water, as
they do all along that end of the kingdom which op-
pofes itfelf to the northern ocean. We have feen near
Ballicaftle, nets placed in the fea at the foot of the pro¬
montories that jut into it, which the falmon ftrike into
as they are wandering clofe to fhore ; and numbers are
taken by that method.
“ In the Ban they fifh with nets 18 fcore yards
long, and are continually drawing night and day the
whole feafon, which we think lafts about four months,
two fets of 16 men each alternately relieving one ano¬
ther. The heft drawing is when the tide is coming in:
we were told, that at a Angle draught there were once
840 fifh taken.
“ A few miles higher up the river is a wear, where
a confiderable number of fifh that efcape the nets are
taken. We were lately informed, that, in the year
1760, about 320 tons were taken in the Cranna fifh-
ery,”
Curing Salmon. When the falmon are taken, they
open them along the back, take out’theguts and gills,
and cut out the greateft part of the bones, endeavouring
to make the infide as fmooth as pofiible: they then fait
the fifh in large tubs for the purpofe, where they lie a
confiderable time foaking in brine; and about O&o-
ber, they are packed clofe up in barrels, and fent to
London, or exported up the Mediterranean. They
have alfo in Scotland, a great deal of falmon failed in
the common way, which after foaking in brine a com¬
petent time, is well prelied, and then dried in fmoke:
this is called kipper, and is chiefly made for home con-
fumption ; and, if properly cured and prepared, is rec¬
koned very delicious.
t ®ce Sturgeon -f Fishery. The greateft fturgeon-fifhery
apcnje . .s jn 0£ the Volga, on- the Cafpian fea; where
the Mufcovites employ a great number of hands, and
catch them in a kind of inclofure formed by huge (lakes
reprefenting the letter Z repeated feveral times. Thefe
fifheries are open on the fide next the fea, and clofe
on the other; by which means the fifh afcending in its
feafon up the river, is embarraffed in thefe narrow an¬
gular retreats, and fo is eafily killed with a harping-
iron. Sturgeons, when frefh, eat delicioufly ; and in
order to make them keep, they are failed or pickled
in large pieces, and put up in cags from 30 to
pounds. But the great objedt of this fifhery is the roe,
of w'hich the Mufcoyites are extremely fond, and of
which is made the cavear, or kavla, fo much efteemed
by the Italians. -See Cavear.
* See Whale* Fishery. Whales are chiefly caught in the
te.i.ha. north feas: the large ft fort are found about Greenland,
or Spitzbergen. At the firlt difcovery of this country,
whales not Being ufed to be diftuvbed, frequently came
into the very bays, and were accordingly killed almoft Fifhery.
clofe to the Ihore; fo that the blubber being cut off
was immediately boiled into oil on the fpot. The
fhips in thofe times took in nothing but the pure oil
and the udialebone, and all the bufinefs was executed
in the country; by which means a fliip could bring
home the produdh of many more whales than (he can
according to the prefent method of conducing this
trade. The fifhery alfo was then fo plentiful, that they
were obliged fometimes to fend other fhips to fetch off
the oil they had made, the quantity being more than
the fifhing fhips could bring away. But time and
change of circumftances have fhifted the fituation of
this trade. The fhips coming in fuch numbers from
Holland, Denmark, Hamburgh, and other northern
countries, all intruders upon the Englifh, who were
the firft difcoverers of Greenland, the whales were
difturbed, and gradually, as other fifh often do, for-
faking the place, were not to be killed fo near the
fhore as before ; but are now found, and have been fo
ever fince, in the openings and fpace among the ice,
where they have deep water, and where they go fome¬
times a great many leagues from the fhore.
The whale-fifhei-y begins in May, and continues all
June and July ; but whether the fhips have good or
bad fuccefs, they muft come away, and get clear of
the ice, by the end of Auguft ; fo that in the month
of September at fartheft, they may be expefted home;
but a fliip that meets with a fortunate and early fifh¬
ery in May, may return in June or July.
The manner of taking whales at prefent is as fol¬
lows.—Every fhip is provided with fix boats, to each
of which belong fix men for rowing the boat, and an
harpooneer whofe bufinefs is to ftrike the whale with
his harpoon. Two of thefe boats are kept conflantly
on the watch at fome diftance from the fhip, fattened
to pieces of ice, and are relieved by others every four
hours. As foon as a whale is perceived, both the
boats fet out in purfuit of it, and if either of them
can come up before the whale finally defcends, which
is known by his throwing up his tail, the harpooneer
difcharges his harpoon at him. There is no difficulty
in choofing the place where the whale is to be ftruck,
as fbme have afTerted ; for thefe creatures only come
up to the furface in order to fpout up the water, or
blo'w, as the fifhermen term it, and therefore always
keep the foft and vulnerable part of their bodies above
water. A late improvement was made in the method
of difcharging the harpoon ; namely, by (hooting it
out of kind of fwivel or mufquetoon : but it doth not
appear, that, fince this improvement was made, the
whale-fifhing fhips have had better fuccefs than before-
—As foon as the whale is ftruck, -the men fet up one
of their oars in the middle of the boat as a fignal to
thofe in the fhip. On perceiving this, the watchman
alarms all the reft with the cry of fall! fall.1 upon
which all the other boats are immediately fent out to
the affiftance of the firft.
The whale finding himfelf wounded, runs off with
prodigious violence. Sometimes he defcends perpen¬
dicularly ; at others goes off horizontally, at a fmall
depth below the furface. The rope which is faflened
to the harpoon is about 200 fathoms long, and pro¬
perly coiled up, that it may freely be given out as
there is a demand for it. At firfl;* the velocity with
which
FIS f 3023 ] FIS
Fifliery. which this line runs over the fide of the boat is fo great#
that it is wetted to prevent its taking fire : but in a
fliort time the ftrength of the whale begins to fail,
and the filhermen, inftead of letting out more rope,
ftrive as much as poffible to pull back what is given
out already, though they always find themfelves ne-
ceflitated to yield at laft to the efforts of the animal,
to prevent his finking their boat. If he runs out the
200 fathoms of line contained in one boat, that be¬
longing to another is immediately faftened to the end
of the firft, and fo on ; and there have been indances,
where all the rope belonging to the fix boats has been
neceffary, though half that quantity is feldom required.
The whale cannot day long below water, but again
comes up to blow ; and being now much fatigued and
wounded, days longer above water than ufual. This
gives another boat time to come up with him, and he
is again druck with an harpoon. He again defcends,
but with lefs force than before ; and when he comes
up again, is generally incapable of defcending, but
fuffers himfelf to be wounded and killed with long
lances which the men are provided with for the pur-
pofe. He is known to be near death when he fpouts
up the water deeply tinged with blood.
The whale being dead, is lafhed along-fide the fhip.
They then lay it on one fide, and put two ropes, one
at the head, and the other in the place of the tail,
which, together with the fins, is ftruck off as foon as
he is taken, to keep thofe extremities above water.
On the off-fide of the whale are two boats, to receive
the pieces of fat, utenfils, and men, that might other-
wife fall into the water on that fide- Thefe precau¬
tions being taken, three or four men with irons at
their feet to prevent flipping, get on the whale, and
begin to cut out pieces of about three feet thick and
eight long, which are hauled up at the capdane or
windlafs. When the fat is all got off, they cut off
the whifkers of the upper jaw with an ax. Before
they cut, they are all lafhed to keep them firm ; which
alfo facilitates the cutting, and prevents them from
falling into the fea : when on board, five' or fix of
them are bundled together, and properly dowed ; and
after all is got off, the carcafe is turned a-drift* and
devoured by the bears, who are very fond of it.- In
proportion as the large pieces of fat are cut off, the
red of the crew are employed in flicing them fmaller,
and picking out all the lean. When this is prepared,
they flow it under the deck, where it lies till the fat
of all the whales is on board.; then cutting it dill
fmallerr they put it up in tubs in the hold, cramming
them very full and clofe. Nothing now remains but
to fail homewards, where the fat is to be boiled and
melted down into train-oil.
It were in vain to fpeak in this place of the advan¬
tages that may be derived to Great Britain from the
whale-fifhery. We fhall only remark, that thfe legifla-
ture think that trade of fo great importance, as to
grant a very confiderable bounty for the encourage¬
ment of it; for every Britifh veffel of 200 tons or up¬
wards, bound to the Greenland feas on the whale-
fifhery, if found to be duly qualified according to the
ad, obtains a licence from the commiffioners of the
cudoms to proceed on fuch voyage: and on the fhip’s
return, the mader and mate making oath that they
proceeded on fuch voyage and no other, and ufed all
tneir endeavours to take whales, &c. and that all the ^ F'd>:»e.
whale-fins, blubber, oil, &c. imported in their (hip,
were taken by their crew in thofe feas, there (hall be
allowed 40 s. for every ton according to the admeafure-
ment of the fhip.
Besides thefe fifheries, there are feveral others both
on the coads of Great Britain and in the North Seas,
which, although not much the fubjed of merchandize,
neverthelefs employ great numbers both of (hips and
men ; as, 1. Theoyfier-fifliingat Colcheder, Feverfliam,
the Ifle of Wight, in the Swales of the Medway, and
in all the creeks between Southampton and Chicheder,
from whence they are carried to be fed in pits about
Wevenhoe and other places. (See Ostrea.) 2. The
lobder-fidiing all along the Britidi Channel, the Frith
of Edinburgh, on the coad of Northumberland, and
on the coad of Norway, from whence'great quantities
are brought to London. (See Cancer.) 3. and ladly,
Thefiflu’ngof the pot-fidi, fin-fiflt, fea-unicorn, fea-
horfe, and the feal, or dog-fi(h: all wFich are found
in the fame feas with the whales, and yield blubber in
a certain degree; befides, the horn of the unicorn is
as edimable as ivory, and the (kins of the feals are
particularly ufeful to trunk-makers.
FISHING, in general, the art of catching fifh,
whether by means of nets, of fpears, or of the line
and hook.
Fishing in the great, performed by the net, fpear,
or harpoon, has been explained in the preceding ar¬
ticle. That performed by the rod, line and hook, is
ufually termed Angling : See that article; and for
the particular manner of angling for the different kinds
of fi(h, fee their refpe&ive names, as Dace, Eel,
Perch, &c. The following were omitted in their
order.
1. The Barbel*, (fo called on account of the barb * See
or beard that is under his chops), though a coarfe fifli, typrinus.
gives confiderable exercife to the angler’s ingenuity.
They fw-im together in great (hoals, and are at their
worft in April, at which time they fpawn, but come
foon in feafon : the places w'hither they chiefly refort,
are fuch as are weedy and gravelly rifing^ grounds, in
which this fifh is faid to dig and root with his nofe
like a fwine. In the fummer he frequents the ftrongeff,
fwifteft, currents of water ; as deep bridges, wears, &c.
and is apt to fettle himfelf amongfl the piles, hollow
places, and mofs, or weeds ; and will remain there im¬
moveable : but in the winter he retires into deep wa¬
ters, and helps the female to make a hole in the fands
to hide her fpawm in, to hinder its being devoured by
other fifli. He is a very curious and cunning fifli ; for
if his baits be not fweet, clean, well-fcoured, and
kept in fw^eet mofs, he will not bite; but well-ordered
and curioufly kept, he will bite with great eagernefs.
The bed bait for him is the fpawn of a falmon, trout,
or any other fi(h ; and if you would have good fport
with him, bait the places where you intend to fifli
with it a night or two before, or with large worms
cut in pieces; and the earlier in the morning or the
later in the evening that you fifli, the better it will be.
Your rod and line mud be both droug and long, with
a running plummet on the line; and let a little bit of
lead be placed a foot or more above the hook, to
keep the bullet from falling on it: fo the worm will
be at the bottom, where they always bite j and when
17 L 2 the
Flfhing.
• See
Cyprinus.
t See
Cyprinus.
PIS [ 3024 ] PIS
the fifh takes the bait, your plummet will lie and not
choke him. By the bending of your rod you may
know when he bites, as alfo with your hand you will
feel him make a ftrong fnatch ; then ftrike, and you
will rarely fail, if you play him well; but, if you
manage him not dexteroufly, he will break your line.
The bell time of fifhing is about nine in the morning,
and the moft proper feafon is the latter end of May,
June, July, and the beginning of Auguft.
2. The Bleak *, is an eager fifh, caught with all
forts of worms bred on trees or plants ; as alfo with
flies, pafte, {beep’s blood, &c. They may be angled
for with half a fcore of hooks at once, if they can be
all faftened on : he will alfo in the evening take a na¬
tural or artificial fly. If the day be warm and clear,
there is no fly fo good for him as the fmall fly at the
top of the water, which he will take at any time of
the day, efpecially in the evening : but if the day is
cold and cloudy, gentles and caddis are the beft ; a-
bout two feet under water. No fifh yields better fport
to a young angler than the bleak. It is- fo eager,
that it will leap out of the water for a bait.
There is another way of taking bleak, which is by
whipping them in a boat, or on a bank-fide in freflt
water in a fummer’s evening, with a hazel top about
five or fix feet long and a line twice the length of the
rod. But the beft method is with a drabble, thus :
Tie eight or ten fmall hooks acrofs a line two inches
above one another ; the biggeft hook the lowermoft,
(whereby you may fometimes take a better fifli), and
bait them with gentles, flies, or fome fmall red worms,
by which means you may take half a dozen or more
at a time.
3. For the Bream f, obferve the following direc¬
tions, which will alfo be of ufe in carp-fiftiing.—Pro¬
cure about a quart of large red worms; put them into
frefli mofs well wafhed and dried every three or four
days, feeding them with fat mould and chopped fen¬
nel, and they will be thoroughly fcoured in about three
weeks.
Let your lines be filk and hair, but all filk is the
beft : let the floats be either fwan-quills, or goofe-
quills. Let your plumb be a piece of lead in the (hape
of apear, with a fmall ring at the little end of it: £a-
ften the lead to the line, and the line-hook to the lead,
about ten or twelve inches fpace between lead and
hook will be enough ; and take care the lead be heavy
enough to fink the float. Having baited your hook
well with a ftrong worm, the worm will draw the hook
up and down in the bottom, which will provoke the
bream to bite the more eagerly. It will be be beft to
fit up three or four rods and lines in this manner, and
fet them as will be directed, and this will afford you
much the better fport. Find the exaft depth of the
water if pofiible, that your float may fwim on its fur-
face directly over the lead ; then provide the following
ground-bait : take about a peck of fweet grofs-
ground malt; and having boiled it a very little, ftrain
it hard through a bag, and carry it to the water-fide
where you have founded; and in the place where you
fuppofe the fifh frequent, there throw in the malt by
handfuls fqueezed hard together, that the ftream may
not feparate it before it cpmes to the bottom ; and be
hire to throw it in at leaft a yard above the place
where you intend the hook {hall lie, otherwife the
ftream will carry it down too far. Do this about nine
o’clock at night, keeping fome of the malt in ihe bag;
and go to the place about three the next morning : but
approach very warily, left yon fhould be feen by the
fifh ; for it is certain, that they have their centinels
watching on the top of the water, while the reft are
feeding below. Having baited your hook fo that the
worm may crawl to and fro, the better to allure the
fifh to bite, call it in at the place where you find
the fifli to ftay moft, which is generally in the
broadeft and deepeft part of the river, and fo that
it may reft about the midft of your bait that is on the
ground. Caft in your fecond line fo that it may reft a
yard above that, and a third about a yard below it.
Let your rods lie on the bank with fome ftonesto keep
them down at the great ends; and then withdraw your-
felf, yet not fo far but that you can have your eye up¬
on all the floats: and when you fee one bitten and
carried away, do not be too hafty to run in, but give
time to the fifh to tire himfelf, and then touch him
gently. When you perceive the float fink, creep to
the water-fide, and give it as much line as you can.
If it is a bream or carp, they will run to the other fide;
which ftrike gently, and hold your rod at a bent a little
while ; but do not pull, for then you will fpoil all ;
but you muft firft tire them before they can be landed,
for they are very fliy. If there are any carps in the
river, it is an even wager that you take one or more of
them : but if there are any pike or perch, they will be
fure to vifit the ground-bait, though they will not touch
it, being drawn thither by the great refort of the fmall
fifh ; and until you remove them, it is in vain to think
of taking the bream or carp. In this cafe, bait one
of your hooks with a fmall bleak, roach, or gudgeon,
about two foot deep from your float, with a little red
worm at the point of your hook ; and if a pike be there,
he will be fure to fnap at it. This fport is good tftl
nine o’clock in the morning ; and, in a gloomy 3ay,
till night: but do not frequent the place too much, left
the fifh grow fhy.
4. The carp*. A perfon who angles for carp muft
arm himfelf with abundance of patience, becaufeof its
extraordinary fubtilty and policy : they always choofe
to lie in the deepeft places', either of ponds or rivers,
where there is but a fmall running flrtam.
Further, obferve, that they will feldom bite in cold
weather; and you cannot be too early or too late at the
fport in hot weather : and if he bite, you need not fear
his hold; for he is one of thofe leather-mouthed fifli
that have their teeth in their throat.
Neither muft you forget, in angling for him, to
have a ftrong rod and line; and fince he is fo very wary,
it will be proper to entice him, by baiting the ground
with a coarfe pafte.
He feldom refufes the red worm in March, the cad¬
dis in June, nor the grafhopper in June, April, and
September.
This fifli does not only delight in w’orms, but alfo
in fweet pafte ; of which there is great variety : the
beft is made of honey and fugar, and ought to be
thrown into the water fome hours before you begin
to angle; neither will fmall pellets thrown into the wa¬
ter two or three days before be worfe for this purpofe,
efpecially if chickens guts, garbage, or blood mixed
vtith bran and cow-dung, be alfo thrown in.
Filing.
f- See Carp
ind Cypri-
ms.
* But
F I S
Fiftiing.
Fifhifig.
Sporlfm.
Did.
* See
Cjprinzts.
FIS [ 3025 ]
But mord particularly, as to a pafte very proper for
- this ufe, you may make it in the manner following:
Take a fufficient quantity of flour, and mingle it with
veal, cut fmall, making it up with a compound of ho¬
ney ; then pound all together in a mortar till they are
fo tough as to hang upon the hook without walking
off. In order toeffedl which the better, mingle whitifh
wool with it; and if you keep it all the year round,
add fOme virgin wax and clarified honey.
Again, if you filh with gentles, anoint them with
honey, and put them on your hook, with a deep fear-
let dipped in the like, which is a good way to deceive
the filh.
Honey and crumbs of white-bread, mixed together,
make alfo a very good patle.
In taking a carp either in pond or river, if the angler
intends to add profit to his pleafure, he muft take a
peck of ale-grains, and a good quantity of any blood
to mix. with the grains, baiting the ground with it
where he intends to angle. This food will wonder¬
fully attradl the feale-filh, as carp, tench* roach, dace,
and bream.
Let him angle in a morning, plumbing his ground,
and angling for carp with a ftrong line : the bait muft
be either pafte, or a knotted red worm; and by this
means he will have fport enough.
5. The chub, or cheviti *, is a very ftrong, though
i'nadtive fith, yielding in a very little time after he is
ftruck; and the larger he is, the more quietly be is
taken. As for his food, he loves all forts of worms and
flies; alfo cheefe, grain, and black worms, their bel¬
lies being flit that the white may appear. He is to
be angled for early in the morning with fnails: but in
the heat of the day make ufe of fome other bait; and
in the afternoon, fifh for him at ground of-with fly;
of the laft of which there is none he covets more than
a moth with a great head, whofe body is yellow, with
whitifh wings, which is commonly found in gardens
about the evening.
Defcripfion ofproper Baits for the fever al forts o/'Fish
referred to in the annexed Table.
Flies.'} 1. Stone-fly, found under hollow ftones at
the fide of rivers, is of a brown colour, with yellow
breaks on the back and belly, has large wings, and is
in feafon from April to July. 2. Green-drake, found
among ftones by river-fides, has a yellow body ribbed
with green, is long and flender, with wings like a but¬
terfly, his tail turns on his back, and from May to Mid-
fummer is very good. 3. Oak-fly, found in the body
of an old oak or alb, with its head downwards, is of
a' brown colour, and excellent from May to Septem¬
ber. 4. Palmer-fly or worm, found ou leaves of plants,
is commonly called a caterpillar, and when it comes to
a fly is excellent for trout. 5. Ant-fly, found in ant¬
hills from June to September. 6. The May-fly is to
be found playing at the river-fide, efpecially againft
rain. 7. The black-fly is to be found upon every
hawthorn, after the buds are come off.
Baftes.~\ 1. Take the blood of (beeps hearts, and
mix it with honey and flour worked to a proper con-
fiftence. 2. Take old cheefe grated, a little butter fuf¬
ficient to work it, and colour it with faffron : in winter
ufe rufty bacon inftead of butter. 3. Crumbs of bread
chewed or worked with honey, (or fugar), moiftened
with gum-ivy water. 4. Bread chewed, and worked
in the hand till ftiff.
Worms.} 1. The earth-bob, found in fandy ground
after ploughing; it is white, with a red head, and big¬
ger than a gentle: another is found in heathy ground,
with a blue head. Keep them in an earthen veffel well
covered, and a fufScient quantity of the mould they
harbour in. They' are excellent from April to No¬
vember. 2. Gentles, to be had from putrid flelh: let
them He in wheat-bran a few days before ufed,
3. Flag-worms, found in the roots of flags; they are
of a pale yellow colour, are longer and thinner than a
gentle, and muft be fcowered like them. 4. Cow-
turd-bob, or clap-bait, found under a cow-turd from
May to Michaelmas; it is like a gentle, but larger.
Keep it in its native earth like the earth-bob. 5. Ca-
dis-worm, or cod-bait, found under loofe ftones in (hal¬
low rivers; they are yellow, bigger than a gentle, with
a black or blue head, and are in feafon from April
to July. Keep them in flannel bags. 6. Lob-worm,
found in gardens; it is very large,and has a red-head,
a ftreak down the back, and a flat broad tail. 7. Marfh-
worms, found in marfhy gtound: keep them in rtiofs
ten days before you ufe them: their colour is a bluiflt
red, and are a good bait from March to Michaelmas.
8. Brandling red-worms, or blood-worms, found in
rotten dunghills and tanners bark; they are fmall red-*
worms, very good for all fmall fifh, have fometimes a
yellow tail, and are called tag-tail.
Fifl? and infefls.} 1. Minnow. 2. Gudgeon.
3. Roach. 4. Dace. 5,. Smelt. 6. Yellow frog.
7. Snail flit. 8. Grafshopper.
FishinG'/Tv, a bait ufed in angling for divers kind3
of filh. See Fishing.
The fly is either natural ox artificial.
I. Natural flies are innumerable. The rffore ufual
for this purpofe are mentioned, in the preceding co-
lumn.
There are two ways to fifh with natural flies ; ei¬
ther on the furface of the water, or a little under¬
neath it.
In angling for chevin, roach, or dace, move not
your natural fly fwiftly, when you fee the filh make at
it ; but rather let it glide freely towards him with the
ftream : but if it be in a ffil! and flow water, draw the
fly flowly fidewife by him, which will make him ea¬
gerly purfue.
II. The artificial fly is feldom ufed but in blufter--
ing weather, when the waters are fo troubled-by1 the
winds, that the natural fly cannot be feen, nor reft up¬
on them. Of this artificial fly there are reckoned no
lefs than 12 forts, of which the following are the prin¬
cipal.
1. For March, the dun-fly ; made of dun-wool, and:
the feathers of the patridg.e’s wing; or the body made
of black wool,.and the feathersofa black drake. 2. For
April, the ftone-fly ; the body made of black wool,,
dyed yellow under the wings-and tail. 3. For the be¬
ginning of May, the ruddy fly ; made of red wool, anct
hound about with- black filk, with the feathers of a.
black capon hanging dangling on his fides next his tail..
4. For June, the greenilh fly ; the body made of
black wool, with a yellow lift on either fide, the wings
taken off the wings of a buz-zard, bound with black
broken hemp. 5. The moorifh fly, the body made
of dufkifh wool, and the wings of the blackifli mail of,
H:
FIS [ 3026 ] FIS
An Epitome of the whole art of Fishing, wherein is fhewn (at one view), the harbours, feafons, and depths, for
catching all forts of fifli ufually angled for; alfo the various baits for each, fo digelted as to contain the eflence of
all the treatifes ever wrote on the fubjeft, exempt from their fuperlluities, which tend more to perplex than inftruft.
Fifliing.
FIS [ 3027 ] FIS
or in a cloudy day, when the waters are moved by a
gentle breeze : the fouth wind is beft ; and if the wind
blow high, yet not fo but that you may conveniently
guard your tackle, the fifh will rife in plain deeps;
but if the wind be fmall, the beft angling is in fwift
ftreams. 2. Keep as far from the water-fide as may
be; fifli down the ftream with the fun at your back,
and touch not the water with your line. 3. Ever angle
in clear rivers, with a fmall fly and flender wings; but
in muddy, places ufe a larger. 4. When, after rain, the
water becomes browns'fh, ufe an orange fly; in a clear
day, a light-coloured fly; a dark fly for dark waters,
&c. 5. Let the line be twice as long as the rod, un-
kfs the river be encumbered with wood. 6. For every
fort of fly, have feveral of the fame, differing in colour,
to fuit with the different complexions of feveral waters
and weathers. 7. Have a nimble eye, and adlive hand,
to ftrike prefently with the riflng of the fifti; or elfe he
will be apt to fpue out the hook- 8. Let the fly fall
firft into the water, and not the line, which will fcare
the fifli. 9. In flow rivers, or ftill places, caft the fly
a-crofs the river, and let it fink a little in the water,
and draw it gently back with the current.
Salmon-flies fliould be made with their wings Handing
one behind the other, whether two-or four. This fifh
delights in the gaudieft colours that can be; chiefly
in the wings, which muft be long, as-well as the tail.
YisuiuG-Fkcits, are little appendages to the line,
ferving to keep the hook and bait fufpended at the pro¬
per depth, to difcover when the fifli has hold of them,
&c. Of thefe there are divers kinds; fome made of
Mufeovy-duck quills, which are the beft for flow waters;
but for ftrong ftreams, found cork, without flaws or
holes, bored through with an hot ii-on, into which is
put a quill of a fit proportion, is preferable: pare the
cork to a pyramidal form, and make it fmooth.
FisHiNG-Tfooi, a fmall inftrument made of fteel-vvire,
of a proper form to catch and retain fifh.
The fifhing-hook^in general, ought to be long in the
fliank, fomewhat thick in the circumference, the point
even and ftraight; let the bending be in the fhank.
For fetting the hook on, ufe ftrong, but fmall filk,
laying the hair on the infide of your hook; for if it
be on. the outfide, the filk will fret and cut it afunder.
There are feveral fizes of thefe fiftiing-hooks, fome
big, fome little: and of theft, fome have peculiar names;
as, 1. Single hooks. 2. Double hooks; which have
two bendings, one contrary to the other. 3. Snappers,
or gorgers, which.are the hooks to whip the artificial
fly upon, or bait with the natural fly. 4. Springers, or
fpcing-hooks; a kind of double hooks, with a fpring,
which flies open upon being ftruck into any fifh, and
fo keep its mouth open.
FiSHiNG-ih'w, is either made of hair, twilled; or
filk; or the Indian grafs.—The beft colours are the
forrel, white, and grey; the two laft for clear waters,
the firft for muddy ones. Nor is the pale watery green
defpifable; this colour is given artificially, by fteeping
the hair in a liquor made of alum, foot, and the juice
of walnut-leaves, boiled together.
Fishing-/??//, a long flender rod or wand, to which
the line is faftened,. for angling.—Of thefe there are
feveral forts ; as, 1. A troller, or trolling-rod, which
has a ring at the end of the rod, for the line to go thro’
when it runs off a reel. 2. A whipper, or whipping-
rod ; a top-rod, that is weak in the middle, and top- FiftritTg
heavy, but all flender and fine. 3. A dropper; udiich , II
is a ftrong rod and very light. 4. A fnapper, or fnap- Fi^11 ar‘a‘
rod ; which is a ftrong pole, peculiarly ufed for the
pike. 5. A bottom-rod ; being the fame as the drop¬
per, but fomewhat more pliable. 6. A higgling or
procking flick ; a forked flick, having a fhort ftrong
line, with a needle, baited with a lobe worm : this is
only for eels in their holes.
Fishing-jF^, ox Angler. See Lophius.
Right of and property of fifh. It has been
held, that where the lord of the manor hath the foil
on both fides of the river, it is a good evidence that he
hath a right of fifhing ; and it puts the proof upon him
whoclaims liberam pifeariam: but where a river ebbs,
and flow's, and is an arm of the fea, there it is common i-aw DiH.
to all, and he who claims a privilege to himfelf muft
prove it; for if the trefpafs is brought for fifhing there,
the defendant mayjuftify, that the place where is bra-
chium marts, in quo unttfquifque fubditus domini regis
habet et habere debet liberam pifeariam. In the Severn
the foil belongs to the owners of the land on each fide ;
and the foil of the river Thames is in the king, but the
fifhing is common to all. He w'ho is owner of the foil
of a private river, hath feparalis pifearia; and he that
hath libera pifearia, hath a property in the fifh, and
may bring a poffeffbry adlion foY them ; but communis
pifearia is like the cafe of all other commons. One
that has a clofe pond in which there are fifh, may call
them pifees fuos, in an indi&ment, &c. but he cannot
call them bona is catalla, if they be not in trunks.
There needs no privilege to make a fifti^pond, as there
doth in the cafe of a warren. See Franchise.
FISSURES, in the hiftory of the earth, certain in¬
terruptions, that in an horizontal or parallel manner
divide the feveral ft rata- of which the body of our terre-
ftrial globe is compofed.
Fissure of the Bones, in furgery, is when they are
divided either tranfverfely or longitudinally, not quite
through, but cracked after the manner of glafs, by any
external force. See Surgery..
FISTULA, in the ancient mufic, an inftrument of
the wind-kind, refembling our flute or flageolet.
The principal wind-inftruments of the ancients, were
the tibia and the fiftula. But how they were confti-
tuted, wherein they differed, or how they were played
upon, does not appear.
Fistula, in furgery, a deep,, narrow, and callous
ulcer, generally arifing from abfeeffes’.
It differs from a finus, in its being callous, the latter
not. See Surgery.
Fistula, in farriery. See Farriery, $ xxxi.
EISTULARIA, or Tobacco-pipe Fish ; a ge¬
nus of fifties, belonging to the order of abdominales.
Of this genus Linnaeus reckons twTo fpecies; but we
have a defeription only of one, viz-, the tabacaria. It
is deferibed by Mr Catefby, from the only one he ever pi. CVIII,
fawr. It was almoft a foot in length ; the fore-part from fig a.
the nofe to half-w'ay the body of nearly equal bignefs ;
from whence it grew tapering to the tail, which was
forked, and from which grew a flender taper whip,
four inches long, of the confiftence of whalebone ; the
mouth narrow, from which to the eyes was almoft three-
inches. The whole fifti was of a ,brown colour. They,
are fometimes taken on the. coafts of Jamaica.
fit;.
Tit
i!
Fixed.
* See Afire-
nomy} n° 6$
&c.
FIX [ 30
TIT. See Paroxysm.
Dr Cbeyne is of opinion that fits of all kinds, whe¬
ther epileptic, hyfteric, or apoplectic, may be Cured
folely by a milk-diet, of about two quarts of cows milk
a-day, without any other medicine.
FITCHY, in heraldry, (from the French i. e.
fixed) ; a term applied to a crofs when the lower branch
ends in a (harp point : and the reafon of it Mackenzie
fuppofes to be, that the primitive Chriftians were wont
to carry Croffes with them wherever they Went; and
when they (lopped on their journey at any place, they
fixed thofe portable croffes in the ground for devotion’s
fake.
FITCHES, in hufbandry, a fort of pulfe, more ge¬
nerally known by the name of chick-pea. See Cicer.
Fitches are cultivated either for feeding cattle, or
improving the land. They make a wholefome and nou-
rifhing food, whether given in the draw or thfeflied
out. When fown only to improve the foil, they are
ploughed in juft as they begin to bloffom, by which
means a tough ftiff clay-foil is much enriched.
FITCHET, a name ufed in fome places for the
weafel, called alfo the foumart. See Mustela.
FITZ, makes part of the furname of fome of the
natural fons of the kings of England, as Fitz-roy ;
which is purely French, and fignifies the “ king’s fon.”
F1TZHERBERT (Sir Anthony), a very learned
lawyer in the reign of king Henry VIII. was defeended
from an ancient family, and born at Norbury in Der-
bydiwe. He was made one of the judges of the court
of common-pleas in 1523 ; and diftinguifhed himfelfby
many valuable works, as well as by fuch an honourable
difeharge of the duties of his office, as made him efteem-
ed an oracle of the law. His writings are, The Grand
Abridgment; The Office and Authority of Juft ices of
Peace; the Office of Sheriffs, Bailiffs of Liberties, Ef
cheators, Ccnfahles, Coroners, &c.; Of the Diverftty of
Courts-, The New Natura Brevium; Of the Surveying
of Lands; and The Book of Hujbandry. Fie died in 1538.
FITZ-STEPHEN (William), a learned monk of
Canterbury, of Norman ext raftion, but born of refpec-
table parents in the city of London. He lived in the
12th century ; and being attached to the fervice of arch-
bifhop Becket, was prefent at the time of his murder.
In the year 1174, he wrote in Latin, The Life of St
Thomas, archbifoop and martyr; in which, as Becket
was a native of the metropolis, he introduces a deferip-
tion of the city of London, with a mifcellaneous de¬
tail of the manners and ufages of the citizens: this is
defervedly confidered as a great curiofity, being the
earlieft profeffed account of London extant. Fitz-Ste¬
phen died in 1191.
FIVES, or Vjves. See Farriery, fe£l. x. to.
FIXATION, in chemiftry, the rendering any vo¬
latile fubftance fixed, fo as not to fly off upon being ex-
pofed to a great heat; hence,
FIXED bodies, are thofe which bear a confider-
able degree of heat without evaporating, or lofing any
of their weight. Among the mod fixed bodies are dia¬
monds, gold, &c. See Diamond, Gold, &c.
Fixed Air. See Air, and Gas.
Fixed Stars, are fuch as conftantly retain the fame
■ pofition and diftance with refpeft to each other * ; by
’ which they are contradiftinguiftied from erratic or wan¬
dering ftars, which are continually fhifting their fitua-
:8 ] FLA
tion and diftance. - The fixed ftars are what we pro¬
perly and abfolutely call fiars: the reft have their pe¬
culiar denominations of pla-net, and comet. See A-
STRONOMY, n° 4O, 44, 46, &C.
FLACCUS (Caius Valerius), an ancient Latin poet,
of whom we have very imperfeft accounts remaining.
He wrote a poem on the Argonautic expdition; of
which, however, he did not live to finilh the eighth book,
dying at about 30 years of age. John Baptifta Pius,
an Italian poet, completed the eighth book of the Ar-
gonautics; and added two more, from the fourth of
Apollonius; which fupplement was firft added to Al¬
dus’s edition in 1523.
FLAG or Slate Stone, common in Northumber¬
land and fome of the neighbouring counties, is called
by fome the Carlijle flag. Its ftrata are very thick; but
they fometimes feparate into laminse of about half an
inch thick, and the workmen feldom attempt to fplit it
any thinner: the upper ftrata, however, grow gradually
thinner. The bottom ones are fo thick, that they can¬
not be made ufe of for flates; but are ufed for tanners
vats, live pavements of floors, and citterns for water.
Flag, is alfo ufed for fedge, a kind of rufti.
Flags, in the army, are finall banners of diftin&ion
ftuck in the baggage-waggons, todiftinguifti the bag¬
gage of one brigade from another, and of one battalioa
from another; that they may be marfhalled by the wag¬
gon-matter general according to the rank of their
brigades, to avoid the confulion that might otherwife
arife.
Flag, in the marine, a certain banner or ftandard,
by which an admiral is diftinguiflied at fea from the
inferior (hips of his fquadron ; alfo the colours by
which one nation is diftinguiftied from another. See
Plate CIX.
In the Brit’.fh navy, flags are either red, white, or
blue ; and are difplayed from the topof the tnain-maft,
fore-maft, or mizen-maft, according to the rank of the
admiral. When a flag is difplayed from the flag-ftaff
on the main-maft, the officer diftinguifhed thereby is
known to be an admiral; when from the fore-maft, a
vice-admiral ; and when from the mizen-maft, a rear-
admiral.
The firft flag in Great Britain is the royal ftandard,
which is only to be hoifted when the king or queen are
on board the veffel : the fecond is that of the anchor
of hope, which charafterifes the lord high admiral, or
lords commiffioners of the admiralty : and the third is
the union-flag, in which the croffes of St George and
St Andrew are blended. This laft is appropriated to
the admiral of the fleet, who is the firft military officer
under the lord high admiral.
The next flag after the union is that of the white
fquadron, at the main-maft head ; and the laft, which
charafterifes an admiral, is the blue, at the fame maft-
head.
For a vice-admiral, the firft flag is the red, the fe¬
cond the white, the third the blue, at the flag-ftaff on
the fore-maft.
The fame order proceeds with regard to the rear-ad¬
mirals, whofe flags are hoifted on the top of the mizen-
^naft : the loweft flag in our navy is accordingly the
blue on the mizen-maft.
To Lower or Strike the Flag, in the marine, is to
pull it down upon the cap, or to take it in, out of
the
FI a ecus,
Flag.
Plate. CVIlT.
/JJS'X
Tobacco pipe Pish:
Flag s
Plate CIX.
FLA [ 3029 ] FLA
Flag the refpeft, or fubmiffion, due from all fhips or fleets
II inferior to thofe any way juftly their fuperiors. To
Frai' lower or (trike the flag in an engagement is a fign of
yielding.
The way of leading a (hip in triumph is to tie the
flags to the (hrouds, or the gallery, in the hind-part
of the (hip, and let them hang down towards the wa¬
ter, and to tow the veflels by the (tern. Livy relates,
that this was the way the Romans ufed thofe of Car¬
thage.
To Heave out Flag, is to put out or put abroad
the flag.
To Hang out the White Flag, is to alk quarter; or
it (hews, when a veffel is arrived on a coaft, that it has
no hoftile intention, but comes to trade, or the like.
The red flag is a Cgn of defiance, and battle.
CWFlag. See Glaiholus.
S’xveet-fcentedYvkG. See Acorus.
FLAG-Officers, thofe who command the feveral fqua-
drons of a fleet; fuch are the admirals, vice-admirals,
and rear-admirals.
The flag-officers in our pay, are the admiral, vice-
admiral, and rear-admiral, of the white, red, and blue.
See Admiral, Flag, and Fleet.
Flag-S^, a (hip commanded by a general or flag-
officer, who has a right to carry a flag, in contradi-
ftin&ion to the fecondary veflels under the command
thereof.
FLAGELLANTES, a feft of heretics, who cha-
ftifed and difciplined themfelves with whips, in public.
The feft of the Flagellantes had its rife at Perufa, in
the year 1260. Its author was one Rainier, a hermit.
It was in all probability no more than the effeft of an
indifcreet zeal. A great number of perfons of all ages
made proceflions, walking two by two, with their
(boulders bare, which they whipped, till the blood ran
down, in order to obtain mercy from God, and appeafe
his indignation againft the wickednefs of the age.
They were then called the devout: and having efta-
blilhed a fuperior, he was called the general of the de¬
votion.
Women did not appear In thefe public aflemblies;
though they pra&ifed the fame feverities; but it was
in private, and in their own houfes.
In the middle of the 14th century, the fe& of the
Flagellantes was reftored, on occafion of a great mor¬
tality, and fpread itfelf into all parts of Europe.
The bilhops and magiftrates at length found it ne-
ceflary to put a flop-to their excefs. The writers and
preachers difputed againft it; but the Flagellantes re¬
mained unfhaken againft all they could fay: fo that of
a number of, perhaps, innocent well-meaning zealots,
pride, obftinacy and fchifm converted them into a dan¬
gerous feft. They held, that the blood thus fpilt was
mixed with that of Jefus Chrift; and that by a flagel¬
lation of 24 days they gained the pardon of all their
fins.
Clement VI. forbad all public flagellations. Gerfon
wrote an exprefs treatife againft public flagellations.
FLAGEOLET, or Flajeolet, a little flute, ufed
chiefly by (hepherds and country-people. It is made of
box or other hard wood, and fometimes of ivory; and
has fix holes befides that at the4 bottom, the mouth¬
piece, and that behind the neck.
FLAIL, an in ft rumen t for threfhing corn. It con-
Vot. IV.
fids of the following parts. 1. The hand-ftaff’, or Flambeau
piece held in the threlher’s hand. 2. The fwiple, or
that part which ftrikes out the corn. 3. The caplins, 3me'
or ftrong double leathers, made faft to the tops of the
hand-ftaff" and fwiple. 4. The middle-band, being
the leather thong, or fifti (kin, that ties the caplins to¬
gether.
FLAMBEAU, a kind of large taper, made of
hempen wicks, by pouring melted wax on their top,
and letting it run down to the bottom. This done,
they lay them to dry; after which they roll them on a
table, and join four of them together by means of a
red-hot iron; and then pour on more wax, till the flam¬
beau is brought to the fize required. Flambeaus are
of different lengths, and made either of white or yel¬
low wax. They ferve to give light in the ftreets at
night, or on occafion of illuminations.
FLAMBOROUGH-head, in geography, a cape
or promontory of Yorkftiire, five miles eaft of Burling¬
ton. E. Long. 200. N. Lat. 54. 15.
FLAME, is a general name for every kind of lu¬
minous vapour, provided the light it emits hath any
confiderable - degree of intenfity. The name flamey
however, is mod generally applied to fuch as are of a
conical figure, like thofe arifing from our common fires;
without this, they are commonly called luminous va¬
pours, or Amply lights.
According to Sir Ifaac Newton, flame is only red-
hot fmoke, or the vapour of any fubftance raifed from it
by fire and heated to fuch a degree as to emit light
copioufly. This definition feems to be the moft accu¬
rate and expreflive of any. It is certain, that bodies
are capable of emitting flame only in proportion to the
quantity of vapour that rifes from them. Thus wood,
coals, &c. which emit a great quantity of vapour,
flame violently; while lead, tin, &c. which emit but a
fmall fume, can fcarce be perceived to flame at all.
This rule, however, is by no means to be depended
upon in all cafes. Some vapours feem to be in their
own nature uninflammable, and capable of extinguilh-
ing flame, as thofe of water, the mineral acids, fal-am-
moniac, arfenic, &c. while others take fire on the
flighted approach of a flaming fubftance, fuch as ether,
fpirit of wine, &c. Thefe laft mentioned fubftances
alfo exhibit a remarkable phenomenon ; namely, that
they cannot be made to flame without the approach of
fome fubftance aftually in flames beforehand. Thus,
fphit of wine, poured on a red-hot iron, though in-
ftantly diflipated in vapour, will not flame; but if a
burning candle touches its furface, the whole is fet in
a flame at once. The cafe is otherwife with oils, efpe-
cially thofe of the groffer kind; for their vapours w^ll
readily be changed into flame by the mere increafe of
heat, without the approach of any flaming fubftance.
There is, however, no kind of vapour, perhaps, that
is incapable of being converted into flame, provided it is
expofed to a fuificient degree of heat. Thus the va¬
pour of water, made to pafs through burning coals,
produces an exceedingly ftrong and bright flame.-—
It is remarkable, that this kind of vapour feems to be
more powerful than almoft any other in abforbing heat,
and detaining it in a latent (late. Dr Black hath
(hewn, that when any quantity of aqueous vapour is
condenfed, more heat will be feparated from it than
would have been fufficient to heat an equal bulk of iron
i 7 M red-
FLA [ 3030 ] FLA
•Flame, red-hot.—It is mo ft probably to this property which
' all vapours have of abforbing heat, and detaining it in
a latent ftate, that we are to attribute the phenomena
of flame, and alfo the exceeding great elafticity of fteam.
It is certain, that vapours, of water at leaft, have a much
greater power of abforbing and retaining heat, than the
water from which they are railed. In open velfels,
water cannot be heated more than 212 degrees of
Fahrenheit’s thermometer; but in Papin’s digefter,
where the vapour is forcibly confined, it has been heat¬
ed to 400 of the fame degrees ; and, no doubt, might
have been heated a great deal more, had the veffels
been ftrong enough to bear the expanfile force of the
fteam. On opening the veflels, however, the excels of
heat was found to have refided entirely in the vapour;
for the water in the veflel very foon funk down to 212°,
while the fteam ilfued forth with great violence.
From thefe experiments it appears, that the fteam of
water, after it has abforbed as much heat in a latent
ftate as it can contain, continues to abforb, or detain
among its particles, an unlimited quantity of fenfible
heat; and if the fteam could be confined till this quan¬
tity became great enough to be vifible by its emiflion of
light, there cannot be the leaft doubt that the vapour
would then be converted into flame.
In what manner the heat is detained among the par¬
ticles of fteam, is perhaps impoffible to be explained ;
but to this heat we mult undoubtedly aferibe the vio¬
lent expanfive force of fteam of every kind. It feems
probable, that, when fmoke is converted into flame, the
latent heat with which the vapour had combined, or
rather that which made an effential part of it, breaks
forth, and adds to the quantity of fenfible heat which
is already prefent. This feems probable, from the
fudden explofion with which all flames break out. If
a veffel full of oil is fet over the fire, a fmoke or vapour
begins to arife from it; which grows gradually thicker
and thicker; and at laft begins to fhine in fome places
very near the furface of the oil, like an ele&ric light,
or fulphur juft kindled. At this time the oil is very
hot, as well as the fteam which iffues from it. But this
laft is continually giving off its fenfible heat into the at-
mofphere; fo that at the diftance of an inch or two
from the furface of the oil, the heat of the fteam will
not exceed 400 degrees of Fahrenheit, or perhaps may
not be fo much ; but if a burning candle is held in the
fteam for a moment, the whole is immediately con¬
verted into flame, with fomething like an explofion;
after which, the oil burns quietly until it is all con-
fumed. The flame, as foon as it appears, is not only
much hotter than the fteam from whence it was pro¬
duced, but even than the oil which lies below it.
Whence, then, has this fudden and great increafe of
heat arifen? It could not be the jenfibk heat of the va¬
pour, for that was greatly inferior; nor could it be
communicated from the oil, for that could communi¬
cate no more than it had to itfelf. The candle, in¬
deed, wouldeommunicate a quantity of heat to the va¬
pour which touched its flame ; but it is impoffible that
this quantity fhould extend permanently over a furface
perhaps 10a times larger than the flame of the candle,
in fuch a manner as to make every part of that furface
equally hot with the flame of the candle kfelf; for this
would be to fuppofe it to communicate 100 times more
heat than really was in it. The heat therefore muft
have originally refided in the vapour itfelf: and as, in Fbmen
the freezing of water, its latent heat is extricated and II
becomes fenfible, and the water thereupon lofes its flui- F am“eef*‘
dity ; fo, in the accenfion of vapour, the latent heat
breaks forth with a bright flalh, and the vapour is then
totally decompofed, and converted into foot, allies, or
water, according to the different nature of the fub-
ftances which produce it, or according to the intenfity
of the heat.—Several other hypothefes have been in¬
vented to folve the phenomena of burning and flaming
bodies; for an account of which, fee the articles Ig>-
nition, Phlogiston, &c.
Flames are of different colours, according to the fub-
ftances from which they are produced. Thus, the
flame of fulphur and fpirit of wine is blue; the flame
of nitre and zinc, of a bright white; that of copper,
of a greenilh blue, &c.— Thefe varieties afford an op¬
portunity of making a number of agreeable reprefenta-
tions in fire-works, which could not be done if the
flame produced from every different fubftance was of
the fame colour. See Pyrotechnics.
FLAMEN, in Roman antiquity, the name of an
order of pritfts, inllituted by Romulus or Numa ; au¬
thors not being agreed on this head.
They were originally only three, viz. the flamen
dialis, flamen martialis, and flamen quirinus. They
were chofen by the people, and inltalled by the fo-
vereign pontiff. Afterwards, their number was in-
creafed to 1; ; the three firft of whom were fena-
tors, and called flamities majores; the other 12, taken
from among the people, being denominated flamines
minoret.
The ftamen dialis, or pried of Jupiter, was a confi-
derable perfon at Rome; the flamen martialis, or priell
of Mars, was the fecond in dignity ; and the flamen
quirinalis, was the next to him.
The greater flamen wore the robe edged with pur¬
ple, like that of the great magiftrates, had an ivory
chair, and fat in the fenate. They wore a little band
of thread (filamen) about their head; from whence,
according to Varro, they had their name. There
were likewife flaminicte, or priefteffes, who were the
wives of the flamines diales. Thefe wore a flame-co¬
loured habit, on which was painted the image of a
thunderbolt; and above their head-drefs they wore
green oak-boughs. They are often mentioned in in-
feriptions.
FLAMINGO, in ornithology. See PHaENicqr-
TERUS.
FLAMINIUS, or Flamin.o, (Mark Anthony),
one of the beft Latin poets in the 16th century, of I-
mola in Italy,, fon and grandfon of very learned men..
The pope had choftn him fecretary to the council in
1545 ; but he refufed that employment, beeaufe, fa¬
vouring the new opinions, he would not employ his
pen in an affembly where he knew thefe opinions were
to be condemned. - He paraphrafed 30 of the pfalms in
Latin verfe, and alfo wrote notes on the pfalms; and
fome letters and poem» which, are efteemed. He died
at Rome in 1550.
FLAMSTEED (John), an eminent Englifli aftrg-
nomer in the 13th century, bom at Derby in 1646.
He had early read a great deal of civil and ecclefiaiti-
cal hiftory ; but happening to fee John de Sacrobofco’s
book de Sphara} this gave him a turn for aftronomy,
which
FLA [ 3031 ] FLA
Flamflecd, which ftudy he afterwards profecuted with great vi-
^ an crs‘ gour. His father, finding him in correfpondence with
feveral learned men, advifed him to go to London,
that he might be perfonally acquainted with them. In
1674, he wrote an ephemeris, in which he fliewedthe
falfity of aftrology ; and gave a table of the moon’s
rifing and fetting, carefully calculated, together with
the eclipfes and appulfes of the moon and planets to
fixed ftars. This fell into the hands of Sir Jonas More;
for whom, at his requeft, he made a table of the moon’s
true fouthings. In 1674, Sir Jonas having informed
him, that a true account of the tides would be highly
acceptable to his majefty, he compofed a fmall ephe¬
meris for the king’s ufe : and when Sir Jonas (hewed
the king and duke of York our author’s telefcopes and
micrometer, and recommended him ftrongly, he pro¬
cured him a warrant to be king’s aftronomer, with the
falary of L. ico per annum; on which occafion he
was ordained. In 1675, the foundation of the royal
obfervatory at Greenwich was laid, and during the
building he lodged at Greenwich ; his quadrant and
telefcopes being kept in the queen’s houfe there.
His Dottrine of the Sphere was publilhed in 1681, in
a pofthumous work of Sir Jonas More, intitled, A new
Sy/lem of the Mathematics. In 1684, he was prefent-
ed to the living of Burftow in Surry, which he enjoy¬
ed till he died in 1719. His Hijloria aelejlis Britanni-
ca, was publiihed at London in 1725, in 3 vols. Mr
Flamlteed likewife compofed the Britifli Catalogue of
the fixed ftars, which contains twice the number that
are in the catalogue of Hevelius ; to each of which he
annexed its longitude, latitude, right afcenfion, and di-
ftance from the pole, together with the variation of
right afcenfion and declination, while the longitude in-
creafes a degree. This catalogue, together with moft
of his obfervations, were printed on a fine paper and
charafter, at the expence of the late prince George of
Denmark.
FLANDERS, a province of the Netherlands,
bounded by the German fea and the United Provin¬
ces on the north ; by the province of Brabant on the
eaft ; by Hainault and Artois on the fouth ; and by
another part of Artois and the German fea on the
weft ; being about 60 miles long, and 50 broad, and
divided between the Auftrians, the French, and the
Dutch.
Flanders is a perfeftly champaign country, with not
a rifing ground or hill in it, and watered with many
fine rivers and canals. Its chief commodities are fine
lace, linen, and tapeftry.
In this country fome important arts were invent¬
ed and improved. Weaving in general was greatly
improved, and that of figures of all forts in linen
were invented; alfo the art of dying cloths and fluffs,
and of oil-colours; the curing of herrings,&c. The ma-
nufaftures of this country are not nowin the flourilhing
date they were formerly ; yet, filk, cotton, and wool¬
len fluffs, brocades, camblets, tapeftry, lace, and linen,
are ftill manufa&ured here in great quantities. This
province had counts of its own from the ninth century
to the year 1369, when it went by marriage to the
dukes of Burgundy; and afterwards from them, by
marriage alfo, to the houfe of Auftria. France, in 1667,
fei/.ed the fouthern part, and the States-General ob¬
tained the northern, partly by the treaty of Munfter,
and partly by the barrier-treaty of 1715.
FLANEL, or Flannel, a loofe fort of woollen
fluff, not crofted, and woven on a loom like bays.
FLATMAN (Thomas), an Englilh poet of fome
repute, born at London about the year 1633. He
ftudied at the Inner-Temple, and became a barrifter,
but it does not appear that he ever practifed ; for ha¬
ving a turn for the fine arts, he gave a loofe to his in¬
clination that way, and acquired reputation both as a
poet and a painter. He publilhed, in 1782, a third edi¬
tion of his poems and fongs, dedicated to the duke of
Ormond, with a print of himfelf as a frontifpiece : he
alfo publifhed a fatirical romance in profe, on Richard
Cromwell, foon after the reftoration ; which took
greatly at that turn of affairs. He died about x688.
FLATS, in mufic. See Interval.
FLATUS, flatulence, in medicine; vapours ge¬
nerated in the ftomach and inteftines, chiefly occafion-
ed by a weaknefs of thefe parts. They occalion di-
ftenfions, uneafy fenfation, and ficknefs, and often a
confiderable degree of pain. See (the Index fubjoined
to) Medicine.
FLAVEL (John), an eminent nonconformift mi-
nifter, was educated at Univerfity-college, in Oxford 5
and became minifter of Deptford, and afterwards of
Dartmouth, in Devonftiire, where he refided the great-
eft part of his life, and was admired for his preach¬
ing. Though he was generally refpe&ed at Dart¬
mouth; yet, in 1685, feveral of the aldermen of that
town, attended by the rabble, carried about a ridicu¬
lous effigy of him, to which were affixed the Bill of Ex-
clufion and the Covenant. Upon this occafion, he
thought it prudent to withdraw from the town; not
knowing what treatment he might meet with from %
riotous mob, headed by magiftrates who were them-
felves among the loweft of mankind. Part of his Di¬
ary, printed with his Remains, muft give the reader a
high idea of his piety. He died in 1691, aged 61 ;
and after his death, his works, which confifted of ma¬
ny pieces of pra&ical divinity, were printed in two vo¬
lumes folio. Among thefe, the moft famous are his
“ Navigation fpiritualized, or a new Compafs for Sea¬
men, confifting of 32 points of pleafant obfervations
and ferious refle&ions,” of which there have been fe¬
veral editions in o&avo; and his “ Hulbandry fpiri¬
tualized, &c. with occafional meditations upon beafts,
birds, trees, flowers, rivers, and feveral other objects,”
of which alfo there have been many editions in o&avo.
FLAX, in botany. See Linum.
The following particulars with regard to the manner
of railing flax has been for fome years paft warmly re¬
commended by the truftees for fiflieries, manufactures,
and improvements in Scotland.
Of the choice of the Soil, and preparing the Ground,
/Sr Flax. A (kilful flax-raifer always prefers a free
open deep loam, and all grounds that produced the
preceding year a good crop of turnip, cabbage, pota¬
toes, barley, or broad clover; or have been formerly
laid down rich, and kept for fome years in paiture.
A clay foil, the fecond or third crop after being
limed, will anfwer well for flax ; provided, if the
ground be ftill ftiff, that it be brought to a proper
mould, by tilling after harveft, to expofe it to the win¬
ter frofts.
AH new grounds produce a ftrong crop of flax, and
17 M 2 pretty
FLA
Flax.
FLA [ 3032 ]
Flax, pretty free of weeds. When a great many mole-heaps
* 'appear upon new ground, it anfwers the better for
flax after one tilling.
Flax-feed ought never to be fown on grounds that
are either too wet or dry ; but on fuch as retain a na¬
tural moifture: and fuch grounds as are inclined to
weeds ought to be avoided, unlefs prepared by a care¬
ful fummerrfallow.
If the lintfeed be fown early, and the flax not al¬
lowed to ftand for feed, a crop of turnip may be got
after the flax that very year ; the fecond year a-crop
of bear or barley may be taken ; and the third year,
grafs-feeds are fometimes fown along with the lintfeed.
This is the method moftly pradfifed in and about the
counties of Lincoln and Somerlet, where great quanti¬
ties of flax and hemp are every year raifed, and where
thefe crops have long been capital articles. There,
old ploughed grounds are never fown with liutfeed, un¬
lefs the foil be very rich and clean. A certain worm,
called in Scotland the coup-worm, abounds in new-
broke up grounds, which greatly hurts every crop but
flax. In fmall inclofures furrounded with trees or high
hedges, the flax, for want of free-air, is fubjedt to fall
before it be ripe, and the droppings of rain and dew
from the trees prevent the flax within the reach of the
trees from growing to any perfection.
Of preceding crops, potatoes and hemp are the bed
preparation for flax. In the fens of Lincoln, upon
proper ground of old tillage, they fow hemp, dung¬
ing well the firft year ; the fecond year, hemp without
dung ; the third year, flax without dung; and that fame
year, a crop of turnip eat on. the ground by (lieep ; the
fourth year, hemp with a large coat of dung; and fo on
for ever.
If the ground be free and open, it fhould be but once
ploughed ; and that as fhallow as pofiible, not deeper
than 2y inches. It fliould be laid flat, reduced to a fine
garden-mould by much harrowing, and all ftones and
fods fliould be carried off.
Except a little pigeon’s dung for cold or four
ground, no other dung fliould be ufed preparatory for
flax; becaufe it produces too many weeds, and throws
up the flax thin and poor upon the ftalk.
Before fowing, the bulky clods fliould be broken, or
carried off the ground; and ftones, quickenings, and
every other thing that may hinder the growth of the
flax, fliould be removed.
Of the choice of Lint feecL The brighter in colour,
and heavier the feed is, fo much the better ; that
which when broiled appears of a light or yellowiih
green, and frefti in the heart, oily and not dry, and
fmells and taftes fweet, and not fufty, may be depend¬
ed upon.
Dutch feed of the preceding year’s growth, for the
moft part, anfwers bed ; but it feldom fucceeds if kept
another year. It ripens fooner than any other foreign
leed. Philadelphia-feedproduces fine lint and few bolls,,
becaufe fown thick, and anfwers bell in wet cold foils.
Riga-feed produces coarfer lint, and the greateft quan¬
tity of feed. Scots-feed, when well winned. and kept,
and changed from one kind of foil to another, fome¬
times anfwers pretty well; but fliould be fown. thick,
as many of its grains are bad, and fail. It fprings well,
and its flax is fooner ripe than any other; but its pro-
uce afterwa-ds is generally inferior to that from, fo¬
reign feed.
A kind has been lately imported, called memmel- ~
feed; which looks well, is fliort and plump, but feldom
grows above eight inches, and on that account ought
not to be fown.
Of Sowing Lintfeed. The quantity of lintfeed fown,
fliould be proportioned to the condition of the foil; for
if the ground be in good heart, and the feed fown
thick, the crop will be in danger of falling before it
is ready for pulling. From 11 to 12 pecks Linlithgow
meafure of Dutch or Riga feed, is generally fufficient
for one Scots acre ; and about ten pecks of Philadel¬
phia feed, which, being the fmalleft grained, goes far-
theft. Riga lintfeed, and the next year’s produce of
it, is preferred in Lincolnfliire.
The time for fowing lintfeed is from the middle of
March to the end of April, as the ground and feafon
anfwers ; but the earlier the feed is fown, the lefs the
crop interferes with the corn-harveft.
Late fown lintfeed may grow long, but the flax up¬
on the ftalk will be thin and poor.
After fowing, the ground ought to be harrowed till
the feed is well covered, and then (fuppofing the foil,
as before mentioned, to be free and reduced to a fine
mould) it ought to be rolled.
When a farmer fows a large quantity of lintfeed, he
may find it proper to fow a part earlier and part lat¬
ter, that in the future operations of weeding, pulling,
watering, and graffing, the work may be the eafier and
more conveniently gone about.
It ought always to be fown on a dry bed.
Of Weeding Flax. It ought to be weeded when the
crop is about four inches long. If longer deferred, the
weeders will fo much break and crook the ftalks, that
they will never perhaps recover their ftraightnefs again;
and when the flax grows crooked, it is more liable to
be hurt in the rippling and fwingling.
Quicken -grafs fliould not be taken up; for, be¬
ing ttrbngly rooted, the pulling of it always loofens a
deal of the lint.
If there is an appearance of a fettled drought, it is
better to defer the weeding, than by that operation to
expofe the tender roots of the flax to the drought.
How foon the weeds are got out, they ought to be
carried off the field, inftead of being laid in the fur¬
rows, where they often take root again, and at any rate
obftruft the growth of the flax in the furrows.
Of Pulling Flax. When the crop* grows fo fliort
and branchy, as to appear more valuable for feed than
flax, it ought not to be pulled before it be throughly,
ripe ; but if k grows long and not branchy, the feed
fliould be difi-egarded, and all the attention given to.
the flax. In the laft cafe it ought tobe pulled after the
bloom has fallen, when the ftalk begins to turn yel¬
low, and before the leaves fall, and the bolls, turn. hard,
and fliarp-pointed.
When the ftalk is. ftnallj. and carries few bolls, the
flax is fine ; but the ftalk of coarfe flax is grofs, rank,,
branchy, and carries many bolls.
When the flax.has fallen, and lies-; fuch as lies ought
to- be immediately pulled,whether it has grown enough,
or not, as otherwife it will rot altogether.
When parts of the fame field.grow, unequally, fo that
fome parts are ready for pulling before other parts;,
only what is ready fliould be pulled* and. the reft ftiould,
bft
FLA [ 3033 ] FLA
Flax, be fuffered to (land till ready.
The flax-raifer ought to be at pains to pull, and keep
by itfelf, each different kind of lint which he finds in
his field ; what is both long and fine, by itfelf; what
is both long and courfe, by itfelf; what is both fliort
and fine, by itfelf; what is both fiiort and coarfe, by
itfelf; and in like manner every other kind by itfelf
that is of- the fame fize and quality. If the different
kinds be not thus kept feparate, the flax muff be much
damaged in the watering and the other fucceeding
operations.
What is commonly called under-growth may be ne¬
glected as ufelefs.
Few perfons that have feen pulled flax, are ignorant
of tlie method of laying it in handfuls acrdfs each o-
ther ; which gives the flax fufficient air, and keeps the
handfuls feparate and ready for the rippler.
Of Stacking up Flax during the Winter, and Winning
the Seed- If the flax be more valuable than the feed,
it ought by no means to be flacked up ; for its own
natural juice aflifts it greatly in the watering ; where¬
as, if kept long unwatered, it lofes that juice, and the
harle adheres To much to the boon, that it requires
longer time to water, and even the quality of the flax
becomes thereby hardier and coarfer. Befides, the
flax flacked up over year, is in great danger from ver¬
min and other accidents ; the water in fpring is not fo
foft and warm as in harveft ; and near a year is there¬
by lofl of the ufe of the lint: but if the flax be fo
fhort and branchy as to appear moft valuable for feed,
it ought, after pulling, to be flocked and dried upon
the field, as is done with corn ; then flacked up for
winter, rippled in fpring ; and after flieeling, the feed
fhould be well cleaned from bad feeds, &c.
Of Rippling Flax. After pulling, if the flax is to
be regarded more than the feed, it fhould be allowed
to lie fome hours upon the ground to dry a little, and
fo gain fome firmnefs, to prevent the fkin or harle,
which is the flax, from rubbing off in the rippling ; an
operation which ought by no means to be neglected,
as the bolls, if put into the water along with the .flax,
breed vermin there, and otherwife fpoil the water.
The bolls alfo prove very inconvenient in the graffing
and breaking. .
In Lincolnfhire and Ireland, they think that rippling
hurts the flax ; and therefore, in place of rippling,
they flrike the bolls againft a flone.
The handfuls for rippling fhould not be great, as
that endangers the lint in the rippling.comb.
After rippling, the flax-raiCer will perceive, that he
is able to afibrt each fize and quality of the flax, by it¬
felf more exactly than he could before.
Of Watering Flax. A running ftream waftes. the
lint, makes it white, and frequently carries it away.
JLochs, by the great quantity and motion of the wa¬
ter, alfo wafte and whiten the flax, tho? not fo much
as running ftreams. Both rivers and lochs water the
flax quicker than canals.
But all flax ought to> be watered in canals, which
fhould be digged in clay ground if poffible, as that
foil retains the water beft : but if a. firm retentive foil
cannot be got, the bottom or fides of the canal,., on
both the bottom and fides, maybe lined with clay ; or,
inftead of lining the fides with clay, which might
£aR down,, a ditch, may be dug without the canal, and.
filled with clay, which will prevent both extraneous Flax,
water from entering, and the water within from run- '
ning off.
A canal of 40 feet long, fix broad, and four deep,
will generally water the growth of an acre of flax.
It ought to be filled with frefh foft water from a
river of brook, if poffible two or three weeks before
the flax is put in, and expofed all that time to the heat j
of the fun. The greater way the river or brook has |
run, the fofter, and therefore the better, will the water \;
be. Springs, or (hort-runs from hills, -are too cold, V
unlefs the water is allowed to Hand long in the canal. M
Water from Coal or iron, is Very bad for flax. A little
of the powder of .galls thrown into a glafs of water,
will imitiediately difcover if it comes from minerals of
that kind, by turning it into a dark colour, more or
lefs tinged in proportion to the quantity of vitriol it
contains.
The canal ought not to be under (hade; which, be¬
fides keeping the fun from foftening the water, might
make part of the canal cooler than other parts, and fo
water the flax unequally.
The flax-raifer will obferve,. when the water is
brought to a proper heat, that fmall plants will be
rifing quickly in it, numbers of fmall infers and rep¬
tiles will be generating there, and bubbles of air
rifing on the furface. If no fuch figns appear, the wa¬
ter mu ft not be warm enough, or is otherwife unfit for
fla x.
Mofs-hoTes, when ’neither too deep nor too (hallow,
frequently'anfwer well for watering flax, when the wa¬
ter is proper, as before defcribed.
The proper feafonfor watering flax is, from the end
of July to the end 0/ Auguft.
The advantage of watering flax as foon as poffible
after pulling, has been already mentioned.
The flax being forted after rippling, as before-men¬
tioned, flibold next be put in beets, never larger than
a man can grafp with both his hands, and tied very
flack, with a band of a few (talks. Dried rufhesan*.
fwer exceedingly well for binding flax, as they do not
rot in the water, and may be dried and kept for ufe
again.
The beets (hotrld be put into the canals (lope-ways,
or half (landing upon end, the root-end uppermott-
Upon the crop-ends, when Aippermoft, there frequently
breeds a deal of vermin, deftru£tive of the flax, which-
is effectually prevented by putting the crop-end down-
moft.
The whole flax in the canal ought to be carefully
covered from the fun with divots; the graffy fide of
which-fliould be next the flax,, to keep'it clean. If it
is not thus covered, the fun will difcolour the flax, tho’
quite covered with water. If the divots are not weighty
enough to keep the flax entirely under water, a few
Hones may be laid above them. But the flax (hould.
not be preffed-to the bottom-
When the flax is fufficiently watered, it feels foft to
the-grip,, and the hatle parts eafil.y with the boon or
feo’w, which' laft is then become brittle, and'looks whi-
lilh. When, thefe figns.are found, the flax, (hould be
taken out of the water, beet after beet; each gently
rinfed in the water, tocleanfe it of the naftinels which
lias gathered about it in the canal ; and as the lint is*
then very tender,, and the beet flackly tied,, it mult be
care-
FLA
carefully and gently handled,
Great care ought to be taken that no part be over¬
done ; and as the coarfeft waters fooneft, if different
kinds be mixed together, a part will be rotted, when
the reft, is not fufficiently watered.
When lint taken out of the canal is not found fuffi¬
ciently watered, it may be laid in a heap, for 12, 18,
or 24 hours, which will have an effeft like more water¬
ing ; but this operation is nice, and may prove danger¬
ous in unfkilful hands.
After the flax is taken out of the canal, frefh lint
fhould not be put a fecond time into it, until the former
water be run off, and the canal cleaned, and fupplied
with frefh water.
Of Grafting Flax. Short heath is the beft field for
grafting flax ; as, when wet, it fallens to the heath,
and is thereby prevented from being blown away by
[ 3°34 ]
FLA
If there be little danger of high winds carrying off Flax.
the flax, it will be much the better of being turned   —
about once a-week. If it is not to be turned, it ought
to be very thin fpread. The fpreading of flax and hemp,
requires a deal of ground, and enriches it greatly.
The fkilful flax-raifer fpreads his firll row of flax
at the end of the field oppofite to the point from
whence the moft violent wind commonly comes, pla¬
cing the root-ends foremoft ; he makes the root-ends
of every other row overlap the crop-ends of the former
row three or four inches, and binds down the laft
row with a rope; by which means the wind does not
eafily get below the lint to blow it away : and as the
crop-ends are feldom fo fully watered as the root-
ends, the aforefaid overlapping has an effed like gi¬
ving the crop-ends more watering. Experience only
can fully teach a perfon the figns of flax being fuffi-
the wind. The heath alfo keeps it a little above the ciently grafted: then it is of a clearer colour than for-
earth, and fo expofes it the more equally to the wea¬
ther. When fuch heath is not to be got, links, or
clean old lea-ground is the next beft. Long-grafs
grounds fhould be avoided, as the grafs growing thro’
the lint frequently fpots, tenders, or rots it; and
grounds expofed to violent winds fhould alfo be a-
voided.
The flax, when taken out of the water, muft be
fpread very thin upon the ground; and being then
very tender, it muft be gently handled. The thinner
it is fpread the better, as it is then the more equally
expofed to the weather. But it ought never to be
fpread during a heavy fhower, as that would wafh and
wafte the harle too much, which is then exceffively
tender, but foon after becomes firm enough to bear the
rains, which, with the open air and funfhine, cleans,
foftens, and purifies the harle to the degree wanted, and
makes it bliftcr from the boon. In fhort, after the
flax has got a little firmnefs by being a few hours
fpread in dry weather, the more rain and funfhine it
gets the better.
merly ; the harle is bliftered up, and eafily parts with
the boon, which is then become very brittle. The
whole fhould be fufficiently grafted before any of it is
lifted ; for if a part be lifted fooner than the reft, that
which remains is in great danger from the winds.
A dry day ought to be chofen for taking up the
flax ; and if there is no appearance of high wind, it
fhould be loofed from the heath or grafs, and left loofe
for fome hours, to make it thoroughly dry.
As a great quantity of flax can fcarcely be all e-
qually watered and grafted, and as the different qua¬
lities will beft appear at lifting the flax off the grafs ;
therefore at that time each different kind fhould be
gathered together, and kept by itfelf; that is, all of
the fame colour, length, and quality
The fmaller the beets lint is made up in the better
for drying, and the more convenient for flacking, hou-
fing, &c. and in making up thcfe beets, as in every
other operation upon flax, it is of great confequence
that the lint be laid together as it grew, the root-ends
together, and the crop-ends together.
Follows an Eftifnate of the Expence, Produce, and Profit of a Scots Acre of Yh\yi,—fuppofwg the feafon fa¬
vourable, that no accidental lofies happen, and that the farmer is .neither unfkilful nor negligesit.
Ground-rent, labouring the ground, and leading the flax
Lintfeed from L. 2 to L. 4 per hogfhead, the medium
3 s. 4 d. per peck — — —
Clodding and fowing — — —
Weeding — — — — —
Pulling, ripling, putting in, and covering in the water
Taking out of the water, grafting, and flacking
Breaking and fcutching, at 2 s. per ftone —
Total expence
Produce at xo%. pex ftone — — —
Lintfeed fold for oil at 1 s. per peck — —
The chaff of the bolls is well worth the expence of
drying the feed ; as it is good food, when boiled
and mixed with beer, for horfes.
Total produce
Balance for profit — _ —
A medium crop. 1
L. 2 10 o
1 16 8
for 11 pecks.
o 14
o 8
3 °
for 30 ftones.
A great crop.
L. 3 10 1
for 9 pecks.
for 40 ftones.
8'L. xo 17
L 15 o o
for 30 ftones.
016 o
L. 15 16 o
L- 6 14
An extra, crop.
L. 5 o o
1 6 8
for 8 pecks.
020
nothing.
L. 30 o o
for 60 ftones.
L. 31
16 , 4
There
Fla*.
FLA [ 3015 ] FLA
There is nothing ftated here as expence of the ca-
' nal in which the flax is watered ; becaufe that varies
much according to the conveniencies people have for
making it; and a canal once made requires for after¬
years only to be repaired and cleanfed.
It is a certain faft, that the greater the crop is, the
better is the quality of the fame kind of flax.
The advantage of having both a crop of flax and a
crop of turnip the fame year—or of^fbwing grafs-
feeds along with the lintfeed—and of reducing the
ground to a fine garden mould, free of weeds, ought
to be attended to.
For Cambrick and fine Lawn. The ground muft be
a rich light foil, rather fandy, but cannot be too rich.
It ought to be ploughed in September, or the be¬
ginning of O&ober, firft putting a little hot rotten dung
upon it. In January it ought to have a fecond plough¬
ing, after a hard froft; and when you intend to fow it,
plough it a third time, or rather hoe it, reducing the
clods very fine; but make no furrows: the land muft
be made level like a garden; but never work the land
when wet.
The feed fhould be fown the beginning of April,
and about double the quantity that is generally fown
by our farmers ; if the land be very rich, it will require
rather more than double.
As foon as fown (if the weather be dry) it will be
neceffary to roll the ground.
The lint muft be weeded very clean when about
three inches high ; diredtly after which you muft fet
forked fticks, of about one-and-half inch thick (which
ought to be prepared before) every four or five feet,
according to the length of the poles you are to lay up¬
on them; they (hould be well fixed in the ground, the
forked part to receive the poles about fix or feven
inches above the lint; each row of poles fhould be
two, three, or four feet afunder, according to the length
of the brufhwood you are to lay upon them.
The poles ought to be from 10 to 15 feet long,
and ftrong enough to fupport the brufh acrofs the
poles; take the longeft brufhwood you can get, the
more branchy the better, very thick, filling up the va¬
cancies with fmaller brufh, and any of the branches
that rife higher than 18 or 20 inches ought to be lopt
off to make the brufh He as level as pofiible: any fort
of brufh will do except oak, as that tinges the lint.
Your lint muft be pulled as foon as the feed is fully
formed, which is a few days after it is out of the bloom,
before the lint turn yellow.
It muft be pulled above the brufhwood, and every
handful laid upon it as foon as poffible: if it is fine
weather, leave it four or five hours in that manner; then
carry it to a fcreen near a barn, to put it under cover
in cafe of rain; there it muft be fpread four or five
days, and always put in the barn at night, or when
it appears to rain: the bundles muft be opened in the
barn, or made hollow, to prevent it from heating.
Thefe operations muft be performed until the lint is
perfectly dry, and out of danger of heating ; taking
care all the time to keep the roots as even as poffible,
and if poffible keep it from rain or wet: if you cannot
prevent it from being wet, it will be better to leave it
on the grafs till dry; becaufe when once wet, the put¬
ting it under cover before dry, will make it turn black;
a thing which muft be prevented at all events*
If any of the lint upon the border, or through the
piece of ground, be coarfer than another, it muft be
feparated from the reft.
The utmoft care muft be taken to preferve the lint
entire, or unbroken ; for this reafon they beat off the
feed with a round mell or bittle.
The moft proper ground is fummer-fallow, or after
potatoes, or lea ; if poffible near a wood, to prevent
the expence of carrying brufh.
As foon as the feed is off, if you intend to water it
that feafon, it muft be tied in bundles about as large as
you can grafp with your two hands.
The water proper for it, is a very fmall rivulet or
foft fpring free of any metallic ore; taking care
that no flood or foul water enters your pit ; which
muft: be at leaft five feet deep, about nine or ten broad
at the top, and feven or eight at the bottom, the
length will depend on the quantity of flax you have
to water. A very fmall ftripe of water, when clear,
fhould always be running in and off from your pit
when the lint is in it.
The pit ought to be made three or four months be¬
fore it be ufed.
You muft drive poles about four inches thick, with
a hook inclining downwards, in this form 7, all along
the fides of the pit, about five feet afunder. The hooks
muft be level with, or rather under, the furface of the
water. A long pole, the whole length of the pit, muft be
fixed into thefe hooks on each fide; and crofs poles put
under that, to keep the lint under water; but, the
crofs poles are not ufed till the lint is put in. You
muft order it fo, that all the lint fhould be three or
four inches under water. You next bring your lint to
the fides of the pit; then put your fheaves head to
head, caufing each to overlap the other about one third,
and take as many of thefe as make a bundle of two or
two-and-a-half feet broad, laying the one above the
other, till it is about four or four-and-a-half feet high}
then you tie them together in the middle, and at each
root-end: after this, you wrap your bundle in ftraw,
and lay it in the water, putting the thin or broad fide
undermoft, taking care that none of your lint touch the
earth; after it is fully preffed under water, put in your
crofs poles to keep it under. The bundles ought to
lie in the pit a foot feparate from each other. This
renders it eafy to take out; for, if the bundles en¬
tangle, they will be too heavy to raife.
The time of watering depends fo much upon the
weather, and foftnefs or hardnefs of the water, that it
is impoffible to fix any certain time. This muft be left
to the flcill of the farmer. If the flax be intended for
fpinning yarn foft and fit for cambrick, it ought to be
fpread upon (hort grafs for four or five days before you
put it into the water; but if for lawns, lace, or thread,
it is heft to dry it outright. In either cafe, avoid as
much as poffible to let it get rain; as much rain blanches
and w'aflies out the oil, which is neceffary to preferve
the ftrength.
The great property of this flax is to be fine and
long. Thick fowing raifes all plants fine and fiender}
and when the ground is very rich, it forces them to
a great length. Pulling green prevents that coarfe
hardnefs which flax has when let Hand till it be full
ripe, and gives it the fine filky property. The brufli-
wood, when the flax fprings up, catches it by the mid-
FLA [ 3036 } F L A
Flax, die, prevents It from lying down and rotting ; infallible
' '' confequences of fowing thick upon rich ground. It
likewife keeps it ftraight, moift, andfoft at the roots;
and by keeping it warm, and {haded from the fun,
greatly promotes its length. The keeping it from
rain, heating, taking proper care of your water, pre-
ferves the colpur, and prevents thofe bars in cloth fo
much complained of by bleachers.
PLAX-dressing. For many ages it was the prac¬
tice to feparate the boon or core from the flax, which
is the bark of the plant, by the following fimple hand
methods. Firft, for breaking the boon, the ftalks in
fmall parcels were beat with a mallet; or, more dex-
teroufly, \\\t break (Plate CX. fig. .1. and 2.) was ufed
thus: The flax being held in the left-hand a-crofs the
three under-teeth or fiuords of the break (A, fig. 1.
and a, fig. 2.), the upper-teeth (B, fig. 1. and £, fig.
2.) were with the right-hand quickly and often forced
down upon the flax, which was artfully (hifted and
turned with the left-hand. Next, for clearing the
flax of the broken boon : the workman with his left-
hand held the flax over the Jlock (fig. 3. and 4.) while
with his right-hand he ftruckor threthed the flax with
the fcutcher (fig. 5.).
Thefe methods of breaking and fcutching the flax
being flow and very laborious, a nseater-mill was in¬
vented in Scotland-about 40 years ago; which, with
fome late improvements, makes great difpatch, and in
ikilful and careful hands gives fatisfa&ion. It has
been generally conftru&ed to break the boon by three
dented rollers, placed one above the other. The middle
one of which, being forced quickly round, takes the
other two along with it, and one end of the handfuls of
the flax being by the workman diredled in between the
upper and middle rollers, the flax is immediately
drawn in by the rollers ; a curved board or plate of
tin behind the rollers direfls the flax to return, again
between the middle and undermoft rollers ;—and thus
the operation is repeated until the boon be fufflciently
broke. Great weights of timber or (tone at the ends
of levers, prefs the upper and under rollers towards
the middle one.
The fcutching is next carried on by the mill in the
following manner: Four arms, fomething like the
hand-fcutchers before defcribed, projeft from a per¬
pendicular axle ; a box around the axle inclofes thefe
proje&ing fcutchers ; and this box is divided among
the workmen, each having fufficient room to ftand and
. handle his flax, which, through flits in the upper part
and fides of the box, they hold in to the itroke of the
fcutchers; which, moving round horizontally, Ilrike
the flax a-crofs or at right angles, and fo threflt out
or clear it of the boon.
The breaking of the flax by rollers is fcarcely fub-
jeft to any objection, but that it is dangerous to work¬
men not fufficiently on their guard, who fometimes
allow the rollers to take hold of their fingers, and
thereby their whole arm is inftantly drawn in : thus
many have loft their arms. To avoid this danger, a
break upon the general principles of the hand-break
before defcribed, has been lately adapted to water-
machinery, and ufed in place of rollers. The hori¬
zontal ftroke of the fcutchers was long thought too
Tevere, and wafteful of the flax ; but very careful ex¬
periments have difcovered that the wafte complained
of muft be charged to the unfldlfulnefs or fiegligefice Fk*.
of the workmen, as in good hands the mill carries “ '
away nothing but what, if not fo fcutched off, muft
be taken off in the heckling with more lofs both of
time and flax. But to! obviate this obje&ion of the
violence; of the horizontal- feutebersi an imitation of
hand-feutching has lately been applied to water. The
fcutchers then projeft from an horizontal axle, and
move like ,the arms of a check-reel, linking the flax
neither acrofs nor perpendicularly down, but Hoping
in upon the parcel exadlly as the flax is (truck by the
hand-fcutcher. This Hoping ftroke is got by railing
the fcutching-ftock fome inches higher than the centre
of the axle ; and by railing or lowering the (lock, over
which the flax is held, or ferewing it nearer to or far¬
ther from the fcutchers, the workman can temper or
humour the ftroke almoft as he pleafes.
A lint-mill with horizontal fcutchers upon a per¬
pendicular axle, requires a houfe of two ftories, the
rollers or break being placed in the ground ftory, and
the fcutchers in the loft above ; but a mill with verti¬
cal fcutchers on an horizontal axle, requires but one
ground ftory for all the machinery.
Another method of breaking and fcutching flax,
more expeditious, than the old hand-methods, and
more gentle than water-mills, has alfo been lately in¬
vented in Scotland. It is much like the break and
fcutcher giving the doping ftroke laft defcribed, moved
by the foot. The treddie is remarkably long, and
the fcutchers are fixed upon the rim of a fly-wheel.
The foot-break is. alfo aflifted in its motion by a fly.
Thefe foot-machines are very ufeful where there are no
water-mills, but they are far inferior to the mills in
point of expedition.
The next operation that flax undergoes after fcutch¬
ing is heckling. The. heckle (fig. 6.) is firmly fixed
to a bench before the workman, who ftrikes the flax
upon the teeth of the heckle, and draws it through the
teeth. To perfons unacquainted with that kind of
work this may feem a very fimple operation ; but, in
fail, it requires as much pradice to acquire the flight
of heckling well, and without wafting the flax, as any
other operation in the whole manufa&ure of linen.
They ufe coarfer and wider teethed heckles, or finer,
according to the quality of the flax ; generally putting
the flax thro’ two heckles, a coarfer one firft, and next
a fine one.
Flax for cambrick and fine lawn, thread, and lace,
is,dreffed in a manner fomewhat different. It is not
{kutched fo thoroughly as common flax ; which from
the Ikutch proceeds to the heckle, and from that to the
fpinner: whereas, this fine flax, after a rough {hutch¬
ing, is feraped and cleanfed with a blunt knife upon
the workman’s knee covered with his leather-apron ;
from the knife it proceeds to the fpinner, who, with a
brufti made for the purpofe, ftraights and drefl'es each
parcel juft before (he begins to fpin it.
Flax made to refemble Cotton. In the Swedifh tranf-
a&ions for the year 1747,. a method is given of pre¬
paring flax in fuch a manner as to refemble cotton in
whitenefs and foftnefs, as well as in cohererce. For
this purpofe, a little fea-water is to be put into an
iron pot or an untinned copper-kettle, and a mixture
of equal parts of birch-afhes and quicklime ftrew-
ed upon it: A fmall bundle of flax is to be opened
4J
F L £ f 3637 ] F L E
and fpread upon the furface, and covered with more of
II the mixture, and the ftratification continued till the
eece' veffel is fufficiently filled. The whole is then to be
boiled with fearwater for ten hours, frefh quantities of
water being occafionally fupplied in proportion to the
evaporation, that the matter may never become dry.
The boifed flax is to be! immediately walhed in the fea
by a little at a'time,1 in a balket, with a fmooth flick :
When grown cold enough to be borne by the hands, it
tnuft be well rubbed, waflied with foap, laid to bleach,
and turned and watered every day. Repetitions of the
waftiing with foap expedite the bleaching; after which
the flax is to be beat in again well wafhed; when dry,
it is to be worked and carded in the fame manner as
Common cottort; and prefled betwixt two boards for
48 hours. : It is now fully prepared and fit for ufe.
It lofes in this procefs near one half its weight, which
is abundantly compenfated by the improvement made
in its quality.
Earth-Yt.k\. ' See Amianthus.
Ne<w-Zcaland'YLPLyL-Plant. Set Phormium.
Toad-Yhk-x.. See Linaria.
FLEA, in zoology. SccPulex,
Yi/Ek-Bane, in botany. See Conyz A.
Flea-Z?/7/<?«, that colour of a horfe, which is white
orgrey, fpotted all over with dark reddifh fpots.
FLEAM, in furgery and farriery, an inftrument
for letting blood of a man or horfe. A cafe of fleams, as
it is called by farriers, compiehends fix forts of inftru-
ments; two hooked ones, called drawers, and ufed
for cleaning wounds; a pen-knife; a fharp-pointed
lancet, for making incifions; and two fleams, one (harp
and the other broad pointed. Thefe lad are fomewhat
like the1 point of a lancet, fixed in a flat handle, and
no longer than is juft neceflary to open the vein.
FLECHIER (Efprit), bilhop of Nifmes, one of the
mqft celebrated preachers of his age, and the publiftier
of many panegyrics and funeral orations, was born at
Perne in Avignon, in 1632. He was nominated to
the bifhoprick of Lavaur in 1685, and tranflated to
Nifmes in 1687. At this latter place he founded an
academy, and took the prefidentfliip uponhimfelf: his
own palace was indeed a kind of academy, where he
applied himfelf to train up orators and writers, who
might ferve the church, and do honour to the nation.
He publifhed, befides his panegyrics and funeral ora¬
tions, 1. An hiftory of the emperor Theodofius, that
of cardinal Ximenes, and that of cardinal Commendon.
2. Several fermons. 3. Mifcellaneous works. 4. Let¬
ters, &c. He died in 1710.
FLECKNOE (Richardj|, an Englifli poet in the
reign of Charles It. more remarkable for Mr Dryden’s
fat ire on him, than for any works of his own. He is
fin'd to have been originally a jefuit, and to have had
good Englifli connexions in the Catholic intereft.
When Dryden loft the place of poet-laureat on the re¬
volution, its being conferred on Flecknoe, for whom
he had a fettled averfion, gave occafion to his poem
Mac Flecknoe, one of the beft-written fatires in
our language, and from which Pope feems to have ta¬
ken the hint for his Dunciad. Flecknoe wrote fome
plays; but could never get more than one of them ac¬
ted, and that was damned.
FLEECE, the covering of wool (horn off the bo¬
dies of (heep. See Wool.
Vol. IV.
Golden Yleece. See Golden Fleece. rl
FLEET, commonly implies a company of (hips °^p|eet
war, belonging to any prince or flate : but fometimes  
it denotes any number of trading (hips, employed in a
particular branch of commerce.
The admirals of his Britannic majefty’s fleet are di¬
vided into three fquadrons, viz. the red, the white,
and the blue. When any of thefe officers are invefted
with the command of a fquadron or detachment of
men of war, the particular (hips are diftinguifhed by
the colours of their refpe&ive (quadron : that is to fay,
the (hips of the red fquadron wear an enlign whole
union is difplayed on a red field; the enfigns of the
white fquadron have a white field; and thofe of the
blue fquadron, a blue field; the union being common to
all three. The (hips of war therefore are occafipnally
annexed to any of the three fquadrons, or (hifted from
one to another.
Of whatfoever number a fleet of (hips of war iscom-
pofed, it is ufually divided into three fquadrons; and
thefe, if numerous, are again feparated into divifions.
The admiral, or principal officer, commands the cen¬
tre ; the vice-admiral, or fecond in command, fuper-
intends the van-guard ; and the operations of the rear
are direded by the rear-admiral, or the officer next in
rank. See the article Division.
The difpofition of a fleet, while proceeding on a
voyage, will in fome meafure depend on particular cir-
cumfiances ; as the difficulty of the navigation; the
neceffity of difpatch, according to the urgency or im¬
portance of the expedition ; or the expedition of an
enemy in the paffage. The moft convenient order is
probably to range it into three lines or columns, each
of which is parallel to a line clofe-hanled according to
the tack on which the line of battle is defigned to be
formed. This arrangement is more ufeful than any,
becaufe it contains the advantages of every other form,
without their inconveniencies. The fleet being thus
more inclofed will more readily obferve the fignals, and
with greater facility form itfelf into the line of battle;
a circumftance which ftiould be kept in view in every
order of failing. See Tactics.
Fleet, is alfoa noted prifon in London, where per-
fons are committed for contempt of the king and
his laws, particularly of his courts of juftice : or for
debt, where any perfon will not or is unable to pay
his creditors.
There are large rules and a warden belonging to the
fleet prifon; which had its name from the float or fleet
of the river or ditch, on the fide whereof it (lands.
FLEETWOOD (William), a very learned Englifli
bifliop in the beginning of the 18th century, of an an¬
cient family in Lancalhire. He diftinguifhed himfelf
during king William’s reign, by his Irtfcriptiomm An¬
tiquarian Sylloge, by feveral fermons he preached on
public occafions, and by his EJfay on Miracles. He
was defigned by king William to a canonry of Wind-
for: the grant did not pafs the feals before the Icing’s
death, but the queen gave it him, and he was inftalled
in 1702. In 1703, he took a refolution to retire; and
in 1707, publilhed, without his name, his Cbronicoji
Pretiofum. In 1708, he was nominated by the queen
to the fee of St Afaph. The change of the queen’s
miniftry gave him much regret. In 1715, he publifli-
ed a pamphlet intitied “ The 13th chapter of the Ro-
17 N mans
F L E [ 3038 ] F L I
Flemifh mans vindicated from the abufive fenfes put upon it.”
!l _ In 1714, he was tranflated to the bifhopric of Ely;
gleurl‘ and died in 1723, aged 67. He publifhed feveral o-
ther fermons and trafts, and was a man of great learn¬
ing and examplary piety.
FLEMISH, or the Flemish tongue, is that
which we otherwife call low Dutch, to diltinguifh it
from the German, whereof it is a corruption and a
kind of dialed*. See German.
It differs from the Walloon, which is a corruption
of the French language. The Flemifh is ufed thro’ all
the provinces of the Netherlands.
Flem 1 sw-Dricks, a neat, ftrong, yellow kind of
bricks, brought from Flanders, and commonly ufed
in paving yards, flables, &c. being preferable for
fuch purpofes to the common bricks. See the article
Brick.
FLESH, in anatomy, a fimilar, fibrous part of
an animal body, foft and bloody, being that where¬
of moll of the other parts are compofed, and whereby
they are connedled together : or more properly, it is
fuch parts of the body where the blood-veffels are fo
fmall, as only to retain blood enough to preferve their
colour red.
FLETA, the name given to an unknown writer who
lived about the end of the reign of Edward II. and
beginning of Edward III. and who being a prifoner
in the Fleet, wrote there an excellent treatife on the
common law of England.
FLETCHER. See Beaumont and Fletcher.
FLETEWOOD (William), an eminent Englifh
lawyer and recorder of London, in the reign of queen
Elizabeth. He was very zealous in fuppreffing mafs-
houfes, and committing Popifh priefts : but once mill¬
ing in upon mafs at the Portuguefe ambaffador’s honfe,
he was committed to the Fleet for breach of privilege,
but foon releafed. Mr Wood fays, “ He was a learned
man, and a good antiquary, but of a marvellous mer¬
ry and pleafant conceit. “ He was a good popular
fpeaker, and wrote well upon fubje&s of government.
His principal works are, 1. Annalium tam regum Ed-
•wardi V. Richardi III. & Henrici VII. quam Hent i-
ei VIII. 2. A table of the reports of Edmund Plow-
den. 3. The office of a juflice of peace. He died a-
bout the year 1593.
FLEURI (Claude), one of the beft French critics
and hiilorians of his age, was born at Paris in 1640.
He applied himfelf to the law, was made advocate for
the parliament of Paris, and attended the bar nine
years ; he then entered into orders, and was made pre¬
ceptor to the princes of Conti. In 1689, the king
made him fub-preceptor to the dukes of Burgundy,
Anjou, and Berry ; and in 1706, when the education
of thefe young princes was completed, the king gave
him the priory of Argenteville belonging to the Bene¬
dictines in the diocefe of Paris. In 1716, he was
chofen counfellorto Lewis XV. and died in 1723. He
was the author of a great number of efteemed French
works, the principal of which are, 1. An ecclefiaftical
hiftory, in 20 volumes, the lall of which ends with the
year 1414. 2. The manners of the Ifraelites andChri-
ftians. 3. Inftitutions of ecclefiaftical law. 4. An
hiftorical cateehifm. 3. On the choice and method
®f iiudy. 6. The duties of mailers and fervants, &c.
Fi.eor.1 (Andrew Hercules de), bifhop of Frejus,
preceptor to Lewis XV. grand almoner to the queen, Flexible
cardinal, and minifler of flate, was born in 1653, li
and died in 1743. He was an able negociator; and Flintfhire.
diflinguifhed himfelf during his miniflry by his probi¬
ty, his zeal for the happinefs of his country, and his
pacific difpofition.
FLEXIBLE, in phyfics, a term applied to bodies
capable of being bent or diverted from their natural
figure or diredtion.
FLEXOR, in anatomy, a name applied to feveral
mufcles, which are fo called from their office, which is
to bend the parts to which they belong; in oppofition
to the extenfors, which open or flretch them. Sec A-
natomy, n° 83,0, o, p, q.
FLINT, in natural hiftory, a kind of femi-tranfpa-
rent, or quite opaque Hones; generally of a roundifh
form, and covered with white cruft; of a fmooth, uni¬
form, fhining texture; fo hard, that they will ftrike fire
with fteel; calcinable by fire, after which they become
white, friable, and, according to Heirckel, heavier
than before, and foluble by acids; vitrifiabie on¬
ly by the very violent heat of tire larged fpeculums,
fuch as that of Villette, and not even by the focus of
one of Tfchirnhaufen’s lenfes, according to an experi¬
ment of Neumann. They are found generally in beds
of chalk and of fand ; but never forming entire ftrata
of rock as jafper does. By long expofure to air and
the fun, they feem to decay, to lofe their luftre, their
firmnefs of texture, and to be changed to a white cal¬
careous earth or chalk. Hence they are almoft always
found covered with a white chalky cruft. They are
alfo convertible into a calcareous earth by fufion, or
vitrification with fo much fixed alkali, that they fhall
refolve into a liquid mafs called the liqua/fien or oil of
flints, and by precipitation from the fixed alkali by
means of acids. See Chemistry, n° 338.
Flints are of the clafs of earths called vitrifiabie,
becaufe thefe earths are generally employed, together
with fixed alkali, as materials in the making of
glafs. See Glass.
Breaking of Flints. The art of cutting, or rather
breaking, flint-ftones into uniform figures, is by fome
fuppofed to be one of the arts now loft. That it was
known formerly, appears from the ancient Bridewell at
Norwich, from the gate of theAuguftin friars at Can¬
terbury, that of St John’s Abbey at Colchefter, and.
the gate near Whitehall Weftminfter. But that the
art is not loft, and that the French know it, appears
from the platform on the top of the royal obfervatory
at Paris ; which, inftead of being leaded, is- paved
with flint cut or broke into regular figures. But we
know not that this art hath been any where defcribed.
FLINTSHIRE, a county of Wales, bounded on
the north by the Irilh fea and the river Dee, on the
eaft by Chelhire, and every where elfe by Denbigh-
fhire and Shroplhire. It is the lead of all the coun¬
ties of Wales, extending in length between 20 and 30
miles, and in breadth about eight.. It is divided into
five hundreds;, and contains about 28 parilhes, and
32,000 inhabitants. The air is healthful, but pretty
iharp ; the foil is tolerably fertile, efpecially in the
valleys, producing plenty of wheat, barley, oats, and
rye. A confiderable number of cattle are reared in
this county, but they are of a fmall fize. There is
plenty of honey, of which the inhabitants make me-
theglin.
FLO [ 3039 ] FLO
Float tlieglin, a drink much ufed in Wales. Here are alfo
|| pit-coal, lead-ore, mill-ftones, fifti and fowl, but little
Floralia- wood or fruit.
FLOAT, a certain quantity of timber bound to-
ether with rafters athwart, and put into a river to
e conveyed down the ftream ; and even fometimes to
carry burdens down a river with the ftream.
YitOnr-Boards, thofe boards fixed to water-wheels
of under-fhot mills, fervingto receive the impulfeofthe
ftream, whereby the wheel is carried round. See the
articles Wheel and Mill.
It -is no advantage to have too great a number of
float-boards; becaufe, when they are all ftruck by the
water in the beft manner that it can be brought to
come againft them, the fum of all the impulfes will be
but equal to the impulfe made againft; one float-board
at right angles, by all the water coming out of the
pen flock through the opening, fo as to take place on
the float-board. The beft rule in this cafe is, to have
juft fo many, that each of them may come out of the
water as foon as poffible, after it has received and a&ed
with its full impulfe. As to the length of the float-
board, it may be regulated according to the breadth of
the mill. See the article Mill.
Floats for Fijhing. See Fishing-/7/?^/.
FLOATAGES, all things floating on the furface
of the fea or any water; a word much ufed in the com-
ttiiffions of water-bailiffs.
FLOATiNG-Z?r/</g-e. See Bridge.
FLOOD. See Deluge.
Deucalion's Flood. See Deucalion.
FLOCKING, among miners, a term ufed to ex-
prefs a peculiarity in the load of a mine. The load,
or quantity of ore is frequently intercepted in its courfe
by the crofling of a vein of earth or (tone, or fome dif¬
ferent metallic fubftance; in which cafe the load is mo¬
ved to one fide, and this tranfient part of the land is
called a flooking.
FLORA, the goddefs of flowers, was, according
to the poets, the wife of Zephyrus, and was firft ho¬
noured among the Sabines; but, according to Lac-
tantius, Ihe was a lady of pleafure, who, having gain¬
ed large fums of money by proftituting herfelf, made
the Roman people her heir, on condition that certain
games, called Floralia, might be annually celebrated
on her birth-day. Her image in the temple of Caftor
and Pollux was dreffed in a clofe habit, and fhe held
in her hands the flowers of peafe and beans : but the
modern poets and painters have been more lavifh in
fetting off her charms, confidering that no parts of
nature offered fuch innocent and exquifite entertain¬
ment to the fight and fmell, as the beautiful variety
which adorns, and the odour which embalms, the flo¬
ral creation.
FLORALIA, in Roman antiquity, a feftival in ho¬
nour of Flora, obferved on the 29th of April, or the
fifth of the calends of May, at which time games were
celebrated in the Campus Martins, which were pro¬
claimed by found of trumpet. Thefe games were cele¬
brated in a very fcandalous manner: and were in fome
fenfe the feftival of the courtezans. To hide the fhame-
ful origin of this feftival, the fenate made the people
believe Flora was a goddefs, who prefided over flowers ;
and that, in order to have a good crop, it was neceflary
to honour that goddefs every year.
FLOOR, in archite&ure, the under fide of a room, Floor,
or that part we walk on.—Floors are of feveral forts ; Florence,
fome of earth, fome of brick, fome of ftone, and fome ~ '
of wood. See Architecture, n° 116. and Paving.
Floor of a Ship, as much of her bottom as (he refts
upon when fhe rtfts on the ground.—Such ftiips as
have long and broad floors, lie on the ground with
moft fecurity; and thofe that are narrow in the floor;
cannot be grounded without danger either of being
overfet, or at lead of hurting their fides.
FLORENCE, one of the ftates of Tufcany in I-
taly; a moft celebrated republic, to which Europe is
in the higheft degree indebted for the revival of the
arts and fciences after they had been long loft.
The ancient hiftory of Florence is comprehended
under that of Hetruria and Rome. Its modern hi¬
ftory commences moft properly at the time of Alboiae,
king of the Lombards, who made himfelf mafter of
Tufcany, and almoft all Italy. Thofe people conti¬
nued to enjoy their dominion for 204 years, when they
were driven out by Charles the Great. He was
crowned and confirmed king of Italy by the pope
about the year 773; after which, the governments of
the feveral ftates of that country began to recover fome
degree of regularity and confiftency. The original fa¬
milies of Italy, and the defeendents of the various clans
of barbarians who had inhabited it, were now blended
into one common mafs; and the feodal laws, which
were of Gothic original, and then prevailed over all
Italy, gave the leading men or magiftrates of each
ftate a degree of authority very little inferior to that
of the king. All that-Charles required, was the pay¬
ment of certain tributes, or what we call reddetidos,
as marks of his fovereignty ; and he left them in other
refpe&s to make the moft of their fituation and natu¬
ral powers. Of thefe ftates, the moft eminent were
Florence, Pifa, Perugia, and Sienna, each of which had
a particular manner of cultivating its intereft. The
Pifans applied themfelves to maritime affairs, being the
only maritime city of Tufcany that was left Handing.
The Perugians applied themfelves to agriculture, to
which they were encouraged by the fertility of their foil.
The Siennefe had a rich nobility, who maintained them
in affluence: but the Florentines were diftinguiftied over
all the other inhabitants of Tufcany, by their induftry,
their knowledge of the civil arts, and their uncommon
ftrength of genius.
For fome time thofe ftates lived together in great
harmony ; but this was foon interrupted by the dif-
putes between the popes and the emperors of Germany.
In thefe contefts, Florence was fubdued by the em¬
peror Frederic II. He governed in fo tyrannical a
manner, that, after his death, the Florentines conceived
fuchan infuperable averfion againft monarchical govern¬
ment, that from thenceforth Florence became a re¬
public. The people took the dire&ion of affairs upon
themfelves; and the wifdom,fpirit, andfteadinefs, with
which they proceeded upon their new model, are almoft
incredible. They firft recalled, and reinftated in their
former honours, the noblemen whom Frederic had ba-
nilhed. They next made choice of 12 magiftrates,
whom they called antiani. They divided their city
into fix wards, from which their magiftrates and all
public officers were to be eledled. They inftituted a
militia out of thefe wards, properly regimented; in or-
17 N 2 ‘ der
FLO [ 3040 ] FLO
Florence. jer to oppofc all fa&ious defigns of their nobles at
home, and to repel all attacks from abroad. Every¬
one of the magiilrates was a patriot; and Florence
foon began to diftinguifh itfelf among the Hates of
Italy, as formerly Athens did among thofe of Greece.
It is natural to think, that a fmall ftate, fo circum-
ftanced and regulated, would foon be involved in wars
both foreign and domeftic. This indeed aftually hap¬
pened. The Florentines were engaged in almoft per¬
petual wars with their neighbours ; and when thefe
ceafed, internal diffenfions generally fupplied their
place. Though greatly celebrated by hittorians for
their valour, thefe republicans never could make any
permanent conqueft over their neighbours, or ex¬
tend their territories in any eonfiderable degree. Nay,
they were often in the utmoll danger of being totally
deftroyed, had not fome lucky accidents feafonably in¬
tervened. In thefe endlefs wars, they were fupported
by the very extenfive commerce they carried on, and
by which they acquired incredible wealth. But, after
commerce had begun more generally to diffufe itfelf*
the Florentines began to lofe very confiderably of
the importance among other nations which they had
till then maintained. In 1531, they were compelled
to fubmit to the troops of the emperor Charles V.
after a fevere liege; and at this time ended the repub¬
lican government of the city. Alexander de Medici,
after marrying the natural daughter of Charles V. was
by him made fovereign of Florence. He pretended to
govern by the advice of a council of Florentine citi¬
zens ; but, in fail, behaved fo tyrannically, that he
was murdered in a Ihort time; and fucceeded by Cofmo,
Ion of John de Medici, who had become extremely po¬
pular on account of the bravery he had fhown in the
French and Spanifh fervice. He firft obtained the title
of Gra?id Duke of Tufcany; and, as fuch, was crowned
at Rome by pope Pius V. who bettowed the title upon
him. He married Eleanora de Toledo, daughter to
the duke of Napks; by which connexion he eltabliihed
his authority fo well, that the Florentines never thought
of throwing off the yoke. He attached himfelf to the
intereft of the Imperialiffs; under whofe proteftion he
and his fucceffors lived fecurely, till the time of Cofmo
III. who embraced the French intereft. This prince,
in his youth, had paid a vilit to the English court in
the time of Charles II. aud always profefled a great
deal of friendhip for the family of Stuart. We do not
find, however, that he was very liberal in contributing
towards the efforts made for replacing king James on
the throne of Britain, though often applied to for that
purpofe. He affedled, however, to be the head and
patron of all the Roman Catholics in Great Britain,
and he exerted all his .interell with foreign courts in
their behalf. Being a complete politician, his fuccefs
in this was incredible; and it was primarily owing to
him, that the papifts met with fueh indulgences as they
did, even after the acceflion of king George I. He
was a great patron of learning and learned men; and
his favourite ftudy was chemiffry, nOr could his friends
oblige him more than by fending for medicines prepa¬
red in his laboratory by himfelf.. He was courted by
all theprinces of Europe ; and could be called unhappy
only in the profpect of his race'being extinft with his
ibn, who had no hopes of iff’ue, and was thelaft of the
family. This confideration probably rendered, him in¬
different to all the ftipulations preceding the Quadruple Florence.
Alliance in 1718; by the fifth article of which, the 1 ~
duchies of Tufcany, Parma, and Placentia, were to be •
accounted for ever as male-fiefs of the empire, and were
to defcend, in default of male-heirs, to the queen of
Spain’s eldeft fon. To alleviate, however, any chagrin
which might be conceived at this article, it was alfo fti-
pulated, that, during the lives of the poffeffors of Tuf¬
cany and Parma, no forces of any country whatfoever,
whether their own or hired, fhould, by the emperor,
the kings of France and Spain, or even by the prince
appointed to the fuccefiion, be introduced into any
gairifon, city, port, or town, of thofe duchies. Yet,,
notwitbffanding this article, it was refolved, that, for
the fecurity of the fucctffion, 6000 Swifs were to be
put into Leghorn, Porto Ferraro, Parma, and Placen¬
tia.—-Cofmo did not long furvive this deftination of his
dominions; but died, the moft aged prince in Chritten-
dom, in 1723. He was fucceeded by his fon Gallon,
whofe character and manner of life greatly refembled
thofe of his father. He prefented memorials again ft the
Quadruple Alliance at the Congrefs at Cambray.
King George 1. declined the foie mediation at this
congrefs which was offered him ; upon which the em¬
peror, without the confeut of the empire, granted the
invelliture of the duchies of Tufcany, Parma, and Pla¬
centia, to the queen of Spain’s eldeft fon, in cafe thefe
dukedoms Ihould be vacant for want of heirs. Thefe
ftipulations were enforced by the treaty of Seville in
1728; by which, alfo, great numbers of foreign troops
were to be introduced into different cities within thefe
duchies. This treaty was guarantied by Spain, Great
Britain, France, and the States-General; but was com¬
plained of by the court of Vienna as a breach of an ar¬
ticle in the Quadruple Alliance. In the year 1731,
however, the great duke, who had conceived an invin¬
cible averfion againft the houfe of Auftria, not only
ratified all the llipulations with regard to the fuccef-
fion, but, in confequence of a new treaty, invited Don
Carlos, the apparent fucceffor, over to Florence to be
educated.—In a few years, however, the emperor loll
Naples and Sicily ; and his fon-in-law, the duke of
Lorrain, was named to the fucceffion of Tufcany, while
his duchy of Lorrain was annexed to the crown ot
France. Duke Gallon, in the mean time, was fo much
decayed in perfon and intellects, that he took little or,
no concern about thefe proceedings ; nor did he even
make any remonftrances againft the Imperial court,
who ordered a body of troo-ps to move towards his do¬
minions, in order to drive out the Spaniards, which,
they accordingly did. He died in July 1737 ; and the
duke of Lorrain inllantly feized on his dominions-
The queen of Spain couldnot bear the thoughts of ha¬
ving fuch a noble acquilition as the duchy of Tufcany
torn from her family, and therefore endeavoured to en¬
gage the court of Great Britain to affill her in reco¬
vering it. To this end Ihepromifed, that her hulband
fhould renounce all pretenfions to Gibraltar and Port-
mahon, and that the differences fubfilling with regard
to America Ihould be adjufted. This propofal, how¬
ever, was rejeCled; and a war enfued between Great
Britain and Spain, and the duke of Lorrain (late em¬
peror of Germany) was fuft’ered to poflefs the duchy
of Tufcany without oppolition. Since that time the
Florentines have, made no. figure in hillory, nor are they
FLO [ 3041 ] FLO
Florence likely to do fo for a long time to come. In the year
pi ^ 1753 it was refolved, that the whole military force of
°rlca' the great duchy fhould-contift only of three regiments
of foot, and one of dragoons, of 500 men each. To
fupport this eftablilhment, a French company offered
to farm the revenues of the duchy ; but his imperial
majefty rejected the propofal, and fixed upon another
company compofed of his own fubjefts, to manage the
revenues under the direction of M. Richard, a gentle¬
man of Lorrain. By this new inftitution, the finances
of the duchy were divided into 20 fhares, one half of
which his imperial majefty referved to himfelf. By
thofe, and other frugal meafures, the emperor was ena¬
bled to eredt a college for the improvement of agri¬
culture at Florence ; a fcience to which the Florentines
are peculiarly adapted. In the year 1755, he railed
another regiment of dragoons, and regimented his mi¬
litia. The duchy is now governed by a council of re¬
gency, a military board, and other officers of itate ; who
have made a number of excellent regulations, by which,
during the late war, his imperial majefty was enabled
to draw many ufeful recruits from the grand duchy of
Tufcany, who did him great fervice in his armies.
Florence, the capital of the duchy of Tufcany, and
one of the fineft cities in Italy. It is divided into two
by the river Arno, over which are built feveral magni¬
ficent bridges. It is furrounded on all fides but one
with high hills, which rife infenfibly, and at laft join
with the lofty mountains called the Appennines. To¬
wards Pifa, there is a vaft plain of 40 miles in length ;
which is fo filled with villages and pleafure-houfes,
that they feem to be a continuation of the fuburbs of
the city. The circumference about the walls is near
fix Englilh flatute-miles; and it contains about 9C00
houfes, great part of which are built uniformly of
done, and many of them furprifingly large and beau¬
tiful. According to feme, the palaces of Florence are
the bell built of any in Italy. E. Long. 12. 24.
N. Eat. 43. 34.
Florence, an ancient piece of Engliffi gold coin.
Every pound weight of ftandard-gold was to be coined
into 50 Florences to be current at fix (hillings each;
ail which made in tale 15 pounds; or into a propor¬
tionate number of half-Florences or quarter-pieces, by
indenture of the mintt t8 Ed. III.
FLORENTINE marble. See Citadenesca.
ELORESCENTIA, (from florefco, “ to flourifh or
bloom ;”) the a£l of flowering, which Linnaeus and
the fexualills compare to the aft of generation in ani¬
mals; as the ripening of the fruit in their opinion re-
fembles the birth. See Flower.
FLORID style, is that too much enriched with
figures and flowers of rhetoric.
FLORIDA, the moft foutherly province of the
Britifh empire in America, bounded on the fouth by
the Gulf of Mexico, on the north by the Apalachian
mountains, on the call by the province of Georgia, and
on the weft by the river Miffiffippi. It was firft dif-
covered, in 1497, by Sebaltian Cabot, a Venetian,
then in the Englifh fervice; whence a right to the
country was claimed by the kings of England;
and this province, as well as Georgia, were included
in the charter granted by, Charles II. to Carolina. In
1.5 12, however, Florida was more fully difcovered by
jfance de Leon, an able Spaniffi navigator, but who
undertook his voyage from the moft abfurd motives Fl°r‘(fo-
that can be well imagined.—The Indians of the Ca-
ribbee iflands had among them a tradition, that fome-
where on the continent there was a fountain whofe wa¬
ters had the property of reftoring youth to all old men
who tailed them. The romantic imaginations of the
Spaniards were delighted with this idea. Many em¬
barked in voyages to find out this imaginary fountain,
who were never afterwards heard of. Their fuperfti-
tious countrymen never imagined that thefe people had
periftied. They concluded that they did not return,
only becaufe they had drunk of the immortalizing li¬
quor, and had difcovered a fpot fo delightful, that they
did not choofe to leave it. — Ponce de Leon fet out with
this extravagant view as well as others, and fully per-
fuaded of the exiftence of a third world, the conqueit
of which was to immortalize his name. In the attempt
to difcover this country, he redifcovered Florida; but
returned to the place from whence he came, vifibly
more advanced in years than when he .fet out.—For
fome time this country was neglefted by the Spaniards,
and fome Frenchmen fettled in it. But, the new co¬
lony being neglefted by the miniftry, and Philip II.
of Spain having accuftomed himfelf to thirrk that ha
was the foie proprietor of America, fitted out a fleet
at Cadiz to deftroy them. His orders were executed
with barbarity. The French entrenchments we're
forced, and moft of the people killed. The prifoners
were hanged on trees; with this infcription, “ Not as^
Frenchmen, but as Heretics.’r
This cruelty was foon after revenged by Dominic de
Gourgues, a (kilful and intrepid feaman of Gafcony,
an enemy to the Spaniards, and palfionately fond of
hazardous expeditions and of glory. He fold hiseftate;
built fome (hips; and with a feleft band of adventurers
like himfeif, embarked for Florida. He drove the
Spaniards from ail their polls with incredible valour
and aftivity; defeated them in every rencounter ; and,
by way of retaliation, hung the prifoners on trees,
with this infcription, “ Not as Spaniards, but as
Aflaffins.” This expedition was attended with no
other confequences: Gourgues blew up the forts he
had taken, and returned home, where no notice was
taken of him. It was conquered in 1539, by the
Spaniards under Ferdinand de Soto, not without .a
great deal of bloodfhed ; as the natives were very war¬
like, and made a vigorous refill ance. The fettlement,
however, was not fully eftablifhed till the year 1665 ;•
when the town of St Auguftine, the capital of the
colony while it remained in the hands of the Spaniards,
was founded. In 1586, this place was taken and
pillaged by Sir Francis Drake. It met with the fame
fate in 1665, being taken and plundered by Captain-
Davis and a body of bucaneers. In 1702;, an at¬
tempt was made upon it by colonel More, governor
of Carolina. He fet out’with 500 Fngliffi, and 70&
Indians; and having reached St Auguftine, he be-
fieged it for three months; at the expiration of which,
the Spaniards, having fent fome (hips to the relief of
the place, he was obliged to retire. In 1740, ano¬
ther attempt was made by general Oglethorpe: blit¬
he being outwitted by the Spanifli governor, was forced'
to raife the fiege with lofs; and Florida continued in.
the hands of the Spaniards till the year j; 'ij, when*
it was ceded by treaty to Great. Britain.—The pro-
vine®
Florin
|j
Flotfon,
FLO [ 3042 ] FLO
vtnce fs now divided into two governments, the Eaft
and Weft Florida ; but concerning thefe there are very
few accounts which can be depended upon as authentic.
According to fome, the air is extremely pure and
healthy; while others report, that it is to the laft de¬
gree noxious. As little can be depended on what is
laid concerning the foil: fome affirming that it is ex¬
ceedingly fertile, and produ&ive of all the neceflaries
of life ; while others tell us that it is quite barren and
fandy. It was at firft thought that fdk, cochineal,
sjnd wine, might have been plentifully produced in
this province ; but whether any of thefe commodities
have yet been produced in any part of Florida in fuch
abundance as to give hopes of at laft fupplying the
demands of Great Britain from that quarter, is as yet
by no means afcertained.
FLORIN, is fometimes ufed for a coin, and fome-
times for a money of account.
Florin, as a coin, is of different values, according
to the different metals and different countries where it
is ftruck. The gold florins are moft of them of a very
coarfe alloy, fome of them not exceeding thirteen or
fourteen carats, and none of them feventeen and a
half. See MoKEY-TinW?.
Florin, as a money of account, is ufed by the Italian,
Dutch, and German merchants and bankers, but ad¬
mits of different divifions in different places. Ibid.
FLORIST, a perfon well /killed in flowers, their
kinds and cultivation.
FLORUS (Lucius Annaeus), a Latin hiftorian, of
the fame family with Seneca and Lucan. He flou-
rifhed in the reigns of Trajan and Adrian ; and wrote,
in an elegant ftyle, an Abridgment of the Roman
Hiftory, of which there have been many editions. The
beft are. Ad Ufutn Delphini, 410 ; and, Cum notis va¬
riorum et Dukeri, 8vo.
FLORY, Flowry, or Fleury, in heraldry, a crofs
that has the flowers at the end circumflex and turning
down ; differing from the potence, in as much as the
latter ftretches out more like that which is called
patee.
FLOS, Flower, in botany. See Flower.
Ftemineus Flos, a female flower. By this name
Linnaeus and the fexualifts denominate a flower which
is furnifhed with the pointal or female organs of gene¬
ration, but wants the ftamina or male organ. Female
flowers may be produced apart from the male, either
on the fame root or on diftintft plants. Birch and
mulberry are examples of the firft cafe; willow and
poplar of the feeond.
Flos, in chemiftry, the moft fubtile part of bodies
feparated from the more grofs parts by fublimation in
a dry form.
FLOTA, or Flotta, Fleet, a name which the
Spaniards give particularly to the (hips that are an¬
nually fent from Cadiz to the port of Vera Cruz, to
fetch thence the merchandizes gathered in Mexico for
Spain. This fleet confifts of the captains, admiral,
and patach or pinnace, which goes on the king’s ac¬
count ; and about 16 /hips from 400 to xooo tons
belonging to particular perfons. They fet out from
Cadiz about the month of Auguft, and return in a-
bout 18 or 20 months.
FLOTSON, or Flostom, goods that by (hip-
wreck arc loft, and floating upon the fea; which,
with jetfon and lagan, are generally given to the lord
admiral : but this is the cafe only where the owners
of fuch goods are not known. And here it is to be
obferved, that jetfon fignifies any thing that is call
out of a fhip when in danger, and afterwards is beat
on the fhore by the water, notwithftanding which the
fhip perifhes. Lagan is where heavy goods are thrown
overboard, before the wreck of the fhip, and fink to
the bottom of the fea.
FLOUNDER, Fluke, or But, in ichthyology.
See Pleuronectes.
Flounders may be fifhed for all day long, either in
a fwift ftream, or in the ftill deep water; but beft in
the ftream, in the months of April, May, June, and
July : the moft proper baits are all forts of worms,
wafps, and gentles.
FLOUR, the meal of wheat-corn, finely ground
and lifted. See Meal.
The grain itfelf is not only fubjedl to be eaten by
infedts in that ftate; but, when ground into flour, it
gives birth to another race of deftroyers, who eat it
unmercifully, and increafe fo faft in it, that it is not
long before they wholly deftroy the fubftance. The
fineft flour is moft liable to breed thefe, efpecially when
flale or ill prepared. In this cafe, if it be examined
in a good light, it will be obferved to be in continual
motion, and on a nicer infpe&ion there will be found
in it a great number of little animals of the colour of
the flour, and very nimble. If a little of this flour
is laid on the plate of the double microfcope, the in¬
fers are very diftindtly feen in great numbers, very
brifk and lively, continually crawling over one ano¬
ther’s backs, and playing a thoufand antic tricks to¬
gether; whether in diverfion, or in fearch of food, is
not eafy to be determined. Thefe animals are of an
oblong and (lender form ; their heads are furnifhed
with a kind of trunk or hollow tube, by means of
which they take in their food, and their body is com-
pofed of feveral rings. They do vaft mifehief among
magazines of flour laid up for armies and other pub¬
lic ufes. When they have once taken poffeffion of a
parcel of this valuable commodity, it is impoffible to
drive them out; and they increafe fo faft, that the
only method of preventing the total lofs of the parcel
is to make it up into bread as foon as can be done.
The way to prevent their breeding in the flour is to
preferve it from damp: nothing gets more injury by
being put up in damp than flour; and yet nothing is
more frequently put up fo. It fhould be always care¬
fully and thoroughly dried before it is put up; and
the barrels alfo dried into which it is to be put; then,
if they are placed in a room tolerably warm and dry,
they will keep it well. Too dry a place never does
flour any hurt, though one too moift almoft always
fpoils it.
Flour, when carefully analyzed, is found to be com-
pofed of three very different fubftanees. The firft and
moft abundant is pure Jlarch, or white fecule, info-
luble in cold but foluble in hot water, and of the
nature of mucous fnbftances; which, when diffolved,
form water-glues. The feepnd is the gluten, moft of
whofe properties have been deferibed under the article
Bread. The third is of a mild nature, perfe&ly
foluble in cold water, of the nature of faccharine ex¬
tractive mucous matters. It is fufceptible of the fpi-
rituous
Flounder,
Flour.
FLO [ 3043 ] FLO
Flower, rituous fermentation, and is found but in fmall quantity
 in the flour of wheat. See Bread, Gluten, Starch,
and Sugar.
FLOWER, Flos, among botanifts and gardeners,
the tnoft beautiful part of trees and plants, containing
the organs or parts of frudlification,
Though no parts of plants are more generally known
than their flowers, yet the definitions given by dif¬
ferent authors of this word are very various, and ne-
ceflary to be explained in order to the underltanding
of their works. Jungius defines it to be the moil ten¬
der part of a plant, remarkable for its colour or form,
or for both, and cohering with the fruit. But this
author himfelf acknowledges his definition to be too
limited, as there are feveral plants whofe flowers are
produced remote from their fruit. Mr Ray, fays the
flowers cohere for the mod part with the rudiments
of the fruit ; which is likewife a phrafeology too inac¬
curate to be admitted in definitions. Tournefort defines
the flower to be a part of a plant very often remark¬
able for its peculiar colours, for the mod part adher¬
ing to the young fruit, to which it feems to afford the
firlt nourifhment, in order to explicate its mod tender
parts : but this is dill a more indeterminate definition,
than the former.—Pbntedera defines a flower to be a
part of a plant, unlike the red in form and nature.
If the flower has a tube, it adheres to or is fixed very
near the embryo, to the ufe of which it is fubfervient;
but if the flower has no tube, then its bafe does not
adhere to the embryo. This definition is fcarce intel¬
ligible, except to expert botanids. Juffieu defines a
flower to be compofed of chives and a pidillum, and
to be of ufe in the generation of the plant : but this
definition is too imperfeft, as there are many plants
in which the pidillum are found at a great diftance
from the chives, many flowers which have no pidil¬
lum, and many which have no chives. Vaillant has
been happier in his definition. He fays, that flowers
are the organs which conflitute the fexes of plants,
which are fometimes found naked, and without any
covering v and that the petals which mod of them
have, are noway effential to their ufe, but ferve, and
are intended, merely as covers for them but yet, as
thefe coats or coverings are the mod confpicnous and
mod beautiful parts of the flowers, thefe are to be
called flowers, be they of whatever form or ftru&ure
or colour ; and whether they contain the organs of
both fexes in each individual, or only of one, or even
but of fome part of one, provided they are not of the
fame figure and colour with the leaves of the plant.
The fhorted and mod exprefs definition,, however,
feems to be that of Martin ; which is, that flowers-
are the organs of generation of both fexes, adhering
to a common placenta, together with their common
covering; or of either fex feparately with its proper
coverings-if it have any.
The parts of flowers are, 1. The pidillum or ovary,
which is the rudiment of the fruit, and is therefore
properly the organ of generation. 2. The dyle, which
is a body accompanying the ovary ; either ariling from
the middle of it, or danding as an axis in the middle,
with the embryos of the feeds round it. 3. The fum-
mits, called alfo apices, and anther#, which are thofe bo¬
dies that contain the prolific powder analogous to the
Stale fperm of animak^ and generally hung upon {len¬
der threads which are called the 4. The petals, Flower?,
commonly called the flower-leaves, which are thofe ‘
tender fine-coloured leaves that are generally the mod
confpicuous parts of a flower. 5. The empalement or
calyx, which is formed of thefe tender leaves that cover
the outer parts of the flower. Flowers, according to
the number of their leaves or petals, are called mo-
nopetalous, or one-leaved; dipetalous, or two-leaved,
&c.
The dru&ure of different flowers is very various;
but Dr Grew has obferved that the far greater number
of them have the empalement, foliation, chives, &c.
Mr Ray accounts that every perfeft flower has the pe¬
tals, damina or chives, apices or fummits,and the dyle
or pidil; and fuch as want any of tlnfe he calls imper-
fe& flowers. The greater number of plants have a
flower-cup; which is of a firmer drudture than their
leaves, and ferves for their fupport.
Flowers, defignrd for medicinal ufe, fliould be pluck¬
ed when they are moderately blown, and on a clear
day before noon for conferves, rofes mud be taken ia
the bud.
Eternal See Xeranthemuw.
EverlaJUng Flower. See Gnaphalium.
FLOWER-Zewtre. See Poinciana.
iS««-Flower. See Helianthus-
.SwZta/z-Flower. See Cyan us.
Trunspet-YLowum. See Bicnonia.
/F/W Flower. See Anemone..
FLOWER-t/e-Zatr. See Iris-
Flowers, in heraldry. They are much ufed in
coats of arms; and in general fignify hope, or de¬
note human frailty and momentary profperity- See
Rose, &c.
Flowers, in chemidry. By this name are general¬
ly underdood bodies reduced into very fine parts, ei¬
ther fpontaneoufly, or by fome operation of art; but
the term is chiefly applied to volatile foil’d fubflancesr
reduced into very fine parts, or into a kind of meal by
fublimation..-—Some flowers are nothing elfe than the
bodies themfelves, which are fublimed entire, without
fud’ering any alteration or decompofition ; and other
ffowers are fome of the condituent parts of the body
fubje&ed to fublimation.
Colours of Flowers. See the article Colour of
Plants.
Colours extracted from Flowers- See Colour-
Ma king, n° 34, 38.
Preferving of Flowers. The method of preferring
flowers in their natural beauty through the whole year
has been much fought after by many people. Some
have attempted it by gathering them when dry and not
too much opened, and burying them in dry fand ; but
this, though it preferves their figure well, takes off
from the livtlinefs of their colour. Muntingius pre¬
fers the following method to all others. Gather ro¬
fes, or other flowers, when they are not yet thorough¬
ly open, in the middle of a dry day : put them into a
good earthen veffel glazed within.; fill the vefiel up to
the top with them ; and when full fprinkle them over
with fome good French wine, with a little fait in it
then let them by in a cellar, tying down the mouth
of the pot. After this they may be taken out at plea-
fare ; and, on fetting them in the fun, or within
reach of the fire, they will open as if growing natural-
flowers.
FLO [ 3044 ] FLO
Jy; and not only the colour, but thefmell alfo will be
'preferved.
The flowers of plants are by much the moft difficult
parts of them to preferve in any tolerable degree of
perfe&ion ; of which we have inflances in all the col-
le&ions of dried plants, or horti ftcci. In thefe the
leaves, ftalks, roots, and feeds of the plants appear
very well preferved ; the ftrong texture of thefe parts
making them always retain their natural form, and
the colours in many fpecies naturally remaining. But
where thefe fade, the plant is little the worfe for ufeas
to the knowing the fpecies by it. But it is very much
otherwife in regard to flowers : thefe are naturally by
much the moft beautiful parts of the plants to which
they belong ; but they are fo much injured in the com¬
mon way of drying, that they not only lofe, but change
their colours one into another, by which means they
give a handle to many errors ; and they ufually alfo
wither up, fo as to lofe their very form and natural
fhape. The primrofe andVowflip ikinds are very emi¬
nent inflances of the change of colours in the flowers
of dried fpecimens: for thofe of this clafs of plants ea-
fily dry in their natural fhape ; but they lofe their yel¬
low, and, in dead of it, acquire a fine green colour
much fuperior to that of the leaves in their moft per-
fed. ftate. The flowers of all the violet kind lofe
their beautiful blue, and become of a dead white ; fo
that in dried fpecimens there is no difference between
the blue-flowered violet, and the white-flowered kinds.
Sir Robert Southwell has communicated to the world
a method of dying plants, by which this defeat is pro-
pofed to be in a great meafure remedied, and all flow¬
ers preferved in their natural fhape, and many in their
natural colours.—For this purpofe two plates of iron
are to be prepared of the fize of a large half-fheet of
paper, or larger, for particular occafions : thefe plates
muft be made fo thick as not to be apt to bend ; and
there muft be a hole made near every corner for the re¬
ceiving a fcrew to fatten them clofe together. When
thefe plates are prepared, lay in readinefs feveral (heets
of paper, and then gather the plants with their flow¬
ers when they are quite perfedl. Let this be always
done in the middle of a dry day ; and then lay the plant
and its flower on one of the fheets of paper doubled in
half, fpreading out all the leaves and petals as nicely as
poffible. If the ftalk is thick, it muft be pared or cut
in half, fo that it may lie flat ; and if it is woody, it
may be peeled, and only the bark left. When the
plant is thus expanded, lay round about it fome loofe
leaves and petals of the flower, which may ferve to
complete any part that is deficient. When all is thus
prepared, lay feveral fheets of paper over the plant, and
as many under it; then put the whole between the
iron plates, laying the papers fmoothly on one, and
laying the other evenly over them : fcrew them clofe,
and put them into an oven after the bread is drawn, and
let them lie there two hours. After that, make a mix¬
ture of equal parts of aquafortis and common brandy;
fhake thefe well together, and when the flowers are ta¬
ken out of the preflure of the plates, rub them light¬
ly over with a camel’s-hair pencil dipped in this li¬
quor ; then lay them upon frefh brown paper, and co¬
vering them with fome other fheets, prefs them be¬
tween this and other papers with a handkerchief, till
the wet of thefe liquors is dried wholly away. When
the plant is thus far prepared, take the bulk of a Flowers,
nutmeg of gum-dragon; put this into a pint of fair. wering*
water cold, and let it ftand 24 hours; it will in this
time be wholly diffolved : then dip a fine hair-pencil in
this liquor, and with it daub over the back fides of the
leaves, and lay them carefully down on a half-fheet of
white paper fairly expanded, and prefs them down
with fome more papers over thefe. When the gum-
water is fixed, let the preflure and papers be removed,
and the whole work is finifhed. The leaves retain
their verdure in this cafe, and the flowers ufually keep
their natural colours. Some care, however, muft be
taken, that the heat of the oven be not too great.
When the flowers are thick and bulky, fome art may
be ufed to pare off their backs, and difpofe the petals
in a due.order; and after this, if any of them are
wanting, their places may be fupplied with fome of
the fupernumerary ones dried on purpofe ; and if any
of them are only faded, it will be prudent to take them
away, and lay down others in their ttead: the leaves
may be alfo difpofed and mended in the fame manner.
Another method of preferving both flowers and fruit
found throughout the whole year is alfo given by.the
fame author. Take fait -petre one pound ; armeniau
bole, two pounds 5 clean common fand, three pounds.
Mix all well together: then gather fruit of any kind
that is not fully ripe, with the ftalk to each ; put thefe
in, one by one, into a wide-mouthed glafs, laying
them in good order. Tie over the top with an oil¬
cloth, and carry them into a dry cellar, and fet the
whole upon a bed of the prepared matter of four inches
thick in a box. Fill up the remainder of the box with
the fame preparation ; and let it be four inches thick
all over the top of the glafs, and all round its fides.
Flowers are to be preferved in the fame fort of glafles,
and in the fame manner ; and they may be taken up
after a whole year as plump and fair as when they
were buried.
Flower de Us, or Floiver de luce, in heraldry, a
bearing reprefenting the lily, called the queen of flowers,
and the true hieroglyphic of royal majeity; but of
late it is become more common, being borne in fome
coats one, in others three, in others five, and in fome
femee or fpread all over the efcutcheon in great num¬
bers.
The arms of France are, three flower de lis or, in a
field azure.
FLOWERING of Bulbous Plants. Thefe plants
will grow and flower in water alone, without any earth,
and make a very elegant appearance. We daily fee
this pra&ifed in Angle roots; but there is a method of
doing it with feveral roots in the fame veffel. Take a
common fmall garden-pot; flop the hole at the bot¬
tom with a cork, and lute in the cork with putty, that
no water can get through ; then fit a board to the top
of the pot, and bore fix or feven holes in it at equal
diftances, to place the bulbs in; and as many fmaller
ones near them to receive flicks, which will ferve to
tie up the flowers. Then fill up the pot with water to
the board; and place tulips, jonquils, narciffus’s, and
the like plants in the root upon the holes, fo that the
bottom of the roots may touch the water: thus will
they all flower early in the feafon, and be much more
beautiful than any pot of gathered flowers, and will laft:
many weeks in their full perfedion.. After the feafon
FLO [ 3045 ] FLO
Flowering. 0f flowering is over, the roots will gradually (brink
through the holes of the board, and get loofe into the
water: but, inftead of being fpoiled there, they will
foon increafe in fize; fo that they cannot return thro’
the holes, and will produce feveral off fets. It is na¬
tural to try from this the confequence of keeping the
roots under water during the whole time of their blow¬
ing; and in this way they have been found to fucceed
very well, and flower even ftronger and more beauti¬
fully than when in the ground. They may thus, alfo,
with proper care in the degree of heat in the room, be
kept flowering from before Chriftmas till March or
April. It is not eafy, in this laft manner, to manage
the keeping the boards underwater; for which reafon,
it is better to procure fome (heet-lead of about four
pounds to the foot, and cut this to the fize of the
mouth of the pot. In this there (hould be bored holes
for the bulbs, and other holes for the flicks; and, in
order to keep the flicks quite firm, it is proper to have
another plate of lead (haped to the bottom of the pot,
with holes in it, anfwering to thofe of the upper plate
made for the flicks. The flicks will by this means
be always kept perfe&ly fteady; and the roots, being
kept under water by the upper plate of lead, will
flower in the moft vigorous and beautiful manner ima¬
ginable.— Some have thought of adding to the virtues
of the water by putting in nitre in fmall quantities,
and others have added earth and fand at the bottom;
but it has always been found to fucceed better without
any addition.
It may be more agreeable to fome to ufe glafs-jars
in this lafl method with the leads, inftead of earthen
pots. The bulbs fucceed full as well in thefe; and
there is this advantage, that the progrefs of the roots
is feen all the while, and they are managed better as to
the fupply of water.
• By repeated experiments in this way on dried bulbs,
and on thofe taken frefh out of the ground, the former
have been found to fucceed the beft. For thofe taken
frefli out of the ground being full of moifture, will not fo
foon, upon changing their element, be nourilhed fully
by a new one; and the fibres which they had ftruck
in the ground, always rot when put into the water, and
new ones mu ft be formed in their places; fo that it re¬
quires more time for them to come to flowering. The
bulbs themfelves will not rot in this manner; but they
will never be fo ftrong as thofe which were put into the
water dry, which gradually fill themfelves with moi¬
fture from it, and regularly plump up. The beft me¬
thod of managing the whole procefs is this: Place the
bulbs at firft only on the furface of the water; for thus
they will flrike out their fibres moft ftrongly. When
they have flood thus fix weeks, pour in the water fo
high as to cover them entirely, and keep them thus till
they have done flowering.
Sometimes the roots will become mouldy in feveral
parts while they (land above the water, and the clean¬
ing them of it is to no purpofe; for it will eat and
fpread the farther, and frequently eat through two or
three of their coats. In this cafe they muft be imme¬
diately covered with water; when the mould will be flop¬
ped, and the roots become found, and flower as well as
thofe which never had any fuch difteroper. If the roots
are fuffered to remain in water all the year, they will
not decay; but will flower again at their proper feafon,
Vol. IV.
and that as vigoroufly as thofe which have been taken Fiowedng.
out and dried. The old fibres of thofe roots never rot
till they are ready to pu(h forth new ones. It is found
by experience, that the hyacinth, and many other
plants, grow to a greater degree of perfe&ion when
thus in water, than when in the ground. There is a
peculiar fpecies of hyacinth called Keyfer’s jewel; this
never, or very rarely, produces feed-veflels in the com¬
mon way of flowering, in the ground ; but it will often
produce fome pods when blown in water.
Mr Miller has intimated, in the Philofophical Tranf-
aftions, that bulbs fet in glafles grow weaker, and
fhould be renewed every other year: but it? is found,
that, when managed in this manner, and kept under
water, at the time of taking them up, they are as large,
and fome of them larger, than when planted; and if
thefe be dried at a proper feafon, they will flower, year
after year, as well as frefli ones.
Ranunculus and anemone roots have been found
to (hoot up their (talks very well in this way; but
the flowers are ufually blafted, which feems to arife
from want of free air. Pinks will flower very well
in this manner; auriculas alfo may, with care, be
brought to flower, but not ftrongly. Rofes, jef-
famines, and honeyfuckles, may alfo be made to
flower this way, and will thrive and fend out fuckers;
the beft pieces to plant, are fuckers cut off about three
inches under ground, without any fibres. The fuccu-
lent plants may alfo be raifed this way; for inftance,
the opuntia or Indian fig. If a fragment of a leaf of
this plant be cut, and laid by to dry for a month till
it is an abfolute (kin, as foon as it is put in this man¬
ner into water, it begins to plump up, and foon fends
out fibrous roots, and produces new leaves as quickly
as it would do in the ground.
This is the more lingular in thefe fort of plants, be-
caufe, in their natural (late in the ground, they cannot
bear much water. This method of growing in water
is not peculiar to the bulbous-rooted ones, but others
may even be raifed from feed by it, A bean, or pea,
fet in this manner, will grow up to its proper ftandard,
and will flower and produce pods which will ripen
their feed. The fmaller feeds may be alfo raifed in
this manner, by the help of wool to fupport them.
No vegetable tranfplanted out of the earth into wa¬
ter will thrive kindly ; but any plant, whether raifed
from the root or feed in water, may be tranfplanted to
the earth, and will fucceed very well. It may be pof-
fible, therefore, from this method of raifing plants in
water, to come at a better way than is ufually prac-
tifed of railing fome roots in the earth which are fub-
je6t to rot there; fuch as anemonies, ranunculus’s, and
hyacinths. A bulb dropped by chance upon the ground,
will ftrike out both ftronger and more numerous fibres
than thofe which are planted in the ufual way in the
ground. On this principle, it may be proper to take
out the earth of the bed where the bulbs are to (land
at the time of planting them, to fuch a depth as they are
to be placed under it when fet for flowering. The bulbs
are then to be fet in their places, on the furface of this
low ground ; and to (land there till they have (hot out
their fibres and their head: then the earth is to be added
over them by degrees, till they are covered as high above
the head as they are in the ufual manner of planting
them: thus they would be preferved from the danger
17 O of
FLU [ 3046 1 FLU
^lowering, of rotting ; and their fibres would be much ftronger,
FladJ. an(2 confequently they would draw more nourilhment,
and flower better, than in the common way. The
common method of planting thefe roots renders them
liable to be deftroyed by either extreme of a wet or
a dry feafon. In the firft cafe, they immediately rot,
by the abundant moifture they receive; and, in the fe-
cond, they become dry as a flick, and mouldy ; fo that
they are infallibly rotted by the firft rain that falls af¬
terwards.
The direftions neceflary to the fuccefs of the bulbs
planted in water are thefe. When the leaden falfe
bottoms are fixed down tight within two or three
inches of the bottom of the veflel (which is only de-
figned to hold the flicks fteady which are to fupport
the leaves and (talks), then lay on the lead upon which
the bulbs are to reft, placing the notched part oppo-
fitejo that in the falfe bottom, as near as the flicks,
when placed, will fuffer itthen place the bulbs one
in each hole, and fill up with water to the upper lead.
The bottom of the bulb will then touch the water; and
as the water diminifties in quantity, keep it fupplied with
more up to the fame height for a month or lix weeks;
in which time the Bulbs will have (hot ftrong fibres.
Then fill up the water about half an inch above the
furface of the lead; and, by degrees, as the fibres
ftrengthen, and the plume (hoots from the head, keep
the water higher and higher, till at length the whole
bulb is covered. The water is to be kept at this
flandard till the feafon for drying them returns.—At
the time of planting the bulbs, they muft be carefully
cleaned from any foulnefles at the bottom, by feraping
them with the point of a knife till the found part of the
bulb appears; clear them likewife from any loofe fltins,
and even take off their brown (kin till they appear
white ; otherwife this brown (kin will tinge the water,
and the growth will not fucceed fo well.
The notches in the fide of each lead are intended to
give eafy paflage to the water, that, if there (hould be
any foulnefs or fediment in it, on (baking it a little it
may all run through, and fre(h water be put in its
place. But this drifting the water need not be done
more than once or twice in a winter, as there may be
occafion from the foulnefs; and when this is done, the
fides of the veflel (hould be cleaned with a painter’s
brulh, and rinfed out again, and the bulbs themfelves
wafhed, by pouring water bn them at a little diftance.
At any time when the outer (kins of the bulbs dry,
they are to be peeled off, that they may not occafion
foulnefs in the water; and if any duft or foul matter
be at any time obferved fwimming on the furface, the
method is to fill up the pot or veffel to the rim, and
let it run over: this will carry off that light foulnefs,
and the water may afterwards be poured away to the
proper ftandard.
Bulbs of equal bignefs (hould be planted together in
the fame pot, that they may all have the fame benefit
of the water. Narciffus’s and hyacinths do well toge¬
ther; as alfo tulips and jonquils, and crocufes and
fnow-drops.
FLUDD (Robert), a famous philofopher, Born in
I44.7. He was fellow of the college of phyficians in
London, and became a mod voluminous writer: he
dilated greatly on the wonders of chemiftry; was a zea?
iuus brother of the Roficrulian order.;, and his books,
which are madly in Latin, are as dark and myfteri- FlinW<
ous in their language as in their matter. He died in F**>ic
1657.
FLUDDER. See Colymbus.
FLUID, an appellation given to all bodies whofe
particles eafily yield to the lead partial preffure, or
force impreffed. For the
Laws and Properties of Fluids. See Hydro¬
statics.
There are various kinds of animalcules to be dif-
cerned in different fluids by the microfcope. Of many
remarkable kinds of thefe, a defeription is given under
the article Animalcule. All of thefe little creatures
are eafily deftroyed by feparating them from their na¬
tural element. Naturalitts have even fallen upon (horter
methods. A needle point, dipped in fpirit of vitriol,
and then immerfed into a drop of pepper-water, rea¬
dily kills all the animalcules; which, though before
friiking about with great livelinefs and a&ivity, no
fooner come within the influence of the acid particles,
than they fpread themfelves, and tumble down to all
appearance dead. The like may be done by a folution
of ialt; only with this difference, that, by the latter ap¬
plication, they feem to grow vertiginous, turning round
and round, till they fall down. Tin&ure of fait of
tartar, ufed in the fame manner, kills them ftill more
readily ; yet not fo, but there will be apparent marks
of their being firft fick and convulfed. Inks de-
ftroy them as fall as fpirit of vitriol, and human blood
produces the fame effedl. Urine, fack, and fugar, all
deftroy them, though not fo faft; befides, that there is
fome diverfity in their figures and appearances, as they
receive their deaths from- this poifon or that. The point
of a pin dipped in fpittle, prefently killed all the kinds
of animalcules in puddle-water, as Mr Harris fuppofes
it will other animalcules of this kind.
All who are acquainted with microfcopic obferva-
tions, know very well, that in water, in which the belt
glaffes can difeover no particle of animated matter,
after a few grains of pepper, or a fragment of a plant
of almoft any kind, has been fome time in it, animals
full of life and motion are produced; and thofe in fuch
numbers, as to equal the fluid itfelf in quantity.—
When we fee a numerous brood of young fifhes in a
pond, we make no doubt of their having owed their
origin to the fpawn, that is, to the eggs of the parents-
of the fame fpecies. What are we then to think of
thefe? If we will confider the progrefs-of nature in
the infeft-tribes in general, and efpecially in fuch of
them as are mod analogous to- thefe, we (hall find
it lefs difficult to give an account of their origin than
might have been imagined.
A fmall quantity of water taken from any ditch in
the fummer-months, is found to be full of little worms,
feeming in nothing fo much as in fize to differ from
the microfcopic animalcules. Nay,, water,, without
thefe, expofed in open veffcls to the heat of the wea¬
ther, will be always found to abound with multitudes
of them, vifible to the naked eye, and full of life and
motion. Thefe we know, by their future changes,
are the fly-worms of the different .fpecies of gnats,,
and multitudes of other fly-fpecies ;„ and we can ea¬
fily determine, that they have owied their origin only
to the eggs of the parent-fly there depofited. Nay, a
cloffer. obfervation will at. any time give ocular proof of
FLU
Fluid, this; as the flies may be feen laying their eggs there,
and the eggs may be followed through all their changes
to the fly again. Why then are we to doilbt but that
the air abounds with other flies and animalcules as mi¬
nute as the worms in thofe fluids; and that thefe laft
are only the fly-worms of the former, which, after a
proper time fpent in that ftate, will fuffer changes like
thofe of the larger kinds, and become flies like thofe
to whofe eggs they owed their origin ? Vid. Reaumur.
Hiji. Inf eft. vol. iv. p. 431.
The differently medicated liquors made by infufions
of different plants, afford a proper matter for the worms
of different fpecies of thefe fmall flies: and there is no
reafon to doubt, but that among thefe fome are vivi¬
parous, others oviparous; and to this may be, in a
great meafure, owing the different time taken up for
the produ&ion of thefe infedls in different fluids. Thofe
which are a proper matter for the worms of the vivi¬
parous fly, may be fooneft found full of them; as, pror
bably, the liquor is no fooner in a ftate to afford them
proper nourifhment, than their parents place them
there : whereas thofe produced from the eggs of the
little oviparous flies, muft, after the liquor is in a pro¬
per ftate, and they are depofited in it in the form of
eggs, have a proper time to be hatched, before they
can appear alive.
It is eafy to prove, that the animals we find in thefe
vegetable infufions were brought thither from elfe-
where. It is not lefs eafy to prove, that they could not
be in the matter infufed any more than in the water in
which it is infufed.
Notvvithftanding the fabulous accounts of falaman-
ders, it is now well known, that no animal, large or
fmall, can bear the force of fire for any confiderable
time; and, by parity of reafon, we are not to believe,
that any infed, or embryo infedt, in any ftate, can bear
the heat of boiling water for many minutes. To pro¬
ceed to inquiries on this foundation: If feveral tubes
filled with water, with a fmall quantity of vegetable mat¬
ter, fuch as pepper, oak-bark, truffles, &c. in which, after
a time, infefts will be difcovered by the microfcope;
and other like tubes be filled with Ample water boiled,
with water and pepper boiled together, and with wa¬
ter with the two other ingredients, all feparately boiled
in it; when all thefe liquors come to a proper time for
the obfervation of the microfcope, all, as well thofe
which have been boiled, as thofe which have not, will
be found equally to abound with infefts; and thofe of
the fame kind, in infufions of the fame kind, whether
boiled or not boiled. Thofe in the infufions which
had fuftained a heat capable of deftroying animal-life,
muft therefore not have fublifted either in the water,
or in the matters put into it, but muft have been
brought thither after the boiling; and it feems by no
way fo probably, as by means of fome little winged
inhabitants of the air depofiting their eggs or worms
in thefe fluids.
On this it is natural to alk, how it comes to pafs, that
while we fee myriads of the progeny of thefe winged
infeds in water, we never fee themfelves ? The anfwer
is equally eafy, viz. becaufe we can always place a drop
of this water immediately before the focus of the mi¬
crofcope, and keep it there while we are at leifure to
examine its contents ; but that is not the cafe with re¬
gard to the air inhabited by the pareut-flies of thefe
FLU
worms, which is an immenfe extent in proportion to Fluicl,
the water proper for nourilhing thefe worms; and con- Flmduy.
fequently, while the latter are cluftered together in
heaps, the former may be difperfed and fcattered. Nor
do we want inftances of this, even in infeds of a
larger kind. In many of our gardens, we frequently
find veffels of water filled with worms of the gnat
kind, as plentifully, in proportion to their fize, as
thofe of other fluids are with animalcules. Every cfu-
bic inch of water in thefe veffels contains many hun¬
dreds of animals; yet we fee many cubic inches of
air in the garden not affording one of the parent flies.
But neither are we pofitively to declare that the pa¬
rent flies of thefe animalcules are in all Hates whol¬
ly invifible to us: if not fingly to be feen, there are
fome ftrong reafons to imagine that they may in
great clufters. Every one has feen in a clear day, when
looking ftedfaftly at the Iky, that the air is in many
places difturbed by motions and convolutions in cer¬
tain fpots. Thefe cannot be the effeds of imagina¬
tion, or of faults in our eyes, becaufe they appear the
fame to ail; and if we confider what would be the
cafe to an eye formed in fuch a manner as to fee no¬
thing fmaller than an ox, on viewing the air on a
marlh fully peopled with gnats, we muft be fenfible,
that the clouds of thefe infeds, though to us diftindly
enough vifible, would appear to fuch an eye merely as
the moving parcels of air in the former inftance do to
us : and furely it is thence no ralh conclufion to infer,
that the cafe may be the fame, and that myriads of fly¬
ing infeds, too fmall to be fingly the objeds of our
view, yet are to us what the clouds of gnats would be
in the former cafe.
Nervous Fluid. See Nervous Fluid.
Elajlic Fluids. See Air, Gas, Vapour, &c.
FLUIDITY, is by Sir Ifaac Newton defined to
be, that property of bodies by which they yield to any
force imprelfed, and which have their parts very eafi-
ly moved among one another.
To this definition fome have added, that the parts
of a fluid are in a continual motion. This opinion is
fupported by the folution of falls, and the formation
of tindures. If a fmall bit of faffron is thrown into a
vial full of water, a yellow tindure will foon be com¬
municated to the water to a confiderable height tho*
the vial is allowed to remain at reft; which indicates
a motion in thofe parts of the fluid which touch
the faffron, by which its colouring matter is carried
UP-
With regard to water, this can fcarce be denied;
the conftant exhalations from its furface fhew, that
there muft be a perpetual motion in its parts from the
afcent of the fteam through it. In mercury, where
infenfible evaporation does not take place, it might be
doubted; and accordingly the Newtonian philofophers
in general have been pf opinion, that there are fome
fubftances effentially fluid, from the fpherical figure of
their conftituent particles. The congelation of mer¬
cury, however, by an extreme degree of cold *, demou- * See Cm
ftrates that fluidity is not effentially inherent in mer-
cury more than in other bodies.
That fluids have vacuities in their fubftance is evi¬
dent, becaufe they may he made to diffolve certain bo¬
dies without fenfibly increafing their bulk. For ex¬
ample, water will diffolve a certain quantity of fait ;
17 O 2 after
[ 3°47 ]
Fluidity.
* See Con-
gelation.
* See Eva
foration.
FLU [ 3048 ] FLU
after which it will receive a little fugar, and after that
a little alum, without increafing its firft dimenfions.
Here we can fcarce fuppofe any thing elfe than that
the faline particles were interpofed between thofe of the
fluid ; and as, by the mixture of fait and water, a con-
fiderable degree of cold is produced, we may thence
cafily fee why the fluid receives thefe fubftances with¬
out any increafe of bulk. All fubftances are, expand¬
ed by heat, and reduced into lefs dimenfions by
cold ; therefore, if any fubftance is added to a fluid,
which tends to make it cold, the expanfion by the
bulk of the fubftance added, will not be fo much per¬
ceived as if this effe& had not happened; and if the
quantity added be fmall, the fluid will contrail as much,
perhaps more, from the cold produced by the mixture,
than it will be expanded from the bulk of the fait. This
alfo may let us know with what thefe interftices be¬
tween the particles of the fluid were filled up; name¬
ly, the element of fire, or heat. The faline particles,
upon their folution in the fluid, have occupied thefe
fpaces ; and now the liquor, being deprived of a quan¬
tity of this element equal in bulk to the fait added,
feels fenfibly colder.
As, therefore, there is fcarce any body to be found,
but what may become folid by a fufficient degree of
of cold; and none but what a certain degree of heat
will render fluid; the opinion naturally arifes, that fire
is the caufe of fluidity in all bodies, and that this e-
lement is the only efl’entially fluid fubftance in nature.
Hence we may conclude, that thofe fubftances which
we call fluids are not eflentially fo, but only affume that
appearance in confequence of an intimate union with
the element of fire ; juft as gums affume a fluid appear¬
ance on being diffolved in fpirit of wine, or falls in
water.
Upon thefe principles Dr Black mentions fluidity
as an effeA of heat. The different degrees of heat
which are required to bring different bodies into a ftate
of fluidity, he fuppofes to depend on fome particulars
in the mixture and compofition of the bodies them-
felves : which becomes extremely probable, from confi-
dering that we change the natural ftate of bodies in
this refpeft, by certain mixtures; thus, if two me¬
tals are compounded, the mixture is ufually more fu-
fible than either of them feparately. See Chemistry,
n° 56.
It is certain, however, that water becomes warmer
by being converted into ice * ; which may feem con-
tradi&ory to this opinion. To this, however, the Doc¬
tor replies, that fluidity does not confift in the degree
of fenfible heat contained in bodies, which will affe6t_
the hand, or a thermometer;. but in a certain quan¬
tity which remains in a latent ftate *. This opinion
he fupports, from the great length of time required
to melt ice ; and to afcertain the degree of heat re-
quifite to keep water in a fluid ftate, he put 5 oun¬
ces of water into a Florence flafk, and converted it
into ice by means of a freezing mixture put round the
flaik. Into another flafk of the fame kind he put an
equal quantity of water cooled down nearly to the
freezing point, by mixing it with fnow, and then
pouring it off. In this-he placed a very delicate ther¬
mometer ; and found, that it acquired heat from the air
of the room in which it was placed :.feven degrees of heat
were gained the firft half-hour. The ice being expofed*
to the fame degree of heat, namely, the air of a
room without fire, it cannot be doubted that it jrnior
vcd heat from the air as faft as the water which was  1_
not frozen: but, to prevent all poflibility of deception,
he put his hand under the fiafk containing the ice, and
found a ftream of cold air very fenfibly deicending from
it, even at a confiderable diftance from the flafk;
which undeniably proved, that the ice was all that time
abforbing heat from the air. Neverthelefs, it was not
till 11 hours, that the ice was half-melted, tho’ in that
time it had abforbed fo much heat as ought to have
raifed the thermometer to 140°; and even after it was
melted, the temperature of the water was found fcarce
above the freezing point: fo that, as the heat which en¬
tered could not be found in the melted ice, he con¬
cluded that it remained concealed in the water, as an
effential ingredient of its compofition *. * .Se? r‘on'
FLUKE, or Flounder, in ichthyology. See ^
Pleuronectes.
FLUMMERY, a wholefome fort of jelly made of
oat-meal.
The manner of preparing it is as follows. Put three
large handfuls of finely ground oat-meal to fteep, for
24 hours, in two quarts of fair water : then pour off
the clear water, and put two quarts of frefh water to it:
ftrain it thro’ a fine hair-fieve, putting in two fpoon-
fuls of orange-flower water, and a fpoonful of fu¬
gar : boil it till it is as thick as a hafty-pudding, ftir-
ring it continually while it is boiling, that it may be
very fmooth.
FLUOR, in phyfics, a fluid ; or, more properly,
the ftate of a body that was before hard or folid, but
is now reduced by fufion, or fire, into a ftate of flui¬
dity.
Fluor, in mineralogy, a certain kind of done
which facilitates fufion. They are of different colours,
purple, green, yellow, &c. more or lefs tranfparent,
which are commonly found in veins of ores, and
ferve as the matrix to the minerals which they inve-
lope. Moft of them affefl a cubical form, but others
are found in lumps which have no determinate fhape.
They may be diftinguiflted from other (tones by the
following properties.
1. They are not fufficiently hard to (trike fire with
fteel. By this property they are diftinguiftied from the
coloured quartz-cryftals, called falfe emeralds, falfe ru¬
bies, &c. which names have alfo been improperly ap¬
plied to the cubical coloured fluors.
2. They are not foluble by acids, and thus are di-
(tinguiftiable from calcareous fpars.
3. When calcined without addition, and mixed with
water, they do not form platter; and when calcined
with addition-of inflammable matter, they cannot be
formed into the Bolognian phofphorus. Hence they
may be diftinguiftied from the gypfeous phofphoric
fpars and (tones.
4. They are fufible by fire without addition, ac¬
cording to M. Engeftrom and M. D’Arcet.
5. They greatly facilitate the fufion of calcareous
and argillaceous earths ^and alfo of the topaz* accord¬
ing to Mr Pott. They are much, employed, in the
fmelting of ores, as they promote the fufion of the ad¬
hering earths.
6. When expofed to fire till they become red-hot,
they emit fome lucid rays in the dark : but their light
is
large Fluke
recei* N
FLU [ 3049 ] FLU
JFluor is very weak, and afterwards they crackle and break
li into fmall pieces ; whereas the gypfeous phofphoric
Flmc' fnars expofed to the fame heat emit a vivid light, and
then break afunder into pieces not fo pnlverable as
thofe of the heated floors.
M. Margraaf has made experiments in order to dif-
cover the nature of thefe (tones. He afcertained the
above-mentioned diltin&ions between them and the
gypfeous fpars; and therefore infers, that they are not
compounded of vitriolic acid with calcareous earth. He
obferved Angular appearances on mixing them with vi¬
triolic and other acids, and fubjedting the mixtures to
diftillation,
Eight ounces of the powder of a green floor, being
mixed with an equal weight of pure oil of vitriol, and
diftilled together with a. graduated heat, yielded, after
the watery part of the acid had paffed, a fine white
fublimate, which arofe and adhered to the neck of the
retort, and even pafled into the receiver., The find
parts of this fublimate which arofe, appeared like but¬
ter of antimony ; and,, like this butter, they melted by
the heat of a live coal, brought near the neck of the re¬
tort:: but the parts which arofe towards the end of the
operation, with the greatell degree of heat, could not
be melted by that heat. The retort being broken, a re-
fiduum was found weighing 12-oz. Hence 4.02. of oil
of vitriol remained united with the fpar.. The bottom of
the retort was obferved to be pierced with holes. Lad-
ly, the liquor, which had paffed into the receiver, and
the white fublimate, had very fenfibly a fulphureous
fmell. The fublimate, triturated a long time in a mor¬
tar with hot didilled water, diffolved, and paffed thro’
a filter. To the filtrated iiquor fome fixed alkali
being added, a precipitate was formed; which being
well walked and dried, was readily melted by fire into
a mafs refembling porcelain. The fame excellent and
accurate chemid produced the fame effedts upon this
ftone, by fubftituting, indead of the vitriolic acid, the
nitrous, marine, phofphoric, or the concentrated ace¬
tous acids.
Fluor Acid. See Chemistry, n° 263.
Fluor Albus, or Whites. See (the Index fubjoined
to) Medicine.
FLUSHING, an handfome, ftrong, and confider-
able town of the United Provinces, in Zeland, and in
the ifland of Walcheren, with a very good harbour,
and a great foreign trade. It was put into the hands
of queen Elizabeth- for a pledge of their fidelity, and
as a fecurity for the money (he advanced. It is one of
the three places which Charles V. advifed Philip II.
to preferve with care. E. Long. 3. 32. N. Lat.
51. 26.
FLUTE, an inffrument of mufic, the fimpleft of
all thofe of the wind-kind. It is played on by blowing
it with the mouth ; and the tones or notes are changed
by (lopping and opening the holes difpofed for that
purpofe along its fide.
This is a very ancient inftrument. It was at fifft call¬
ed the flute a bee, from bee an old Gaulifh word figni-
fying the beak of a bird or fowl, but more efpecially of
a cock : the term flute a bee mud therefore fignify the
beakedflute ; which appears very proper, on comparing
it with the traverfe or German flute. The word flute
is derived from fluta, the Latin for a lamprey or fmall
cel taken in the Sicilian feas, having feven holes im¬
mediately below the gills on each fide, thepreeife num- Flute.
ber of thofe in the front of the flute.
By Merfennus this inftrument is called the fiflula dul-
cis, feu Anglica; the lowed note, according to him,
for the treble flute, h C fa ut, and the compafs of the
inftrument 15 notes. There is, however, a flute known
by the name of the concert-flute, the lowed note of
which is F. Indeed, ever fince the introduflion of the
flute into concerts, the lowed note of the inftrument,
of what fize foever it is, has been called F; when in
truth its pitch is determinable only by its corre-
fpondence in refpeift of acutenefs or gravity with one
or other of the chords in the feala maxima or great
fyftem.
Befides the true concert-flute, others of a lefs fize
were foon introduced into concerts of violins; in which
cafe the method was to write the flute-part in a key
correfpondent to its pitch. This praftice was introdu¬
ced in 1710 by one Woodcock, a celebrated performer
on this inftrument, and William Babell organift of the
church of All-hallows, Bread-Street, London. They
failed,, however, in procuring for the flute a reception
into concerts of various inftruments; for which reafon,
one Thomas Stanefby, a very curious maker of flutes
and other inftruments of the like kind, about the year
1732, adverting to the fcale of Merfennus, in which
the lowed note was C, invented what he called the nena
JyJlent; in which, by making the flute of fuch a fize
as to be a fifth above concert-pitch, the lowed note be¬
came Cfelfa ut. By this contrivance fhe necefiity of
tranfpofing the flute-part was taken away ; for a flute
ofthisfize, adjufted to the fyftem above-mentioned, be-
became an odlave to the violin. To further this in¬
vention of Standby, one Lewis Merci, an excellent
performer on the flute, publiftied, about the year 1735,
fix folos for this inftrument, three of which are faid to
be accommodated to Mr Standby’s new fyftem ; but
the German flute was now become a favourite inftru¬
ment, and Stanefby’s ingenuity failed of its effedl.—
One great objedlion indeed lies againft this inftrument,
which, however, equally affedls all perforated pipes;
namely, that they are never perfe&ly in tune, or can¬
not be made to play all their notes with equal exaft-
nefs. The utmoft that the makers of them can do is
to tune them to fome one key ; as the hautboy to C,
the German flute to D, and the Englifh flute to F, and
to effe& this truly is a matter of no fmall difficulty.
The Englifti flutes made by the younger Standby
come the neared of any to perfedtion;. but thofe of
Breffan, though excellent in their tone, are all too
flat in the upper odlave. For thefe reafons fome are
induced to think, that the utmoft degree of proficien¬
cy on any of thofe inftruments is not worth the labour
of attaining it.
German Flute, is an inftrument entirely different
from the common flute. It is not, like that, put into
the mouth to be played; but the end is ftopt with a
tompion or plug, and the lower lip is applied to a
hole about two inches and a. half or three inches di-
ftant from the end. This inftrument is ufually about
a foot and a half long ; rather bigger at the upper end
than the lower; and perforated with holes, befides that
for the mouth, the lowed of which is (lopped and open*
ed by the little finger’s preffing on a brafs or fome-
times a filver key, like thofe in hautboys, baffoons, &c.
Flux.
FLU L 3050 ] FLU
Its found is exceeding fweet and agreeable j and ferves
' as a treble in a concert.
FLUX, in metallurgy, is fometimes ufed fynoni-
moufly with fufion. For inftance, an ore, or other mat¬
ter, is faid to be in liquid flux, when it is completely
fufed.
But the word /ax is generally ufed to fignify cer¬
tain faline matters, which facilitates the fufion of ores,
and other matters which are difficultly fulible in ef-
fays and reductions of ores. Fixed alkalis, nitre, bo¬
rax, tartar, and common fait, are the faline matters
of which fluxes are generally compofed. But the word
/ax is more particularly applied to mixtures of different
proportions of only nitre and tartar; and thefe fluxes
are called by particular names, according to the pro¬
portions of thefe ingredients, as in the following ar¬
ticles.
White Flux, is made with equal parts of nitre and
of tartar detonated together, by which they are alka-
lifed. The refiduum of this detonation is an alkali
compofed of the alkalis of the nitre and of the tartar,
both which are abfolutely of the fame nature. As the
proportion of nitre in this mixture is more than is fuf-
ficient to confume entirely all the inflammable matter
of the tartar, the alkali remaining after the detonation
is perfectly white, and is therefore called white flax ;
and as this alkali is made very quickly, it is alfo called
extemporaneous alkali. When a fmall quantity only of
white flux is made, as a few ounces for inftance, fome
nitre always remains undecompofed, and a little of the
inflammable principle of the tartar, which gives a red
or even a black colour to fome part of the flux : but
this does not happen when a large quantity of white
is made flux ; becaufe then the heat is much greater.
This fmall quantity of undecompofed nitre and tartar
which remains in white flux is net hurtful in moft of
the metallic fufions in which this flux is employed: but
if the flux be required perfectly pure, it might eaftly
be difengaged from thofe extraneous matters by a long
and ftrong calcination, without fufion.
FLUX
Crude Flux. By crude flux is meant the mixture of Flux,
nitre and tartar in any proportions, without detonation. “
Thus the mixture of equal parts of the two falls ufed
in the preparation of the white flux, or the mixture of
one part of nitre and two parts of tartar for the pre¬
paration of the black flux, are each of them a crude
flux before detonation. It has alfo been called white
flux, from its colour; but this might ocicafion it to
be confounded with the white flux above deferibedk
The name, therefore, of crude flux is more convenient.
Crude flux is detonated and alkalifed during the
reduCfions and fulions in which it is employed; and is
then changed into white or black flux, according to
the proportions of which it is compofed. This de¬
tonation produces good effeCfs in thefe fufions and re¬
ductions, if the fwelling and extravafation of the de¬
tonating matters be guarded agairift. Accordingly,
crude flux may be employed fucCefsfully in many ope¬
rations ; as, for inftance, in the ordinary operation for
procuring the regulus of antimony.
Black Flux. Black flux is produced from the mix¬
ture of two parts of tartar and one part of nitre deto*
nated together. As the quantity of nitre which enters
into the compofition of this flux is not ftifficient to con-
fume all the inflammable matter of the tartar, the al¬
kali which remains after the detonation contains much
black matter, of the nature of coal, and is therefore
called black flux.
This flux is defignedly fo prepared, that it fhall con¬
tain a certain quantity of inflammable matter ; for it
is thereby capable, not only of facilitating the fufion of
metallic earths like the white flux, but alfo of reviving
thefe metals by its phlogifton. From this property
it is alfo called reducing flux; the black flux, there¬
fore, or crude flux made with fuch proportions of the
ingredients as to be convertible into black flux, ought
always to be ufed when metallic matters are at once
to be fufed and reduced, or even when deftru&ive
metals are to be fufed, as thefe require a continual
fupply of phlogifton to prevent their calcination.
IONS;
A Method of calculation which greatly facilitates
computations in the higher parts of mathematics.
Sir Ifaac Newton and Mr Leibnitz contended for the
honour of inventing it. It is probable they had both
made progrefs in the fame difeovery, unknown to each
other, before there w as any publication on the fubjeff.
In this branch of mathematics, magnitudes of every
kind are fuppofed generated by motion; a line by the
motion of a point, a furface by the motion of a line,
and a folid by the motion of a furface. And fome part
of a figure is fuppofed generated by an uniform mo¬
tion ; in confequence of which, the other parts may in-
creafe uniformly or with an accelerated or retarded mo¬
tion, or may decreafe in any of thefe ways; and the
computations are made by tracing the comparative ve¬
locities with which the parts flow.
Fig. 1. If the parallelogram ABCD be generated
by an uniform motion of the line AB toward CD while
it moves from FE towards fc, while the line BF re¬
ceives the increment Yf, and the figure will be increafed
by the parallelogram Fe\ the line FE in this cafe un¬
dergoes no variation.
The fluxion of any magnitude at any point is the
increment that it would receive in any given time, fup-
pofing it to increafe uniformly from that point; and
as the meafures will be the-jfame, whatever the time be-,
we are at liberty to fuppofe it lefs than any affigned
time.
The firft letters in the alphabet are ufed to repre-
fent invariable quantities; the letters\r, z, variable
quantities; and the fame letters with points over them
x, y, z, reprefent their fluxions.
Therefore if AB=*, and BF=x; Yf, the fluxion of
BF, will be =x, and Ye, the fluxion of AF, —ax.
If the rectangle be fuppofed generated by the uni¬
form motion of FG towards CD, at the fame time that
HG moves uniformly towards AD, the point G keeping
always on the diagonal, the lines FG HG will flow
uniformly; for while B/receives the increment!/ and
HB the increment HK, FG will receive the incre¬
ment
FLUX
ment hg, and HG the increment hg, and they will re¬
ceive equal increments in equal fpcpeffive times. .Bqt
the parallelogram will flow with an accelerated motion;
for while F flows to f, and H to K, it is increafed by
the gnomon KG/"; but while F and H flow through
the equal fpaces fm KL, it is increafed by the gnomon
\*gm greater than KG/'; confequently when fluxions
of the fldes of a parallelogram are uniform, the fluxion
of the parallelogram increafes continually.
The fluxion of the parallelogram BHGFis the two
parallelograms KG and Gf; for though the parameter
receives an increment of the gnomon KG/^ while its
fides flow to f and K, the part^G is owing to the ad¬
ditional velocity wherewith the parallelogram flows du¬
ring that time; and therefore is no part of the meafure
of the fluxion, which muft be computed by fuppofing
the parameter to flow uniformly as it did at the begin¬
ning, without any acceleration.
Therefore if the fides of a parallelogram be x and/,
their fluxions will be x/; and the fluxion of the paral¬
lelogram xy-f/x; and if x=y, that is, if the figure be a
fquare, the fluxion of x* will be 2xx.
Fig. 2. Let the triangle ABC be defcribed by the
uniform motion of DE from A towards B, the point
E moving in the line DF, fo as always to touch the
lines AC, CB ; while D moves from A to F, DE is
uniformly increafed, and the increafe of the triangle is
uniformly accelerated. When DE is in the pofition
FC, it is a maximum. As D moves from F to B, the
line FC decreafes, and the triangle increafes, but with
a motion uniformly retarded.
Fig. 3. If the femicircle AFB be generated by the
uniform motion of CD from A towards B, while C
moves from A to G, the line CD will increafe, but
with a retarded motion 5 the circumference alfo increafes
with a retarded motion, and the circular fpace increafes
with an accelerated motion, but not uniformly, the de¬
grees of acceleration growing lefs as CD approaches to
to the pofition GF. When C moves from G to B, it
decreafes with a motion continually accelerated, the
circumference increafes with a motion continually ac¬
celerated, and the area increafes with a motion conti¬
nually retarded, and more quickly retarded as CD ap¬
proaches to B.
The fluxion of a quantity which decreafes is to be
confidered as negative.
When a quantity does not flow uniformly, its fluxion
may be reprefented by a variable quantity, or a line of
a variable length ; the fluxion of fuel) a line is called
the fecond fluxion of the quantity <whofe fluxion that line
is: and if it be variable, a third fluxion may be dedu¬
ced from it, and higher orders from thefe in the fame
manner: the fecond fluxion is reprefented by two points,
as x.
The increment a quantity receives by flowing for
any given time, contains meafures of all fhe different
orders of fluxions; for if it increafes uniformly, the
whole increment is the firft fluxion ; and it has no fe¬
cond fluxion. If it increafes with a motion uniformly
accelerated, the-part of the-increment occafioned by the
firft motion meafures the firft fluxion, and the part oc-
cafioned by the acceleration meafures the fecond fluxion.
If the motion be not only accelerated, but the degree
of. acceleration continually, increafed,,the two firft flux-
I O N S. 305*
ions are meafured as before; and the p^rt of the incre¬
ment occafioned by the additional degree of accelera¬
tion meafures the third; and fo on. Thefe meafures
require to be correfted, and are only mentioned here
to illuftrate the fubject.
DIRECT METHOD.
flny flowing quantity being given, to find its fluxion.
Rule I. To find the fluxion of any power of a
quantity, multiply the fluxion of the root by the ex¬
ponent of the power, and the product by a power of
the fame root lefs by unity than the given exponent.
The fluxion of x3 is 3x*x, of x" «*"—’x; for the
root of x" is x, whofe fluxion is x; which multiplied by
the exponent», and by a power of x lefs by unity than
«, gives the above fluxion.
If x receive the increment x, it becomes x+x; raife
both to the power of «, and x” becomes x"+«x”—’x-f-
—Z—ixn—‘x’-J-, &c.; but all the parts of the incre¬
ment, except the firft term, are owing to the accelera¬
ted increafe of x", and form meafures of the higher flux¬
ions. The firft term only meafures the firft fluxion; the
3 j
   * _ -y
fluxion of al+z* . is 4X2zzXtfI+zT); for put xtza*+z*,
we have x—2zz; and the fluxion of x1, which is equal
to the propofed fluent, is 4*Tx; for which fubftituting
the values of z and x, we have the above fluxion.
Rule II. To find the fluxion of the produdt of fe-
veral variable quantities multiplied together, multiply
the fluxiofl of each by the product of the reft of the
quantities, and the fum of the produds thus arifing will
be the fluxion fought.
Thus the fluxion of xy, is x/4/x; that of x/z, is
xyz+xzy+yzx; and that of xyzu, is xyzu+xyuz+xzuy
+yzux.
Rule III. To find the fluxion of a fradion.^—From
the fluxion of the numerator multiplied by the deno¬
minator, fubtrad the fluxion of the denominator mul¬
tiplied by the numerator, and divide the remainder by
the fquare of the denominator.
Thus, the fluxion of — is-^LZA?. that of X is
 ^ ^ ’ *+.?
xX+xy—x+yX.v _yx—xy
*+7T
Rule IV. In complex cafes, let the particulars be
colleded from the Ample rules, and combined together.
The fluxion of ^ is ; for
z z
the fluxion of x* is 2xx, and of/* is zyy, by Rule T..
and therefore the fluxion of x*/1 (by Rule II.) 2xJ//ft-
zylxx; from which, multiplied by z, (by Rule III.) and
fubtrading from it the fluxion of the denominator z,
multiplied by the numerator, and dividing the whole
by the fquare of the denominator, gives the above
fluxion..
Rule IV. The fccond fluxion is derivcd from the
firftl
3°52
FLUXIONS.
firft, in the fame manner as the firfl from the flowing
quantity.
Thus the fluxion of x1, its fecond, 6xxJ+3x*x
(by Rule IL); and fo on: but if x be invariable, x=o,
and the fecond fluxion of x3=6x.v*.
Pros. r. To determine maxima and minima.
When a quantity increafes, its fluxion is pofitive ;
when it decreafes, it is negative; therefore, when it is
juft betwixt increafing and decreafing, its fluxion is
—o.
Rule. Find the fluxion, make it —o, whence an
equation will refult that will give an anfwer to the que-
ftion.
Examp. To determine the dimenfions of a cylindric
meafure ABCD, (fig. 4.) open at the top, which (hall
contain a given quantity (of liquor, grain, &c.) under
the leaft internal fuperficies poffible.
Let the diameter AB=.v, and the altitude ADrry;
moreover, let p (3,14159, &c.) denote the periphery
of the circle whofe diameter is unity, and let c be the
given content of the cylinder. Then it will be
1 1 p :: x : {px) the circumference of the bafe; which,
multiplied by the altitude^', givespxy for the concave
fuperficies of the cylinder. In like manner, the area
of the bafe, by multiplying the fame expreflion into £
of the diameter x, will be found =^L; which drawn
4
into the altitude y, gives for the folid content of
4
the cylinder; which being made =*•, the concave fur-
face pxy will be found and confequently the
whole furface zrlf-J* ——: Whereof the fluxion, which
. * 4
is —being put =0, we ihall get —8cX^x3=o;
5
and therefore x=2 further, becaufe />x3=8c,
and px1y^z^c, it follows, that x—iy, whence y is alfo
known, and from which it appears that the diameter
of the bafe muft be juft the double of the altitude.
Fig. 7. To find the longeft and (horteft ordinates of
any curve, DEF, whofe equation or the relation which
the ordinates bear to the abfciffas is known.
Make AC the abfcifia x, arid CE the ordinate —y;
take a value ^ in terms of x, and find its fluxion; which
making =0, an equation will refult whofe roots give
the value of x when91 is a maximum or a minimum.
To determine when it is a maximum and when a mi¬
nimum, take the value of91, when x is a little more than
the root of the equation fo found, and it may be per¬
ceived whether it increafes or decreafes.
If the equation has an even number of equal roots,
y will be neither a maximum nor minimum when its
fluxion is =0.
Pros. II. To draw a tangent to any curve.
F'g- 5- When the abfcifla CS of a curve moves uni¬
formly from A to B, the motion of the curve will be
retarded if it be concave, and accelerated if convex to¬
wards AB; for a ftraight line TC is defcribed by an
uniform motion, and the fluxion of the curve at any
point is the fame as the fluxion of the tangent, becaufe
it would defcribe the tangent if it continued to move
equally from that point. Now if S/ or Ce be the fluxion
of the bafe, Qd will be the fluxion of the tangent, and
de of the ordinate. And becaufe the triangles TSC,
Qed., are equiangular, de i ce :: CS : ST, wherefore.
Rule. Find a fourth proportional to the fluxion of
the ordinate valued in terms of the abfcifla, the fluxion
of the abfcifla, and the ordinate, and it determines the
line ST, which is called ih^femi-tangent, and TC join¬
ed is a tangent to the curve.
Examp. To draw a right line CT, (fig. 6.) to touch
a given circle BCA in a given point C.
Let CS be perpendicular to the diameter AB, and
put AB=tf, BS=x, and SCzy': then, by the property of
the circle,^* (CS1) =:BSXAS (=xX«—x) z=ax—x* >
whereof the fluxion being taken, in order to determine
the ratio of x and/, we get zyy=ax—2xx; confequently
^-=————; which multiplied by/, gives-^
y {Z——2lX y
 = the fubtangent ST. Whence (O being fup-
pofed the centre) we have OS (ia—x) : CS (/) :: CS
(/) : ST ; which we alfo know from other principles.
Prob. III. To determine points of contrary flexure in
curves.
Fig. 7. Suppofing C to move uniformly from A to
B, the curve DEF will be convex towards AB when
the celerity of E increafes, and concave when it de¬
creafes ; therefore at the point where it ceafes to be
convex and begins to be concave, or the oppofite way,
the celerity of E will be uniform, that is, CE will have
no fecond fluxion. Therefore,
Rule. Find the fecond fluxion of the ordinate in
terms of the abfcifla, and make it =0; and from the
equation that arifes you get a value of the abfcifla,
which determines the point of contrary flexure.
Ex. Let the nature of the curve ARS be defined by
the equation ay—aflx^fl-xx, (the abfcifla AF and the
ordinate FG being, as ufual, reprefented by x and /
refpedively). Then/, exprefling the celerity of the
point r, in the line FH, will be equal to
ka
X+2XX
Whofe fluxion, or that of 4- T+2x (becaufe a
and i are conftant) muft be equal to nothing ; that
is,—-fa^x tx+2x=o : Whence a^x T—8, ^=8xT
a~r, —L v > )
6^xi=a?, and x=4«=AF; therefore FG (- i—
^r^a : From which the pofition of the point G is
given.
Prob. IV. To find the radii of curvature.
The curvature of a circle is uniform in every point,
that of every other curve continually varying: and it
is meafured at any point by that of a^ircie whofe ra¬
dius is of fuch a length as to coincide with it in cur¬
vature in that point.
All curves that have the fame tangent have the fame
firft fluxion, becaufe the fluxion of a curve and its tan¬
gent
FLUXIONS.
gent are the fame. If it moved uniformly on from
the point of cootadl, it would defcribe the tangent.
And the deflexion from the tangent is owing to the
acceleration or retardation of its motion, which ismea*
fared by its fecond fluxion : and confequently two
curves which have not only the fame tangent, but the
fame curvature at the point of co'htaft, will have both
their firft and fecond fluxions equal. It is eafily pro¬
ven from thence, that the radius of curvature is
zs
=-— X, y, and z reprefent the abfcifla, ordinate,
—•v
and curve refpe&ively.
Examf. Let the given curve be the common para¬
bola, whofe equation isy=a'TxT: Then willyzz^a^xx^
—~~r* and (making x conftant) ^—rzfX-i-a****""" —
: Whence z 1 )=^~ j4'V^~a
the radius of curvature ( Which at
the vertex, where xreo, will be
INVERSE METHOD.
From a given fluxion to find a fluent.
Tuts is done by tracing back the fteps of the direft
method. The fluxion of x is x ; and therefore the flu¬
ent of x is x : but as there is no^direft method of find¬
ing fluents, this branch of the art is imperfe<3. We
can aflign the fluxion of every fluent; but we cannot
alfign the fluent of a fluxion, unlefs it be fuch a one
as may be produced by fome rule in the diredi method
from a known fluent.
General Rule. Divide by the fluxion of the
root, add unity to the exponent of the power, and
divide by the exponent fo increafed-
For, dividing the fluxion nx—nlx by x (the fluxion
of the root x) it becomes »x"—I ; and, adding i to the
exponent («— t) we have »x" ; which, divided by «,
gives x”j. the true fluent of nxn—\x.
Hence (by the fame rule) the
Fluent of jx1* will be =x3;
That of 8xlx=^;
3
That of 2xJx=il!_*
3
That oiy*y—\yv.
Sometimes the fluent fo found requires to be cor-
refted. The fluxion of x is x, and the fluxion of«+x
is alfo x, becaufe a is invariable, and has therefore no
fluxion.
Now when the fluent of x is required, it muft be
determined, from the nature of the problem, whether
Vol. IV.
any invariable part, as a, mu£l be added to the variable
part x.'
When fluents cannot be exa&ly found, they can
be approximated by infinite feries.
Ex. Let it be required to approximate the fluent of
in an infinite feries.
The value of - ■■ ■ . exprefled in a feries, is 4-
-L-Xx’-Of V . 1 vv4+._5* _3_ ;
2c3 zac OC5 4^'3 J6c7 i6ac
-Ji—. -I—Xx6-}-&c. Which value being there¬
to^3;:-' ioasc
fore multiplied by x”.v, and the fluent taken (by the
common method) we get .— “X—7-- +
   6 2^3 iac «+3
if-
$cs~
16c7
i6acs i6alciJ i6<zs<; «+7
+ &c.
Prob. 1. To find the area of any curve.
Rule. Multiply the ordinate by the fluxion of the
abfeiffa, and the produft gives the fluxion of the figure,
whofe fluent is the area of the figure.
Examp. i. Fig. 8. Let the curve ARMH, whofe
area you will find, be the common parabola. Let «
reprefent the area, and a its fluxion.
In which cafe the relation of AB (x) and BR (^/) be¬
ing exprefled by^* — ax where a is the parameter) we
thence get^=aTxT; and therefore a=Rw/HB (=yx)
= a’rxYx.- whence a = |-X«*^T=yaYxYXx=f>’x (be¬
caufe a^x^—y) =y X AB X BR: hence a parabola is
of a reftangle of the fame bafe and altitude.
Examp. 2. Let the propofed curve CSDR (fig. 9.)
be of fuch a nature, that (fuppofing AB unity) the fum
of the areas CSTBC and CDGBC anfwering to any
two propofed abfeiflas AT and AG, ftiall be equal to
the area CRNBC, whofe correfponding abfeifla AN is
equal to ATxAG, the produft of the meafures of the
two former abfeiflas.
Firft, in order to determine the equation of the curve,
(which mull be known before the area can be found),let
the ordinates GD and NR move parallel to themfelves
towards HF t and then having put GD==y, NR=z,
AT=<7, AG=/, and AN=«, the fluxion of the area
CDGB will be reprefented by ys, and that of the area
CRNB by zu: which two expreflions mull, by the
nature of the problem, be equal to each other; becaufe
the latter area CRNB exceeds the former CDGB by
the area CSTB, which is here confidered as aconftant
quantity: and it is evident, that two expreflions, that
differ only by a conftant quantity, mull always have
equal fluxions.
Since, therefore, j/is =za, and by hypothefis,
it follows, that u—as, and that the firft equation (by
fubftituting for «) will becomeys—azs, ory—az, or
laftly rs—zas, that is, GDxAG=NRXAN: there-
17 P fore,
3°53
305*4
F L U X I
fore, GD : NR :: AN : AG; whence it appears, that
every ordinate of the curve is reciprocally as its corre*
fponding ahfcifia.
Now, to find the area of the curve fo determined,
put AB=r, BC=5, and BG=x.‘ then, finte AG( i+x)
b
: AB (i) :: BC (£) ;
confequently u (=y x) = -^-:
GD (y) we have^=
bx
a
and of -
hyp. log. of ;
2ax a—x/a7'-=£zxx
= h7f>-,<>g-J+VS?
Pros. 2. 7V determine the length of curves-
Fig. 5. Becaufe Cde is a right-angled triangle, Cd*
~Ce*-\-de*; wherefore the fluxions of the abfciffa and
ordinate being taken in the fame terms and fquared,
their fum gives, the fquare of the fluxion of the curve;
whofe root being extradied, and the fluent taken, gives
the length of the curve.
Examp. To find the length of a- circle from its tan¬
gent. Make the radius AO (fig. 5;) =a, the tangent
of AC = /, and its fecant —j-, the curve = z, and its
fluxion.= z; becaufe the triangles O T C, 0 C S,
are fimilar, OT : OC :: OC :: OSj whence OS
= —, and SA = a — —-.
a ; whofe
dCe are fimilar, TC (—/) : TO :: Ce
: Cd —dLl—= fluxion of the curve.
. a1-\-tl
Now by converting this into an infinite feries, we have the
o
t*
ts
+ xlx-
»3x-J-xx4—&c. Whence, BGDC, the area itfelf
will be = £ X x —— 4- ——  1- 8ec. which
2 3 4 5
was to be found.
Hence it appears, that as thefe areas have the fame
properties as logarithms, this feries gives an eafy me¬
thod of computing logarithms; and the fluent may be
found by means of a table of logarithms, without the
trouble of an infinite feries : and every fluxion whofe
fluent agrees with any known logarithmic expreffion,
may be found the fame way. Hence the fluents of
fluxions of the following forms are deduced.
The fluent of—===—hyp.log.of x+y,A*=!:::‘*!! >
of -—=irrrr-_ = hyp. log. aXx+\/2aX+X* j
^/2ax-j-xx
fluxion of the curve = t—
t+t , t't t6t
t'*
t'*
N S.
(=/X^=/X|) =. 1924500
Q=tixt1—t—'^'= .0641500
^X^i) =.0213833
^=/7X^*=^—^ = .0071277
(v=t9Xti=~-^ = .0023759
^zt11 X^=L-^ = .00079 X 9
^=/,JX/l=—^ = .0002639
drc.
And therefore AR = -5773502-
1934500 t
.0641500 .0213833 _j_ .0091277  .0023759
5 7 ' 9 11
■0007919 -0002639 .0000879  .0000293,
13 17 19
»000°°97_— -0^0032 = >52359g7; for thc length Qf
an arch of 30 degrees, which multiplied by 6 gives
3.141592 -4- for the length of the femi-periphery of
the circle whofe radius is unity.
Other feries may be deduced from the verfed fine,
fine and fecant; and thefe are of ufe for finding fluents
which cannot be expreffed in finite terms.
1
f 2a<m
Verfecifine
Right fine
Tangent
Secant
1
.g <w, and
Radius Unity*
&c. and con*
= AR.
fequently z—— 1L -j-ii — £L 4-fl. &c.
3az 5 a4 r}a° yas
Where, if (for example’ fake) AR be fuppofed-'an arch
of jt) degrees, and AO (to render the operation more
eafy) be put = unity, we fhall have/=-\/-f::=-5773502
(becaufe Ohs/f: ^R (4) :: OA (1) : AT (t) = V'T)
Whence,
Pros. 3. To find the contents of a folid.
Let the furface of the generating plane be multi¬
plied by the fpace it pafles through in any time, the
product will give a folid which is the fluxion of the fo¬
lid required : the furface muft therefore be computed
in terms of x, which reprefents the line or axis on
which it moves, and by its motion on which the fluxion
is to be meafured, and the fluent found will give the
contents of the folid.
Examp. Let it be propofed to find the content of
a cope ABC, fig. 10.
Put the given altitude (AD) of the cone = tf, and
the femi-diameter (BD) of its bafe =£; the folid =j>
5%its fluxion =/, and the area of a circle, whofe radius
is unity, =/>: then the diftance (AF) of the circle
EG, from the vertex A, being denoted by x, we
have, by fimilar triangles, as a : EF Q>.)
= bJL. Whence in this cafe, s [vzpy Xx) ;
and confequently s =^-^-. which, whenx=« (=AD)
gives-
FLUXIONS.
3°55
gives (=/> xBD^yAD) for the content of
the whole cone ABC: which appears from hence to
be juft y of a cylinder of the fame bafe and altitude.
Prob. 4. To compute the furface of any folid body.
The fluxion of the furface of the folid is equal to
the periphery of the furface, by whofe motion the fo¬
lid is generated, multiplied by its vejocity on the edge
of the. folid, and the computation is made as in the
foregoing.
Examp. Let it be propofed to determine the convex
fuperficies of a cone ABC, fig. 11.
Then, the femi-diameter of the bafe (BD, or CD)
being put the flaming line or hypothenufe AC—c,
and FH (parallel to DC) —y, AG ;= z, the fur¬
face its fluxion = w, and/> = the periphery of a
circle whofe diameter is unity, we fhall, from the fimila-
rity of the triangles ADC and H«^, have l : c :: y
[mb : x (R£)=^: whence ou {ipyz)— ^27; and
confequently w r=^21j This, when y=£, becomes
b
=/><r£=/>XDCxAC= the convex fuperficies of the
whole cone ABC : which therefore is equal to a rec¬
tangle under half the circumference of the bafe and the
flaming line.
The method of fluxions is alfo applied to find the
centres of gravities, and ofcillation of different bodies;
to determine the paths defcribed by proje<Stiles and bo¬
dies afted on by central forces, with the laws of cen¬
tripetal force in different curves, the retardates given
to motions performed in refifting medii, the attrac¬
tions of bodies under different forms, the direction of
wind which has the greateft effeft on an engine, and
to folve many other curious and ufeful problems.
FLY, in zoology, a large order of infers, the dif-
tinguifhing charafteriftic of which is, that their wings
are tranfparent. By this they are diftinguifhed from
beetles, butterflies, grafshoppers, &c. See Scara-
BiSEUS, GRYLLUS, &C.
Flies are fubdivided into thofe which have four, and
thofe which have two wings.
Of thofe with four wings there are feveral genera
or kinds; as the ant, apis, ichneumon, &c. See A-
ris, Formica, &c.
Of thofe with two wings, there are likewife feveral
kinds,-as the gad-fly, gnat, &c. See GAD-ity, &c.
Thofe who defire a more particular account of the
anatomy, generation, ftru&ufe, and manifold fubdi-
vifions of flies, may confult Reaumur’s Hiftoryof In¬
fers, tom. 4.
Fly, in mechanics, a crofs with leaden weights at
its ends; or rather, a heavy wheel at right angles to
the axis of a windlafs, jack, or the like ; by means
of which, the force of the power, whatever it is, is
not only preferved, but equally diftributed in all parts
of the revolution of the machine. See Mechanics.
Tuts for Fi/bing. See FisHiNG-E/y.
Vegetable Fly, a very curious natural produ&ion
chiefly found in the Weft Indies. “ Excepting that
it has no wings, it refembles the drone both in fize
and colour more than any other Britifh infedf. In the
month of May it buries itfelf in the earth, and be¬
gins to vegetate. By the latter end of July the tree
is arrived at its full growth, and refembles a coral
branch ; and is about three inches high, and bears
feveral little pods, which dropping off become worms,
and from thence flies, like the Britifti caterpillar.”
Phil. Tranf. Such was the account originally given of this ex-
for 17(33. traordinary produftion. But feveral boxes of thefe '
flies having been fentto Dr Hill for examination, his
report was this : “ There is in Martinique a fungus of
the clavaria kind, different in fpecies from thofe hitherto
known. It produces foboles from its fides, I call it
therefore clavaria fobolifera. It grows on putrid ani¬
mal bodies, as our fungus ex pede equino from the
dead horfe’s hoof.-
“ The cicada is common in Martinique, and in its
FLY
nympha ftate, in which the old authors call it tettigo* Fiy'
metra : it buries itfelf under dead leaves to wait its
change ; and, when the feafon is unfavourable, many
perifh. The feeds of the clavaria find a proper bed
on this dead infeft, and grow.
“ The tettigometra is among the cicadas in the
Britifli mufeum ; the clavaria is juft now known.
“ This is the fa£t, and all the fad ; though the
untaught inhabitants fuppofe a fly to vegetate, and
though there is a Spaniflt drawing of the plant’s grow¬
ing into a trifoliate tree, and it has been figured with
the creature flying with this tree upon its back.”
The ingenious Mr Edwards has taken notice of this
extraordinary produdion in his Gleanings of Natural
Hiftory, from which the figures on Plate CV. are takeq.
Y\.v-Boat, or Flight, a large flat-bottomed Dutch
veffel, whofe burden is generally from 400 to 600
tons. It is diftinguiftied by a ftern remarkably high,
refembling a Gothic turret, and by very broad but¬
tocks below.
Catcher, in zoology. See Muscicapa.
Y\.\-Trap, in botany, a newly difeovered fenfitive
plant. See Dion^a Mufcipula.
Yv'i-Tree, in natural hiltory, a name given by the
common people of America to a tree, whofe leaves,
they fay, at a certain time of the year produce flies.
On examining thefe leaves about the middle of fum-
mer, the time at which the flies ufe to be prqduced,
there are found on them a fort of bags of a tough
matter, of about the fize of a filbert, and of a dulky
greenilh colour. On opening one of thefe bags with
a knife, there isufually found a fingle full-grown fly,
of the gnat kind, and a number of fmall worms,
which in a day or two more have wings and flee away
’ in the form of their parent. The tree is of the mul-
bery kind, and its leaves are ufually very largely
flocked with thefe infed-bags ; and the generality of
them are found to contain the infeds in their worm-
ftate ; when they become winged, they foon make their
way out. The bags begin to appear when the leaves
are young, and afterwards grow with them ; but they
never rumple the leaf, or injure its fhape. They are
of the kind of leaf-galls, and partake in all refpeds,
17 P 2 except
FLY [ 3056 ] FLY
rivine. except fize, of a fpecies we have frequent on the large
maple, or, as it is called, the fycamorc.
The fly-tree is found in many parts of France,
where it grows in great abundance, and is there faid
to bear fruit which give origin to a vaft number of
flies. The truth of the matter is this. The tree is a
fpecies of turpentine tree, and frequently produces or
gives origin to certain tubercles, which, in the com¬
mon turpentine tree, are called its horns. Thefe are a
fort of long bladders, of the length and thicknefs, of a
finger; which arife, not from the ftalks, as fruits do,
but from the furface of the leaves, and are only a-kind
of leaf-galls formed of an elongation of its outer mem¬
branes, occafibned by the pun&ures of a number of in¬
fers contained within it, which occafion a derivation
of frefh juices to the part. Thefe infefts are not flies
©f the common kind, but are the pucerons fo well
known for feeding on the leaves and tender ftalks of
frees; and fome few of thefe only are winged, the
others being deftitute of them.—The origin of thefe
tubercles or bladders is this. The female puceron, as
foon as produced from the parent, makes a way under
the membrane that covers the leaf, by means of a hole
bored in it with the trunk. This hole foon heals up
after {he is in; and the young ones, which fhe after¬
wards produces, by their wounding and fucking the
fides of the lodgment in which they find themfelves
placed, occafion all the fwelling and growth of the tu¬
bercle.
FLYING, the progreffive motion of a bird, or other
winged animal, in the air.
The parts of birds chiefly concerned in flying are
the wings, by which they are fuftained or wafted along.
The tail, Mefirs Willoughby, Ray, and many others,
imagine to be principally employed in fleering and
turning the body in the air, as a rudder: but Borelli
has put it beyond all doubt, that this is the leaft ufe of
it, which is chiefly to affift the bird in its afcent and
defcent in the air, and to obviate the vacillations of the
body and wings: for, as to turning to this or that fide,
it is performed by the wings and inclination of the
body, and but very little by the help of the tail. The
flying of a bird, in effe&, is quite a different thing
from the rowing of a veflel. Birds do not vibrate their
wings towards the tail, as oars are ftruck towards the
ftern, but waft them downwards; nor does the tail of
the bird cut the air at right angles, as the rudder does
the water; but is difpofed horizontally, and preferves
the fame fituation what way foever the bird turns.
In effect, as a vefiel is turned about on. its centre of
gravity to the right, by a brifk application of the oars
to the left; fo a bird, in beating the air with its right
wing alone, towards the tail, will turn its fore-part to
the left. Thus pigeons changing their courfe to the
Ifeft, would labour it with their right wing, keeping
the other almoft at reft. Birds of a long neck alter
their courfe by the inclination of their head and neck;
which altering the courfe of gravity, the bird will pro¬
ceed in a new dire&ion.
Tbe.nianner o/'Flying is thus: The bird firft bends
his legs, and fprings with a violent leap from the
ground ; then opens and expands the points of his.
wings, fo as to make a right line perpendicular to the
fides of his body: thus the wings, with all the feathers
therein, coaftitute one continued lamina.. Being now
raifed a little above the horizon, and vibrating the
wings with great force and velocity perpendicula’. iy
againft the fubjeft air, that fluid rdifts thofe fuccef,
fions, both from its natural ina&ivity and elafticity, by
means of which the whole body of the bird is pro¬
truded. The rdillance the air makes to the withdraw¬
ing of the wings, and confequently the progrefs of the
bird, will be fo much the greater, as the waft or ftroke
of the fan of the wing is longer : but as the force of
the wing is continually diminished by this refiftance,
when the two forces continue to be! in equihbtid, the
bird will remain fufpended in the fame place 5 for the
bird only afcends fo long as the arch of air the wing
defcribes makes a refiftance equal to the excefs of the
fpecific gravity of the bird above the air. If the air,
therefore, be fo rare as to give way with the fame ve¬
locity as it is ftruck withal, there will be no refiftance,.
and confequently the bird can never mount. Birds
never fly upwards in a perpendicular line, but always
in a parabola. In a diredt afcent, the natural and ar¬
tificial tendency would oppofe and deftroy each other,
fo that the progrefs would be very flow. In a diredt
defcent they would aid one another, fo that the fall
would be too precipitate.
4rtificial Flying, that attempted by men, by the
afiiftance of mechanics.
The art of flying has been attempted by feveral per-
fons in all ages. The Leucadians, out of fuperftition,
are reported to have had a cuftona of precipitating a
man from a high cliff into the fea, firft fixing feathers,
varioufly expanded, round his body, in order to break,
the fall.
Friar Bacon, who lived near 500 years ago, not only
affirms the art of flying poffible, but affures us, that
he himfelf knew how to make an engine wherein a man
fitting might be able to convey himfelf through the
air like a bird; and further adds, that there was then
one who had tried it with fuccefs. The fecret con-
fifted in a couple of large thin hollow copper-globes,
exhaufted of air; which being much lighter than air,
would fuftain a chair, whereon aperfon might fit. Fa.
Francifco Lana, in his Prodromo, propofes the fame
thing, as his own thought. He computes, that a round
veflel of plate-brafs, 14 foot in diameter, weighing,
three ounces the fquare foot, will only weigh 1848
ounces; whereas a quantity of air of the fame bulk,
will weigh 2155-f- ounces; fo that the globe wiil not
only be fuftained in the air, but will carry with it a
weight of 373-f- ounces; and by increafing the bulk of;
the globe, without increafing the thicknefs of the me¬
tal, he adds, a veffel might be made to carry a much,
greater weight.—But the fallacy is obvious: a globe
of the dimenfions he defcribes, F)r Hook (hews, would
not fuftain the preffure of the air,, but be cruftted in¬
wards. Befide, in whatever ratio the bulk of the globe
were increafed, in the fame muft the thicknefs of the
metal, and confequently the weight, be inereafed : fa
that there would be no advantage in fuch augmen¬
tation.
The fame author defcribes an engine for flying, in¬
vented by the Sieur Befnier, a fmith of Sable, in the
county of Maine. Vid. Philofoplu Colleci. N° 1.
The philpfophers of king Charles the fecond’s reign
were mightily bufied about this art. The famous bi-
fliop Wilkins was fo confident of fuccefs in it, that he
£ap».
FLY [ 3057 ] FLY
Flying fays, lie does not queftion but, in future ages, it will
!i be as ufual to hear a man call for his wings, when he is
*?<x'tor‘ going a journey, as it is now to call for his boots.
Flying Bridge. See Bridge.
Flying Fijh, a name given by the Englilh writers
to> feveral fpecies of fifh, whichj by means of their long
fins, have a method of keeping themfelves out of Water
a long time. See Exocoetus.
Flying Pinion, is part of a clock, having a fly, or
fan, whereby to gather air, and fo bridle the rapidity
of the clock’s motion, when the weight defceuds in the
finking part.
FO, or Foe ; an idol of the Chinefe. He was
Originally tvorfhipped in the Indies, and tranfported
from thence into China, together with the fables'w ith
which the Indian books were filled. He is faid to have
performed moll wonderful things, which the Chinefe
have defcribtd in feveral volumes, and reprefented by
cuts.
Sett o/Po. See China, n° 6r..
FOAL, or Colt and Filly } the young of the
horfe kind. The word colt, among dealers, is under¬
flood of the male, as Jilly is of the female. See Colt.
FOCUS, in geometry and conic fections, is applied
to certain points in the parabola, eliipfis, and hyper¬
bola, where the rays refledted from all parts of thefe
curves concur and meet. See Conic Seftions.
Focus, in optics ; a point in which any number of
rays, after being reflected or refra6led, meet.
. FODDER, any kind of meat for horfes or other
cattle. In fonrre places, hay and (haw, mingled toge¬
ther, is peculiarly denominated fodder.
Fodder, in the civil law, is ufed for a prerogative
that the prince has, to be provided of corn and other
meats for his horfes, by the fubje&s, in his warlike ex¬
peditions.
Fodder, in mining,’ a meafure containing 22 hun¬
dred and ah half weight, though in London but 20
hundred weight.
FOENUGREEK, in botany. See Trigonella.
FOENUS NAUTicuM. Where money was lent to
a merchant, to be employed in a beneficial trade, with
condition to be repaid, with extraordinary interfift, in
cafe fuch voyage was fafely performed, the agreement
■was fometimes called f&nus nauticum, fometimes ufura
itiaritivia, But as this gave an opening for ufurious
and gaming contracts, 19 Geo. IL c. 37. enadls, that
all money lent on bottomry, or at reffondentia, on vef-
fels bound to or from the Eaft Indies, fhall be exprefs-
ly lent only upon the fhip or merchandife ; the lender
to have the benefit of falvage, &c. Blackjl. Com. II.
459. Mol. de fur. Mar. 361.
FOESIUS (Anulius), a very learned and celebra¬
ted phyfician of the faculty of Paris, born at Metz in
1728. He tranflated into Latin the whole works of
Hippocrates, judicioufly corredling the Greek text as
he went along ; and compofed a kind of dictionary to
him, intitled Oeconomia Hippocratis. He tranflated,
befide, the Commentaries of Galen upon the fecond
book of Hippocrates ; and was the author .of Jome
other works. After pradtifing phyfic a long time with
great fwccefs an^reputation, at Lorrain and other pla¬
ces, he died in 1596.
FOETOR, in medicine, (linking or foetid effluvia
arifing from the body or any part thereof..
FOETU3, the young of all vivipafotiS animals Foetn.*,
whilfl in the womb, and of oviparous animals before Fog’ .
being hatched : the name is transferred by botanifts to
the embryo; of vegetables.
In the human fetus are feveral peculiarities not to be
found in the adult; fome of them are as follows-
1. The arteries of thfe navel-firing, which are conti¬
nuations of the hypograflics, are, after the birth,
fhrivelled up, and form the ligatnenta dfrlbilic. infer.
2. The veins of the navel-firing are fofrned by the
union of all the veDaous-branfches in the placenta,
and pafiing into the abdomen become the falciform li¬
gament of the liver. 3. The lungs, before being inflated
with air, are Compadl and heavy; but after oiieinfpira-
tion they Income light, and as it were fpongy : and it
maybe noted here, that the notion of the lungs finking
in water before the child breathes, and of their fwimming
after the reception of air, are no certain proofs that the
child had or had not breathed, much lefs that it was
murdered: fdr the uuinflated lungs become fpecifically
lighter than water as foon as any degree of putrefac¬
tion takes place in them ; and this foon happens after
the death of the child befides, where the utmoft care
hath been taken to preferve the child, it hath breath¬
ed once or twice, and then died. 6. The thymus
gland is very large in the fetus, but dwindles away
in proportion as years advance. 7. The foramen oi
vale in the heart of a fetus, is generally clofed in an
adult.
For an account of the different opinions concerning
the formation and growth of the fetus. See Genera¬
tion.
FOG, or Mist, a meteor, eon filling of grofs va¬
pours, floating, near the fnrfaee of the earth.
Mills, according to lord Bacdn, are imperfedl con-
derifations of the air, confining of a large proportion'
of the air, and afmall one of the aqueous vapour : and
thefe happen in the winter, about the change of the
weather from frolt to thaw, or from thaw to frotl; but
in the fummer, and in the ipring, from the txpanfioh
of the dew.
If the vapours, which are raifed plentifully from the
earth and waters, either by the folar or fubterraiieous
heat, do, at thtir firil entrance into the atmofphere,
meet with cold enough to condenfe them to a conlider-
able degree, their fpecilic gravity is by that means
increafed ; and fo they will be flopped from afeending,.
and either return back, in form of dew or of drizzling
rain ; or remain fufpeuded fome time in the form of a
fog, Vapours may be feen on the higb grounds as
well as the low, but more efpecially about marfhy pla¬
ces : they are eaiily diifipated by the wind, as alfo-
by the heat of the fun : they continue longed in the
lowed grounds, becaufe thefe places contain mod
moifture, and are lead expofed to the a&ion of the
wind.
Fierce we may eafily conceive, that fogs are only
low clouds, or clouds in the lowed region of the air;,
as clouds, are no other than fogs raifed on high. Se«
Cloud.
When fogs dink, then the vapours are mixed with
fulphureous exhalations, which fmellfo. Objefts view¬
ed through fogs, appear larger and more remote than
through the common air. Mr Boyle obferves, . that ,
upon the coad of Coromandel,, and mod maritime
p^rts.
F O I [ 3058 ] F O L
Fogfg* parts of the Eaft-Indies, there are, notwithftanding the
ll. heat of the climate, annual fogs fo thick, as to occa-
01' lion people of other nations who refide there, and even
the more tender fort of the natives, to keep their hou-
fes clofe Ihut up.
Fogs are commonly pretty ftrongly ele&rified, as
appears from Mr Cavallo’s obfervations upon them.
See Electricity, n° 69.
FOGAGE, in the foreft-law, is rank grafs, not
eaten up in fummer.
FOGLIETA (Oberto or Hubert), a Genoefe
pried, and one of the moft learned writers of the 16th
century. He had a fhare in the difturbances that were
raifed at Genoa ; for which he was banilhed, and died
at Rome in 1581, aged 63. He wrote a hiltory of
Genoa in Italian, which is highly efteemed ; and many
works in Latin.
FOGO, or Fuego, a fmall ifland in the Atlantic
Ocean, and one of the Cape de Verds. It is remark¬
able for a mountain that vomits fire and flames, like
Mount Vefuvius. It fometimes throws out large
Hones, with a noife like thunder. The few inhabitants
that are here, live at the foot of this mountain. W.
Long. 24. 47. N. Lat. 15. 20.
FOHI. SccFe; and China, n° 7.
FOIBLE, a Frbnch term, frequently ufed alfo incur
language. It literally iignifies weak ; and in that fenfe
is applied to the body of animals, and the parts there¬
of ; foible torn, foible fight, &c. being derived from
the Italian 7&W/?, of the Latin flebiles, to be “ lament¬
ed, pitied.”
But it is chiefly ufed with us fubftantively, to denote
a defeft or flaw in a perfon or thing. Thus we fay.
Every perfon has his foible ; and the great fecret con-
lifts in hiding it artfully: Princes are gained by flattery,
that is their foible : The foible of young people is plea-
fure; the foible of old men is avarice ; the foible of
the great and learned is vanity ; the foible of women
and girls, coquetry, or an aft’eftation of having gal¬
lants : You fhould know the forte and the foible of a
man, before you employ him : We fliould not let peo¬
ple perceive that we know their foible.
FOIL, among glafs-grinders, a flieet of tin, with
■quickfilver, or the like, laid on the backfide of a look-
ing-glafs, to make it refleft. See Foliating.
Foil, among jewellers, a thin leaf of metal placed
under a precious flone, in order to make it look tranf-
parent, and give it an agreeable different colour, ei¬
ther deep or pale : thus, if you want a flone to be of
a pale colour, put a foil of that colour under it; or, if
you would have it deep, lay a dark one under it.
Thefe foils are made either of copper, gold, or gold
and filver together. The copper foils are commonly
known by the name of Nuremberg or German foils ;
and are prepared as follows : Procure the thinnefl cop¬
per-plates you can get: beat thefe plates gently upon
a well-polilhed anvil, with a polilhed hammer, as thin
as pofiible j and placing them between two iron plates
as thin as writing-paper, heat them in the fire ; then
boil the foil, in a pipkin, with equal quantities of tar¬
tar and fait, conflantly ttirring them till by boiling
they become white ; after which, taking them out, and
drying them, give them another hammering, till they
are made fit for your purpofe : however, care muft be
taken not to give the foils too much heat, for fear of
melting ; nor muft they be too long boiled, for fear of Fokiea
attra&ing too much fait. f I ^ t
The manner of polilhing thefe foils is as follows. ° cm0_<
Take a plate of the heft copper, one foot long and
about five or fix inches wide, polifhed to the greateft
perfedion ; bend this to a long convex, fallen it upon
a half roll, and fix it to a bench or table ; then take
fome chalk, walked as clean as poflible, and filtred
through a fine linen-cloth, till it be as fine as you can
make it; and, having laid fome thereof on the roll,
and wetted the copper all over, lay your foils on it,
and with a polilhing Hone and the chalk, polilh your
foils till they are as bright as a looking-glafs ; after
which they muft be dried, and laid up fecure from
dull.
FOKIEN, a province of China in Afia, commo-
dioully fituated for navigation and commerce, part of
it bordering on the fea, in which they catch large
quantities of filh, which they fend failed to other parts
of the empire. Its fliores are very uneven, by reafon
of the number and variety of its bays ; and there are
many forts built thereon to guard the coaft. The
air is hot, but pure and wholefome.
The mountains are almoft every where difpofed into
a kind of amphitheatres, by the labour of the inha¬
bitants, with terrafles placed one above another. The
fields are watered with rivers and fprings, which iffue
out of the mountains, and which the hulbandmen condudt
in fuch a manner as to overflow the fields of rice when
they pleafe, becaufe it thrives bed in watery ground.
They make ufe of pipes of bamboe for this purpofe.
They have all commodities in common with the reft
of China; but more particularly mulk, preciousftones,
quickfilver, filk, hempen-cloth, callico, iron, and all
forts of utenfils wrought to the greateft perfection.
From other countries they have cloves, cinnamon,
pepper, fandal-wood, amber, coral, and many other
things. The capital city is Foutcheou Fou ; or, as
others would have it written, Fucherofu. But as for
Fokien, which moll geographers make the capital,
there is no fuch place.
FOLC-lands, (Sax.) copy-hold lands fo called in
the time of the Saxons, as charter-lands were called
hoc-lands, Kitch. 174. Falkland was terra vitlgi, or
popularis; the land of the vulgar people, who had no
certain eftate therein, but held the fame, under the rents
and fervices accuflomed or agreed, at the will only of
their lord the thane ; and it was therefore not put in
writing, but accounted pradium ruflicum & ignobile.
Spelm. of Feuds, c. 5.
FOLCMOTE, or Folkmote, (Sax. Folcgemot,
i. e. conventus populi), is compounded of folk, populus,
and mote, ox gemote, convenire; and fignified originally,
as Somner in his Saxon Dictionary informs us, a ge¬
neral aflembly of the people, to confider of and order
matters of the commonwealth. And Sir Henry Spel-
man fays, the folcmote^ was a fort of annual parliament,
or convention of the bifhops, thanes, aldermen, and
freemen, upon every May-day yearly; where the lay¬
men were fworn to defend one another and the
king, and to preferve the laws of the kingdom; and
then confulted of the common fafety. But Dr Brady
infers from the laws of the Saxon kings of England,
that it was an inferior court, held before the king’s
reeve or fteward, every month, to do folk right, or com-
F O L [ 3059 j F O M
Folengio pofe fmaller differences, from whence there lay appeal
II. to the fuperior courts; Glofs. p. 48. Squire feems to
Foliating, (.jjg fQlCTnotc not diftindt from the Jhiremote, or
common general meeting of the county. See his Angl.
Sax. Gov. 155. n.
Manwood mentions folcmott as a court holden in
London, wherein all the folk and people of the city did
complain of the mayor and aldermen, for mifgovern-
ment within the faid city ; and this word is ftill in ufe
among the Londoners, and denotes celebrem ex tota
civitate conventam. Stoiv’s Survey. According to
Kennet, the folcmote was a common-council of all the
inhabitants of a city, town, or borough, convened of¬
ten by found of bell, to the Mote Hall or Houfe ; or
it was applied to a larger congrefs of all the freemen
within a county, called-the floire-mote, where former¬
ly all knights and military tenants did fealty to the
king, and eledled the annual Iheriff on the ill of Oc¬
tober; till this popular ele&ion, to avoid tumults and
riots, devolved to the king’s nomination, anno 13
3 Edw. 1. After which the city fblkmote was fwallow-
ed up in afeleft committee or common-council, and the
county folkmote in the (herilf’s tourn and afiifes.
The word folkmote was alfo ufed for any kind of po¬
pular or public meeting ; as of all the tenants at the
court-leety or court-baron, in which fignification it was
of a lefs extent. Paroch. Antiq. 120.
FOLENGIO (Theophilus), of Mantua, known alfo
by the title of Merlin. Coccaye, an Italian poet, remark¬
able for giving to a poem a name which has been
adopted ever fince for all trifling performances of the
fame fpecies, conflfting of buffoonry, puns, anagrams,
wit without wifdom, and humour without good-fenfe.
His poem was called Tbe Macaroni, from an Italian
cake of the fame name, which is fweet to the talte,
but has not the leaft alimentary virtue, on the contrary
palls the appetite and cloys the ftomach. Theie idle
poems, however, became the reigning tafte in Italy
and in France: they gave birth to macaroni acade¬
mies; and, reaching England, to macaroni clubs; till,
in the end, every thing inlipid, contemptible, and ri¬
diculous, in the charafter, drefs, or behaviour, of both
men and women, is now fummed up in the defpicable
appellation of a macaroni. Folengio died in 1544’
FOLIA, among botanifts, particularly fignify the
leaves of plants; thofe of flowers being exprell'ed by the
word petals. See Leaf..
FOLIAGE, a clufter or affemblage of flowers,
leaves, branches, &c-
Foliage, is particularly ufed for the reprefentations
of fuch flowers, leaves, branches, rinds, &c. whether
natural or artificial, as are ufed for enrichments on ca¬
pitals, friezes, pediments, &c.
FOLIATING c/"Looking-glasses, thefpreading
the plates over, after they are polilhed, with quicklil-
ver, &c. in order to refleft the image. It is performed
thus: A thin blotting paper is fpread on the table, and
fprinkled with fine chalk ; and then a fine lamina or
leaf of tin, called foil, is laid over the paper ; upon
this is poured mercury, which is tq be diltributed e-
qually over the leaf with a hare’s-foot or cotton : over
this is laid a clean paper, and over that the glafs-plate,
which is prefled down with the right-hand, and the
paper drawn gently out with the left : this being done,
the plate is covered with a thicker paper, and loaded
with a greater weight, that the fuperfluous mercury F“l10
may be driven out and the tin adhere more clofely to poijjien
the glafs. When it is dried, the weight is removed, and tation.
the looking-glafs is complete.  
Some add an ounce of marcafite, melted by the fire;,
and, lell the mercury fhould evaporate in fmoke, they
pour it into cold water; and when cooled, iqueeze
through a cloth, or through leather.
Some add a quarter of an ounce of tin and lead
to the marcafite, that the glafs may dry the fooner.
Foliating of Globe Looking-glafes, is done as fol¬
lows : Take five ounces of quicklilver, and one ounca
of bifmuth ; of lead and tin, half an ounce each : firll
put the lead and tin into fufion, then put in the bif¬
muth; and when you perceive that in fulion too, let it
ftarid till it is almofi: cold, and pour the quickfilver in¬
to it : 'after this, take the glafs-globe, which muft be
very clean, and the infide free from dull : make a pa¬
per-funnel, which put into the hole of the globe,,
as near the glafs as you can, fo that the amalgam,
when you pour it in, may not fplafh, and caufe the
glafs to be full of fpots ; pour it in gently, and move
it about, fo that the amalgam may touch every w’here:
if you find the analgam begin to be curdly and fixed*
then hold it over a gentle fire, and it will ealily flow a-
gain; and if you find the amalgam too thin, add a little
more lead, tin, and bifmuth to it. The finer and clearer,
your- globe is, the better will the looking-glafs be.
Dr Shaw obferves, that this operation has confider-
able advantages, as being performable in the cold ; and
that it is not attended with the danger of poifonoua
fumes from arfenie, or other unwholefoine matters,
ufually employed for this purpofe : befides, how far it
is applicable to the more commodious foliating of the
common looking-glaffes, and other fpeculutns, he
thinks, may deferve to be confidered..
FOLIO, in merchants books, denotes a page, or
rather both the right and left hand pages, thefe being
exprefled by the fame figure, and correfponding to each
other. See Book-keeping. #
Folio, among printers and bookfellers, the largeft
form, of books, when each fheet is fo printed that it
may be bound up in. two leaves-only..
FOLIUM, or Leaf, in botany. See Leaf.
FOLKLAND, and Folkmote. See Folcland*
FOLLICULUS, (from follis, abag), a fpecies of
feed-veflel firlt mentioned by Linnaeus in his Ddineatio
plant#, generally confiding of one valve, which opens
from bottom to top on one fide, and has no future for
faftening or attaching the feeds within it-
FOLLICULI are hkewife defined by the fame au¬
thor to be fmall glandular, veflels diltended with air*.
which appear on the furfaeeof fome plants ; as at the
root of water-milfoil, and on the leaves of aldrovanda.
In the former, the veffels in quettion are roundilh, and
furnifhed with an appearance like two horns; in the
latter, pot-fiiaped and femi-circular..
FOMAHANT, in altronomy, a ftar of the firll
magnitude in the conftellation.Aquarius,
FOMENTATION,, in-medicine, is a fluid exter¬
nally applied, ufually as warm as the patient can bear
it, and in tbe following-manner. Two flannel cloths
are dipped into tbe heated liquor, one of which is
wrung as dry as the neceflary fpeed will admit, then
immediately applied to the.part affe&ed ;. it lies on um-
till
F O N [ 3060 ] F O N
Font, til the heat begins to go off, and the other is in rea-
Fontamg jinefs to apply at the inftant in which the firft is re¬
moved : thus thefe flannels are alternately applied, fo
as to keep the affe&ed part conftantly fupplied wiCh
them warm. This is continued 15 or 20 minutes, and
repeated two or three times a-day.
Every intention of relaxing and foothing by fomen¬
tations, may be anfwered as well by warm water a-
lone as when the whole tribe of emollients are boiled
in it; but when difcutients or antifeptics are required,
fuch ingredients muft be called in as are adapted to that
end.
The degree of heat fhould never exceed that of pro¬
ducing a pleafing fenfation ; great heat produces ef-
fedls very oppofite to that intended by the ufe of fo¬
mentations.
FONT, among ecclefiaftical writers, a largebafon,
in which water is kept for the baptizing of infants or
other perfons.
FONTAINE (John), the celebrated French poet,
and one of the firll-rate geniufes of his age, was born
at Chateau-Thierri in Champaigne, the 8th of July
1621, of a good extra&ion. At the age of 19 he en¬
tered amongft the Oratorians, but quitted that order
18 months after. He was 22 years of age before he
knew his own talents for poetry ; but hearing an ode
of Malherbe read, upon the aflaflination of Henry IV.
he was fo taken with admiration of it, that the poeti¬
cal fire, which had before lain dormant within him,
feemed to be enkindled from that of the other great
poet. He applied himfelf to read, to meditate, tore-
peat, in fine, to imitate, the works of Malherbe. The
firft eflays of his pen he confined to one of his rela¬
tions, who made him read the beft Latin authors, Ho¬
race, Virgil, Terence, Quintilian, &e. and then the
beft compolitions in French and Italian. He applied
himfelf likewife to the ftudy of the Greek author-s, par¬
ticularly Plato and Plutarch. Some time afterwards
his parents made him marry a daughter of a lieutenant-
general, a relation of the great Racine. This young
lady, befides her very great beauty, was remarkable
for the delicacy of her wit, and Fontaine never com-
pofed any work without confulting her. But, as her
temper was none of the beft, to avoid diffenfion, he fe-
parated himfelf from her company as often as he well
could. The famous duchefs of Bouillon, niece to car¬
dinal Mazarine, being exiled to Chateau-Thierri, took
particular notice of Fontaine. Upon her recal he fol¬
lowed her to Paris; where, by the intereft of one of his
relations, he got a penfion fettled upon him. He met
with great friends and protefl'ors amongft the moft di -
ftinguifhed perfons of the court, but madam de la Sa-
bliere was the moft particular. She took him to live
at her houfe; and it was then that Fontaine, divefted
of domeftic concerns, led a life conformable to his
difpofition, and cultivated an acquaintance with all the
reat men of the age. It was his cuftom, after he was
xed at Paris, to go every year, during the month of
September, to his native place of Chateau-Thierri, and
pay a vifit to his wife, carrying with him Racine, Def-
preaux, Chapelle, or fome other celebrated writers.
When he has fometimes gone thither alone by himfelf,
he has come away without remembring even to call
upon her; but feldom omitted felling fome part of his
lands, by which means he fquandered away a confider-
able fortune. After the death of madame de la Sa- Fontaine;
bliere, he was invited into England, particularly by
madame Mazarin, and by St Evremond, who promi-
fed him all the fweets and comforts of life; but the
difficulty of learning the Englifli language, and the li¬
berality of the duke of Burgundy, prevented his voy¬
age.
About the end of the year 1692 he fell dangeroufly
ill ; and, as is cuftomary upon thefe occafions in the
Romifh church, he made a general confeflion of his
whole life to P. Poguet, an oratorian ; and, before he
received the facrament, he fent for the gentlemen of
the French academy, and in their prefence declared
his fincere compun6tion for having compofed his Tales;
a work he could not refiedt upon without the greateft
repentance and deteftation ; promiiing, that if it fhould
pleafe God to reftore his health, he would employ his
talents only, in writing upon matters of morality or
piety. He furvived this illnefs two years, living in
the moft exemplary and edifying manner, and died the
13th of March 1695, being 74 years of age. When
they ftripped his body, they found, next his /kin, a
hair-fhirt; which gave room for the following expref-
fion of the younger Racine :
Et 1’Auteur dc Jaconde eft trme d' tin Cilice.
Fontaine’s charadler is remarkable for a fimplici-
ty, candour, and probity, feldom to be met with.
He was of an obliging difpofition ; cultivating a real
friendfhip with his brother poets and authors ; and,
what is very rare, beloved and efteemed by them alh
His converfatign was neither gay nor brilliant, efpe-
cially when he was not among his intimate friends.
One day being invited to dinner at a farmer-gene¬
ral’s, he eat a great deal, but did not fpeak. Rifing up
from table very early, under pretext of going to the
academy, one of the company reprefented to him that
it was not yet a proper time: “ Well, (fays he,) if it is
not, I will flay a little longer.” He had one fon by his
wife in the year 1660. At the age of 14, he put him
into the hands of M. de Harley, the firft prefident, re¬
commending to him his education and fortune. It is
faid, that having been a long time without feeing him,
he happened to meet him one day vifiting, without re¬
collecting him again, and mentioned to the company
that he thought that young man had a good deal of
wit and underftapding. When they told him it was
his own fon, he anfwered in the moft tranquil manner,
“ Ah! then I am very well contented with him.” An
indifference, or rather an abfence of mind, influenced
his whole conduft, and rendered him often infenfible
to the inclemency of the weather. Madame de Bouil¬
lon going one morning to Verfailles, faw him, abftrac-
ted in thought, fitting in an arbour; returning at
night, flie found him in the fame place, and the fame
attitude, although it was very cold and bad rained al-
moft the whole day. He carried this fimplicity fo far,
that he was fcarce fenfible of the bad effeds forae of
his writings might occafion, particularly his Tales. In
a great ficknefs, his confeflbr exhorting him to prayer
and alms-deeds : “ As for alms-deeds, (replied Fon¬
taine,) I am not able, having nothing to give; btit
they are about publifhing a new edition of my Tales,
and the bookfeller owes me a hundred copies; you
/hall have them to fell, and diftribute their amount a-
mongft the poor.” Another time P. Poguet exhorting
F O N L 30^1 ] F O O
Fontain- liim to repent of his faults, “ If he has committed any,
bleau (cried the nurfe), I am fure it is more from ignorance
I „ than malice, for he has as much fimplicity as an in-
Fontcndle. fant-,. _ ^ _
One time having compofed a tale, wherein he made
a profane application of thofe words of the gofpel,
“ Lord, five talents thou didft deliver to me,” he de¬
dicated it, by a moft ingenious prologue, to the celebra¬
ted Arnauld, telling him, it was to (hew to pofterity
the great efteem he had for the learned doftor. He was
pot fenfible of the indecency of the dedication, and the
profane application of the text, till Boileau and Ra¬
cine reprefented it to him. He addreffed another, by
a dedication in the fame manner, to the archbifhop of
Paris. His Fables are an immortal work, exceeding
every thing in that kind, both ancient and modern, in
the opinion of the learned. People of tafte, the oftener
they read them, will find continually new beauties and
charms, not to be met with elfewhere. The defeen-
dants of this great poet are exempted in France from
all taxes and impoiitions, a privilege which the intern
dants of Soiflbns to this day think it an honour to con¬
firm to them.
FONTAINBLEAU, a town in the Ifie of France,
and in the Gatinois, remarkable for its fine palace,
which has been the place where the kings of France
ufed to lodge when they went a-hunting. It was firft
embellifhed by Francis I. and all the fucceffive kings
have added fomething thereto; infomuch that it may
now be called the fineft pleafure-houfe in the world. It
Hands in the midll of a foreft, confifting of 26.4243^
pents of land, each containing 100 fquare perches, and
each perch 18 feet. E. Long. 2. 33. N. Lat. 40. 22.
FONTARABIA, a fea-porttown of Spain in Bif-
pay, and in the territory,of Guipufcoa, fcated on a
peninfula on the fea-fhore, and on the river Bidaifoa.
It is fmall, byt well fortifiedibqth by nature and art;
and has a good harbour, thp’ dry at low-water. It is
built in the form of an amphitheatre, on the declivity
of an hill, and furrounded on the land-fide by the high
Pyrenean mountains. It is a very important place, be¬
ing accounted the key of Spain on that fide. W. Long.
1. 43. N. Lat. 43. 23.
FONTENAY (John Baptift Blain de), a very fa¬
mous painter of fruit and flowers, was born at Caen in
J654. Lewis XIV. gave him a penfion, and an a-
partment in the galleries of .the Louvre ; and he was
nominated counfelior of the Academy of Painting.
His fruit and flowers have all the frelhnefs and beauty
of nature; the very dew feems to trickle down their
Italks, with all the luftre and tranfparency of the dia¬
mond, while the infefts upon them feem perfectly alive
and animated. This ingenious painter died at Paris,
in 1715.
FONTENELLE (Bernard de), a celebrated French
author, was born in 1657, and died in 1756, when
he was near too years old. He difeharged the truft
of perpetual fecretary to the Academy of Sciences a-
bove 40 years with univerfal applaufe ; and YusHiJiory
of the Academy of Sciences throws a great light upon
their memoirs, which are very obfeure. The eloges
which he pronounced on the deceafed members of the
academy, have this peculiar merit, that they excite a
refpeit for the fciences as well as for the author. In
his poetical performances, and the Dialogues of the dead.
Vol. IV.
the fpirit of Voiture was difcernible, though more ex- Fonrcnoy
tended and more philofophical. His Plurality of P
Worlds, is a work lingular in its kind; the deiign of fLl—.
which was to prefent that part of philofophy to view
in a gay and pleafing drefs. In his more advanced
years, he publiflied comedies, which, tho’ they Ihewed
the elegance of Fontenelle, were little fitted for the
ftage; and An apology for Des Cartes's Vortices. M. de
Voltaire, who declares him to have been the moft uni¬
verfal genius the age of Lewis XIV. produced, fays,
“ We muft. excufe his comedies, on account of his great
age; and bis Cartefian opinions, as they were thofe of
his youth, when they were univerfally received all over
Europe.”
FONTENOY, a town or village of the Auftrian
Netherlands, in the province of Hainault, and on the
borders of Flanders; remarkable for a battle fought
there between the allies and the French on the firft of
May 1745. The French were commanded by Maref-
chal Saxe, and the Allies by the Duke of Cumber¬
land. The latter behaved with great bravery; but
through the fuperiority of the numbers of the French
army, and likewife the fuperior generalfhip of their
commander, the Allies were defeated with great flaugh-
ter. The Britiflr troops behaved with aflonilhing in¬
trepidity, as their enemies themfelves owned. It is
even faid, that the battle was loft through the cowar¬
dice of the Dutch, who failed in their attack on the
village of Fontenoy, on which the event of the day
depended. E. Long. 2. 20. ,N. Lat. 50. 35.
Fontenoy, a village of France, in the duchy of Bur¬
gundy, remarkable for a bloody battle fought there in
841, between the Germans and the French, in which
were killed above 100,000 men; and the Germans
were defeated. E. Long. 3.48. N. Lat. 47. 28.
FONTEVRAUD, or Order of Fontevraud, a
religious order inftituted about the latter end of thei ith
century. By the rules of this order, the nuns were to
keep filence for ever, and their faces to be always co¬
vered with their veils; and the monks wore a leathern
girdle, at which hung a knife and (heath.
FONTICULUS, or Fontanella, in furgery, an
iffue, feton, or fmall ulcer, made in various parts of
the body, in order to eliminate the latent corruption
out of it.
FONTINALIS, water-moss; a genus of the
cryptogamia mufei clafs. There are four fpecies,all of
them natives of Britain. They grow on the brinks of
rivulets, and on the trunks of trees. The moft remark¬
able is the antipyretica, with purple ftalks. The
Scandinavians line the infides of their chimneys with
this mofs, to defend them again!! the fire; for, con¬
trary to the nature of all other mofs, this is fcarcely
capable of burning.
FOOD, in the moft extenfive fignification of the
word, implies whatever aliments are taken into the
body, whether folid or fluid; but, in common lan¬
guage, it is generally ufed to fignify only the folid part
of our aliment.
The moft remarkable diftinflion of foods is into
thofe which are already affimilated into the animal na¬
ture, and fuch as are not. Of the firft kind are ani¬
mal fubftances in general; which if not entirely fimilarf
are nearly fo, to our nature. The fecond comprehends
vegetables, which are much more difficultly alfimila-
17 ted.
Food.
Few!.
Cullen on the
.Mat. Med.
POO [ 3062 ] F O O
ted. But, as the nourifhment of all animals, even
thofe which live on other animals, can be traced ori¬
ginally to the vegetable kingdom, it is plain, that
the principle of all nourifhment is in vegetables.
Though there is, perhaps, no vegetable which does
not afford nouriihment to fume fpecies of animals or
other; yet, with regard to mankind, a very confider-
able diftin&ion is to be made. Thofe vegetables which
are of a mild, bland, agreeable tafte, are proper nou-
rifhment; while thofe of an acrid, bitter, and naufeous
nature, are improper. We ufe, indeedj feveral acrid
fubftances as food ; but the mild, the bland, and agree¬
able, are in the largeft proportion in almolt every ve¬
getable. Such as are very acrid, and at the fame time
of an aromatic nature, are not ufed as food, but as
fpices or condiments, which anfwer the purpofes of
medicine rather than any thing elfe. Sometimes, in¬
deed, acrid and bitter vegetables feem to be admitted
as food. Thus celeri and endive are ufed in common
food, though both are fubftances of confiderable acri¬
mony ; but it muft be obferved, that, when we ufe
them, they are previoufly blanched, which almoft to¬
tally deftroys their acrimony. Or if we employ other
acrid fubftances, we generally, in a great meafure, de¬
prive them of their acrimony by boiling. In different
countries the fame plants grow with different degrees
of acrimony. Thus, garlic here feldom enters our
food ; but in the fouthern countries, where the plants
grow more mild, they are frequently ufed for that pur-
pofe. The plant which furnilhes caffada, being very
acrimonious, and even poifonous, in its recent ftate, af¬
fords an inftance of the neceffity of preparing acrid
fubftances even in the hot countries : and there are
other plants, fuch as arum-root, which are fo exceed¬
ingly acrimonious in their natural ftate, that they
cannot be fwallowed with fafety; yet, when deprived
of that acrimony, will afford good nouriftvment.
The moft remarkable properties of different vege¬
table fubftances as food, are taken notice of under
their different names; here we fliall only compare
vegetable foods in general with thofe of the animal
kind.
I. In the Stomach, they differ remarkably, in that
the vegetables always have a tendency to acidity, while
animal-food of all kinds tend rather to alkalefcency and
putrefa&ion. Some animal-foods, indeed, turn mani-
feftly acid before they putrify ; and it has been affert-
ed, that feme degree of acefcency takes place in every
king of animal-food before digeftion. This acefcency
of animal-food, however, never comes to any morbid
degree, but the difeafe is always on the fide of putre-
fcency. The acefcency of vegetables is more frequent,
and ought to be more attended to, than the alkale-
feengy of animal food ; which laft, even in weak fto-
machs, is feldom felt; while acefcency greatly affefts
both the ftomach and fyftem.
With regard to their difference of folution:—Hea-
vinefs, as it. is called, is: feldom felt from vegetables,
except from tough farinaceous pafte, or .the moft vifeid
fubftances p while the heavinefs of animal-food is more
frequently not iced, efpecially. when in any great quan¬
tity. Difficulty of folution. does, not depend, fo much
on firmnefs of texture, (as a man, from fifti of all kinds,
is more oppreffed than from firmer fubftances), but on
vifeidity; and hence it is. more frequent in animal-food,.
efpecially in the younger animals.
With regard lo mixture :—Thete is no inftance of*
difficult mixture in vegetables, except in vegetable oils;
while animal-foods, from both vifeidity and oilinefs,
efpecially the fatter meats, are refraftory in this re-
fpeft. Perhaps the difference of animal and vegetable
foods might be referred to this head of mixture. Foi:
vegetable food continues long in the ftomach, giving
little ftimulus : Now the fyftem is affeiled in propor¬
tion to the extent of this ftimulus, which is incompa¬
rably greater from the animal vifeid oily food, than
from the vegetable, firmer, and more aqueous. How¬
ever, there are certain applications to the ftomach,
which have a tendency to bring on the cold fit of fe¬
ver, independent of ftimulus, merely by their refrige¬
ration : and this oftener arifes from vegetables; as we
fee, in thofe hot countries where intermittents prevail,
they are oftener induced' from a furfeit of vegetable
than of animal food. A proof of this is, that when
one is recovering of an intermittent, there is nothing
more apt to caufe arelapfe than cold food, efpecially if
taken on thofe days when the fit fhouid return, and
particularly acefcent, fermentable vegetables, as fal-
lad, melons, cucumbers, &c. acido-dulces, &c. which,
according to Dr Cullen, are the moft frequent caufes
of epidemics; therefore, when an intermittent is to be
avoided, we <hun vegetable diet, and give animal-foods,
although their ftimulus be greater.
II. In the Intejlines. When theputrefeeney of animal-
food has gone too far, it produces an adlive ftimulus,
caufing diarrhoea, dyfentery, &c. But thefe effe&s are
but rare : whereas from vegetable food and its acid,
which, united with the bile, proves a pretty ftrong
ftimulus, they more frequently occur ; but, luckily,
are of lefs confequence, if the refrigeration is not
very great. In the autumnal feafon, when there is a
tendency to dyfentery, if it is obferved that eating of
fruits brings it on, it is rather to be aferibed to their
cooling than ftimulating the inteftirtes.
As iojlool—Wherever neither putrefa&ion, nor aci¬
dity, has gone a great length, animal-food keeps the
belly more regular. Vegetable food gives a greater
proportion of feculent matter, and, when exficcated by
the ftomach and inteftines, is more apt to ftagnate, and
produce flow belly and coftivenefs, than animal ftimu¬
lating food ; which, before it comes to the great guts;
where ftoppage is made, has attained a putrefactive
tendency, and gives a proper ftimulus: and thus thofe
who are coftive from the ufe of vegetables, when they
have recourfe to animal-food are in this refpeCt better.
III. In the Msod-veJJ'elu They both give a blood of
the fame kind, but of different quality. Animal-food
gives it in greater quantity, being in great part, as the
expreffion is, convertible in fuccun: et fanguinevi, and of
eafy digeftion ; whereas vegetable is more watery,
and contains a portion of unconquerable faline matter;
which caufes it to be thrown out of the body by fom&
excretion. Animal-food affords a more denfe ftimula¬
ting elaftic blood than vegetable ; ftretehing and cau-
fing a greater refiftance in the folids, and again exci¬
ting their ftronger adfion. It has. been.fuppofed, that
acefcency of vegetable food is carried into the blood-
veffels, and there exerts its effeQs ; but the tendency
of animal-fluids is fo ftrong to alkalefcency, that the
exiftence of an acid, acrimony in animal-blood feems
very.
F O O [ 3063 ] F O O
very improbable. Animal-food alone will foon pro¬
duce an alkalefcent acrimony; and if a perfon who lives
entirely on vegetables were to take no food for a few
days, his acrimony would be alkalefcent,
IV. We are next to take notice of the quantity of
nutriment thefe different foods afford. Nutriment re
of two kinds: the firft repairs the wafte of the folid
fibres; the other fupplies certain .fluids, the chief of
which is oil. Now, as animal-food is eafier converted,
and alfo longer retained in the fyftem, and as it con¬
tains a greater proportion of oil, it will afford both
kinds of nutriment more copioufly than vegetables.
V. Lafliy, As to the different degrees of perfpirabi-
iity of thefe foods. This is not yet properly determined.
San&orius couftantly fpeaks of mutton as the moft
perfpirable of all food, and of vegetables as checking
perfpiration. This is' a confequence of the different
flimulus thofe foods give to the ftomach, fq that per-
fons who live on vegetables have not their perfpiration
fo fuddenly excited. In time of digeflion, perfpira¬
tion is flopped from whatever food, much more fo from
cooling vegetables.. Another reafon why vegetables
are lefs perfpirable is, becaufe their aqueo-faline juices
determine them to go off by urine, while the moreper-
fedlly mixed animal-food is more equally diffufed over
the fyftem, and fo goes off by perfpiration. Hence
Sandlorius’s accounts may be underflood; for vege¬
table aliment is not longer retained in the body, but
moflly takes the courfe of the kidneys. Both are
equally perfpirable in this refpedt, viz. that a per¬
fon living on either, returns once a-day to his ufual
weight; and if we confider the little nourifhment of
vegetables, and the great tendency of animal food to
corpulency, we muft allow that vegetable is more
quickly perfpired than animal-food.
As to the queftion, Whether man was originally de-
figned for animal or vegetable food, fee the article
Carnivorous.
With regard to the effects of thefe foods on men, it
mufl be obferved, that there are no perfons who live
entirely on vegetables. The Pythagoreans themfelves
eat milk ; and thofe who do fo moftly, as thefe Py¬
thagoreans, are weakly, fickly, and meagre, labour¬
ing under a conflant diarrhoea and feveral other dif-
eafes. None of the hardy, robuft, live on thefe; but
chiefly fuch as gain a livelihood by the exertion of their
mental faculties, as (in the Eaft Indies) factors and bro-
brokers; and this method of life is now confined to
the hot climates, where vegetable diet, without incon¬
venience, may be carried to great excefs. Though it
be granted, therefore, that man is intended to live on
thefe different foods promifcuoufly, yet the vegetable
fhould be in very great proportion. Thus the Lap¬
landers are faid to live entirely on animal-food: but
this is contradifled by the bell accounts; for Linneus
fays, that beftdes milk, which they take four, to ob¬
viate the bad effedls of animal-food, they ufe alfo calla,
menyanthes, and many other plants copioufly. So
there is no inflance.of any nation living entirely either
on vegetable or ^jnimal food, though there are indeed
fome who live particularly on one or other in the great-
eft proportion. In the cold countries, e. g. the inha¬
bitants live chiefly on animal-food, on account of the
rigour of the feafon, their fmaller perfpiration, and little
tendency to putrefaction.
Of more importance, however, is the following than
the former queftion, viz. In 'what proportion animal
and vegetable food ought to be mixed?
x. Animal food certainly gives mod ftrength ta
the fyftem. It is a known aphorifm of Sandlorius,
that pondus addit robur; which may be explained
from the impietion of the blood-veffels, and giving
a proper degree of tenfion for the performance of
ftrong ofcillations. Now animal-food not only goes
a greater way in fupplying fluid, but alfo gives the
fluid more denfe and elaftic. The art of giving the
utmoft ftrength to the fyftem is bed underftood by
thofe who breed fighting-cocks. Thefe people raife
the cocks to a certain weight, which muft bear, a
certain proportion to the other parts of the fyftem,
and which at the fame time is fo nicely proportioned,
as that, on lofing a few ounces of it, their llrength is
very confiderably impaired. Dr Robinfon of Dublin
has obferved, that the force and weight'of the fyftem
ought to be determined by the largenefs of the heart,
and its propoition to the fyftem: for a large heart will
give large blood-veffels, while at the fame time the
vifcera are lefs, particularly the liver; which lad being
increafed in fize, a greater quantity of fluid is deter¬
mined into the cellular texture, and lefs into the fan-
guineous fyftem. Hence wre fee how animal-food gives
ftrength, by filling the fanguiferous veffels. What
pains we now beftow on cocks, the ancients did on the
Athletse, by proper nourifhment bringing them to a
great degree of ftrength and agility. It is faid that
men were at firft fed on figs, a proof of which we have
from their nutritious quality: however, in this refpeft
they were foon found to fall far fhort of animal-food;
and thus we fee, that men, in fome meafure, will work
in proportion to the quality of their food. The Englifh
labour more than the Scots; and wherever men are ex-
pofed to hard labour, their food fhould be animal. A-
nimal food, although it gives ftrength, yet loads the
body; and Hippocrates long ago obferved, that the
athletic habit, by a fmall increafe, was expofed to the
greateft hazards. Hence it is only proper for bodily
labours, and entirely improper for mental exercifes ;
for whoever would keep his mind acute and penetra¬
ting, will exceed rather on the fide of vegetable food.
Even the body is oppreffed with animal-food; a full
meal always produces dulnefs, lazinefs, and yawning;
and hence the feeding of gamefters, whofe mind muft
be ready to take advantage, is always performed by
avoiding a large quantity of animal-food. Farther,
with regard to the ftrength of the body, animal-food
in the firft ftage of life is hardly neceffary to give
ftrength : in manhood, when we are expofed to adlive
fcenes, it is more allowable ; and even in the decline
of life, fame proportion of it is neceffary to keep the
body in vigour. There are fome difeafes which cqm§.
on in the decay of life, at leaft are aggravated by it;
among thefe the moft remarkable is the gput. This,
when it is in the fyftem, and does not appear with in-
flarq^iation in the extremities, has pernicious effe&s
there, attacking the lungs, ftomach, head, &c. Now
to determine this to the extremities, a large proportion
of animal-food is neceflary, efpecially as the perfon is
commonly incapable of much exercife.
Animal-food, although it gives ftrength, is yet of
many hazards to the fyftem, as it produces plethora and
x 7 Q^2 all
F O O [ 3064 ] FOG
Food, all Its confequences. As a ftimulus to the ftomach and
to the whole fyftem, it excites fever, urges the circu¬
lation, and promotes the perfpiration. The fyftem,
however, by the repetition of thefe ftimuli, is foon worn
out; and a man who has early ufed the athletic diet,
is either early carried off by inflammatory difeafes, or,
if he takes exercife fufficient to render that diet falutary,
fuch an accumulation is made of putrefcent fluids, as in
his after-life lays a foundation for the moft inveterate
chronic diftempers. Therefore it is to be queftioned,
whether we ftiould defire this high degree of bodily
ftrength, with all the inconveniences and dangers at¬
tending it. Thofe who are chiefly employed in mental
refearches, and not expofed to too much bodily labour,
fhould always avoid an excefs of animal-food. There
is a difeafe which feems to require animal-food, viz.
the hyfteric or hypochondriac; and which appears to
be very much a kin to the gout, affe&ing the alimen¬
tary canal. All people affe&ed with this difeafe are
much difpofed to acefcency; which fometimes goes fo
far, that no other vegetable but bread can be taken in,
without occafioning the worftconfequences. Here then
we are obliged to prefcribe an animal-diet, even to thofe
of very weak organs; for it generally obviates the fymp-
toms. However, feveral inftances of fcurvy in excefs
have been produced by a long-continued ufe of this
diet, which it is always unlucky to be obliged to pre¬
fcribe ; and when it is abfolutely neceflary to prefcribe,
it fliould be joined with as much of the vegetable as
poffible, and when a cure is performed we fhould gra¬
dually recur to that again.
2. Next, let us confider the vegetable diet. The chief
inconveniency of this is difficulty of affimilation; which,
however, in the vigorous and exercifed, will not be li¬
able to occur. In warm climates, the affimilation of
vegetable aliment is more eafy, fo that there it may be
more ufed, and when joined to exercife gives a pretty
tolerable degree of ftrength and vigour ; and though
the general rule be in favour of animal diet, for giving
ftrength, yet there are many inftances of their being
remarkably produced from vegetable. Vegetable diet
has this advantage, that it whets the appetite, and that
we can hardly fuffer from a full meal of it. Befides
the diforders it is liable to produce in the prbnx vix,
and its falling ftiort to give ftrength, there feem to be
no bad confequences it can produce in the blood-vef-
fels; for there is no inftance where its peculiar acri¬
mony was ever carried there, and it is certainly lefs
putrifiable than animal food ; nor, without the utmoft
indolence, and a (harp appetite, does it give plethora,
or any of its confequences: fo that we cannot here but
conclude, that a large proportion of vegetable food is
ufeful for the generality of mankind.
There is no error in this Country more dangerous,,
or more common, than the negleft of bread : for it is
the fafeft of vegetable aliment, and the beft correftor
of animal-food; and, by a large proportion of this
alone, its bad confequences, when ufed in a hypochon¬
driac ftate, have been obviated. The French appa¬
rently have as much animal-food on their tables as the
Britons; and yet, by a greater ufe of bread and the
dried acid fruits, its bad effects are prevented ; and
therefore bread ftiould be particularly nfed by the
Englifti, as they are to voracious of animal food. Ve¬
getable food, is not only neceflary to focure health,, but
long life: and, as we have faid, in infancy and youth Food,
we ftiould be confined to it moftly ; in manhood, and '
decay of life, ufe animal food; and, near the end, ve¬
getable again.
j There is another queftion much agitated, viz. IFhat
are the effects of variety in food? Is it neceflary and al¬
lowable, or univerfally hurtful? Variety of a certain
kind feems neceflary; as vegetable and animal foods
have their mutual advantages, tending to corredt each
other. Another variety, which is very proper, is that
of liquid and folid food, which fliould be fo managed
as to temper each other; and liquid food, efpecially of
the vegetable kind, is too ready to pafs off before it is
properly affimilated, while folid food makes a long itay.
But this does not properly belong to the queftion,
whether variety of the fame kind is neceffary or pro¬
per, as in animal-foods, beef, filh, fowl, &c. It doth
not appear that there is any inconvenience arifing from
this mixture, or difficulty of affimilation, provided a
moderate quantity be taken. When any inconvenience
does arife, it probably proceeds from this, that one of
the particular fubftances in the mixture, when taken
by itfelf, w’ould produce theyitwi? and, indeed,
it would appear, that this effeft is not heightened by
the mixture, but probably obviated by it. There are
few exceptions to this, if any, e. g. taking a large pro¬
portion of acefcent fubftances with milk. The cold-
nefs, &c. acidity, flatulency, &c. may appear; and it is
v poffible that the coagulum, from the acefcency of the
vegetables, being fomewhat ftronger induced, may give
occafion to too long retention in the ftomach, and to
acidity in too great degree. Again, the mixture of
filh and milk often occafions inconveniencies. The
theory of this is difficult, though, from univerfal con-
fent, it muft certainly be juft. Can we fuppofe that
fifti gives occalion to fuch a coagulnm as runnet? If
it does fo, it may produce bad effe&s. Befides, fifties
approach fomewhat to vegetables, in giving little fti-
mulus; and are accufed of the fame bad effefts as
thefe, viz. bringing on the cold fit of fever.
Thus much may be faid for variety. But it alfo
has its difadvantagcs, provoking to gluttony; this,,
and the art of cookery, making men take in more than
they properly can digeft: and hence, perhaps, very
juftly, phyficians have univerfally almoft preferred fim-
plicity of diet; for, in fpite of rules, man’s eating will
only be meafured by his appetite, and fatiety is fooner
produced by one than by ?nany fubftances. But this
is fo far from being an argument againft variety, that’
it is one for it, as the only way of avoiding a full meal
of animal-food, and its bad effedfts, is by prefenting a
quantity of vegetables. Another mean of preventing
the bad effe&s of animal- food, is to take a large pro¬
portion of liquid ; and hence the bad effe&s of ani¬
mal-food are lefs felt in Scotland, on account of their
drinking much with it, and ufing broths, which are at
once excellent correctors of animal-food and preven¬
tives of gluttony.
With regard to the differences between animal
foods, properly fo called, the firft regards their folubi-
lity, depending on.a lax or firm texture of their diffe¬
rent kinds.
I. Solubility of animal food feems to deferve lefs-
atteation than, is commonly imagined^ for there are
many.
F O O [ 3065 ] F O O
Food, many inflances of perfons of a weak ftomach incapable
"" of breaking down the texture of vegetables, or even of
diflblving a light pudding, to whom hung beef, or a
piece of ham, was very grateful and eafdy digefted.
None of the theories given for the folution of animal-
food in the human ftomach feem to have explained
that procefs fufficiently. Long ago has been difcarded
the fuppofition of an adfive corrofive menftruum there;
and alfo the doftrine of trituration, for which, indeed,
there feems no mechanifm in the human body ; and,
till lately, phyficians commonly agreed with Boerhaave
in fuppofing nothing more to be ntceflary than a wa¬
tery menftruum, moderate heat, and frequent agita¬
tion. This will account for folution in fome cafes, but
not entirely. Let us try to imitate it out of the body
with the fame circumftances, and in ten times the time
in which the food is diffolved in the ftomach we (hall
not be able to bring about the fame changes. Take
the coagulated white of an egg, which almoft every
body can eafily digett, and yet no artifice fhall be able
to diffolve it. Hence, then,, we are led to feek another
caufe for folution, v/z. fermentation; a notion, indeed,
formerly embraced, but, on the introduction of me¬
chanical philofophy, induftrioufly baniftied, with every
other fuppofition of that procefs taking place at all in
the animal ceconomy.
Many of the ancients imagined this fermentation to
be putrefaClive. But this we deny, as an acid is pro¬
duced ; though hence the fermentation might be rec¬
koned the vinous, which, however, feems always to
be morbid. Neither, indeed, is the fermentation
purely acetous, but modified by putrefcence ; for
Pringle has obferved, that animal-matters raife and
even expede the acetous procefs. The fermentation,
then, in the ftomach is of a mixed nature, between
the acetous and putrefactive, mutually modifying each
other; though, indeed, in the inteftines, fomewhat
of the putrefaCfive feems to take place, as may be ob¬
ferved from the ftate of the fasces broke down, and
from the little difpofition of fuch fubftancea to be fo,
which are not liable to the putrefactive procefs, as the
firmer parts of vegetables, &c. Upon this view folu¬
tion feems to be extremely eafy, and thofe fubftances
to be moft eafily broke down which are moft fubjeCt
to putrefaction.. See Anatomy, n° 368.-—and Ga¬
stric Juke.
But folution alfo depends on other circumftances,
and hence requires a more particular regard.
1. There is a difference of folubility with refpeCt
to the manducation of animal-food, for which bread
is extremely neceffary, in order to keep the more fiip-
^ pery parts in the mouth till they be properly commi-
artide* 6 nuted *• From want of proper manducation perfons
JBajiAD. are fubjeCt to eruClations; and this more frequently
from the firm vegetable foods, as apples, almonds,
&c. than from the animal, though, indeed, even from
animal food, very tendinous, or fwallowed in unbroken
maffes, fuch fometimes occur. Manducation is fo
mucfi connected with folution, that fome, from im-
perfeCtly performing that, are obliged to belch up
their food, remanducate it, and fwallow it again be¬
fore the ftomach can diffolve it, or proper, nourifti-
ment be extracted. Another proof of our regard to
folubility, is our rejecting the firmer parts of animal
food, as bull-beef,, and generally carnivorous animals..
2. Its effeCts with regard to folubility, feem alfo to Food,
be the foundation of our choice between fat and lean,
you7ig and old meats. In the lean, although, perhaps,
a fingle fibre might be fufficiently tender, yet thefe,
when collected in fafcicuii, are very firm and compaCt*
and of difficult folution ; whereas in the fat there is a
greater number of veffels, a greater quantity of juice,
more interpofition of cellular fubftance, and confe-
quently more folubility. Again, in young animals,
there is probably the fame number of libres as in the
older, but thefe more connected: whereas, in the
older, the growth depending on the feparation of
thefe, and the increafe of veffels and cellular fubftance,
the texture is lefs firm and more foluble; which qua¬
lities, with regard to the ftomach, are at that time
too increafed, by the increafed alkalefcency of the ani¬
mal. To this alfo may he referred our choice of ca-
ftrated animals, viz- on account of their difpofition to
fatten after the operation.
3. It is with a view to the folubility, that we make
a choice between meats recently killed, and thofe
which have been kept for fome time. As foon as
meat is killed, the putrefactive procefs begins ; which
commonly we allow to proceed for a little, as that
procefs is the moft effectual breaker down of animal
matters, and a great affiftance to folution. The length
of time during which meat ought to be kept, is pro¬
portioned to the meat’s tendency to undergo the pu¬
trid fermentation, and the degree of thofe circum¬
ftances which favour it: Thus in the Torrid Zone,
where meat cannot be kept above four or five hours,
it is ufed much more recent than in thefe northern
climates.
4. Boiled or roafled meats create a difference of fo¬
lution. By boiling we extrad the juices interpofed
between the fibres, approximate them more to each
other, and render them of more difficult folubility ;
which is increafed too by the extraction of the juices,
which are much more alkalefcent than the fibres; but
when we want to avoid the ftimulus of alkalefcent
food, and the quick folution, as in fome cafes of dif-
eafe, the roafted is not to be chofen. Of roaftedmeat
it may be allied, which are more proper; thofe which
are moft or leaft roafted ? That which is leaft done
is certainly the moft foluble : even raw meats are more
foluble than dreffed, as Dr Cullen was informed by a
perfon who from neceffity was obliged, for fome time,,
to eat fuch. But at the fame time that meats little
done are very foluble, they are very alkalefcent; fo
that, wherever we want to avoid alkalefcency in the
prima via, the moft roafted meats fhould be chofen.
Thofe who throw away the broths of boiled meat do'
very improperly; for, befides their fupplying a fluid,,
from their greater alkalefcency they increafe the folu¬
bility of the meat. Here we lhall obferve, that pure
blood has been thought infoluble. Undoubtedly it is
very nutritious; and though out of the body, like the-
white of eggs, it feems very infoluble,. yet, like that
too, in the body it is commonly eafily digefted. Mo-
fes very properly forbad at the Ifraelites, as, in warm
countries, it is highly xilkalefcent;■ and even here,,
when it was ufed in great quantity, the feurvy'was-
more frequent : but to a moderate ufe of it,,, in thefe.
climates, no fuch obje&ion takes' plaee.
Solubility is varied from another fource, viz; vif-
cadityv
F O O [ 3066 ] F O O
cidity of the juice of aliment. Young animals, then,
appear more foluble than old, not only on account of
■the compaftion and firmnefs oftexturC in the latter, but
alfo their greater vifcidity of juice. And nothing is more
common, than to be longer oppreffed from a full meal
of veal, than from the fame quantity of beef, &c.
Upon account, too, of their greater vifcidity of juice,
are the tendinous and ligamentous parts of animals
longer retained than the purely mufcular, as well as
on account of their firmnefs of texture. Even filhes,
whofe mufcular parts are exceedingly tender, are, on
account of their gluey vifcofity, longer of folution in
the ftomach. And eggs, too, which are exceedingly
nourilhing, have the fame effeft, and cannot be taken
in great quantity : For the ftomach is peculiarly fen-
fible to gelatinous fubftances ; and by this means has
nature perhaps taught us, as it were by a fort of in-
■ftin£t, to limit ourfelves in the quantity of fuch nutri¬
tive fubftances.
6. With regard to folution, we muft take in the oils
of animal-food; which, when tolerably pure, are the
leaft putrefcent part of it, and, by diminilhing the co-
hefion of the fibres, render them more foluble. On
this laft account is the lean of fat meat more eafily dif-
folved than other lean. But when the meat is expo-
fed to much heat, this oil is feparatedj leaving the fo-
lid parts lefs eafily foluble, and becoming itfelf empy-
reumatic, rancefcent, and of difficult mixture in the
ftomach. Fried meats, from the reafons now given, and
baked meats, for the fame, as well as for the tenacity
of the pafte, are preparations which diminilh the folu-
bility of the food. From what has been faid, the pre¬
paration of food by fattening it, and keeping it for
fome time after killed, altho’ it may adminifter to glut¬
tony, will yet, it muft be confeffed, increafe the folu¬
tion of the food.
IT. The fecond difference of animal-food is with re¬
gard to Alkalescency.
Of this we have taken a little notice already under
the head of folubility.
1. From their too great alkalefcency we commonly
avoid the carnivorous animals, and the ferx; and
choofe rather the granivorous. Some birds, indeed,
which live on infefts, are admitted into our food ;
but no man, without naufca, can live upon thefe alone
for any length of time. Fifties, too, are an exception
to this rule, living almoft univerfally on each other.
But in thefe the alkalefcency does not proceed fo far ;
whether from the vifcidity of their juice, their want of
heat, or fome peculiarity in their ceconomy, is not eafy
to determine.
2. Alkalefcency is determined by difference of age.
The older animals are always more alkalefcent than the
young, from their continual progrefs to putrefa&ion.
Homberg always found; in his endeavours to extradt
an acid from human blood, that more was obtained
from the young than from the old animals.
' 3. A third circumftance which varies the alkalefcen¬
cy of the food, is the wildnefs or tamenefs of the ani¬
mal ; and this again feems to depend on its exercife.
Dr Cullen knew a gentleman who was fond of cats for
food: but he 'always ufed to feed them on vegetable
food, and kept them from exercife; and in the fame
.manner did the Romans rear up their rats, when in¬
tended for food. In the fame way the flefli of the Food,
partridge and the hen feems to be much the fame ;
only, from its being more on the wing, the one is more
alkalefcent than the other. Again, tame animals are
commonly ufed without their blood ; whereas the wild
are commonly killed in their blood, and upon that ac¬
count, as well as their greater exercife, are more alka¬
lefcent.
4. The alkalefcency of food may be determined from
the quantity of volatile fait it affords. The older the
meat is, it is found to give the greater proportion of
volatile fait.
5. The alkalefcency of aliment may alfo, in fome .
meafure, be determined from its colour, the younger
animals being whiter and lefs alkalefcent. We alfo
take a mark from the colour of the gravy poured out,
according to the rednefs of the juices judging of the
animal’s alkalefcency.
6. The relifli of food is found to depend much on its
alkalefcency, as does alfo the ftimulus it gives and the
fever it produces in the fyftem. Thefe effetfts are alfo
Complicated with the .vifcidity of the food, by which
means it is longer detained in the ftomach, and the want
of alkalefceney fupplied.
Havinghnentioned animal food as differing in fo¬
lubility and alkalefcency, which often go together in
the fame fubjed, we come to the third difference, viz.
III. Quantity of Nutriment. Which is either ab-
folute or relative : abfolute with refped to the quanti¬
ty it really contains, fufficient powers being given to
extrad it; relative, with refped to the affimilatory
powers of thofe who ufe it. The abfolute nutriment
is of fome confequence; but the relative, in the robuft
and healthy, and except in cafes of extraordinary
weaknefs, may, without much inconvenience, be dif-
regarded. In another cafe is the quantity of nourifti-
ment relative, viz. with regard to its psrfpirability ;
for if the food is foon carried off by the excretions, it
is the fame thing as if it contained a lefs proportion of
nouriftiment. For, giving more fluid, that which is
longer retained affords moft ; and, for the repair of the
folids, that retention alfo is of advantage. Now gela¬
tinous fubftances are long retained; and are, befides,
animal fubftances themfelves, diffolved: fo that, both
abfolutely and relatively, fuch fubftances are nutri¬
tious. Of this kind are eggs, flidl-fifti, &c. In a-
dults, though it is difputed whether their folids need
any repair, yet, at any rate, at this period, fluid is
more required; for this purpofe the alkalefcent foods
are moft proper, being moft eafijy diffolved. They are,
at the fame time, the moft perfpirable; on one hand
that alkalefcency leading to difeafe, while on the other
their perfpirability obviates it. Adults, therefore, as
writers juftly obferve, are better nouriihed on the al¬
kalefcent ; the young and growing, on gelatinous
foods. All this leads to a comparifon of young and
old meats; the firft being more gelatinous, and the laft
more alkalefcent. This, however, by experience, is
not yet properly afeertained. Mr Geoffrey is the on¬
ly perfon who has been taken up with the analyfis of
foods. See Memoirss de l'Academic, I’an 1731 & 1732.
His attempt was certainly laudable, and in fome re-
fpe&s ufefully performed; but, in general, his experi¬
ments were not fufficiently repeated, nor are, indfed.
F O O [ 3067 ] F O O
Foodi fufficlefitly accurate. He has not been' on his guard
~ againft the various circumftances which affeft meats; the
cow kind liking a moilt fucculent herbage, which is not
to be got in warm climates|; while the fheep are fond of
a dry food, and thrive belt there. Again, fome of his
experiments feem contradictory. He fays, that veal
gives more folution than beef, while lamb gives lefs
than mutton, which is much to be doubted. If both
he and Sanftorius had examined Englilh beef, the re-
fult, probably, would have been very different as to its
perfpirability, &c. Befides, Mr Geoffrey has only
analifed beef and veal when raw ; has made no proper
circumftantial comparifoas between quadrupeds and
birds ; and has examined thefe lad along with their
bones, and not their mufcles, &c. by themfelves, as
he ought to have done, &c. If a fet of experiments
of this kind were properly and accurately performed,
they might be of great ufe ; but, at prefent, for the
purpofe of determining our prefent fubjedt, we muft
have recourfe to our alkalefcency, folubility &c.
IV. The fourth difference of animal foods, is, The
Nature of the Fluids they afford. The whole of this
will be undertlood, from what has been faid on alka¬
lefcency ; the fluid produced being more or lefs denfe
and ftimulating, in proportion as that prevails.
V. The fifth difference of animal-foods is with re-
fpeft to their
Perspirability. The fum of what can be faid on
this matter is this, that fuch foods as promote an ac¬
cumulation of fluid in our veffels, and difpofe to ple¬
thora, are the leaft perfpirable, and commonly give
molt ftrength; that the more alkalefcent foods are the
molt perfpirable, though the vifeid and lefs alkalefcent
may attain the fame property by long retention in the
fyftem. The authors on perfpirability have determi¬
ned the perfpiration of foods as imperfeCtly as Mr Geof¬
frey has done the folubility, and in a few cafes only.
We muft'not lay hold on what Sandtorius has faid on
the psrfpirability of mutton, becaufe he has not exa¬
mined, in the fame way, other meats in their perfect
ftate; far lefs on what Keil fays of oyfters, as he him-
felf was a valetudinarian, and confequently an unfit fub-
jeft for fuch experiments, and probably of a peculiar
temperament.
As to the effe&s of Food on the Mind, we have
already hinted at them above. It is plain, that de¬
licacy of feeling, livelinefs of imagination,, quick-
nefs of apprehenfion, and acutenefs of judgment, more
frequently accompany a weak ftate of the body. True
it is, indeed, that the fame ftate is liable to timi¬
dity, fluctuation, and doubt; while the ftrong have
that fteadinefs of judgment, and firmnefs of purpofe,
which are proper for the higher and more aCtive feenes
of life. The moft valuable ftate of the mind, how¬
ever, appears to refide in fomewhat lefs firmnefs and
vigour of body. Vegetable aliment, as never over-di-
ftending the veffels or loading the fyftem, never inter¬
rupts the ftronger motions of the mind ; while the heat,
fulnefs, and weight, of animal-food, are an enemy to its
vigorous efforts.. Temperance, then, does not fo much
confift in the quantity,.for that always will be regula¬
ted by our-appetite, as in the quality, vizi, a large
proportion of vegetable aliment.
Food of Plants. See Agriculture, n° I,—6.
and. Plants ; alfo the article.Composts..
FOOL, according to Mr Locke, is a perfon who Fool
makes falfe conclufions from right drinciples ; whereas tl^
a madman, on the contrary, draws right conclufions ,oote'
from wrong principles.
FooL-CVtf/w, in botany. See Orchis.
FOOT, a part of the body of moft animals , where¬
on they ftand, walk, &c. See Anatomy, n° 62.
Foot, in the Latin and Greek poetry, a metre or
meafure, compofed of a. certain number of long and
ftiort fyllables.
Thefe feet are commonly reckoned 2 8:: of which fome
are Ample, as confiding of two or three fyllables,. and
therefore called diffyllabic or trifyllabic feet; others are
compound, confifting of four fyllables, and are there¬
fore called tetrafyllabicfeet.
The diffylabic feet are four in number, viz. the pyr-
rhichius,. fpondeus, iambus, and trocheus. See Pyr-
rhichius, &c..
The trifyllabic feet are eight in number, viz. the
da&ylus, anapasftus, tribrachys, moloffus, amphibra¬
chys, amphimacer, bacchius, and antibacchius. See
Dactyl, &c.
The tetrafyllabic arc in number 16, viz. the pro-
cleufmaticus, difpondeus, choriambus, antifpaftus, dii¬
ambus, dichoreus, ionicus a majore, ionicus a minore,
epitritus primus, epitritus fecundus, epitritus tertius,
epitritus quartus, paeon primus, paeon fecundus, paeon
tertius, and paeon quartus^. See Procleusmaticus,
&c.
Foot, in Englifti poetry. See Poetry,. n° 117,
x75- .
Foot is alfo a long meafure confifting of 12 inches.
Geometricians divide the foot into 10 digits, and the
digit into 10 lines.
Foot Square, is the fame meafure both in breadth
and length, containing X44fquare or fuperficial inches.
Cubic or Solid Foot,- is the fame meafure in all the
three dimenfions, length, breadth, and depth or thick-
nefs, containing 1728 cubic inches-
Foot of a Horfe, in the menage, the extremity of
the leg, from the coronet to the lower part of the hoof.
FooT-Zeue/, among artificers, an inftrument that
ferves as a foot- rule, a fquare, and a level. See Level,
Rule, and Square.
FOOTE (Samuel, Efq;), the modern Ariftopha-
nes, was born at Truro, in Cornwall; and was defeended
from a very ancient family. His father was member
of parliament for Tiverton, in Devonfliire; and enjoyed
the poft of commilfioner of the prize-office and fine-
contraft. His mother was heirefs of the Dinely and
Goodere families. In confequence of a fatal mifun-
derftanding between her two brothers, Sir John Dinely
Goodere, bart. and Samuel Goodere, efq; captain of
his majefty’s fliip the Ruby,, which ended in the death
of both, a. coniiderable part of the Goodere eftate,
which was better than yoool. per annum, defeended to
Mr Foote.
He was educated at Worcefter college, Oxford,
which owed its foundation to Sir Thomas Cookes
Winford* bart. a ftcond coufin of our author’s. On
leaving the uhiverlity, he commenced ftudefit of law in
the Templei; but, as the drynefs of this ftudy did not
fiiit the livelinefs of his genius, .he foon relinquiftied.it.
He married a young lady: of a good family and fonoe
fortune; but, their tempers not agreeing, a perfeft
bar-
F O O [ 3068 ] F O O
goote- harmony did not long fubfift between them. He now
lanched into all the falhionable foibles of the age,
gaming not excepted; and in a few years fpent his
whole fortune. His necefiities led him to the ftage,
and he made his firft appearance in the chara&er of
Othello. He next performed Fondlewife with much
more applaufe; 'and this, indeed, was ever after one of
his capital parts. He attempted Lord Foppington
likewife, but prudently gave it up. But, as Mr Foote
was never a capital a&or in the plays of others, his fa-
lary was very unequal to his gay and extravagant turn ;
and he contra&ed debts which forced him to take re¬
fuge within the verge of the court.
He relieved his neceflities by a very laughable ftra-
tagem. Sir Fr—s D —1—1 had long been his intimate
friend, and had diffipated his fortune by fimilar extra¬
vagance. Lady N-ff-u P—1-t, who was likewife an
intimate acquaintance of Foote’s, and who was ex¬
ceeding rich, was fortunately at that time bent upon a
matrimonial fcheme. Foote ftrongly recommended to
her to confult upon this momentous affair the conjurer
in the Old Bailey, whom he reprefented as a man of
furprifing fkiil and penetration. He employed an ac¬
quaintance of his own to perfonate the conjurer, who
depi&ed Sir Fr—s D —1—1 at full length; defcribed
the time when, the place where, and the drefs in which,
fhe would fee him. The lady was fo ftruck with the
coincidence of every circumftance, that fhe married
D—1—1 in a few days. For this fervice Sir Francis
fettled an annuity upon Foote; and this enabled him
once more to emerge from obfcurity.
In 1747 he opened the little theatre in the Hay-
market, taking upon himfelf the double chara&er of
author and performer; and appeared in a dramatic piece
of his- own compofing, called the Diverfions of the
Morning. This piece confifted of nothing more than
the exhibition of feveral charadfers well known in real
life, whofe manner of converfation and expreffion this
author very happily hit off in the diftion of his drama,
and ftill more happily reprefented on the ftage, by an
exad and moft amazing imitation, not only of the man¬
ner and tone of voice, but even of the very perfons, of
thofe whom he intended to take off. In this perform-
r—ance, a certain phyfician, Dr L—n, well known for
the oddity and Angularity of his appearance and con¬
verfation, and the celebrated Chevalier Taylor, who
was at that time in the height of his popularity, were
made objedts of Foote’s ridicule ; the latter, indeed,
very defervedly : and, in the concluding part of his
fpeech, under the charadfer of a theatrical diredtor,
Mr Foote took off, with great humour and accuracy,
the feveral ffyles of adling of every principal performer
on the Englifh ftage.
This performance at firfl met with fome oppofition
from the civil magiftrates of Weftminfter, under the
fandition of the a£t of parliament for limiting the num¬
ber of playhoufes, as well as from the jealoufy of one
of the managers of Drury-lane playhoufe; but, the
author being patronized by many of the principal no¬
bility, and other perfons of diftindfion, this oppofition
was over-ruled : and, having altered the title of his
performance, Mr Foote proceeded, without further
moleftation, to give Tea in a morning to his friends,
and reprefented it through a run of 40 mornings to
crowded and fplendid audiences.
The e.nfuing feafon he produced another piece of the Foote,
fame kind, which he called An Auftion of Figures. In ™~
this performance he introduced feveral new and popu¬
lar characters ; particularly Sir T homas de Veil, then
the adting juftice of piece for Weftminfter, Mr Cock
the celebrated audiioneer, and the equally famous Ora¬
tor Henley. This piece alfo had a very great run.
His Knights, which was the produce of the enfuing
feafon, was a performance of fomewhat more dramatic
regularity: but (till, although his plot and characters
feemed lefs immediately perfonal, it was apparent that
he kept fome particular real perfons ftrongly in his eye
in the performance; and the town took upon thera-
felves to fix them where the refemblance appeared to
be the moft ftriking.
Thus Mr Foote continued, from time to time, to fe-
ledt, for the entertainment of the public, fuch charac¬
ters, as well general as individual, as feemed moft likely
to engage their attention. His dramatic pieces, ex-
clulive of the interlude called Piety in Pattens, are
as follow : Tafte, The Knights, The Author, The
Englilhman in Paris, The Englifhman Returned from
Paris, The Mayor of Garrat, The Liar, The Patron,
The Minor, The Orators, The Commiflary, The Devil
upon Two Sticks, The Lame Lover, The Maid of
Bath, The Nabob, The Cozeners, The Capuchin,
The Bankrupt, and an unfiniftied comedy calk'd
The Slanderer.
All thefe works are only to be ranked among the
peiites pieces of the theatre. In the execution they are
fomewhat loofe, negligent, and untiniftied ; the plots
are often irregular, and the cataftrophes not always
conclufive: but, with all thefe deficiencies, they con¬
tain more (Length qf charadter, more ftrokes of keen
fatire, and more touches of temporary humour, than
are to be found in the writings of any other modern
dramatift. Even the language fpoken by his charac¬
ters, incorredt as it may fometimes feem, will, on a
clofer examination, be found entirely dramatical; as it
abounds with thofe natural minutise of expreflion
which frequently form the very bafis of charadter, and
which render it the trueft mirror of the converfation
of the times in which he wrote.
In the year 1766, being on a party of pleafure with
the late duke of York, lord Mexborough, and Sir
Francis Delava], Mr Foote had the misfortune to break
his leg, by a fall from his horfe; in confequence of
which, he was compelled to undergo an amputation.
This accident fo fenfibly affedled the duke, that he
made a point of obtaining for Mr Foote a patent for
life; whereby he was allowed to perform, at the little
theatre in the Haymarket, from the 15th of May to
the 15th of September every year.
He now became a greater favourite of the town than
ever: his very laughable pieces, with his more laugh¬
able performances, conftantly filled his houfe; and his
receipts were fome feafons almoft incredible. Parfi-
mony was never a vice to be afcribed to Mr Foote; his
hofpitality and generofity were ever confpicuous; he
was vifited by the firft nobility, and he was fometimes
honoured even by royal guefts.
The attack made upon his charadfer by one of his
domeftics, whom he had difmifled for mifbehaviour, is
too well known to be particularized here. Suffice it
to fay, he was honourably acquitted of that charge:
but
FOR [ 3069 ] FOR
Foote but It is believed by fome, that the /hock which he re-
li ^ ceived from it accelerated his death; others pretend,
°r ec~ that his literary altercation with a certain then duchefs,
or rather her agents, much affe&ed him, and that from
that time his health declined. It is probable, how¬
ever, that his natural volatility of fpirits could fcarcely
fail to fupport him againft all impreffions from either
of thefe quarters.
Mr Foote, finding his health decline, entered into
an agreement with Mr Colman, for his patent of the
theatre; according to which, he was to receive from
Mr Colman j 6001. per annum, befides a ftipulated fum
whenever he chofe to perform. Mr Foote made his
appearance two or three times laft fummer, in fome of
the molt admired charadlers; but being fuddenly af¬
fected with a paralytic Itroke one night whilft upon
the dage, he was compelled to retire. He was advifed
to bathe; and accordingly repaired to Brighthelmftone,
where he apparently recovered his former health and
fpirits, and was what is called the fiddle of the com¬
pany who reforted to that agreeable place of amufe-
ment. A few weeks before bis death, he returned to
London ; but, by the advice of his phyficians, fet out
with an intention to fpend the winter at Paris and
in the fouth of France. He had got no farther than
Dover, when he was fuddenly attacked by another
ftroke of the palfy, which in a few hours terminated
his exigence. He died on the 21ft of O&ober 1777,
in the 56th year of his age, and was privately iaterred
in the cloitlers of Weftminfter abbey.
FORAMEN, in anatomy, a name given to feveral
apertures or perforations in divers parts of the body;
as, 1. The external and internal foramina of the cra¬
nium or fkulL 2. The foramina in the upper and
lower jaw. 3. Foramen lachrymale. 4. Foramen
^nembranae tympani. See Anatomy.
Foramen Ovale, an oval aperture or paflage thro’
the heart of a fetus, which clofes up after birth. It
arifes above the coronal vein, near the right auricle,
and pa/fes direCtly into the left auricle of the heart,
ferving for the circulation of the blood in the fetus,
till fuch time as the infant breathes, and the lungs are
open; it being generally reckoned one of the tempo¬
rary parts of the fetus, wherein it differs from an adult.;
although almoft all anatomifts, Mr Chefelden excepted,
affure us, that the foramen ovale has fometimes been
found open in adults. See Foetus.
FORBES (Patrick), bi/hop of Aberdeen, was born
■in 1654, when the affairs of the church of Scotland
were in much confufion; to the fettlement of which he
greatly contributed. As chancellor of the univerfity
.of Aberdeen, he improved that feat of learning by re¬
pairing the fabric, augmenting the library, and reviving
the profefforfhips. He publi/hed a Commentary on the
Revelations, at London, in 1613; and died in 1635.
Forbes (John), the (on of Patrick, but of much
more extenfive learning than his father, was perhaps
-excelled by none of his age, which will be allowed by
thofe who read his Hijlorical and Theological Injiitutes.
He was bi/hop of Aberdeen; but was expelled by the
Covenanters, and forced to fly beyond fea. He con¬
tinued in Holland two years; and, upon his return,
lived private on his eltate at Corfe, until he died in
1648. An edition of all his works was printed in two
vols folio at Amfterdam in 1702.
Vol. IV.
Forbes (William), a learned bi/hop of Edinburgh,
born in 1585. His ill-health, and the anti-epifccpal
difpofition of the Scots, confined him chiefly to a re¬
tired life: but when Charles I. in 1633, founded an
epifcopal chutch at Edinburgh, he thought none more
worthy to fill the fee than Mr Forbes» who, howeyep,
died three months after his confecrgtion, in 1*534.
Though very able and learned, he publifhed nothing;
but wrote a treatife to pacify controyerfies, which was
printed at London 24 years after his death.
Forbes (Duncan, Efq ; of Culloden), was born in
the year 1685. In his early life, he was brought up
in a family remarkable for hofpitality ; which perhaps
led him afterwards to a freer indulgence in fpcial plea-
fures. His natural difpofition inclined him to the ar¬
my: but, as he foon difcovered a fuperior genius, by
the advice of his friends he applied himfeff to letters.
He dire&ed his ftudies particularly to the civil law;
in which he made a quick progrefs, and in 1709 was
admitted an advocate. From 1722 to 1737, hercpre-
fented in parliament the borgughsoflnvernef;, Fortrofe,
Nairn, and Forres. In 172.5, he was made king’s advo¬
cate; and Lord Prefident of the Court of Stffion, in
1737. In the troubles of .1715 and 1745, heefpoufed
the royal caufe ; but with fo much prudence and mode¬
ration did he condufl himfelf at this delicate conjunc¬
ture, that not a whifper was at any time heard to his
prejudice. The glory he acquired in advancing the
profperity of his country, and in contributing to re-
ellabli/h peace and order, was the only reward of his
fervices. He had even impaired, and almoft ruined,
his private fortune in the caufe of the public ; but.go-
vernraent did not make him the fmalleft recompenfe.
The minifter, with a meannefs for which it is difficult
to account, defired to have a ftate of his di/burfement*.
He was fo much fhocked at the rudenefs of this treat¬
ment, that he left the minifter without making any
reply. Throughout the whole courfe of his life he
had a lively fenfe of religion, without the leaft tairit
of fuperftition ; and his charity was extended to every
fefl and denomination of religioni/ls indifcriminately.
He was well verfed in the Hebrew language; and
wrote, in a flowing and oratorial ftyle, concerning re¬
ligion natural and revealed, fome important difeoveries
in theology and philofophy, and concerning the fout*
ces of incredulity. He died in 1747, in the 63d ,year
of his age ; and his works have lince been .publilhed
in two volumes oftavo.
FORCE, in mechanics, denotes tha caufe of the
change in the ftate of a body when, being at reft, it
begins to move, or has a motion which is either not
uniform or not diredf. See Mechanics.
Central Yokces. See Mechanic-s.
Centrifugal Force. See Centrifugal.
Force, in law, fignifies any unlawful violence of¬
fered to things or perfons, and is divided into Ample
and compound. Simple force is what is fo committed,
that it has no other crime attending it ; as where a
perfon by force enters on another’s poffeffion, without
committing any other unlawful aft. Compound force,
is where fome other violence is committed with fuch
an aft which of itfelf alone is criminal; as if one enters
by force into another’s houfe, and there kills a per¬
fon, or ravi/hes a woman. There is likewife a force
implied in law, as in every trefpafs, refeue, or diffeifin,
17 R and
FOR [ 3070 ] FOR
Forcep?, anc] an a^ual force with weapons, number of perfons,
forclble• &c.—Any perfon may lawfully enter a tavern, inn, or
vidlualling-houfe ; fo may a landlord his tenant’s houfe
to view repairs, &c. But if, in thefe cafes, the per¬
fon that enters commits any violence or force, the law
will intend that he entered for that purpofe.
FORCEPS, in furgery, &c. a pair of fciflars for
cutting off, or dividing, the flefhy membranous parts
of the body, as occafion requires. See Surgery.
FORCIBLE entry, is a violent and aftual entry
into houfes, or lands; and a forcible detainer, is where
one by violence with-holds the pofTeffion of lands, &c.
fo that the perfon who has a right of entry is barred,
or hindered, therefrom.
At common law, any perfon that had a right to
enter intotlands, &c. might retain pofTeffion of it by
force. But this liberty being abufed, to the breach
of the peace, it was therefore found neceffary that the
fame fhould be reftrained : Though, at this day, he
who is wrongfully difpoffefTed of goods may by force
retake them. By ftatute, no perfons fhall make an
entry on any lands or tenements, except where it is
given by law, and in a peaceable manner, even tho’
they have title of entry, on pain of imprifonment:
and where a forcible entry is committed, juftices of
peace are authorized to view the place, and inquire of
the force by a jury, fummoned by the fheriff of the
county ; and they may caufe the tenements &c. to be
reftored, and imprifon the offenders till they pay a fine.
Likewife a writ of forcible entry lies, where a perfon
feized of freehold, is by force put out thereof.
Forcible Marriage, of a woman of eftate, is fe¬
lony. For by the ttatute 3 H. 7. c. 2. it is ena&ed,
q “ That if any perfons (hall take away any woman
DiB. having lands or goods, or that is heir apparent to her
anceftor, by force, and againft her will, and marry qv
defile her; the takers, procurers, abettors and receivers
of the woman taken away againft her will, and know¬
ing the fame, fhall be deemed principal felons; but
as to procurers and acceffories, they are, before the
offence be committed, to be excluded the benefit of
clergy, by 39 Eliz. c. 9. The indi&ment on the
ftatute 3 H. 7. is exprefly to fet forth, that the wo¬
man taken away had lands or goods, or was heir ap¬
parent ; and alfo that fhe was married or defiled, be-
caufe no other cafe is within the ftatute ; and it ought
to allege that the taking was for lucre. It is no ex-
cufe that the woman at firft was taken away with her
confent: fomf fhe afterwards refufe to continue with
the offender, and be forced againft her will, fhe may
from that time properly be faid to be taken againft
her will; and it is not material whether a woman fo
taken away be at laft married or defiled with her own
confent or not, if fhe were under force at the time ;
the offender being in both cafes equally within the
wort’s of the a£l.
Thofe perfons who, after the faft, receive the of¬
fender, are but acceffories after the offence, accord¬
ing to. the rules of common law ; and thofe that are
only privy to the damage, but not parties to the for¬
cible taking-away, are not within the aft, H. P‘. C.
119. A man may be indidted for taking away a wo¬
man by force in another country ; for the continuing
of the force in any country, amounts to a forcible tak¬
ing there. Ibid, Taking away any woman-child ua-
der the age of 16 years and unmarried, out of the Forcing,
cuftody and without the confent of the father or
guardian, &c. the offender fhall fuffer fine and impri¬
fonment ; and if the woman agrees to any contraft of
matrimony with fuch perfon, fhe fhall forfeit her e-
ftate during life, to the next of kin to whom the in¬
heritance fhould defcend, &. Stat. 4 ^ 5- P. idr M.
c. 8. This is a force againft the parents : and an in¬
formation will lie for feducing a young man or wo¬
man from their parents, againft their confents, in
order to marry them, &c. See Marriage.
FORCING, in gardening, a method of producing
ripe fruits from trees before their natural feafon. The
method of doing it is this: A wall fhould be creeled
ten feet high ; a border muft be marked out on the
fouth fide of ft, of about four feet wide, and fome
flakes muft be faftened into the ground all along the
edge of the border ; thefe fliould be four inches thick.
They are intended to reft the glafs lights upon, which
are to Hope backwards to the wall, to fhelter the fruit
as there fhall b^ occafion ; and there rauft be, at each
end, a door to open either way, according as the
wind blows. The frame fhould be made moveable
along the wall, that when a tree has been forced
one year, the frame may be removed to another, and
fo on, that the trees may each of them be forced only
once in three years, at which rate they will laft a long
time. They rnuft be always well grown trees that
are chofen for forcing ; for young ones are foon de-
ftroyed, and the fruit that is produced from them is
never fo well tafted. The fruits moft proper for this
management are the avant or fmall white nutmeg,
the albemarle, the early newington, and the brown
nutmeg peaches; Mr Fairchild’s early, and the el-
rugo and newington ne&arines; the mafculine apri¬
cot, and the may-duke and may cherry. For grapes,
the white and black fweet-water are the propereft ;
and of goofeberries the Dutch white, the Dutch early
green, and the walnut goofeberry; and the large
Dutch white and large Dutch red currants.
The dung, before it is put to the wall, fhoujd be laid
together in a heap for five or fix days, that it may
heat uniformly through ; and when thus prepared it
muft be laid four feet thick at the bafe of the wall,
and go Hoping up till it is two feet thick at the top.
It muft be laid at lead within three or four inches of
the top of the wall; and when it finks, as it will fink
two or three feet, more dung muft be laid on; for the
firft heat will do little more than juft fwell the bloffom-
buds. The covering the trees with glaffes is of great
fervice; but they ftiould he taken off to admit the be¬
nefit of gentle (bowers to the trees, and the doors at
the ends ftrould be either left entirely open, or one or
both of them opened, and a mat hung before them, at
once to let the air circulate and keep off the frofts.
The dung is never to be applied till towards the end
of November; and three changes of it will be fufficient
to ripen the cherries, which will be very fine in Fe¬
bruary. As to the apricots, grapes, neftarines, peaches,
and plums, if the weather be milder, the glaffes are
to be opened to let in funfhine or gentle (bowers.
If a row or two of fcarlet ftrawberries be planted at
the back, of the frame, they will ripen in February or-
the beginning of March ; the vines will bloffom in
April, and the grapes will be ripe in June.
It
FOR
Fordoim It fliould be carefully obferved, not to place early
^ and late ripening fruits together, becaufe the heat ne-
——e‘^n" ceflary to force the late ones will be of great injury to
the early ones after they have fruited.
The mafculine apricot will be ripe in the beginning
of April, the early nectarines will be ripe about the
fame time, and the forward fort of plums by the lat¬
ter end of that month: Goofeberries will have fruit
fit for tarts in January or February, and will ripen in
March ; and currants will have ripe fruit in April.
The trees need not be planted fo diltant at thefe
walls as at others, for they do not (hoot fo freely as in
the open air; nine feet afunder is fufficient. They fhould
be pruned about three weeks before the heat is ap¬
plied.
FORDOUN (John of), the father of Scottiih Tii-
ftory, flourilhed in the reign of Alexander III. towards
the end of the 13th century. But of his life there is
nothing known with certainty, though there was not
a monaftery that polfeifed not copies of his work. The
firft five books of the hiftory which bears his name
were written by him: the reft were fabricated from
materials left by him, and from new collections by dif¬
ferent perfons. A manufcript in vellum of this hifto-
rian is in the library of the univerfity of Edinburgh.
FORDYCE (David), an elegant and learned writer
of the prefent age, was profeffor of philofophy in the
Marifehal college, Aberdeen. He was originally de-
figned for the roiniftry; to prepare himfelf for which
was the whole aim of his ambition, and for a courfe of
years the whole purpofe ofhis ttudies. How well he was
qualified to appear in that character, appears from his
“ Theodorus, a dialogue concerning the art of preach¬
ing.” After having finilhed this work, he went abroad
on his travels, in order to obtain frefti ftores of know¬
ledge: but after a fuccefsful tour through feveral parts
of Europe, he was unfortunately caft away in a ftorm
on the caaft of Holland. Befides the above work, he
wrote Dialogues on education, 8vo. and a Treatife of
Moral Philofophy publilhed in the Preceptor. The
third edition of his Theodorus was publifhed in Lon¬
don, after his untimely death, by his brother the Rev.
Mr James Fordyce, an eminent diffenting minifter, in
1755-
FORECASTLE o/''« Ship, that part where the
foremaft ftands. It is divided from the reft by a bulk¬
head.
FOREIGN, fomething extraneous, or that comes
from abroad.
Foreign, in theEnglilh law, is ufed in various fig-
nifications. Thus,
Foreign Attachment, is an attachment of the goods
of foreigners found within a city or liberty, for the fa-
tisfaClion of fome citizen to whom the foreigner is in¬
debted ; or it fignifies an attachment of a foreigner’s
money in the hands of another perfon.
Foreign Kingdom, a kingdom under the dominion
of a foreign prince.
At the inftance of an ambaflador or conful, an of¬
fender againft the laws here may be fent for hither from
a foreign kingdom to which he hath fled. And, where
a ftranger of Holland, or any foreign country, buys
goods at London, for inftance, and there gives a note
under his hand for payment, and then goes away pri¬
vately into Holland j in that cafe, the feller may have
FOR
a certificate from the lord mayor, on the proof of the
fale and delivery of fuch goods, whereupon a procefs
will be executed on the party in Holland.
Foreign Oppofer or Appofer, an officer in the ex¬
chequer that oppofes or makes a charge on all fheriffs,
&c. of their green wax ; that is to fay, fines, iffues,
amerciaments, recognizances, &c.
Foreign Plea, fignifies an objection to the judge
of the court, by refufing him as incompetent, becaufe
the matter in queftion is not within his jurifdiction.
Foreign Seamen, ferving two years on board Bri-
tiih fhips, whether of war, trade, or privateers, during
the time of war, {hall be deemed natural-born fub-
jefts.
FOREIGNER, the natural-born fubjeft to fome
foreign prince.
Foreigners, though made denizens, or naturalized,
are difabled to bear any office in government, to be of
the privy-council, or members of parliament, &c. This
is by the a&s of the fettlement of the crown. Such
perfons as are not freemen of a city or corporation,
are alfo called foreigners, to diftinguifh them from the
members of the fame.
FOREJUDGER, in law, fignifies a judgment
whereby one is deprived, or put by a thing in que¬
ftion.
To be forejudged the court,. is where an officer or
attorney of any court is expelled the fame for mal-
praftice, or for not appearing to an aftion on a bill
filed againft him, &c. And where an attorney of the
common-pleas is fued, the plaintiff’s attorney delivers
the bill to one of the criers of the court, who calls the
attorney defendant, and folemnly proclaims aloud,
that, if he does not appear thereto, he will be forejud¬
ged: likewife a rule is given by the fecondary for his
appearance: and if the attorney appears not in four-
days, then the clerk of the warrants ftrikes fuch an at¬
torney off the roll of attorneys; after which he be¬
comes liable to be arrefted like any other perfon: but
where an attorney is forejudged, he may be reftored
on clearing himfelf from his contumacy, and making
fatisfaftion to the plaintiff, &c.
FORELOCKS, in the fea-language, little flat
wedges made with iron, ufed at the ends of bolts, to
keep them from flying out of their holes.
FORE-MAST of a Ship, a large round piece of
timber, placed in her fore-part, or fore-caftle, and car¬
rying the fore-fail and fore-top-fail yards. Its length
is ufually^ of the main-maft,and the fore-top-gallant-
maft is 4- the length of the fore-top.
Foremast-are thofe on board a {hip that take
in the top-fails, fling the yards, furl the fails, bowfe,
trice, and take their turn at the helm, &c.
FOREST, in geography, a huge wood; or, a
large extent of ground covered with trees. The word
is formed of the Latin forefta, which firft occurs ia
the capitulars of Charlemagne, and which itfelf is de¬
rived from the German frojl, fignifying the fame thing*
Spelman derives it from the Latin rejlat, by rea-
fon forefts are out of towns. Others &‘cx\\e. foreJla from
feris, q. d. Forefa, quodfit tutajlatioferarum, as be-*
ing a fafe ftation or abode for wild beafts.
The Caledonian and Hercynian forefts are famous
in hiftory. The firft was a celebrated retreat of the
ancient Fids and Scots; The latter anciently occupied
17 R 2 the
[ 3071 1
ForMjjtr
11
ForefL
FOR [ 3072 ] FOR
Foreft. the greateft part of Europe; particularly Germany,
~~ Poland, Hungary, &c. In Cefar’s time it extended
from the borders of Alfatia and Switzerland to Tran-
fylvania; and was computed 60 days journey long, and
9 broad: fome parts or cantons thereof are ftill re¬
maining.
The ancients adored forefts, and imagined a great
part of their gods to refide therein: temples were fre¬
quently built in the thickefl: forefts; the gloom and fi-
lence whereof naturally infpire fentiments of devotion,
arid turns mens thoughts within themfelves.
For the like reafon, the ancient Druids made forefts
the place of their refidence; performed their facrifices,
inftru£ted their youth, and gave laws therein.
Forest, in law, is defirredj by Manwood, a certain
territory of woody grounds and fruitful paftures, pri¬
vileged for wild-beafts and fowls of foreft, chafe, and
warren, to reft and abide under the proteftion of the
king, for his princely delight; bounded with unre-
moveabl^ marks and meres, either known by matter
of record or prefeription; replenifhed with wild beafts
of venery or chafe, with great coverts of vert for the
faid beafts; for prefervation and continuance whereof,
the vert and venifon, there are certain particular laws,
privileges, and officers.
Forefts are of fuch antiquity in England, that, ex¬
cepting the New-Foreft in Hampfhire, ere&ed by Wil¬
liam the Conqueror, and Hampton Court, erefted by
Henry VIII. it is faid, that there is no record or hi-
ftory which makes any certain mention of their erec¬
tion, though they are mentioned by feveral writers and
in feveral of our laws and ftatutes.—Ancient hiftorians
tell us, “ that New-foreft was raifed by the deftruftion
of 22 parifh-churches, and many villages, chapels, arid
manors, for the fpace of 30 miles together, which was
attended with divers judgments on the pofterity of
William I. who erefted it: for William Rufus was
there Ihot with an arrow, and before him Richard the
brother of Henry I.; and Henry nephew to Robert,
the eldeft fon of the Conqueror, did hang by the hair
of the head in the boughs of the foreft, like unto Ab-
falom.” Blount.
Befides the New-foreft, there are 68 other forefts in
England, 13 chafes, and more than 700 parks: the
four principal forefts are New-foreft on the fea, Shire-
wood-foreft on the Trent, Dean-foreft on the Severn,
and Windfor-foreft on the Thames.
A foreft in the hands of a fnbjeA is properly the
feme thing with a Chase ; being fubjeft to the common
law, and not to the foreft-laws. But a chafe differs
from a foreft:, in that it is not inclofed; and likewife,
that a man may have a chafe in another man’s ground
as well as his own ; being indeed the liberty of keep¬
ing beafts of chafe, or royal game therein, protefted
feven from the owner of the land, with a power of hunt¬
ing them thereon. See Park.
The manner of erefting a foreft is thus: Certain com-
miffioners are appointed Under the great feal, who view
the ground intended for a foreft, and fence it round:
this commiffion being returned into chanceryr the king
eaufeth it to be proclaimed throughout the county
where the land lieth, that it is a foreft; and prohibits
all perfons from hunting there, without his leave.
Though the king may ereft a foreft on his own ground
and wafte, he may not do it on the ground of other
perfons without their confent; and agreements with
them for that purpofe ought to be confirmed by par¬
liament.
A foreft, ftri&ly taken, cannot be in the hands of
any but the king; for no perfbn but the king has
power to grant a commiffion to be juftice in eyre of
the foreft: yet, if he grants a foreft to a fubje<ft, and
that on requeft made in the chancery, that fnbjeft and
his heirs fhall have juftices of the foreft, in which cafe
the fufcjeft has a foreft in law.
A fecond property of a fereft is, the courts thereof.
See Yo^EST-Courts, infra.
A third property is the officers belonging to it, as
the juftices, warden, verderer, forefter, agiftor, re-
garder, keeper, bailiff, beadle, &e. See the articles
Agistor, Bailiff, Forester, See.
By the laws of the foreft, the receivers of trefpaffers
in hunting, or killing of the deer, if they know them
to be the king’s property, are principal trefpaffers.
Likewife, if a trefpafs be committed in a foreft, and
the trefpaffer dies, after his death, it may beepunifhed
in the life-time of the heir, contrary to common law.
Our Norman kings puniftied fuch as killed deer in any
of their forefts with great feverity; alfo in various man¬
ners; as by hanging, lofs of limbs, gelding, and put¬
ting out eyes. By magna ebarta de foreftay it is or¬
dained, that no perfon (hall lofe life or member for kil¬
ling the king’s deer in forefts, but (hall be fined; and
if the offender has nothing to pay the fine, he (hall be
imprifoned a year and a day, and then be delivered, if
he can give fecurity not to offend for the future, Sec.
9 Hen. III. c. 1.
Before this ftatute, it was feloriy to hunt the king’s
deer; and by a late aff, perfons armed and diguifed,
appearing in any foreft, &c. if they hunt, kill, or fteal
any deer, &c. are guilty of felony. 9 Geo. I. c. 22.
He who has'any licence to hunt in a foreft or chace,
&c. is to take care that he does not exceed his autho¬
rity ; otherwife he (hall be deemed a trefpaffer from the
beginning, and be puniftied for that faft, as if he had
no licence. See further, the articles GAme, and Gam!'
Law.
Beafts of the foreft are, the hart, hind, buck, doe,
boar, wolf, fox, hare, &c. The feafons for hunting
whereof are as follow, viz. that of the hart and buck
begins at the feaft of St John Baptift, and ends at
Holy-rood day; of the hind and doe, begins at Holy-
rood, and continues till Candlemas; of the boar, from
Chriftmas to Candlemas; of the fox begins at Chrift-
mas, and continues till Lady-day ; of the hare at Mi¬
chaelmas, and lafts till Candlemas.
YoEE%t-Courts, courts inftituted for the govern¬
ment of the king’s forefts in different parts of the king¬
dom, and for the punilhment of all injuries done to the
king’s deer or venifon,. to the vert or greenfwerd, and
to the covert in which fuch deer are lodged. Thefe
are the courts of attacjmients, of regard, of fweinmote,
and of juftice-feat. 1. The court of attachments, wood-
mote, or forty-days court, is to be held before the ver-
derors of the foreft once in eVery forty days; and is
inftituted to inquire into all offenders againft vert and
venifon: who may be attached by their bodies, if ta¬
ken with the mainour (or maimeuvre, a jnanu) that is,
in the very aft of killing venifon or dealing wood, or Bladf.
preparing fa to do, or by frefh and immediate purfuit Commtna
after
FOR [ 3073 ] FOR
Foreft after the aft is done; elfe they mud be attached by
|| their goods. And in this forty-days court the forefters
Foreftallingor keepers are to bring in the attachments, orprefent-
ments de viridi et venatione ; and the verderors are to
receive the famej and to enroll them, and to certify
them under their feals to the court of jullice-feat or
fweinmote: for this court can only inquire of, but not
convift, offenders. 2. The court of regard, or furvey
of dogs, is to be holden every third year far the lawing
or expeditation of maitiffs; which is done by cutting
off the claws of the forefeet, to prevent them from run-
niug after deer. No other dogs but maxtiffs are to be
thus lawed or expeditated, for none other were permit¬
ted to be kept within the ptecinfts of the foreft ; it
being fuppoied that the keeping of thefe, and thefe
only, was neceffary for the defence of a man’s houfe.
3. The court of fweinmote is to be holden before the
verderors, as judges, by the fteward of the fweinmote,
thrice in every year; the fweins or freeholders within
the foreft coropoiing the jury. The principal jurifdic-
tion of this court is, firft, to inquire into the oppref-
fions and grievances committed by the officers of the
foreft; “ de fuper-oneratione forejiariorum, et alionm
viinijh-orum for eft x ; et de eorum opprejjionibus populo
regis illatisand, fecondly, to receive and try pre-
fentments certihed from the court of attachments againft
offences in vert and venifou. And this court may not
only inquire, but convift alfo ; which conviftion flxall
be certified to the court of juftice-feat under the feals
of the jury, for this court cannot proceed to judg¬
ment. But the principal court is, 4. The court of ju-
ftice-feat, which is held befox-e the chief juftice in eyre,
or chief itinerant judge, capitalis jufitiarius in itinere,
or his deputy; to hear and determine all trefpaffes with¬
in the foreft, and all claims of franchifes, liberties, and
privileges, and all pleas and caufes whatfoever therein
arifing. It may alfo proceed to try prefentments in
the infei-ior courts of the forefts, and to give judgment
upon conviftion of the fweinmote. And the chief ju¬
ftice may therefore, after prefentment made or indift-
ment found, but not before, iffue bis warrant to the of¬
ficers of the foreft to apprehend the offenders. It may
be held every third year; and 40 days notice ought to
be given of its fitting. This court may fine and im-
prifon for offences within the foreft, it being a court of
record: and therefore a writ of error lies from hence
to the court of king’s bench, toreftify and redrefs any
mal-adminiftrations of juftice ; or the chief juftice in
eyre may adjourn any matter of law into the court of
king’s bench.
Forest-Tcxuw, in geography, certain towns of
Suabia in Germany, lying along the Rhine, and the
confines of Switzerland, and fubjeft to the houfe of
Auftria. Their names are Rhinefeld, Seckwgen, Lau-
fenburg, and Waldjhut.
FORE-staff, or Cuoss-Sta^', an inftrument u-
fed at fea for taking the altitude of the fun, moon, or
ftars. See Staff.
FORESTALLER, a perfon who is guilty of fore-
ftalling. See the next article.
FORESTALLING, in law, buying or bargain¬
ing for any corn, cattle, viftuals, or merchandife, in
the way as they come to fairs or markets to be fold,
before they get thither, with an intent to fell the fame
again at a higher price..
The puniftxment for this offence, upon conviftion at
the quarter-felBoiis, by two or more witneffes, is, for
the firft time, two months imprifonment and the lofs of
the goods, or the value; for the fecond offence, the
offender ftxall be imprifoned fix months, and lofe double
the value of the goods; for the third offence, he ftxall
fuffer impiifonment during the king’s pleafure, forfeit
all his goods and chattels, and ftand on the pillory t.
but the ftatute does not extend to maltfters buying
barley, or to badgers licenfed.
FORESTER, a fworn officer of the foreft, ap¬
pointed by the king’s letters-patent, to walk the foreft
at all hours, and watch over the vert and venifon; alfo
to make attachments and true prefentments of all tref-
paffes committed within the foreft.
If a man comes into a foreft in the night, a fbrefter
cannot lawfully beat him before he makes fome refift-
ance; but in cafe fuch a perfon refills the forefter, he
may juftify a battery. And a forefter {hall not be que-
ttioned for killing a trefpaffer that, after the peace
cried to him, will not furrender himfelf, if it be not
done on any former malice; though, where trefpaffere
in a foreft, &c. do kill a perfon that oppofes them, it
is murder in all, becaufe they were engaged in an un*
lawful aft, and therefore malice is implied to the per¬
fon killed.
FORETHOUGHT-felony, in Scots law, fignN
fies premeditated murder. See Murder.
FORFAR, a town of Scotland, and c&pital of a
county of the fame name, fituated in W. Long. 2. 32.
N. Lat. 56. 25. of which Mr Pennant gives the fol¬
lowing account. “ It contains about 2000fouls; but
fince the great sera of the profperity of North Britain,,
has increafed above one half. The manufaftures of li¬
nens in this neighbourhood, from fompence to feven-
pence a-yard, are very confiderable, and bring in, as
is faid, near 20,0001. a-year.—The caftle flood on a
fmall hill near the town, but at prefent not a fragment
is left.—The lake lies, or rather did lie, at a fmall di~
ftance from the caftle ; and, according to tradition,
once furrounded the town ; there being in feveral parts,
even to this day, maxks of the deferted channel. Of
late years it has been very confiderably reduced by
draining ; to which the vaft quantity of fine marie at
the bottom was the temptation. This fine manure is
found there in ftrata from three to ten feet thick-, and
very often is met with beneath the peat in the moors.
The land improved with it yields four crops fucceffive-
ly; after which it is laid down with barley and clover.”
Forfar is a parliament-town, claffed with Perth, Dun¬
dee, Coxipar, and St Andrews,, which all together
fend one member to parliament.
FORFAR-shire, a county of Scotland of which
Forfar is the capital. Including Angus, Glenila, Gle-
nefle, and Glenpraffin, it extends 29 miles from eaft to
weft, and 16 where broadeft, though in fome places
the breadth does not exceed five miles.. On the north
k is divided from the Brae of Mar, by a ridge of the
Binchinntn mountains ; it is bounded on the fouth by
the Frith of Tay and the Brkifix ocean; on the eaft by
Mearns, and on the weft by Perthlhire. Part of the
Grampian mountains runs through this country, which
is agreeably diverfified with hill and dale. It producei
lead and iron in abundance, together with quarries of
fteeftone and flate,, with which, tlxe inhabitants drive jl
Sam--
Foreft tr
II
Forfar.
FOR
Forfar, confiderable traffic. The county is well watered with
Forfeiture lakeg> riVers, rivulets, and fountains, (haded with
large forefts, roughened with brown mountains, and
waved with green hills interfperfed with fields and
meadows, and adorned with fine feats and plantations.
Their heaths and woods abound with hart, hind, roe¬
buck, and moor-game ; their dreams are docked with
trout and falmon. Their hills are covered with docks
of (heep, and their fields afford plentiful harveds of
wheat and all forts of grain. The mountains to the
wed and north are inhabited by Highlanders: but the
Lowlanders poffefs the towns and champaign country,
and are remarkable for their politenefs and hofpitality ;
Smollct's though this lad virtue often degenerates into downright
debauchery, infomuch, that the gentlemen value them-
iions, ii. 70. felves upon their prowefs in drinking. The common
people are fober, numerous, and addi&ed to traffic.
Forfardiire exhibits many monuments of antiquity. At
the village of Migglc, in the neighbourhood of Cou-
par, there are feveral dones ere&ed in the church-yard,
embellilhed with the figures of difi’erent animals and o-
ther ornaments. In the church-yard of Glamis, we
fee an old obelifk or entire done 16 feet high, fet up
over the grave of king Malcom II. who was murdered
by the connivance of his own domedics. This done is
engraved with a number of figures alluding to the re¬
gicide ; and at a little didance, within the park of
Glamis, there is another done marked with hierogly-
phical fymbols, wdiich feem toexprefs the perpetration
of the fame murder. At the village of Codens, in the
fame neighbourhood, a very curious obelidt appears ly¬
ing in the fields. It is known by the name of St Or-
land’s Jlone> and exhibits a great variety of figures in
bas relief. There is another fmall done infcribed with
figures at Balutheren, in the neighbourhood of Dun¬
dee. At the didance of a mile to the fouthward of
Glamis, dands Denoon cadle, upon an eminence, en¬
vironed with deep rocks almod inacceffible, having on
the north two or three row's of terraces. It is built
in a femicircular form, encompafled with a dupend-
ous wall of done and earth, 27 feet high, and 30 feet in
thicknefs. It has two entries, one to the fouth-eadand
another to the north. The whole circumference of the
wall amounts to 335 yards ; and within this area, the
ruins of ancient buildings are dill vifible. About four
miles to the fouthward of Brechin, at a place called
Aberlemny^ we find four or five ancient obelilks, one
of which is engraved with figures, fuppofed to be mo¬
numents of a great viftory gained at the village of
Loncarty, by the Scots over the Danes; a viftory en¬
tirely owing to the valour of an hufbandman and his
two fons, of the furname of Hay, who were ennobled
for their prowefs by king Kenneth III. From thefe
defeendedthe earls of Errol, hereditary high-condables
of Scotland.
FORFEITURE, originally fignifies a tranfgref-
fion, or offence againd fome penallaw. The word is
formed of the bafe Latin forisfattura ; whence forfai-
tura and forfaifiura, and the French forfait. Foris-
- fattura comes offorts facers ; which, according to Ifi-
dore, fignifies to “ hurt or offend,” farcere contra ra¬
tioned ; and which is not improbably derived of foris
“ out,” and facers, “ to do,” q. d. an a&ion out of
rule, or contrary to the rules. Borel will have for¬
fait derived from the ufing of force, or violence; jLo-
t 3074 1
FOR
bineau in his gloffary will have forisfafta properly Forfeiture,
to fignify a mulft or amend, not a forfeit; which lat- ‘
ter he derives from the bafe Britilh forfed, “ a pe¬
nalty.”
But, with us, it is now more frequently ufed for the
effetl of fuch tranfgrtffion ; or the lofing fdme right,
privilege, edate, honour, office, or effeds, in confe-
quence thereof; than for the tranfgreffion itfelf.
Forfeiture differs from confifcation, in that the for¬
mer is more general; while confifcation is particularly
applied to fuch things as become forfeited to the king’s
exchequer ; and goods confifcated are faid to be fuch
as nobody claims.
Forfeitures may be either in civil or criminal cafes.
I. With refped to the fird, a man that hath an e-
ftate for life or years, may forfeit it many ways, as well
as by treafon or felony ; fuch as alienation, claiming a
greater edate than he hath, or affirming the reverlion
to be in a dranger, &c. When a tenant in tail makes
leafes, not warranted by the datute ; a copyholder
commits wade, refufes to pay his rent, or do fuit of
court; and where an edate is granted upon condition,
on non-performance thereof, &c. they will make a for¬
feiture.
Entry for a forfeiture ought to be by him who is
next in reverfion, or remainder, after the edate for¬
feited. As if tenant for life or years commits a forfei¬
ture, he who has the immediate reverfion or remainder
ought to enter; though he has the fee, or only an e-
date-tail.
II. Forfeiture in criminal cafes is twofold ; of real,
and perfonal edates.
1. As to real edates, by Attainder in high-trea-
fon, a man forfeits to the king all his lands and te¬
nements of inheritance, whether fee-fimple or fee-
tail ; and all his rights of entry on lands and te¬
nements, which he had at the time of the offence
committed, or at any time afterwards, to be for ever
vefied in the crown ; and alfo the profits of all lands
and tenements, which he had in his own right for life
or years, fo long as fuch intered (hall fubfid. This
forfeiture relates backwards to the time of the treafon Comment.
committed ; fo as to avoid all intermediate fales and
incumbrances, but not thofe before the fa6t: and there¬
fore a wife’s jointure is not forfeitable for the treafon
of her hufband ; becaufe fettled upon her previous to
the treafon committed. But her dower is forfeited, by
the exprefs provifion of datute 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 11.
And yet the hufband (hall be tenant by the curtefy of
the wife’s lands, if the wife be attainted of treafon :
for that is not prohibited by the datute. But, though
after attainder the forfeiture relates back to the time
of the treafon committed, yet it does not take effedl
unlefs an attainder be had, of which it is one of the
fruits ; and therefore, if a traitor dies before judgment
pronounced, or is killed in open rebellion, or is hang¬
ed by martial law, it works no forfeiture of his lands :
for he never was attainted of treafon. But if the chief
judice of the king’s bench (the fupreme coroner of all
England) in perfon, upon the view of the body of him
killed in open rebellion, records it and returns the re¬
cord into his own court, both lands and goods (hall be
forfeited.
The natural judice of forfeiture or confifcation of
property, for treafon, is founded on this confideration:
That
for [ 3075 ] FOR
Forfeiture. That he who hath thus violated the fundamental prin-
~ ciples of government, and broken his part of the ori¬
ginal contraft between king and people, hath abandon¬
ed his connexions with fociety ; and hath no longer
any right to thofe advantages, which before belonged
to him purely as a member of the community ; among
which focial advantages the right of transferring or
tranfmitting property to others is one of the chief.
Such forfeitures, moreover, whereby his pofterity mull
fuffer as well as himfelf, will help to. reltrain a man,
not only by the fenfe of his duty, and dread of per-
fonal punifhment, but alfo by his pafiions and natural
affe&ions ; and will intereft every dependent and rela¬
tion he has, to keep him from offending : , according
to that beautiful fentiment of Cicero, nec vero 7)ie
fugit quam fit acerbum, parenturn fcelera filwrum poems
lui: fed hoc prdeclare legibus coviparatum eft, ut caritas
liberorum amichres parentes reipiiblkdc redderet.” And
therefore Aulus Cafcellius, a Roman lawyer in the
time of the triumvirate, ufed to boaft that he had two
reafons for defpifing the power of the tyrants; his old
age, and his want of children: for children are pled¬
ges to the prince of the father’s obedience. Yet ma¬
ny nations have thought, that this pofthumous punilh-
ment favours of hardlhip to the innocent; efpecially
for crimes that do not ftrike at the very root and foun¬
dation of fociety, as treafon againlt the government
exprefsly does. And therefore, although confifcations
were very frequent in the times of the earlier emperors,
yet Arcadius and Honorius in every other inftancebut
that of treafon thought it more juft, ibi effe pcenam, ubi
et noxa eji; and ordered that “ pace at a fuos teneant
auftores, nec ulterius progrediatur vietus, quam reperia-
riatur deli Rum :v and Juftinian alfo made a law to re-
ftrain the punifhment of relations ; which directs the
forfeiture to go, except in the cafe of crimen majejla-
tis, to the next of kin to the delinquent. On the other
hand, the Macedonian laws extended even the capital
punifhment of treafon, not only to the children, but to
all the relations of the delinquent: and of courfe their
eftates mull be alfo forfeited, as no man was left to in¬
herit them. And in Germany, by the famous golden
bull, (copied almoft verbatim from Juftinian’s code) th,e
lives of the fons of fuch as confpire to kill an eledtor are
fpared, as it is exprefled, by the emperor’s particular
bounty. But they are deprived of all their effects and
rights of fucceffion, and are rendered incapable of any
honour ecclefiaftical and civil: “ to the end that, be¬
ing always poor and neceflitous, they may for ever be
accompanied by the infamy of their father ; may lan¬
guid! in continual indigence ; and may find (fays this
mercilefs edidt) their punifhment in living, and their
relief in dynig.”
In England, forfeiture of lands and tenements to
the crown for treafon is by no means derived from the
feodal policy, but was antecedent to the eftablifhment
of that fyftem in this ifland ; being tranfmitted from
our Saxon anceftors, and forming a part of the ancient
Scandinavian conftitution. But in certain treafons rela^
ting to the coin, (which feem rather a fpecies of the
trimen falfi than the crimen lcefa majefatis) it is provi¬
ded by fome of the modern ilatutes which conftitute
the offence, that it fhall work no forfeiture of lands,
fave only for the life of the offenders; and by all,
that it. fhall not deprive the wife of her. dower. And,
in order to abolifh fuch hereditary punifliment en- Forfeiture.1
tirely, it was enafted by ftatute 7 Ann. c. 21. that,
after the deceafe of the late pretender, no attain¬
der for treafon ftiould extend to the difinheriting
of any heir, nor to the prejudice of any perfon, other
than the traitor himfelf. By which, the law of for¬
feitures for high treafon would by this time have been
at an end, had not a fubfequent ftatute intervened to
give them a longer duration. The hiftory of this mat¬
ter is fomewhat lingular, and worthy obfervation. At
the time of the union, the crime of treafon in Scotland
was, by the Scots law, in many refpe&s different from
that of treafon in England ; and particularly in its con-
fequence of forfeitures of entailed eftates, which was
more peculiarly Englifh: yet it feemed neceffary, that
a crime fo nearly affedling government Ihould, both in
its effence and confequences, be put upon the fame foot¬
ing in both parts of the united kingdoms. In new-mo¬
delling thefe laws, the Scotch nation and the Englilh
houfe of commons ftruggled hard, partly to maintain,
and partly to acquire, a total immunity from forfeiture
and corruption of blood; which the houfe of lords as
firmly refilled. At length a compromife wa-s agreed
to, which is eftablifhed by this ftatute, viz. that the
fame crimes, and no other, ftiould be treafon in Scot¬
land that are fo in England; and that the Englilh for¬
feitures and corruption of blood, Ihould take place in
Scotland, till the death of the then pretender; and then
ceafe throughout the whole of Great Britain : the lords
artfully propofing this temporary claufe, in hopes (it
is faid), that the prudence of fucceeding parliaments
would make it perpetual. This has partly been done
by the ftatute 17 Geo. II. c. 39. (made in the year
preceding the late rebellion), the operation of thefe in¬
demnifying claufes being thereby ftill farther fufpend-
ed till the death of the fons of the pretender.
In petit treafon and felony, the offender alfo for¬
feits all his chattel interefts absolutely, and the profits
of all freehold eftates during life; and, after his death,
all his lands and tenements in fee-fimple (but not thofe
in tail) to the crown, for a very Ihort period of time t-
for the king lhall have them for a year and a day, and
may commit therein what wafte he pleafes; which is-
called the king’sday, ‘wajle. Formerly the
king had only a liberty of committing wafte on the
lands of felons, by pulling down their houfes, extir¬
pating their gardens, ploughing their meadows, and
cutting down their woods. And a punifhment of a
fimilar fpirit appears to have obtained in the oriental
countries, from the decrees of Nebuchadnezzar and
Cyrus in the books of Daniel and Ezra; which,, be-
fides the pain of death inflidled on the delinquents,
there fpecified, ordain, “ that their houfes fhall be
made a dunghill.” But this tending greatly to the
prejudice of the public, it was agreed in the reign of
Henry the firft, in England, that the king fhould
have the profits of the land for one year and a day,
in lieu of the deftrudlion he was otherwife at liberty
to commit : and therefore magna charta provides, that
the king fhall only ,hold fuch lands for a year and a
day, and then reftore them to the lord of the fee;
without any. mention made of wafte. But the ftatute
17 Edw. Hi de piarogativa regie, feems to fuppofe,
that the king fhall have his year, day, and wafte;
and not the year and day infead of wafte. Which Sir
Edf-
FOR [ 3076 ] FOR
Forfeiture. Edward Coke (and the author of the Mirror, before,
“ him) very juftly look upon as an encroachment, tho
a very ancient one, of the royal prerogative. This
year, day, and wafte,arenow ufually compounded for;
but otherwife they regularly belong to the crown :
and, after their expiration, the land would naturally
have defcended to the heir, (as in gavelkind tenure it
Itill does) did not its feodal quality intercept fuch de-
fcent, and give it by way of efcheat to the lord. Thefe
forfeitures for felony do alfo arifeonly upon attainder;
and therefore a filo de_/e forfeits no lands of inheritance
or freehold, for he never is attainted as a felon. They
likewife relate back to the time the offence was com¬
mitted, as well as forfeitures for treafon ; fo as to a-
void all intermediate charges and conveyances. This
may be hard upon fuch as have unwarily engaged
with the offender : but the cruelty and reproach muff
lie on the part, not of the law, but of the criminal;
who has thus knowingly and dilhoneftly involved others
in his own calamities.
2. The forfeiture of goods and chattels accrues in
every one of the high kinds of offence ; in high trea-
fon, or mifprifon thereof, petit treafon, felonies of all
forts whether clergyable or not, felf-murder or felony
de fe, petty larciny, Handing mute, &c. For flight
alio, on an accnfation of treafon, felony, or even pe¬
tit larciny, whether the party be found guilty or ac¬
quitted, if the jury find the flight, the party (hall for¬
feit his goods and chattels: for the very flight is an
offence, carrying with it a ftrong prefumption of
guilt, and is at lead an endeavour to elude and ttifle
the courfe of juftice prefcribed by the law. But the
jury very feldom find the flight: forfeiture being
looked upon, fince the vaft increafe of perfonal pro?
•perty of late years, as too large a penalty for an of¬
fence to which a man is prompted by the natural love
•of liberty.
There is a remarkable difference or two between the
forfeiture of lands, and of goods and chattels. (1.)
Lands are forfeited upon attainder., and not before:
goods and chattels are forfeited by conviction. Be-
caufe in many of the cafes where goods are forfeited,
there never is any attainder ; which happens only where
judgment of death or outlawry is given : therefore, in
tbofe cafes, the forfeiture muff be upon eonviftion, or
not at all; and, being neceffarily upon convl&ion in
thofe, it is fo ordered in all other cafes, for the law
loves uniformity. (2.) The forfeiture of lands has
relation to the time the faff was committed, fo as to
avoid all fubfequent fales and incumbrances: but tine
forfeiture of goods and chattels has no relation back¬
wards ; fo that thofe only which a man has at the
-time of conviftion fliall be forfeited. Therefore a
traitor or felon may bona fide U\\ any of his chattels,
real or perfonal, for the fuftenance pf himfelf and fa¬
mily between the fact and convifh'on : for perfonal
property is of fo fluftuating a nature, that it paffes
through many hands in a fhort time ; and no buyer
cotild be fafe, if he were liable to return the goods
which he had fairly bought, provided any of the prior
vendors had committed a treafon or felony. Yet if
they be collufively and not bona fide parted with,
merely to defraud the crown, the law (and particu¬
larly the ftatute 13 Eliz. c. 5.) will reach them; for
they are all the while truly and fubftantially the goods
of the offender i and as he, if acquitted, might recover Forficula,
them himfelf, as not parted with for a good confider- F°rfie-
ation ; fo, in cafe he happens to be convifted, the law
will recover them for the king.
FORFICULA, the ear-wig, in zoology, a ge¬
nus of infefts belonging to the order of coleoptera.
The antennae are briftly ; the elytra are dimidiated ;
the wings are covered ; and the tail is forked. There
are two fpecies, viz. the auriculata, or common ear¬
wig, with the tops of the elytra white,; and the mi¬
nor, with teftaceous and unfpotted elytra.—It is a
very troublefome creature, frequently introducing it-
felf into the ears, and caufing a great deal of pain by
its biting: it likewife burrows in other parts of the
body, which it bites in the fame manner.
Ear-wigs are very mifehievous vermin in gardens,
efpecially where carnations are preferved; for they
are fo fond of thefe flowers, that, if care is not taken
to prevent them, they will entirely deftroy them, by-
eating off the fweet part at the bottom of the petals
or leaves. To prevent which, moft people have ftands
erected, which have a bafon of earth or lead round
each fupporter, which is conftantly kept filled with
water. Others hang the hollow claws of crabs a,nd
lobfters upon flicks in divers parts of the garden, in¬
to which thofe vermin get ; and by often fearching
them, you will deftroy them without much trouble,
which will be of great fervice to your wall-fruit, for
thefe are great deftroyers alfo of all foft fruits.
FORGE, properly fignifies a little furnace, where¬
in fmiths and other artificers of iron or fteel, &c. heat
their metals red hot, in order to foften them and ren¬
der them more malleable and manageable on the anvil.
An ordinary forge is nothing but a pair of bellows,
the nozzle of which is -direfted upon a fmooth area,
on which coals are placed. The nozzle of a pair of
bellows may be alfo directed to the bottom of any fur¬
nace, to excite the combuftion of the coals placed
there, by which a kind of forge is formed. In labo¬
ratories, there is generally a fmafll furnace confiding
of one cylindrical piece, open at top, -which has at its
lower fide a hole fo.r receiving the nozzle of a double
bellows. This kind of forge-furnace is very conveni¬
ent for fufions, as the operation is quickly performed,
and with few coals. In its lower part, two inches
above the hole for receiving the nozzle of the bellows,
may be placed an iron-plate of the fame diameter, fup-
■ported upon two horizontal bars, and pierced near its
circumference with four holes diametrically oppofite to
each other. By this difpofition, the wind of live bel-
dows, pufhed forcibly under this plate, enters at thefe
four holes; and thus the-heat of the tire is equally dif-
tributed, and the crucible in the furnace is equally fur-
rounded by it. This contrivance is ufed in. the forge-
furnaces for melting copper, -with this difference only,
-that thefe furnaces are fquare, -which is a matter of no
•confequence.
As the wind of bellows ftrongly and rapidly excites
the aftion of the fire, a forge is very convenient when
a great heat is to be applied quickly : but it is not
fuitable when the heat is to be gradually increafed.
The forge, or blaft of bellows, is ufed in feveral ope¬
rations in fmafl; as to fufefailts, metak, ores, &c. It
is alfo much ufed in works in the great, which require
ftrong heat, without much management; and chiefly in
the
FOR [ 3077 ] FOR
Forge, the fmelting of ores, and fufion of metallic matters.
Forger. Forge is alfo ufed for a large furnace, wherein iron-
ore, taken out of the mine, is melted down : or it is
more properly applied to another kind of furnace,
wherein the iron-ore, melted down and feparated in a
former furnace, and then caft into fows and pigs, is
heated and fufed over again, and beaten afterwards
with large hammers, and thus rendered more foft, pure,
duftile, and fit for ufe.
Forge, in the train of artillery, is generally called
a travelling-forge, and may not be improperly called a
portable fmith’s-fhop: at this forge all manner of
fmith’s work is made, and it can be ufed upon a march
as well as in camp. Formerly they were very ill con¬
trived, with 2 wheels only, and wooden fupporters to
prop the forge for working when in the park. Of late
years they are made with 4 wheels, which anfwers their
purpofe much better.
Forge for red-hot Balls, is a place where the balls
are made red-hot before they are fired off: it is built
about five or fix feet below the furface of the ground,
of ftrong brick-work, and an iron grate, upon which
the balls are laid, with a very large fire under them.
FORGER, in law, one guilty of forgery.
Forgery, (from the French forger, i. e. accudare,fa-
Iricare, “ to beat on an anvil,” ‘‘forge,” or “form,”)
may be defined at common law, to be “ the fraudu¬
lent making or alteration of a writing to the prejudice
of another man’s right:” for which the offender may
fuffer fine, imprifonment, and pillory. And alfo, by
a variety of ifatutes, a more fevere punifhment is in-
fli&ed on the offender in many particular cafes, which
are fo multiplied of late as almoft to become general.
We {hall mention the principal inftances.
By ftatute 5 Eliz. c. 14, to forge or make, or know-
ingly to publifh or give in evidence, any forged deed,
court-roll, or will, with intent to affieft the right of real
property, either freehold or copyhold, is punifhed by
a forfeiture to the party grieved of double cofts and
damages; by ftanding in the pillory, and having both
his ears cut off, and his noftrils flit, and feared; by
forfeiture to the crown of the profits of his lands, and
by perpetual imprifonment. For any forgery relating
to a term of years, or annuity, bond, obligation, ac¬
quittance, releafe, or difcharge of any debt or demand
of any perfonal chattels, the fame forfeiture is given to
the party grieved; and on the offender is infli&ed the
pillory, lofs of one of his ears, and half a year’s im¬
prifonment : the fecond offence, in both cafes, being fe¬
lony without benefit of clergy.
Befides this general adt, a multitude of others, fince
the revolution, (when paper-credit was firft eftablifhed)
have inflidfed capital punifhment on the forging, al¬
tering, or uttering as true when forged, of any bank
bills or notes, or other fecurities; of bills of credit
iffued from the exchequer; of fouth-fea bonds, &c.;
of lottery tickets or orders ; of army or navy deben¬
tures; of Fall-India bonds; of writings under feal of
the London or royal-exchange affurance ; of the hand
of the receiver of the pre-fines, or of the accountant-
general and certain other officers of the court of chan¬
cery ; of a letter of attorney or other power to receive
or transfer ftock or annuities; and on the perfonating
a proprietor thereof, to receive or transfer fuch annui¬
ties, ftock, or dividends: alfo on the perfonating, or
Voo. IV.
procuring to be perfonated, any feaman or other per- Forgery,
fon, entitled to wages or other naval emoluments, or Forgin&;
any of his perfonal reprefentatives; and the taking, or
procuring to be taken, any falfe oath in order to ob¬
tain a probate, or letters of adminiftration, in order to
receive fuch payments; and the forging, or procuring
to be forged, and likewife the uttering or publifhing,
as true, of any counterfeited feaman’s will or power :
to which may be added, though not ftri&ly reducible
to this head, the counterfeiting of mediterranean paf-
fes, under the hands of the lords of the admiralty,, to
proteft one from the piratical ftates of Barbary ; the
forging or imitating of any (tamps to defraud the
public revenue; and the forging of any marriage re-
gifter or licence : all which are, by diftin£t ails of par¬
liament, made felonies without benefit of clergy. By
ftatutes 13 Geo. III. c. 52. & 59. forging or counter¬
feiting any ftamp or mark to denote the ftandard of
gold and filver plate, and certain other offences of the
like tendency, are punifhed with tranfportation for 14
years. By ftatute 12 Geo. III. c. 48. certain frauds
on the ftamp-duties, therein defcribed, principally by
ufing the fame (tamps more than once, are made Angle
felony, and liable to tranfportation for feven years.-
And the fame punifhment is inflidted by ftatute 13 Geo.
III. c. 38. on fuch as counterfeit the common feal of
the corporation for manufadturing plate-glafs (thereby
eredted), or knowingly demand money of the com¬
pany by virtue of any writing under fuch counterfeit
feal.
There are alfo two other general laws, with regard
to forgery ; the one 2 Geo. II. c. 25, whereby the firff:
offence in forging or procuring to be forged, adfing or
affifting therein, or uttering orpublifhing as true, any
forged deed, will, bond, writing obligatory, bill of ex¬
change, promiffory note, indorfement or affignment
thereof, or any acquittance or receipt for money or
goods, with intention to defraud any perfon, (or cor¬
poration), is made felony without benefit of clergy.
And by ftatute 7 Geo. II. c. 22. it is equally penal to
forge, or caufe to be forged, or utter as true, a coun¬
terfeit acceptance of a bill of exchange, or the number
of any accountable receipt for any note, bill, or any
other fecurity for money; or any warrant or order for
the payment of money, or delivery of goods. So that,
through the number of thefe general and fpecial pro-
vifions, there is now hardly a cafe poffible to be con¬
ceived, wherein forgery, that tends to defraud, whether
in the name of a real or fiftitious perfon, is not made a
capital crime.
Forging, in law, the ad of Forgery.
Forging, in fmithery, the beating or hammering
iron on the anvil, after having firft made it red-hot in
the forge, in order to extend it into various forms, and
fafhion it into works. See Forge.
There are two ways of forging and hammering iron.
One is by the force of the hand, in which there are
ufually feveral perfons employed, one of them turning
the iron and hammering likewife, and the reft only
hammering. The other way is by the force of a wa¬
ter-mill, which raifes and works feveral huge hammers
beyond the force of man; under the ftrokes whereof
the workmen prefent large lumps or pieces of iron,
which are fuftained at one end by the anvils, and at
the other by iron-chains fattened to the deling of the
17 S forge.
FOR [ 307S ] FOR
f oi-giveneff for^e. See Mill.
Form '^'3 way 's or^y u^ec^ *n t^ie 5ar^eft
v -°rm' , works, as anchors for fhips, &c. which ufually weigh
feveral thoufand pounds. For the lighter works, a
fingle man fcrves to hold, heat, and turn with one hand,
while he hammers with the other.
Each purpofe the work is defigned for, requires ?ts
proper heat; for if it be too cold, it will not feel the
weight of the hammer, as the fmiths call it when it
will not batter under the hammer; and if it be too hot,
it will red-fear, that is, break or crack under the ham¬
mer.
The feveral degrees of heats the fmiths give their
irons, are, firft, a blood-red heat; fecondly, a white-
flame-heat ; and, thirdly, a 'fparkling or weldihg heat.
FORGIVENESS, the aft of pardoning any of¬
fender. See Morals, n°'146.
FORISFAM1LIATION, in law. When a child,
upon receiving a portion from his father, or othervvife,
renounces his legal title to any further (hare of his fa¬
ther’s fucceffion, he is faid to be forisfamiliated.
FORLI, an ancient and confiderable town of Italy,
and capital of a territory of the fame name, in Ro¬
magna, with a bilhop’s fee. The public ftruftures are
very handfome; and it is feated in a fertile, healthy,
and pleafant country, 10 miles fouth-eaft of Faenza,
and 45 north-eait of Florence. E. Long. 12. 1. N.
Lat. 44. 28.
FORLORN-hope, in the military art, fighifies men
detached from feveral regiments, or otherwife appoint¬
ed, to make the firft attack in day of battle; or, at a
fiege, to ftorm the coonteffcarp, mount the breach, or
the like.— They are fo called from the great danger
they are unavoidably expofed to; but the word is old,
and begins to be obfolete.
FORM, in phyfics, the eflential or diftinguiftiing
modification 6f the matter whereof a natural body is
compofad, fo as thereby to give it filch a particular
manner of exiftence ; being that which couftitiites It
fuch a particular body, and diftitiguifhes if from every
other body.
Form is alfo ufed, in a moral fenfe, for the manner
of being or doing a thing according to rules: thus we
fay, a form of government, a form of argument, Set.
Form, in law, the rules ellablifhed a'nd requifite to
be obferved in legal proceedings.—The fbrtnal part of
the law, or method of proceeding, Can'uOt be altered
but by parliament ^ for if oh.ee thefe hutWOidtS were
demolifhed, there would be an inlet to all manner df
innovation in the body of the law itfelf.
Form, in carpentry, is iifed to denote the long feats
or benches in the choirs of churches or in fidhoOls, for
the priefts, prebends, religious, or fcholars, to'fit on.
At fchodls, the wbrdform is freqiieritly applied to what
is other wife termed "a clajs. See Class.
Form alfo denotes the external appearance or fur-
face of a body, or the difpofitlon of its parts, as to the
length, breadth, and thickriefs.
Form is alfo iifed, among mechanics, for a fort of
mould whereon any thing'is fafhidned or wrought.
Printer's Form, an aflcmblige of letters, word’s, and
lines, ranged in of'der, and fo difpofed into pages by
the compofitdr; 'from Which, by means of ink and a
prefs, the printed fiieefs afe drawn.
Every fbrm is mclofcd in an iron-chafe,, wherein it
is firmly locked by a number of pieces of wood ; fomC Form
long and narrow, and others of the form bf wedges. ]*
There are two forms required for every (beet, one for Formica'
each fide; and each form confifts of more or fewer
pages, according to the fize of the book.
Hatters Form, is a large block or piece of wood, of'
a cylindrical figure; the top thereof rounded, and the
bottom quite flat. Its ufe is, to mould or falhion the
crown of the hat, after the matter thereof has been
beaten and fulled.
Papersnakers Form, is the frame or mould wherein
the ftieets are fafhioned. See Paper.
FORMA pauperis, in law, is when a perfon has
juft cailfe of fuit, but is fo poor, that he cannot defray
the nfual charges of fuing at law or in equity; in
Which cafe, on making oath that he is not worth jl. in
the world, on all his debts being paid, and producing
a certificate from fome lawyer that he has good canfe
of fuit, the judge will admit him to fue in forma pau¬
peris; that is, without paying any fee to counfellors,
attorneys, or clerk : the llatute 11 Hen. VII. c. t2.
having enafted, that counfel and attorneys, &c. lhall be
affigned to fueh poorperfons gratis. Where it appears
that any pauper has fold dr contra&ed for the benefit
of Ins fuit, whilft it is depending in court, fuch caufe
fhall be thenceforth totally difmifled; and a perfon fil¬
ing in forma pauperis, fhali not have a new trial granted
him, but is to acquiefce in the judgment of the court.
FORMAL, fomething belonging to or conftituting
the form of a thing. See Form.
FORMATION, in philofdphy, an aft whereby
fortieth i fig is formed of p r od u ce d. —- For the formation
of the feetus in the womb, fee Generation.
Formation of Stones. See Stone.
Formation of Metals and Minerals.. See Metal
and Mineral.
Formation, in grammar, fignifies the manner of
forming one word from another: thus acctnmtantjhip
is formed from accountant, and this laft from account.
FORMEDON, in law, (breve de forma donationis)
a writ that lies for a perfon who has a right to lands or
tenements, by virtue of any entail, arifing from the
ftatute of Weftm. 2 Ch. II.
This writ is of three kinds, viz. a defeender, re¬
mainder, and TtvCrter. Farmedon in defeender, lies
where a tenant in tail infeoffs a ftrangfr,. or is difleifed
and dies, the heir may bring this writ to recover the
lands. Fbrmedon in rernhinder, lites Where a man.gives
lands, &c. to a perfon In tail, and, for'default of iffite of
his body, the remainder to another in tail: here if the
tenant in tail die without ifiue, and a ftranger abates
and'enters into the land, he-in remainder (hall have this-
writ. Formedon in reverter, lies where lands are en¬
tailed on certain perfons ahd their iflue, with remain¬
der oVer for want of ifliic; and, on that remainder fail¬
ing, then to revert to the donor and his heirs: in this
cafe, if the tenant in tail dies without iflue, and alfo he
in remainder, the donor and his heirs, to whom the re-
Veffion returns, may have this writ for the recovery of
the eftate, though the fame be alienated, &c.
FORMICA, dr the Ant, in iOology, a genus of
infefts belonging to the order oPhymenoptera, the:cha-
rafterS of which are thefe There is a’fmftll fcale be¬
twixt the breaft and belly, and the joint is fo deep, that
the animal appears as if it were almoft cut through the
body.
FOR [ 3079 ] FOR
Formica, body. The females, and the neuters or working ants
— which have no fexual, chara^e^i^ics, are fpriijlfli^d with
a. hidden'fting ; a.nd both the males and females have
vyings,, but the neuters.have none- There ^re-i§. %e-
cies^ moft of them diltinguilhed by their colours.
Theft infers keej) together in companies like the
bees, and maintain a fort of republic. Their neft is
pot exaftly fquare,.but longer one way than the other;
and in it there are a fort of paths, which lead to dif¬
ferent magazines. Sorpe of the ants are employed in
making the ground firm, by mixing it with a fort of
glue, for fear it fliould crumble and fall down upon
their heads. They may be fornetimes.feeu to gather
feveral twigs, which ferve them for rafters, which they
place over the paths, to fupport the covering; they
lay others, acrofs” them, and upon them ruflies, weeds,
and dried grafs, which they heap up into a double de¬
clivity, which- feryes to turn off the water from, their
magazines. Some of thefei ferve to lay up their proyi-
fions in, and in others they lay their eggs.
As for the proyifipns, they lay up every thing tjhat 1$
fit for them to eat; and you may often fee one loaded
with pippin or grain of fruit, another with a dead fly,
and feyeral together with the carcafe of a may-bug or
other infedt. If they meet with any they cannot bring
pway, they eat it upon the fpot, or at leaft fa, much of
ft as may reduce it to a bulk fmall enough for them
to carry. They do opt run about where they pleafe,
at all adventures: for fome of them are fent abroad to
make difeoveries ;.and if they bring back news that they
have met with a pear, or a fugar-loaf, or a pot of fweet-
meats, they will run from the bottom of the garden,
high as the third ftory of a hoyfe, to come at it. They
all follow each other in the fame path, without wan¬
dering- to the right; or th.p left; but in the fields they
are more at tVtr liberty, aod are allowed to run ahw^
in feareh of game. There i^ a^oj-t of green , fly, tliat
does a great deal of mifehief among the flowers, anil
which curls up the leayes of peach and pear trees: atid
thefe are furrounded with a fort of glue, or honey,
which the ants hunt after very greedily y for they touch
..peither the plant nor the.flies themfelvw-
Next to this, their greatell pafijon is to l^y up hoards
of wheat, and other corn ; and for fear the eorn.fhpuld
fprout by the moifture of the fubterraneous. cells, they
gnaw off the end which would produce the blade. The
ants are often feen puftiing along grains.of wheat, or
barley, much larger than themfelves.
In Africa, and particularly in Guinea, the ants are
exceedingly irpublefome, pud dp a great deal of mif-
chief. They make their nefts of earth in the fields,
twice as high as a man; belides yhich they build large
pefts in high trees, fropi which places they advance in
fuch prodigious fwarms to the houfes, that they fre¬
quently oblige the inhabitants to quit their beds in the
night-time. They will fometimes attack a living fiieep ;
which in a night’s time they will reduce to a perfect,
Ikeleton, leaving not the leaft ihjng except, the bones..
It is common for them to. fenye domeftic fowls in the
fame manner, and even the rats.themfclyes cpnnot efcape
them. If you place a worm or a beetle where,only,
one or two ants are, they will immediately depart, and
bring with them above an hundred; after which they
feize their prey, and march off with it in good order.
Thefe an£s are of various forts $ fome great, others
fmall; fome black, and others red : the fting of this Form
laft js. .very painful, and. caufes. an inflammation : the
white are^s tranfparent ns cryftal, and have inch ftrong
teeth, that in, a night’s time they will eat their way
through a thick wooden cbeft, apd make it as full .pf
holes as if it had been penetrated by hail-lhot.
There are alfo feveral forts of ants in the Eatt In¬
dies, whole numbers are prodigious: fome of thexunye
exceeding large, and, of a ruddy colour, inclining tp
black; and fotne have wings, but others have oppe^.
They nry very pernicious to the fruits pf the earth, and
do a great deal of mifehief in houfes, unlefs great carp
is taken to. prevent them, ft is remarkable, that if one
ant meets another that is loaden, it always gives way
to let it pafs freely.
The ant lays eggs in the manner of the commop
flies,, and from thefp eggs are hatched a fort of fma.ll
maggots or worms without legs: thefe are fharp at one
end, and blunt, at the o^ther^ and are white, but fo
transparent,, that the inteftiues are feen through the
/kin. Thefe, after a ihort time, changp into forge
white auidi’Sf which are what are ufoaily called ants
eggs- That end whiph is to be the tail is the largeft,
and that which is the head is fomewhat tranfparent.
The ants move thefe about at pleafure with their for¬
ceps, It is well known, that when a neft. of thefe crea¬
tures,is difturbed, ancf tlie purdias fcattered about, the
ants are at infinite pains to get together all that arp
pnhurt, and make a neft for them again : nay, any ant*
will do this, and thofe of one neft will often take care
of the aurelia of another.
The affe&ion of the ant for its offspring is amazing.
They carry the young worms about in their mouths,
that nothing may injure them;. and when the jCarth of
the neft is dry, thpy carry them down jo a greater
depth, but whe,n wet they bring them tq the forface,
that they, may not be injured by the damps.
The common ant builds only with fmall pieces of
dry earth, and there is always found a vaft quantity
either of eggs, worms, or aurelia, at the bottom of the
neft. The aurejias, are covered only with a,thin fttin^
and when carefully opened, they Ihew the worm per-,
feijjt, and in its fevpral ft ages of perfection.
The foi'ecaft of ant? in providing againft the winter
is a miftake. They are fuppofed not to eat in the win-,
ter, but to fpend that feafon, like dormice and many
other forts of animals, in a ftate of deep. What con¬
firms this is, that they have been obferved, as the cold
draws on in the autumn, to move very heavily, and in
t^e vintage-jime they can hardly .ftir pt all; fq that
the provifion they make feems intended; not for them¬
felves, f>ut for their young.
The care thefe creatures take of their offspring is
remarkable. Whenever a hill is difturbed, all the ants
are found bufied in confulting the fafety, not of them-
felves, but of the eggs or thefe forger bodies foclofing
the maggot or young ant; they carry thefe down any
way fo as to get them put of fight, .and will do this
over and over as often ps they are difturhed.
They carry away the eggs and vermfoles together in
their confufion; but, as foon as the danger is over, they
carefully feparate them, and place each fort in par¬
cels by themfelves under flicker of different kinds,
and at various depths, according to the different de¬
grees of warmth and coverture the different ftates
17 S 2 require.
FOR
[ 3080 ] FOR
Formica, require.
' In the warm feafos of the year, they every morning
bring up the eggs, as they are ufually called, to the
furface, or nearly fo; and from ten in the forenoon to
five in.the afternoon or thereabouts, all thefe will be
found juft under the furface ; and if the hills be exa¬
mined toward eight in the evening, they will be found
to have carried them all down ; and if rainy weather
be coming on, it will be neceffary to dig a foot deep
or more, in order to find them,
Thefe little creatures are very troublefome in gar¬
dens, and in pafture-lands; as well by feeding on the
fruit, as by making up hills for their habitation. In
the hotter countries, as Italy, Spain, and the Weft
Indies, ants are the greateft peft of the fields. Trees
may be preferved from them by encompafling the item,
for four fingers breadth, with a roll of wool, newly
pulled from the (heep’s belly ; or by laying faw-dull
all round the ftump of it. Some anoint the tree with
tar, which has the fame effed. See Ant.
The large, black, winged ants of America, to avoid
the great rains which fall there at particular feafons,
make to themfelves large nefts on trees, with a covered
way for them to go up and down on the lee-fide of the
tree. Thefe nefts are roundifh on the outfide, made
of light brown earth, plaftered fmooth. They are
larger than a bufhel; and in the infide are many finuous
caverns or lodgings communicating with one another.
See Plate CVIII. fig. 1. A, The ants heft; B, The
tubular paflage, made of the fame materials.
Formic4-A?5, the Ant-lion, in zoology, an infed
fo called from its devouring great numbers of ants. It
is the caterpillar or worm of a fly much refembling the
libellae or dragon-flies; and feeds chiefly upon ants,
from which property it derives its name.
It is fomewhat of the nature of the fpider in its way
of taking its prey, its manner of fpinning, and the fi-
ure and foftnefs of its body. It has, in its general
gure, fomewhat of the appearance of the millepes or
wood-loufe, fo that fome have miftaken it at firft fight
for that animal. It is of a dirty greyifh colour, marked
with fome black fpots ; and thefe are alfo compofed of
many points when viewed with a microfcope, which
make it refemble a hedge-hog orporcupine. Its body,
is compofed of feveral rings, and has thence a wrifikled
look. It has fix legs, four are joined to the breaft,
and the other two to a longer part, which may be
taken for its neck. Its head is fmall and flat, and it
has two remarkable horns : tHefe are abbut a fixth
part of an inch long, and as thick as a hair : they are
hard, hollow^ and hooked at the end like the'claws pf
a cat.. At the origin of each bf thefe horns, it has a
clear and bright black eye, which fees very diftinftly,
and gives the creature notice to efcape on fight of the
fmallelt object.— This creature is not able to hunt after
its prey, nor to deftroy large infefts; it can only draw
into its fnares fuch as come near its habitation, and of
thefe very few are fuch as he can manage: all the
winged kind are able to efcape by flight; andthe beetle
kinds, and others that have hard ftrells upon their bo.-
dies, are of no ufe to him, as his horns cannot pierce
them. The fmallnefs of the ant, and its want of wings,
make it the deftined prey of this devourer. The man¬
ner in which he catches his prey is as follows.
He ufually encamps under an old wall, that he may
be (heltered from the injuries of the weather ;' and he Formica.-
always choofes a place where the foil is compofed of a
fine dry fand. In this he makes a pit of the fliape of
a funnel, or an inverted hollow cone. If he intends
the pit to be but fmall, he thrufts down his hinder part
into the fand, and by degrees plunges himfelf back¬
ward into it; and when he has got to a certain depth,
he tofles out the loofe fand which has run down with
his head, artfully throwing it off beyond the edges of
his pit. Thus he lies at the bottom of a fmall hollow,
which is wideft at the top, and comes doping down to
his body.
But if he is to make a larger pit, more pains are re¬
quired to bring it to perfeftion. He firft traces, in
the furface of the fand, a large circle, which is the e-
re&ed bafe or mouth of the pit he is to make in form
of an inverted cone. He then buries himfelf in the
fand near the edge of this circle, and carefully throws
up the fand above him, with his head tolling it out be¬
yond the circumference of the circle. Thus he conti¬
nues his work, running down backwards in a fpiral line
all the way, and carefully throwing off the fand from
above him, till he is come to the place of his reft,
which is the point or reverted apex of the hollow cone
he has formed by his paffage. The length of his neck,
and the flatnefs of his head, gives him a power of ufing
the whole as a fpade, and throwing off the fand with-
great eafe ; and his ftrength in this part is fo great,
that he is able to throw off a quantity of it to fix
inches diftance. This is a power he exerts ofteneri
however, in throwing away the remains of the animals
he has fed upon, that his den may not become fright¬
ful to others of the fame fpecies, by feeing their fellow
carcafes about it.
When he has finilhed his pit, he buries himfelf at the
bottom of it among the fand, leaving no part above
ground but the tips of his two horns, which he expands
to the two fides of the pit. In this condition he lies
and waits for his prey, and never comes up afterwards.
When an ant, or any other fuch creature, chances to
walk over the edges of his pit, its fteps throw down a
a little of the fand, which naturally running down to
the bottom of the pit, gives the enemy notice of his
prey ; he then toffes up the fand which covers his head,
to bury the ant, and bring him down with its return¬
ing force to the bottom; and as one fuch attempt can¬
not be fufficient to prevent the ant’s efcape, he throws
more and njore fand upon him, till he by degrees brings
him down. All the endeavours of the ant to efcape,
when Once it is within the verge of the pit, are in vain;
for, as it attempts to climb, the fand runs away from
under its feet, and it finks, the lower for every attempt.
This motion of the farid alfo informs the enemy where
it is, and direfts him to throw up more fand in the right
place; which it does, till the poor ant falls to the bot¬
tom between its horns. It then plunges their points
deep into the ant’s-body ; and having fucked out all
the juice out of the prey, it throws out the empty fkin
as far from the hole as it can. This done, it mounts
up the edges of its pit, and if it has fuffered any1
injury, repairs it with great care, and' immediately
buries itfelf again in the centre, to wait for another
meal. The horns of this creature are its only organs
for receiving nourifliment; it never brings any animal
which it has fetzed near to its head, but always holds
F O Pv [ 3081 ] FOR
Formica, it at the tip of the horns. They therefore plainly ferve
* ' as fyringes, to draw into its ftomach the juices of the
bodies of the infe&s it feeds upon: neither is there any
mouth or trunk, or any other organ to be difcovered
about its head, which could ferve to the purpofe of eat¬
ing; the head feenaing only intended for throwing a-
way the fand in forming the pit. The horns of this
animal being fo neceflary to its life, nature has provi¬
ded for the reftoring them in cafe of accidents; and,
if cut off, they are found to grow again.
The food this creature procures by its pit can be but
little; and as it has no power of catching its prey any
other way, its motion being only backwards, and that
flowly, and by fmall fpaces at a time, fome people have
believed its catching now and then an ant by this
means was rather fordiverfion than hunger. But tho’
the formica leo will live a long time without food, and
even pafs through all its changes when (hut up in a
box, yet it is always ready to eat when food is offered
it; it always appears ftarved and fmall when kept thus;
and if a fly is given it in this hungry ftate, it will fo
fuck out all its juices, that the (hell remaining may be
rubbed to powder between the fingers, while the body
of the creature that has fucked it appears remarkably
fwelled and diltended; fo that it is plain that the juices
of the prey are conveyed into the body of the creature;
though it is not eafy to fee by what means, the horns
not appearing to have any perforation.
When the formica leo has lived a proper time in this
(late, it leaves its pit, and is only feen drawing lines
and traces on the furface of the fand. After this it bu¬
ries itfelf under the furface ; and there iuclofes itfelf in
a fine web, in which it is to pafs its transformation in¬
to the winged ftate. This cafe is made of a fort of
fiik which the creature fpins in the manner of the fpi-
der, and of a quantity of the grains of fand cemented
together by a glutinous humour which flows- from its
pores. This cafe, however, would be too harfti and
coarfe for the body of the creature, and therefore it
ferves only for the outer covering to defend it from in¬
juries;. the creature fpinning one of pure and incom¬
parably fine filk, of a beautiful pearl colour, within it,
which covers its whole body..
When the creature has lain fome time in this cafe,
it throws off its outer fkin, with the eyes, the horns,
and every other part neceffary to its life before, and
becomes an oblong nymph, in which a careful eye may
trace the form of the fly into which it is to be tranf-
fbrmed. There may be feen, through its tranfparent
covering, new' eyes, new horns, wings, and all the other
parts of the animal in its perfe& ftate. This nymph
makes its way about half out of the fliell, and remains
in this condition, but without farther life or motion,
till the perfeft fly makes its way out at a flit in the
back. In this laft ftate it much refembles the libellae
or dragon-flies common about our waters. The male
couples with the female in this ftate only ; and M. Pou-
part, to whom the world is obliged for this curious de-
fcription, is of opinion that the females lay only one
egg ; but this is. very different from the courfe of na¬
ture in* the other animals of the lame clafs.
When this infedt forms its pit in a bed of pure fand,
it is made and repaired with great eafe; but where it
meets with other fubftances among the fand, the la¬
bour becomes greatly the. more embarrafiing. If, for
inftance, when the creature has half-formed its pit, and Formofa
then comes to a ftone of fome moderate fize, it does !l.
not defert the work for this, but goes on, intending to
remove that impediment at laft. When the pit is fi- ■
nifhed, the creature crawls backward up the fide of the
place where the ftone is, and getting its backfide under
it, takes great pains and time to get it on a true poife,
and then begins to crawl backward with it up the edge
to the top of the pit, to get it out of the way. It is a
very common thing to fee a formica-leo in this manner
labouring at a ftone four times as big as its own body;
and, as it can only move backward, and the poife is
hard to keep, efpecially up a flope of fuch crumbly
matter as fand, which moulders away from under its
feet, and neceffarily alters the pofition of its body, the
ftone very frequently falls down when near the verge,
and then it is fure to roll to the bottom. In this cafe
the animal attacks it again in the fame way, and often
is not difcouraged by five or fix mifcarriages of this
kind, but, after all, attempts again, and at length gets
over the verge of the place. When it has done this,
it does not leave it there, left it ftiould roll in again;
but is always at tlie pains of puffing it farther on, till
it has removed it to a neceffary dittance from- the edge
of the pit.
The common formica-leo moves only backward ; but
Mr Rouet has obferved a fpecies which moves forward
in the common way of other animals, and makes no
pit of this kind to entrap its prey, but feizes other in¬
fers by force.
FORMOSA, an iffand in the Pacific ocean, between
1190 and 1220 of E. Long, and between 2 2° and 250
N. Lat.. about 100 miles eaft of Canton in China. It
is fubjeft to the Chinefe.
FORMULA, or Formulary, a rule or model, or
certain terms prefcribed or decreed by authority, for
the form and manner of an aft, inftrument, proceeding,
or the like.
Formula, in church-hiftoryand theology, fignifies
a profeffion of faith.
Formula, in medicine, imports the conftitution of
medicines, either fimple or compound, both with re-
fpeft to their prefcription and cohfiftence.
FORMULARY, a writing containing the form of
an oath, declaration, attettation, abjuration, &c. to be
made on certain occafions.
FORNACALIA, or Fornicalia, in Roman an-
tiquity, a feftival inftituted by Numa in honour of For*
nax, the goddefs of ovens; wherein certain cakes were
made, and offered in facrifice before the ovens.
FORNICATION, (Fornicatio, from the fornicet
in Rome, where the lewd women proftituted themfelvfes
for money), is whoredom; or the aft of incontinerrcy^
between tingle perfons; for if either of the parties is
married, it is adultery. Formerly court-leets had
power to inquire of and puniff fornication and adul¬
tery ; in which courts the king had a fine affeffed on
the offenders, as appears by the book: of Domefday.
In-the year 165.0, when the ruling1 jtowers found If
for their iutereft to put on the femblance of a very ex¬
traordinary ftriftnefs and purity of morals, hot'orffy
inceft and wilful adultery were made capital crimes, but
alfo the repeated aft of keeping.a brothel,.or-commit¬
ting fornication, were (upon a Tecond conviftion) made
felony without benefit of clergy. But,,at the reftora-
FOR [ 3082 1 FOR
Fornix tion, when men, from an abhorrence of the hypocrify
ForJfcu 0^t^,e ^ate t*mes* 1010 ^ contrary extreme of licen-
. ‘ _ ti.oiifnefg, it was not thought proper to renew a law of
fuch unfalhionable rigour. And thefe offences have
been ever fince left to the feeble coercion of the fpiri-
tual court, according to the rules of the canon law; a
Jaw which has treated the offence of incontinence, nay,
even adultery itfelf, with a great degree of tendernefs
and lenity; owing perhaps to the conftrained celibacy
of its firft compilers. The temporal courts therefore
take no cognifanqe even of the crime of adultery other*
wife than as a private-injury. See Apxjltery.
FORNIX, in anatomy, is part of the corpus callo-;
fum in the brain ; fo called, becaufe of a diftant refem-
blance it hath to the arches of ancient vaults when
viewed in a particular manner.
FORRAGE, in the military art, denotes hay, oats,
barley, wheat, grafs, clover, &c. brought into the camp
by the troopers, for the fuftenance of their horfes.
It is the bufinefs of the quarter-mafter general to
appoint the method of forrage, and poll proper guards
for the fecurity of the foragers.
FORRES, a parliament-town of Scotland in the
county of Murray. W. Long. 3. 20. N. Lat. 57.40.
It is claffed with Invernefs, Fcrtrofe, and Nairn.
FORT, in the military art, a fmall fortified place,
environed on all fides with a moat, rampart, and para¬
pet. Its ufe is to fecure fome high ground or the paf-
fage of a river, to make good an advantageous poll, to
defend the lines and quarters of a fiege, &c.
Forts are made of different figures and extents, ac¬
cording as the ground requires. Some are fortified witfi
baftions, others with demi-baftions. Some again are
in form of a fquare, others of a pentagon. A fort dif¬
fers from a citadel, as this laft is built to command
fome. town.
FORTALlCE, in Scots law, fignified anciently a
fmall place of ftrength, originally built for the defence
of the country; and which on that account was for¬
merly reckoned i?iter regalia, and did not go along
with the lands upon which it was fituated without a
fpecial grant from the crown. Now, fortalices are
carried by a general grant of the lands; and the Word
is become fynonymous with manor-place, meffuage, $cc.
FORTESCUE (Sir John), lord chief iuftice of the
king’s bench, and lord high chancellor of England, in
the reign of king Henry VI. was defcended from the
ancient family of Fortefcue, in the county of Devon.
He ftudied the municipal laws of England in Lincoln’s
Inn, of which he was made one of the governors in the
fourth and feventh years of the reign of king Hen¬
ry VI. In 1430 he was called to the degree of a fer-
jeant at law, and in 1441 was conftituted the king’s
ferjeant. The following year he was made lord chief
juftjice of the king’s bench ; in which honourable fta-
tioq he continued till near the end of that king’s reign,
whq fhewed him many particular marks of his favour,
and advanced him: to the poll of lord high chancellor
of England. During the reign of king Edward IV.
he followed the fortunes of the houfe of Lancafter, and
was many years in exile with queen Margaret and prince
Edward her fon. At length, they having a profpedt
of retrieving their defperate fortunes, the queen and
prince returned to England, and Sir John Fontefcue, F'onh.
with many others, accompanied them : but foon afr —
ter the decifive battle pf Tevvk(bury, he was thrown
into prifon and attainted, with other Lajiicaftrians ;
but found means to procure his pardon from Ed¬
ward IV. He wrote, 1. A learned commentary q?
the pojitic laws of England, for the ufe pf prince Ed¬
ward; to one edition of which Mr SeJden wrote notes,
2. The difference between an abfolute and limited mpr
narchy, as it more particularly regards the Englife
conffitutipn; (which was, publilhed, with fome re¬
marks, by John Fortd'cue, afterwards Lord Fortefcuei
in 8vo, in 1714 ; and a fecopd edition was published,
with amendments, in 1719:) And feveral works*
which itill remain in manufcript. He died near 91?
years of ag? ; and was buried in the parifh-church of
Ebburton, where a monument was eredted to his me?
mory, in 1677, by one of his defcendants.
FORTH, one of the mod noble and commodious
rivers in Scotland. It takes its rife near the bottom
of Leimon hills; and running frpm weft to. eaft, re?
ceivesin its. paffsge many confiderable ftreams, deriving
their waters from the eminences in the midland counties
of North Britain. Between Stirling and Alloa, th#
Forth winds in a moft beautiful and furprifing man¬
ner ; fo that, though it is but four miles by land, it is
24 by water between thefe two places. Below Ados
the river expands itfelf to a great breadth between the
counties of Lothian and Fife, till at Queen’s-ferry it
is contradled by promontories flrooting into it from
both coafts; fo that, from being four or five, there it
is not above two miles broad. In the middle of the
channel lies a fmall ifland called Inchgary, which has a
fpring of frefn water: and upon it there was anciently
a fort; and if that was thoroughly repaired, or a new
one eredled, and there were either forts or blopkhoufes
on the oppofite promontories, that part of the river
which lies between Alloa and Queens-ferry would be
as fecure and. convenient a harbour as could hedefired.
Below Queen’s-ferry the north and fouth fhores rece¬
ding, the body of the water gradually enlarges till i|
becomes two or three leagues broad, affording feveraj
fafe harbours on both fides, and excellent roads through?
opt, unembarrefied with latent rocks, flioals, or fands;
and allowing feeure anchorage to the large!! Ihips with?
in a league of the coaft, in almoft any part of the
Frith; and to veffels of a fmaller fixe within a mile or
lefs. The Firth, or (as it is commonly written) the
Frith, of Forth, is, at the mouth of it, from North Ber?
wick to Fifenefs, full five leagues broad; having the
little ifland pf May (on which there is a|light-houfe, and
there might alfo be a fort) in the middle of it, and to
the weft of this the rocky ifland of Bafs; notwithftand?
ing which, the largeft 'fleet may enter and fail up it
many miles With the utmoft facility and in the greatetk
fafety. From its mouth to Stirling-bridge it is 20
leagues in extent. It was known to the ancients by the
name of Bodotria, or (as Ptolemy calls it) Boderia, and
has been ever famous for the number of its havens;
fome of which are, indeed, in their prefent condition,
fcarce worthy of that name ; but, however, moft of
them are capable of being put in a much better ftate,
whenever the commerce of this country (hall require it.
FOR-
[ 3°S3 ]
Sea. I,
FORTIFICA TION;
THE art of fortifying a town, or other place ; or
of potting them in fudi a pofture of defence, that
every one of its parts defends, and is defended by,'fome
other parts, by means of ramparts, parapets, moats,
and other bulwarks; to the end that a fmall number
of men within may be able to defend themfelves for a
Confiderable time againft the afiaults of a numerous
army without, fo that the enemy in attacking them
muft of neceffity fuffer great lofs.
The origin and rife of fortification, is undoubtedly
Owing to the degeneracy of mankind. In the firft ages
of the world, pien were difperfed up and down the
countries in feparate families, as we are told in the hi-
ftories of the Jews and Scythians, who wandered from
One place to a Opt her, for the fake of finding pafture
for their cattle. Thefe families became in time fo nu¬
merous as to form large communities, which fettled all
together in a place ; from whence villages and towns-
had their origin and rife : but they found it was necef^
fary, for the common fecurity, to furround thofe towns
With walls artd ditches, to prevent all violences from
their neighbours, and fiidden furprifes. This was fuffi-
Cient for fome time, till offeniive weapons were invent¬
ed, and cotujuering became a faihion. Then walls with
loOp-holes were made at proper diftances, in order to
ft re en'the defenders again It the arrows of the afiailants :
but finding that, as foon as the enemy got once clofe to
the walls, they cOuld from no part be difeovered or re-
pulfed; for this rCafon they added fquare towers at pro¬
per diftances from each other, fo that every pan of the
wall might be defended by the adjacent tides of the
towers. However, this manner of incloting of town^
was found to be imperfeft, becaufe there remained
ftill dtte of the faces of the towers which fronted the
field that could not be feen from any other part, and
therefore could not be defended. To remedy this,
they made the towers round inftead of fquare, imagin¬
ing this figure to be the ftrongeft to reftft the batter¬
ing engines, as likewife to be better defended from the
othter parts of the wall.
Notwithftandin’g the fuperiority ef this method a-
bove the former, there remained yet a part of thefe
towers unfeen and incapable of being defended; which
made them change the figure of the towers again ; that
is., they made them fquare as before but,, inftead of
prefeqting a face to the field as formerly, they prefented
an angle; by this means they effe&ually. found out
fuch a dilpofition of their works, that no part could be
attacked without being feen or defended by feme other
part.
This laft method was in ufe a long whileand would
in all probability have continued to this day, if gun-
powder had not been found out: but the violence of
the guns and mortars foon convinced the worlds that
foch towers and walls were but a weak defence againfi;
thefe thundering engines; and befides, as the nature of
the attack was entirely changed, it was-alfo neceiTary.
to change that of fortifying likewife.
From that time, ramparts were added to the walls,
the towers enlarged into baftions,, and all. forts of out¬
works have been added, fudh as ravelins, counterguards,
horn and crown works, and others of the like nature,
in order to render the defence in feme meafore equiva¬
lent to the attack.
Notwithftanding all the improvements which have
been made in the art of fortifying fince the invention
of gun-powder, that tofattacking is ftill fuperiorto it:
engineers have tried in vain fo render the advantages of
a fortification equal to thofe of the attack; the fupe¬
riority of the befiegers fire, together with the greater
number of men, obliges generally, fooner or latter, the
befieged to fnbmit.
The greateft improvement made in the art of attack¬
ing happened in the year ibtjy* when M. Vauban
made firft ufe of ricochet-firing at the 'fiege of Ath,
whereby the befneged placed behind the parapets were
as much expofed to the fire of the befiegers as if there
had been none; whereas, before, they had been fecure
as long as the parapet was not demoliihed: and the
worft is, that there can be no remedy found to prevent
this enfilading, without falling into inconveniencies
almoft as bad as thofe which we endeavour to avoid.
Fortification is either regular or irregular. Re¬
gular fortification, is that btiilt in a regular polygon,*
the fides and angles of Which ate all equal, being com¬
monly about a rtfulket-ihot from each other. Irregular
fortification, on the contrary, is that where the fides
and angles are not uniform, equidiftant, or equal ;
which is owing to'the irregularity of the grbund, val¬
leys, rivers, hills, and the like.
Section I. Of Regular Fortification.
Although authors agree as to the general form in
the prefent manner of fortifying, yet they moftly dif¬
fer in particular conftru&ions of the parts. As it
■would be both needlefs and foperfluous to treat of all
the different methods hitherto propoied, we fhall con¬
tent oerfdlies with explaining thofe only, which are
moft efteemed by tire bfcft judges, and have been raoft-
ly put in praflice.
Conjlru ftion of M. VaubanV Methods
This method is divided into little, mean, and great};
the little h chiefly ufed in the conftruftion of citadels,,
mean in that of all forts of towns, and the In
particular cafes only.
We ftiall give the conftru&ion of the mean, as* being
moft ufeful ;. and refer the reader to the table hereafe
ter, for thofe dimenfions which are different in. thefe
feveral fortifications.
Infcribe in a circle a polygon of as many fides as the pfate GXP,
Fortification is defigned to have fronts ; let AB be one % i.
of the fid.es of half an hexagon, which bifedlby the per¬
pendicular CD ; divide half AC of it into nine equal
parts, and one of tbefe into ten others ; then thefe di-
vifions will ferve as a fcale to conftniSt all the parts
of the fortification, and each of them is fuppofed to*
beatoife or fathom,.that is, fix French feet; and there¬
fore.
Sea. I.
3084 F O R T I F I
fore the whole fide AB is fuppofed to be 180 toifes.
As the dividing a line into fo many equal parts, is
troublefome and tedious ; it is more convenient to have
a fcale of equal parts by which the works may be cort-
ftrufted.
If therefore, in this cafe, the radius is taken equal
to 180 toifes, and the circle defcribed with that radius
being divided into fix equal parts, or the radius being
carried fix times round, you will have an hexagon in-
fcribed ; AB being bifefted by the perpendicular CD
as before, fet off 30 toifes from C to D, and draw the
indefinite lines ADG, BDF ; in which take the parts
AE, BH, each equal to 50 toifes ; from the cen¬
tre E defcribe an arc through the point H, meeting
AD in G, and from the centre H defcribe an arc
through the point E, meeting BD in F ; or which is
the fame, make each of the lines EG, HF, equal to
the difiance EH ; then the lines joining the points
A, E, F, G, H, B, will be the principal or outline of
the front.
If the fame conftrudlion be performed on the other
fides of the polygon, you will have the principal or
Outline of the whole fortification.
If, with a radius of 20 toifes, there be defcribed
circular arcs, from the angular points B, A, M, T,
and lines are drawn from the oppofite angles E, H,
See. fo as to touch thefe arcs their parts a b, b c, &c.
together with thefe arcs, will reprefent the outline of
the ditch.
Definitions.
1. The part FEA.LN, is called the baftion.
2. AE, AL, the faces of the baftion.
3. EF, LN, the flanks,
4. FG, the curtain.
5. FN, the gorge of the baftion.
6. AG, BF, the lines of defence.
7. AB, the exterior fide of the polygon.
8. CD, the perpendicular.
9. Any line which divides a work into two equal
parts, is called the capital of that work.
T A
CATION.
10. a b c, thecounterfcarp of the ditch.
XI. A, M, the flanked angles.
12. H, E, L, the angles of the (boulder, or (boul¬
der only.
13. G, F, N, the angles of the flank.
14. Any angle whole point turns from the place is
called a faliant angle, fuch as A, M: and any angle
whofe point turns towards the place, re-entering angle,
fuch as b, F, N.
15. If there be drawn two lines parallel to the prin¬
cipal or outline, the one at 3 toifes diftance, and the
other at 8'from it; then thefpaceyx included between
the principal one and that fartheft diftant, is called the
rampart-
And the fpace x x, contained by the principal line,
and that near to it, and which is generally ftained
black, is called the parapet.
16. There is a fine line drawn within four feet of
the parapet, which expreffes a ftep called banquette.
N. B. All works have a parapet of three toifes
thick, and a rampart of 8 to 10, befides their (lopes.
The rampart is elevated more or lefs above the level
of the place, from 10 to 20 feet, according to the na¬
ture of the ground and the particular conftrudtions of
engineers.
The parapet is a part of the rampart elevated from
6 to 74- feet above the reft, in order to cover the troops
which are drawn tip there from the fire of the enemy in
a fiege 5 and the banquette is two or three feet higher
than the rampart, or about four feet lower than the
parapet 5 fo that when the troops (land upon it, they
may juft be able to fire over the parapet.
17. The body of the place, is all that which is con¬
tained within this firft rampart: for which reafon, it is
often faid to conftrudft the body of the place ; which
means properly, the conftrudtion of the baftions and
curtains.
18. All the works which are conftrufted beyond
the ditch before the body of the place are called out-
•works.
B L E.
r
Elide of Polyg. 80
Perpendicul. 1 o
Faces baft. I 22
Cap. of ravel. | 25
I2Q I ijpj
_£5 t _i^l
_33 j J5|
3** 1 4°|
Little Fortif. 1| Mean 1[ Gr
[40 1 150 | 160 I lyojlxHo I icjollzoo [ 260
20 I _2_I I 23 I jjljjo | _3J || 25 I 22
j _4_2 j j 47|1 50 j _53 ;!_55 j Jo
45 1 50 1 50 1 52ll 55 1 55 l 6° I 5°
In the firft vertical column are the numbers ex-
prefling the lengths'of the exterior fides from 80 to 260.
In the fecond, the perpendiculars anfwering to thefe
fides. In the third, the lengths of the faces of ba*
ftions ; and in the fourth, the lengths of the capitals of
the ravelins.
The forts are moftly, if riot always, fquares: for
which reafon, the perpendiculars are made one eighth
of the exterior fides ; becaufe if they were more, the
gorges of the baftions Would become too narrow.
The little fortification is chiefly defigned for citadels,
and are commonly pentagons ; the perpendiculars are
made one feventh of the exterior fide : the mean is u-
fed in all kinds of fortifications from an hexagon up¬
wards to any number of fides: arid the great is feldom
ufed but in an irregular fortification, where there are
fome fides that cannot be made lefs without much ex-
pence; or in a town which lies near a great river,
where the fide next the river is made from 200 to 260
toifes ; and as that fide is lefs expofed to be attacked
than any other, the perpendicular is made (horter,
which faves much expenee.
The faces of the baftions are all ^-ths of the exte¬
rior fides, or nearly fo, becaufe the fra&ions are ne-
gle&ed.
It may be obferved in general, that in all fquares the
perpendicular is £th of the exterior fide, and all penta¬
gons and in all the reft upward ^-th.
1. Con-
Seel.
Plate
CXI.
r. F O R T I F I
i. Canjir uHion of Orillons and retired Flanks.
Describe the front MPQJIST as before, and di¬
vide the flank into three equal parts, of which fuppofe
S r to be one : from the oppofite flanked angle M draw
a line M r, in which take the part m r of 5 toifes; take
likewife R n in the line of defence M R, produced,
equal tt> 5 toifes, and join n m, upon which as a bafe
deferibe the equilateral triangle n p m, and from the
angle p, oppofite to the bafe as centre, is deferibed the
circular flank n m.
And if S r be bife&ed by the perpendicular 1,2, and
another be ere&ed upon the face ST, at S ; the inter-
fe&ion 2 of thefe two perpendiculars, will be the cen¬
tre of the arc which forms the orillon.
The orillons are very ufeful in covering the retired
flanks, which cannot be feen but dire&ly in the front;
and as thefe orillons are round, they cannot be fo eafily
deftroyed as they would be if they were of any other
figure.
2. Confrufiion of "Ravelins or Half moons.
Fig. 2. Set off 55 taifes, from the re-entering
angle O of the counterfcarp, on the capital O L or
on the perpendicular produced, and from the point
L draw lines to the fhoulders AB ; whofe parts LM,
LN, terminated by the countetfearp, will be the faces,
and MO, ON, the femi-gorges of the ravelin requi¬
red.
This is Mr Vauban’s method of conftrudling ravelins,
according to fome authors : and others will have the
faces of the ravelin to terminate on thofe of the baftions
within 3 toifes of the fhoulders ; which feems to be the
beft way, for thefe ravelins cover the flanks much bet¬
ter than the others.
The ditch before the ravelin is 12 toifes, its counter¬
fcarp parallel to the faces of the ravelins ; and is made
in a circular arc, before the faliant angle ; as likewife
all ditches are in general.
When the ravelins are made with flanks, as in fig. 3.
the faces fhould terminate on thofe of the baflions, at
leaf!; 5 toifes from the fhoulders.
The flanks are made by fetting off to toifes from
the extremities of the faces, from f to h, and from m to
1 ; and from the points h, 1, the flanks h k, Ip, are
drawn parallel to the capital L O of the ravelin.
There are fometimes redoubts made in the ravelin,
fuch as in fig. 2. which is done by fetting off 16 toifes
from the extremities of the faces on the femi-gorges
from N tob, and from M to a ; and from the points b,
a, the faces are drawn parallel to thofe of the ravelin :
the ditch before the redoubt is 6 toifes, and its coun¬
terfcarp parallel to the faces.
3. Confruftion of Tenailles.
A tenaille is a work made in the ditch before the
curtains, the parapet of which is only 2 or 3 feet
higher than the level ground of the ravelin. There
are three different forts: the firfl are thofe as in fig. 4.
which are made in the dired ion of the lines of defence,
leaving a paflage of 3 toifes between their extremi¬
ties and the flanks of the baflions,' as likewife another
of 2 in the middle for a bridge of communication to
the ravelin.
The fecond fort are thofe as in fig. e. Their fa-
Vol. IV.
CATION.
ces are in the lines of defence, and 16 toifes long, be-
fides the paflage of 3 toifes between them and the_
flanks of the baflions ; their flanks are found by de-
feribing arcs from one flioulder of the tenaille as centre
through the other, on which are fet off to toifes for the
flanks defired.
And the third fort are thofe as in fig. 6. Their fa¬
ces are 16 toifes, as in the fecond fort, and the flanks
are parallel to thofe of the baftions.
The ufe in general of tenailles, is to defend the bot¬
tom of the ditch by a grazing fire, as likewife the le¬
vel ground of the ravelin, and efpecially the ditch be¬
fore the redoubt within the ravelin, which can be de¬
fended from no where elfe fo well as from them.
The firft fort do not defend the ditch fo well as the
others, as being too oblique a defence; but as they
are not fubjeft to be enfiladed, M. Vauban has gene¬
rally preferred them in the fortifying of places, as may
be feen in the citadel of Lille, at Landau, New Brifac,
and in a great many other places.
The fecond fort defend the ditch much better than
the firft, and add a low flank to thofe of the baftions ;
but as thefe flanks are liable to be enfiladed, they have
not been much put in practice. This defect might
however be remedied, by making them fo as to be co¬
vered by the extremities of the parapets of the oppofite
ravelins, or by fome other work.
As to the third fort, they have the fame advan¬
tage as the fecond, and are likewife liable to the fame
objections ; for which reafon, they may be ufed with
the fame precautions which have been mentioned in the
fecond.
Tenailles are efteemed fo neceflary, that there is
hardly any place fortified without them: and it is not
without reafon. For when the ditch is dry, the part
behind the tenailles ferves as a place of arms, from
which the troops may fally, deftroy the works of the
enemy in the ditch, oppofe their defeent, and retire
with fafety ; and the communication from the body of
the place to the ravelin becomes eafy and fecure :
which is a great advantage ; for by that means the ra¬
velin may make a much better defence, as it can be
fupplied with troops and neceflaries at any time. And
if the ditch is wet, they ferve as harbours for boats,
which may carry out armed men to oppofe the paf-
fage over the ditch whenever they pleafe ; and the
communication from the tenailles to the ravelin, be¬
comes likewife much eafier than it would be without
them.
4. Conflruftion of Lunettes.
Fig. 7. Lunettes are placed on both fides of the
ravelin, fuch as B, to increafe the (Length of a placet
they are conftrufted, by bifedling the faces of the ra¬
velin with the perpendicular LN ; on which is fet off
30 toifes from the counterfcarp of the ditch, for one
of its faces ; the other face, PN, is found by making
the femi-gorge TP of 25 toifes ; the ditch before the
lunettes is 12 toifes, the parapet 3, and the rampart 8,
as in the ravelin.
There is fometimes another work made to cover the
faliant angle of the ravelin, fuch as A, called bonnet,
whofe faces are parallel to thofe of the ravelin, and
when produced bifeft thofe of the lunettes ; the ditch
before it is 10 toifes.
17 T
3085
Plate
CXI.
There
3086
Plate
cxr.
F O R T I F I
There are likevvife lunettes, fuch as D in fig. 8.
whofe faces are <^rawn perpendicular to thofe of the ra-
"velin, within a third part from the faliant angle ; and
their femi-gorges are only 20 toifes.
Thefe kind of works may make a good defence,
and coft no very great expence ; for as they are fo near
the ravelin, the communication with it is very eafy,
and one cannot well be maintained till they are all three
taken.
5. Conjlruttion of Tenaillons.
Fig. 9. Produce the faces of the ravelin beyond the
counterfcarp of the ditch, at a diftance MN of 30 toi¬
fes, and take on the counterfcarp of the great ditch
15 toifes from the re-entering angle p to q, and draw
N q ; then q N M p will be the tenailles required ; its
ditch is 12 toifes, that is, the fame as that of the rave¬
lin. Sometimes there is made a retired battery in the
front of the tenaillons, as in B ; this battery is 10
toifes from the front to which it is parallel, and ij toi¬
fes long.
There are commonly retrenchments made in the te-
naillions, fuch as O ; their parapets are parallel to the
fronts MN, and bifeft the fide qN; the ditch before
this retrenchment is 3 toifes: and there is a banquette
before the parapet next to the ditch of about 8 feet,
called bervt; which ferves to prevent the earth of the
parapet (which feldom has any revetment) from falling
into the ditch.
It is to be obferved, that the ravelin, before which
tenaillons are conftrufled, muft have its faliant angle
much greater than the former conftru&ion makes them;
otherwife the faliant angles of the tenaillons become
too acute ; for which reafon we made the capital of
this rave]in 45 toifes, and the faces terminate within 3
toifes of the fhoulders.
6. Conftruttion of Counterguards.
Fig. 10. 11. When the counterguard is placed be¬
fore the ravelin, fet off 40 toifes on the capital of the
ravelin from the faliant angle A, to the faliant angle B,
of the counterguard ; and 10 from C to Dy on the
eounterfcarp of the ditch.
When the counterguard is before the baftion, fuch
as in fig. 2. its faliant angle F is 50 toifes from the fa¬
liant angle E of the baftion, and the breadth near the
ditch of the ravelin 10 toifes as before.
The ditch before the counterguards is 12 toifes,.and
its counterfcarp parallel to the faces.
Counterguards are made before the ravelin on fome
particularoccafionsonly; but are frequently conftruc-
ted before the baftions, as cohering the flanks wonr
derfully well. Some authors, as Mr Blondel and Mr
Coehorn, will have them much narrower than they are
here.
7. ConfruSiion of Hbrntuorks.
Fig. 12. Produce the capital of the ravelin be¬
yond the faliant angle A, at a diftance AB of about
80 toifes ; draw I)BE at right angles to AB ; in
which take BD, BE, each equal to 55 toifes ; and
on the exterior fide DE, trace a front of a polygon
ip the fame manner as that of the body of the place,
making the perpendicular BF 10 toifes, and the fa¬
ces 30.
CATION. Sed. I.
The branches D a, E b, of the hornwork, when pro- Plate
duced, terminate on the faces of the baftibns, with- cxt-
in 5 toifes of the fhoulders, The ditch of the horn-
work is 12 toifes, and its counterfcarp parallel to the
branches ; and in the front terminates at the fhoul¬
ders, in the fame manner as the great ditch before the
baftions.
The capital of the ravelin before the front of the
hornwork is 35 toifes, and the faces terminate on the
fhoulders, or rather 2 or 3 toifes beyond them : and
the ditch before the ravelin is 8 toifes.
There are fometimes retrenchments made within the
hornwork, fuch as S, S ; which are conftru&ed by
ere&ing perpendiculars to the faces of the ravelins,
within 25 toifes of their extremities. This retrench¬
ment, like all others, has a parapet turfed only with a
berm of 8 feet before it; as likewife, a ditch from 3
to 5 toifes broad.
Fig. 13. When a,hornwork is made before the ba¬
ftion, the diftance D L of the front from the faliant
angle of the baftion is ioo toifes, and the branches
terminate on the faces of the adjacent ravelins within 5
toifes from their extremities; all the reft is the fame as
before.
8. Conflrufiion of Cro'iun’works.
From the faliant angle, A, of the ravelin, as a centre, CXIL
defcribe an arc of a circle with a radius of about 120
toifes, cutting the capital of the ravelin produced at
C; from the point C, fet off the cords CB, CF, each
of them equal to 1 to toifes : and on each of which, as
an exterior fide, conftrudl a front of a polygon of the
fame dimenfions as in the hornwork ; that is, the per¬
pendicular Ihould be 18 toifes, the faces 30, and the
branches terminate on the faces of the baftions within
25 toifes of the (houlders.
The ditch is 12 toifes, the capital of the ravelin
35, and its ditch 8 ; that is, the fame as in the horn¬
work.
Sometimes the crownwork is made before the ba¬
ftion, as in fig-2. The arc is defcribed from the faliant
angle A of the baftion, with a radius of 120 toifes, as
before; and the branches terminate on the faces of the
adjacent ravelins within 25 toifes of their extremities t
the reft of the dimenfions and conftruiftions are the fame
as before.
Hornworks, as well as crownworks, are never
made but when a large fpot of ground falls beyond
the fortification, which might be advantageous to an
enemy in a fiege, or to cover fome gate or entrance in¬
to a town.
9. Confiruflion of Covert-ways and Glacis.
Although we have not hitherto mentioned the co¬
vert-way, neverthelefs all fortifications whatfoever have
one for they are efteemed to be one of the moft effen-
tial parts of a modern fortification ; and it is certain,,
the taking the covert-way, when it is in a good con¬
dition and well defended, is generally the moft bloody
adtion of the fiege.
After having conftrudfed the body of the place, and
all the outworks which are thought neceffary, lines are
drawn parallel- to the outmaft counterfcarp of the
ditches, at 6 toifes diftant from it; and the fpace
m n, m n, included between that line and the counter¬
fcarp, will be the covert-way required.
Sea.
Plate
cxn.
I. F O R T I F I
Fig. 3. There is in every re-entering angle of
the counterfcarp a place of arms, m ; which is found
by fetting off 20 toifes from the re-entering angle a,
on both tides from a to b, and from a to c ; and
from the points b, c, as centres, arcs are defcribed
with a radius of 25 toifes, fo as to interfedl each o-
ther in d; then the lines drawn from this interfec-
tion to the points b, c, will be the faces of the places'
of arms.
If lines are drawn, parallel to the lines which terrain
nate the covert way, and the places of arms, at 20
toifes diftant1 from them, the fpace x, x, x, between
thefe lines and thofe which terminate the covert-way,
will be the glacis.
At the extremities of the place of arms, are tra-
verfes made, fuch as v, v, which ferve to inclofe them;
thefe traverfes are 3 toifes thick, and as long as the
covert-way is broad ; and a paflage is cut in the gla¬
cis round them, of about 6 or 8 feet, in order to
have a free communication with the relt of the covert-
way.
There are alfo traverfes of the fame dimenfions be¬
fore every faliant angle of the baftion and outworks,
and are in the fame direction as the faces of thofe works
produced ; and the thicknefs lies at the fame fide as the
parapets.
The padages round thefe laft traverfes are likewife
from 6 to 8 feet wide.
In each place of arms are two fally ports z z, which
are 10 or iz feet wide, for the troops to fally out; in
time of a fiege they are (hut up, with barriers or gates.
10. ConftrufHon of Arrows and Detached Redoubts.
An arrow is a work made before the faliant angles
of the glacis, fuch as A, fig. 3. It is compofed of a
parapet of 3 toifes thick, and 40 long ; and the ditch
before it 5 toifes, terminating in a (lope at both ends.
The communication from the covert way into thefe
arrows is 4 or 5 toifes wide ; and there is[a traverfe, r,
at the entrance, of 3 toifes thick, with a paflage of
6 or 8 feet round it.
A detached redoubt is a kind of work much like a
ravelin, with flanks placed beyond the glacis; fuch
as B : they are made in order to occupy fome fpot
of ground which might be advantageous to the be-
fiegers ; likewife to oblige the enemy to open, their
trenches farther off than they would do otherwife.
Their diftance from the covert-way ought not to
exceed 120 toifes, that it may be defended bymufket-
fhot from thence.
The gorge a b is 40 toifes; the flanks a c, b f, which
are perpendicular to the gorge, to ; and the faces cd,
f d, 30: the ditch before it is 6 toifes, ending in flopes
at both ends ; the covert-way 4 ; the branches of the
covert-w'ay are 42 toifes long, or thereabouts; the
faces of the places of arms y, y, which are perpendi¬
cular to the branches, to ; and the other, which is
parallel to them, 14.
The communication from the covert-way into the
redoubt, is 5 or 6 toifes wide ; and there is a traverfe
made juft at the entrance, and another in the middle
when it is pretty long. The parapets of this commu¬
nication terminate in a flope or glacis.
If thefe redoubts are above 50 toifes diftant from
the covert-way, the beflegers carry their trenches
CATION. 3087
round, and enter through the gorge ; by which the
troops that are in them are made prifoners of war, if ’ ' -
they do not retire betimes; to prevent which, fome other
outworks ftiould be made to fupport them.
II. Confruflion of Second Ditches and Covert-
ways.
Fig. 4. When the ground is low, and water to be
found, there is often a ditch about 10 or 12 toifes
made round the glacis; and oppofite to the places of
arms are conftru<5ted lunettes, beyond the ditch : fuch
as D, whofe breadth on the counterfcarp of the ditch
is 10 toifes, from b to a, and from c to d ; and the
faces a L, d L, are parallel to thofe of the places of
arms; the ditch before them is from 8 to 10 toifes
wide.
The fecond covert-way is 4 toifes, the femi-gorges
of the places of arms, m, about 15, and the faces per¬
pendicular to the counterfcarp ; the fecond glacis is
from 15" to 18 toifes broad.
This fecond covert-way has traverfes every where,
in the fame manner as the firft.
12. ConfruRion of Profiles.
A profile is the reprefentation of a vertical fe&ion PI. CXIU.
of a work; it ferves to fliew thofe dimenfions which ^
cannot be reprefented in plans, and is neceflary in the
building of a fortification. Profiles are generally con-
llrufled upon a fcale of 30 feet to an inch. It would
be endlefs to defcribe all their particular dimenfions;
we fhall therefore lay down the principal rules only,
given by M-. Vauban, on this fubjeft.
1. Every work ought to be at leaft 6 feet higher
than that before it, fo that it may command thofe be¬
fore it ; that is, that the garrifon may fire from all the
works at the fame time, with great and fmal! arms,
at the befiegers in their approaches. Notwithftanding
this fpecious pretence, there are feveral authors who
object againft it. For, fay they, if you can difcover
the enemy from all the works, they can difcover, by
the fame reafon, all the works from their batteries;
fo that they may deftroy them without being obliged
to change their fituation, and thereby difmount all
the guns of the place before they come near it.
But if all the works were of the fame height, thofe
within cannot be deilroyed, till fuch time as thofe be¬
fore them are taken : guns might be placed in the co¬
vert-way and outworks to obftrudl the enemy’s ap¬
proach ; andwhen they come near the place, they might
be tranfported into the inner-works; and as the body
of the place would be much lower, the expence would
be confiderably diminifhed.
But when works are low, they are eafily enfiladed
by the ricochet batterries, which is a kind of firing
with a fmall quantity of powder, by giving the gun
an elevation of 10 or 12 degrees ; this might however
be partly prevented, by making the parapets near the
faliant angles, for the fpace of 8 toifes on each fide,
5 or 6 feet higher than the reft of the works.
2. The covert-way fhould be lower than the level-
ground, otherwife the body of the place muft be raifed
very high, efpecially where there are feveral outworks;
this is to be underftood only when the works exceed
each other in height, otherwife it need not be below
the level.
3- The
17 T 2
Sea. II.
FORTIFICATION.
3088
Plate 3. The bafes of all inward Hopes of earth Ihould be
CXltl. at jea^ eqUal to the height, if not more.
4. The bafes of all outward Hopes of earth, two
thirds of their heights.
5. The Hopes of all walls or revetments fliould be
. one fifth of their height; or one fixth might perhaps
be fufficient: the height of a wall is ettimated from
the bottom of the ditch, and not from the beginning
of its foundation.
6. The Hopes of all parapets and traverfe* are one
fixth of their breadth j that is, 3 feet towards the
field; or the infide, where the banquettes fliould be,
3 feet higher than the outfide.
7. When the revetment of a rampart goes quite up
to the top, 4 feet of the upper-part is a vertical wall
of 3 feet thick, with a fquare Hone at the top of it,
projedting 6 inches ; and a circular one below, or
where the Hope begins, of 8 or 10 inches diameter:
they go quite round the rampart, and the circular pro-
jeftion is called the cordon*
Where the ftraight part of the wall ends and the
Hope begins, the wall is always made 5 feet thick ;
and the counterforts or buttrefles reach no higher than
that place.
7. When the rampart is partly walled, and partly
turfed, then one fifth of the height which is turfed
muft be added to 5 feet, to get the thicknefs of the
wall above.
And having the thicknefs of any wall above, by
adding one fifth of its height from the bottom of the
ditch, the fum will be the thicknefs of the wall at the
bottom ; but if a fixth part is only taken for the Hope,
then a fixth part muft be added.
For inftance, fuppofe a rampart of 30 feet high
from the bottom of the ditch, and that 10 of which
Are to be turfed ; then the fifth part of 10, which is
a, added to 5, gives 7 for the wall above; and as this
wall is 20 feet high, the fifth of which is 4, and 4 ad¬
ded to the thicknefs 7 above, gives x 1 for the tbick-
nefs near the foundation.
Plate CXIII. fig. is Reprefents, in military per-
fpeftive, the profiles of the body of a place, the rave¬
lin and covert-way : which gives a clear idea of what
is meant by a profile, and from which thofc of all
other works may be eafily conceived.
Sect. II. 0/ Irregular Fortification*
The molt eflential principle in fortification, confifls
in making all the fronts of a place equally ftrong,. fo
that the enemy may find no advantage in attacking
either of the fides. This can happen no otherwise
in a regular fortification fituated in a plain or even
ground : but as there are but few places which are not
irregular, either in their works or fituations^ and the
nature ©f the ground may be fuch as makes it imprac¬
ticable to build them regular, without too great ex¬
pence ; it is fo much the more neceflary to Ihew in
what confifls the flrength or weaknefe of a town irre¬
gularly fortified, fo that the weakefl part may be made
itronger by additional outworks ; as likewife, if fuch a
place is to be attacked, to know which is the llrongeft
or weakeft. girt..
1. Conftruftion of an irregular place fituated in an
open country.
If the place to be fortified is an old town inclofed by
a wall or rampart, as it moft frequently happens, the
engineer is to confider well all the different circum-
ftancesof the figure, fituation, and nature of the ground ;
and to regulate his plan accordingly, fo as to avoid the
difadvantages, and gain all the advantages poffible:
he fliould examine, whether by cutting off fome parts
of the old wall or rampart, and taking in fome ground,
the place can be reduced into a regular figure, or
nearly fo ; for, if that can be done without increafing
the expence confidefably, it fhould by no means be
omitted. Old towns have often towers placed from di-
ftance to diftance, as Douay, Tournay, and many
other places, which are generally made ufe of, and
mended when it may be done. If there is a rampart
without ballions or towers, it muft be well confidered,
whether baftions may not be added, or if it is not bet¬
ter to make only fome outworks : if the ditch about
this rampart is not too vfride and deep, it would be ad¬
vantageous to make detached baftions ; otherwife ra¬
velins and counterguards muft be conftru£ted. Special
care muft be taken, to make all the fides of the polygon
as nearly equal as poffible, and that the length of the
lines of defence do not exceed the reach of mufket-fhot;
but if that cannot be done, thofe fides which are on
the narroweft part fhould be made the longeft.
If it fhould happen, that fome of the fides are inac-
ceffible, or of very difficult approach, either on account
of fome precipice, marfhy ground, or inundation, they
may be made much longer than the others, which are
of eafy accefs, and the flanks need not be fo large as
the reft; by doing fo, there will be fome expences fa-
ved, which may be ufed in making the other fides
ftronger by adding more outworks.
There are few fituations, but what are more advan¬
tageous in fome parts than in others ; it is therefore
the bufinefs of an engineer to diftinguifh them, and to
render thofe fides ftrong by art, which are not fo by
nature.
If the fituation is low and watery, lunettes or tenail-
lons, and fuch other fmall outworks, fhould be conftruc*
ted; becaufe they are not of any great expence, and'
may make a very good defence. But if one fide of the
place only is low, and running water is to be had, a fe-
cond ditch and covert-way with lunettes may be.made,
by obferving, that if the firft glacis is made to flope,
fo as to become even with the level of the water in the
fecond ditch; or if the water can be fwelied by means
of dykes or Unices, fo as to overflow the heft part of
the firft glacis, it fhould be done : for,, by fo doing,,
thefe works will be able to make a very good defence,,
fince the befiegers will find it a difficult matter to lodge
themfelves upon this glacis; which cannot be done but
within a few toifes of the firft covert- way, where the
befieged are ready to receive them,, and todeftroy their
works with great advantage; whereas the enemy can¬
not fupport their workmen but from the fecund covcrt-
way, which is too far off to be of any. great fervice to
them.
But if the fituation is of a dry nature, without any
water about it, caponiers fhould be made in the great
ditch,, from the curtains to the ravelin, and batteries
railed.
Sea. II. F O R T I F I
raifed in the entrance of the ditch before the ravelin,
whofe parapet muft flope off into a glacis fo as to af¬
ford no cover for the enemy behind them. Arrows and
detached redoubts are likewife very proper to be ufed
in fuch a cafe; and fometimes horn or crown-works, if
it fhould be thought convenient: but thefe works Iholild
never be conftrufted, without an abfolute neceflity, ei¬
ther to occupy a fpot of ground which might be ad¬
vantageous to the enemy, or to cover fome gate or en¬
trance into the town ; for they are of great expence,
and their defence feems not to beanfwerable to it.
Moft of the places in Flanders are fortified wiih horn-
works, fnch as Ipres, Tournay, Lille, and others.
If the place to be fortified is new, and the fitnation
will not admit of a regular conftruftion ; particular
care muft be taken in choofing fuch a fpot of ground as
is moft advantageous, and leaft liable to any difadvan-
tages either in the building or in the maintaining of
it. All hills or rifing grounds fhould be avoided, which
might coromarrd any part of the works; marfhy grounds,
becaufe fuch fituations are unwholefome; or lakes and
ftanding waters, for the fame reafon* excepting a lake
is or may be made navigable : good water fhould be
had either within the place or near it, for it is abfo-
lutely neceffary for men and cattle ; the air fhould be
wholefome, otherwife the continual ficknefs that may
reign in fuch a place might prevent people to come and
live in it, and the garrifon would not be in a condition
to defend themfelves as they ought to dot in fhort, all
the different circnroftanees attending fuch an underta¬
king fhould be maturely conlidered, before a refolution
is taken to fortify any place.
When a fituation is fixed upon, the next thing to be
confidered is, the bignefs of the town and the number
of its outworks; which muft abfolutely^depend upon
the confequence fuch a place is of to a nation. If it is
only to guard a pafs, or entrance into a country, it
need not be fo large : but if it is to be a place either to
promote or to proteft trade, it fhould be large and com¬
modious; the ftreets fhould be wide, and the buildings
regular and convenient. As to what regards the fortitL
eation, its conftruftion fhonld depend on the nature of
the fituation ; and the number of works, en the funds
or expence a prince or a nation will be at; 'which,
however, ought to be according to the benefit arifing
from fuch a place: for, as fuch undertakings are of
very great expence, an engineer cannot be too fparing
in his works; on the contrary, the greateft (economy
fhould be ufed, both in regard to the number of works,
and to their conftrudlion. The body of the place may
have (a) revetments quite up to the top, or only in
part, and the reft turfed: but as to the outworks, they
fhould have half revetments, or they may be made
with turf only; as being not fo neceffary to prevent the
place from being furprifed, which may neverthelefs
make a good defence.
On Plate CXIII. fig. 2. is the plan of an oftagon,.
one half of which is fimilar and equal to the other half;
it being fuppofed, that the fituation would not admit
of fortification quite regular; the exterior frdes are
each 180 toifes, and the works are conftru&ed accord¬
ing to our method: but becaufe the fidcs AB, EF,
CATION. 3089
ate weaker than the reft, as has been proved before, we
have added tenailles, redoubts in the ravelins, and lu¬
nettes, to render them nearly equal in ftrength with the
others ; and if counter-guards were made before the
baftions A and B, it would effectually fecure that front.
Inftead of lunettes, any other works may be made, as
may be thought convenient and according to the na¬
ture of the ground. If it fhould be judged neceffary
to add other outworks to the ravelins all round the
place, care muft be taken to add likewife more to the
fronts AB, EF, in order to render the advantages and
difadvantages of attacking on either fide equal.
2. Conjirutlion of an irregular place, ftuated on a hill
or rock.
In- the conftruftion of fuch places, care muft be ta¬
ken that no neighbouring hill commands any part of
the works; the town Ihould always be built on the
higheft part; but if it fhould be thought more conve¬
nient to place it lower, then the upper part muft be for¬
tified with a fort; the fituation fhould be made level
as near as poffible, by removing the earth from fome
places to fill up others; and if it cannot well be level¬
led without extraordinary expence, works muft be made
on the higheft part, fo as to command and proteCt the
lower. The works ought to occupy all the upper part
of the hill; but if it fhould be too extenfive to be all:
inclofed, or fo irregular as not to be fortified without
great inconvenience, the parts which fall without fhould
be fortified with fome detached works, and a com¬
munication with the place muft be made either above
or under ground. There fhould be no cavity or hollow
roads, within cannon-fhot, round about the place, where
the enemy might be able to approach under cover. If
there fhould happen to be a fpring near the top of the
hill, it fhould be inclofed in the fortification; or if that
cannot be done, by fome work or other: for there is
nothing more neceffary, and at the fame time fcarcer,
in fuch fituations, than water; for which reafon there
cannot be too much care in providing it: feveral ci¬
tterns are to be made to receive the rain-water, and:
to preferve it; wells fhould be dug likewife, though,
ever fo deep, the water of which will ferve for com¬
mon ufe.
Places built on hills or rocks, fhould never be large ;
for their ufe is generally to guard paffes or inlets into
a country, and are feldom ufeful in traffic, and it is a-
difficult matter to provide for a large garrifon in fuch-
fituations, neither fhould any fuch place be built with¬
out fome very material reafons : but when it is abfo-
lutdy neceffary, great care and precaution fbould be
taken to render the works as perfedt as the fituation.
will admit of, and at the fame time to be as frugal in;
the expence as poffible.
3. Confruttion of irregular fortifications fituated near
rivers, lakes, or the fea.
As the intent of building thefe kind of places is
chiefly to facilitate and protedl trade, they are of more
importance than any other kind, efpeeially in mari¬
time countries, where the principal ftrengih and power,
depends on them : for which reafon,. we fhall treat
of.
(a) Revetments are chiefly made to prevent a place from being fnrprifed : outworks do not want to be made fo-;
the taking them by furgrife is of no great confeqpence, except in a fiege, when other cautions are ufed to pre^
vent it..
3°90
F O R T I F I
of this conftro£Uon more largely than of any other.
The firil thing to be coniidered is. their fituation,
which ought fo be fuch as to afford a good harbour
for (hipping, or a fafe and eafy entrance in Itormy
weather; but as it is hardly poffible to find ahy, where
(hips may go in and lie fecure with all winds, care
(hould be taken to make them fafe to enter with thofe
winds which are molt dangerous: but it is not fuffi-
cient that the harbour is fafe againft llormy weather,
they (hould likewife be fo againll an enemy, both by
land and water ; for it often happens, that.fliips are de-
ftroyed where it was imagined they were fecure, which
is of too great confequence not to be provided againft ;
For which reafon, forts dr batteries mult be built in the
moft convenient places, to prevent the enemy’s Ihips
from coming too near, fo as to be able to cannonade
thofe in the harbour, or fling (hells ampngft them ; and
if there is any danger of an enemy’s approach by land,
high ramparts and edifices muft be built, fo as to co¬
ver them.
When a river is pretty large, and it is not convenient
for making a harbour without great expence, the (hips
may ride along the fhore; which, for that reafon, muft
be made acceffible for (hips of burden : this may be
done by advancing the quay into the river, if the wa¬
ter is too (hallow, or by digging the river fufficiently
deep for that purpofe.
And to prevent an enemy from coming up the ri¬
ver, forts muft be built on both fides, efpecially when
there are any turnings or windings. Antwerp is fuch a
place : for the Scheld is fuflkiently deep to carry (hips
of great burden, which may come quite near the town-
wall ; and feveral forts are built below it on both fides,
fo that it would not be an eafy matter for an enemy to
come up the river.
When the river is but fmall, fo that no (hips of bur¬
den can come thro’ it ; it is fufficient to make it run
thro’ fome of the works, where proper landing places
are contrived, from whence the goods may be carried
in to the place ; as at Sarrelouis, where a hornwork is
built beyond the Sarre, in the gorge of which the
goods are landed.
If the breadth of the river does not exceed 200
yards, it commonly pafles through the middle of the
town, and proper quays are made on each fide ; in
fuch a cafe, the fortification is fo contrived, as that
the river .pafles through the curtain, in order to have
a baftion on each fide to defend the coming in and go¬
ing out.
When M. Vauban fortified near rivers, he made al¬
ways the exterior fide near the water much longer than
any of the others ; fuch as Hunninghen on the Rhine,
and Sarrelouis on the Sarre ; but for what reafon he
fortified thefe places in that manner, has not been told
by any author.
But it is plain that the Tides which terminate at the
river, are the weakeft ; becaufe the befiegers trenches
beihg fecured by the river, they may draw moft of their
troops off, and aft therefore with more vigour and
ftrength on the other fide^ befides, as the ftrength of
a fide increafes in proportion as the angle of the poly¬
gon is greater, by makiig the fide next the river
CATION. Sea. II.
longer, the angles at its extremities become wider, and Plate
confequently the adjacent fides, ftronger. CXUf.
There are other advantages, befides thofe mention- ~~
ed already, which arife from the lengthening that fide:
for if the river is pretty deep fo as not to be fordable,
that fide is not liable to be attacked; and by increa-
fing its length, the capacity of-,the place increases
much more in proportion to the expence, than if more
fides were made ; the centre of the place will be like¬
wife nearer the river, which makes it more convenient
for tranfporting-the goods from the water-fide to any
part of the town.
To illuttrate this method of M. Vauban’s, we fhall Fi
give the plan of Hunninghen : this place was built for
■the fake of having a bridge over the Rhine, for which
reafon he made it only a pentagon ; the fide AB next
to the river is 200 toifes, and each of the others but
180.
About the fpace a b c, which lies before the front
AB, is a done wall; and the paflages x, x, are (hut up
with fluices, to retain the water in the ditches in dry
feafons: and to prevent an enemy from deftroying the
fluice near the point c, whereby the water would run
jout and leave the ditches dry, the redoubt^ was built
in the little ifland hard by, in order to cover that
fluice; without which precaution the place might be
infulted from the river fide, where the water is (hal¬
low in dry feafon.
The horn work K beyond the Rhine was built to co¬
ver the bridge ; but as this work cannot be well de¬
fended crofs the river, the hornwork H was made to
fupport the other.
Before finiftiing the defcription of this plan, we (hall
fhew how to find the long fide AB.
After having infcribed the two fides GE, GF, in a
circle, draw the diameter CD, fo as to be equally di-
ftant from the line joining the points E, F, that is
parallel to it; on this diameter fet off 100 toifes on
each fide of the centre; from thefe points draw two in¬
definite perpendiculars to the diameter; then if from
the points E, F, as centres, two arcs are defcribed with
a radius of 180 toifes, their interfeftions A and B,
with the faid perpendiculars, will determine the long
fide AB, as likewife the other two FB and FA. In
like manner may be found the long or (hort fide of any
polygon whatfoever.
When a place near a river is to be fortified, for the
fafety of commerce, particular care (hould be taken in
leaving a good fpace between the houfes and the wa¬
ter-fide, to have a key or landing place for goods
brought by water; it (hould alfo be contrived to have
proper places for (hips and boats to lie fecure in ftormy
weather, and in time of a fiege : and as water-carriage
is very advantageous for tranfporting goods from one
place to another, as likewife for bringing the necef-
fary materials, not only for building the fortification,
but alfo the place itfelf, the^expences will be leffened
confiderably when this convenience can be had, for
which reafon, places (hould never be built any where
elfe but near rivers, lakes, or the fea; excepting in
extraordinary cafes, where it cannot be avoided.
FOR-
' aw/. /;
Fortification.
Fla cxn.
FOR [ 3091 j F O S
Fortin FORTIN, Fortelet, or Field-Fort, a fconce or
11 little fort, whofe flanked angles are generally 120 fa-
orurri‘ thorns diftant from one another. See Fort.
The extent and' figure of fortins are different, ac¬
cording to the fituation and nature of the ground; fome
of them having whole baftions, and others demi-ba-
ftions. They are made ufe of only for a time, either
to defend the lines of circumvallation, or to guard fome
palfage or dangerous poft.
FORTISSIMO, in mufic, fometimes denoted by
FFF, or fff, fignifies to fing or play very loud or
ftrong.
FORTITUDE, the fame with courage or bravery.
See Morals, n0 117.
FORTUNATE-islands, in ancient geography,
certain iflands, (concerning the fituation of which au¬
thors are not agreed), famous for the golden apples of
the Hesperides. —The common opinion is, that they
are the Canary Iflands.
FORTUNE, fortuna, a goddefs worfhipped with
great devotion by the ancient Greeks! and Romans;
who believed her to prefide over human affairs, and to
diftribute wealth and honour at her pleafure. The
Greeks had a great number of temples dedicated to
Fortune, under the name of The poet Pindar
makes her one of the Parcse, or deftinies, and the
daughter of Jupiter. Ancus Martins* king of the
Romans, was the firff who built a temple at Rome to
this deity, under the name of Fortuna Virilis, on ac¬
count that courage, no lefs than good-fortune, is fe-
quifite to obtain a victory. ■ Servius Tullius built a
temple to Fortune, under the name of Primogenia.
The Romans gave feveral other appellations to For¬
tune, fuch as Fortuna Libera, Redux, Piiblka, &c.
There was a’ftatue of Fortune at Athens, holding
betwixt her arms Plutus the god of riches. Paufanias
fays, that her moft ancient form was that which Bu-
palus made in Greece, in fliape of a woman with a
round ball on her head, and a cornucopia under her
arm. Macrobius fays, that flie was firft fet forth with
wings on her flioulders, having by her fide the rudder
of a (hip; and that (he was placed upon a wheel, and
had in her right hand a golden ball, and in her left a
whip. In Egypt (he was painted like a woman, turn¬
ing a great glafs wheel, on the top of which were re-
prefented a great number of men playing, others climb¬
ing up, and others having attained the fummit of the
wheel, precipitating themfelvep and falling down again.
Modern painters reprefent Fortune by a naked woman
Handing on a globe, with a bandage on her eyes.—
Horace’s defcription of this goddefs,- and her great
power, may be feen in Ode xxxV. lib. 1. Juvenal, in
Satire x. 365. calls Fortune the deity of fools.
FoRTUNE-7if//ifr/. Perfons pretending to tell for¬
tunes are to be puniffied with a year’s imprifonment,
and (landing four times on the pillory. &tat. 9 Geo. II.
FORTY-days Court, the court of attachment or
•woodmote, held before the verderors of the foreft once
every forty days, to inquire concerning all offenders
againft vert and venifon. See Forest.
FORUM, in Roman antiquity, a public (landing
place within the city of Rome, where caufes were ju¬
dicially tried, and orations delivered to the people.
Foeum, was alfo ufed for a place of traffic, anfwer-
ing to our market-place: of thefe there were vaft num-
bers, as the forum pifcarium, olitorium, &c. Thefe
were generally called fora venalia; in contradiftinblion !
to the former, which were called fora civilia.
Forum, is alfo ufed, among cafuifts, &c. forjurif-
di&ion; thus they fay, In foro legis, •’kc.
FOSS, or Fossa, in anatomy, a kind of cavity in
a bone, with a large aperture, but no exit or perfo¬
ration.
Foss, in fortification, ahollow place, commonly full
of water, lying between the fcarp and counterfcarp,
below the rampart; and turning round a fortified place
or a port, that is to be defended. See Moat.
Yost-Way, one of the four principal highways of
England, that anciently led through the kingdom, fup-
pofed to be made by the Romans, having a ditch upon,
one fide thereof.
FOSSARII, in antiquity, a fort of officers in the
eaftern church, whofe bufinefs it was to inter the dead.
St Jerom affures us, that the tank of the.fofiarii held
the firrt place among the clerks: but he is to be un-
derftood of thofe clerks only who had the direction
and intendance of the interment of the devout. Some
authors infinuate, that the foffarii were inftitutedin the
time of the aportles.
FOSSIL, in natural hiftory, denotes, in general,
every thing dug out of the earth, whether they be na¬
tives thereof, as metals, (tones, falls, earths, and other
minerals; or extraneous, repofited in the bowels of
the earth by fome extraordinary means, as earth¬
quakes, the deluge, &c. See Metal, Stone, &c.
Native foflils, according to Dr Hill, are fubftances
found either buried in the earth, or lying on its fur-
face, of a plain fimple ftruflure, and (hewing no figns
of containing veffels or circulating juices. Thefe are
fubdivided, by the fame author, 1. Into foffils natu¬
rally and effentially fimple. Of thefe, fome are neither
inflammable, nor foluble in water; as fimple earths,
talcs, fibrarise, gypfum, felenitae, cryrtal, and fpars:
others, though uninflammable, are foluble in water; as
all the fimple falts: and others, on the contrary, are
inflammable, but not foluble in water; as fulphur, au-
ripigmentum, zarnieh, amber, ambergreafe, gagates,
afphaltum, ampelites, lithanthrax, naphtha, and pif-
fafphalta. 2. The fecond general fubdivifion of foffils.
comprehends all fuch as are naturally compound, but
unmetallic. Of thefe, fome are neither inflammable,
nor foluble in water; as compound earths, (lones, fep-
tarias, fiderochita, ferupi, femipellucid gems, lithidia,
coniffalte, and pellucid gems: others are foluble in wa¬
ter, but not inflammable; as all the metallic falts: and,,
lartly, fome are inflammable, but not foluble in water;
as the marcafites, pyritse, and phlogonia. 3. The
third, and laft, general divifion of foffils comprehends
all the metallic ones; which are bodies naturally hard,
remarkable heavy, and fufible in fire. Of thefe, fome
are perfectly metallic, as being malleable when pure;
fuch are gold, lead, filver, copper, iron, and tin: others
are imperfectly metallic, as not being malleable even in
their pureft (late; fuch are antimony, bifmuth, cobalt,
zinc, and quickfilver or mercury. Of all which fub¬
ftances, the reader will find a particular defcription un¬
der their refpedive heads, Earth, Talc, Mercury,
Gypsum, &c.
Extraneous foffils are bodies of the vegetable or ani¬
mal;
F O T [ 3091 ] F O U
Fofter mal kingdoms accidentally buided in the earth. Of
I! the vegetable kingdom, there are principally three
othergi 1. jl{„lj3) trees or parts of them, herbaceous plants, and
corals ; and of the animal kingdom there are four
kinds, fea-(hells, the teeth or bony palates and bones
of fifhes, complete fifhes, and the bones of land-ani¬
mals. See Tree, Wood, Plant, Shell, &c.
As to the reafon why thefe extraneous foffils come
to be lodged in the bowels of the earth, the common
opinion is, that this great change was effedted by the
univerfal deluge. See Deluge.
FOSTER (Dr James), a mod diftinguilhed and
popular diffenting minilter, born at Exeter in 1697.
He began to preach in 1718 ; and ftrong difputes ari-
fing foon after, among the diflenters, concerning the
Trinity and fubfcription to lefts, his judgment deter¬
mining him to the obnoxious opinions, the clamour
grew loud againft him, and occafioned more than one
removal. His talents were hid among obfcure coun¬
try congregations, until 1724; when he was chofen to
fucceed Dr Gale in Barbican, where he laboured as
aftor above 20 years. The Sunday evening-lecture,
egun in the Old Jury meeting-houfe in 1728, and
which he conducted with fuch uncommon applaufe for
more than 20 years, indifputably (hewed his abilities as
a preacher. Perfons of all perfuafions and ranks in life
flocked to hear him: and Mr Pope has honoured him
with a commendatory couplet in his fatires} which,
however, his commentator laboured to deftroy the in¬
tention of by a frivolous note. In 1746, he attended
the unhappy lord Kilmarnock, at his execution on
Tower-hill; an office which thofe who lived with him
imagined made too deep an impreffion on his fympa-
thizing fpirit, as his vivacity abated from that time.
He died in 1753 ; after having publiihed feveral valuable
compofitions and fermons; particularly, 1. A defence
of Chriftianity, againft “ Tindal’s Chriftianity as old
as the Creation.” 2. An ellay on fundamentals.
3. Four volumes of fermons. 4. Difcourfes on natu¬
ral religion and focial virtue, in 410.
Foster (Samuel), an ingenious Englifh mathema¬
tician of the laft century, and aftronomical profeflbr in
Greftiam college, was one of that learned affociation
which met for cultivating the new philofophy during
the pclitfcal confufions, and which Charles II. efta-
bliflied into the Royal Society. Mr Fofter, however,
died in 1652, before this incorporation took place; but
wrote a number of mathematical and aftronomical trea-
tifes, too many to particularize.—There were two o-
ther mathematical (Indents of this name; William Fo¬
fter, a difciple of Mr Oughtred, who taught in Lon¬
don ; and Mark Fofter, author of a treatife on trigo¬
nometry, who lived later than the former two.
FOTHERGILL (Dr George), was born in Weft-
moreland in 1705, where his family had been long
feated on a competent eftate that had defcended regu¬
larly for feveral generations. After an academical
education in Queen’s college, Oxford, of which he be¬
came a fellow, lie was, in 1751, eledled principal of
-St Edmund’s-hall, and prefented to the vicarage of
Brumley in Hampffiire. Having been long afflidled
with an afthma, he died in 1760. He was the author
of a colle&ion of much efteemed fermons, in 2 vols 8vo.
The firft volume confifts of occafional difcourfes, pub-
li/hed by himfelfj the fecond printed from his MSS.
POTHERING, a peculiar method of endeavouring Pothering
to flop a leak in the bottom of a (hip while (he is afloat, II
either under fail, or at anchor. It is ufually performed Fouildat'on_
in the following manner: A balketis filled with afhes,
cinders, and choped rope-yarns, and loofely covered
with a piece of canvas ; to this is faftened a long
pole, by which it is plunged repeatedly in the water,
as clofe as poffible to the place where the leak is
conjeftured to lie. The oakhum or chopped rope-
yarns being thus gradually (haken through the twigs,
or over the top of the balket, are frequently fucked in¬
to the bole along with the water, fo that the leak be¬
comes immediately choaked ; and the future entrance
of the water is thereby prevented.
FOUGADE, or Fougasse, in the art of war, a
little mine, about 8 or 10 feet wide, and 10 or 12 deep,
dug under fome work or poft, which is in danger of
falling into the enemy’s hands; and charged with facks
of powder, covered with (tones, earth, and whatever
elfe can make great deftruftion. It is fet on fire like
other mines, with a fauciffe. See Mine.
FOUL, or Foule, in the fea-language, is ufed
when a (hip has been long untrimmed, fo that the
grafs-weeds, or barnacles, grow to herfides under wa¬
ter. A rope is alfo foul when it is either tangled in
itfelf, or hindered by another, fo that it cannot run or
be over-havvled.
. Foul imports, alfo, the running of one (hip againft
another. This happens fometimes by the violence of
the wind, and fometimes by the careleffnefs of the peo¬
ple on board, to (hips in the fame convoy, and to (hips
in port by means of others coming in. The damages
occafioned by running foul, are of the nature of thofe
in which both parties muft bear a (hare. They are
ufually made half to fall upon the fufferer, and half
upon the veflel which did the injury: but in cafes
where it is evidently the fault of the matter of the vef-
fel, he alone is to bear the damage.
FoUL-#Wer. A (hip is faid to make foul-water,
when, being under fail, (he comes into fuch (hoal-wa-
ter, that though her keel do not touch the ground, yet
it comes fo near it, that the motion of the water under
her raifes the mud from the bottom.
Foul is alfo a difeafe in cattle, proceeding from
blood, and a waterifh rheum that falls down into the
leg's, and makes them fwell.
Foul or Pimpled Face. See Gutta Rofacea.
FOULA, or Foul IJland, one of the Shetland ides,
lying between fix and feven leagues weft from the main¬
land. It is about three miles long, narrow, and full of
rough, deep, and bare rocks; one of which is fo large,
and runs up to fuch an height, that it may be clearly
feen from Orkney. This, therefore, may be reckoned
with the greateft probability to be the ‘Thule of Taci¬
tus, whatever might be the Thule of the Phenicians
and Greeks. It has fcarce any pafturage, and but very
little arable land; but that, however fmall in extent,
is very fertile, out of the produce of which, with fowl
and fifli, the poor inhabitants fubfift. They have no¬
thing that can be called a port; and the only commo¬
dities they have are ftock-fiffi, train-oil, and feathers.
FOUMART, in zoology, a fpecies of Mustela.
FOUNDATION, in architedture, is that part of a
building which is under-ground. See Architecture,
n° 101,—112. 129, &c.
Pal-
F O U [ 3093 ] F O U
Foundation Palladio allows a fixth part of the height of the
tl whole building for the hollowing or under-digging ;
ouni gl^^^ unlefs there be cellars underground, in which cafe he
would have it foniewhat lower.
Foundation, denotes alfo a donation or legacy, ei¬
ther, in money or lands, for the maintenance and fup-
port of fome community, bofpital, fchool, &c.
Jacob's The king only can found a college, but there may
Law DiH. be a college .in reputation founded by others. If it
cannot appear by inquifition who it was that founded
a church or college, it fhall be intended that it was the
king, who has power to found a new church, &c.
The king may found and ereft an hofpital, and give a
name to the houfe upon the inheritance of another, or
licenfe another perfon to do it upon his own lands ; and
the words fundo, crca, &c. are not neceffary in every
foundation, either of a college or hofpital, made by th*
king; but it is fufficient if there be words equivalent:
the incorporation of a college or hofpital is the very
foundation ; but he who endows it with lands is the
founder; and to the erection of an hofpital, nothing
more is requifite but the incorporation and foundation.
Perfons feifed of eftates in fee-fimple, may ere£t and
found hofpitals for the poor by deed enrolled in chan*
eery, &c. which fhall be incorporated, and fubjeft to
fuch vifitors as the founder fhall appoint, &c. flat. 39
JEJiz. c. j.
FOUNDER, in. a general fenfe, the perfon who
lays a foundation, or endows a church, fchool, religi¬
ous houfe, or other charitable inflitution. See Foun¬
dation.
Founder, alfo implies an artift who calls metals, in
various forms, for different ufes, as guns, bells, ftatues,
printing-chara&ers, candlefticks, buckles, &c. whence
they are denominatd gun-founders, bell-founders, fi¬
gure founders, letter-founders, founders of fmall works,
&c. See Foundery.
Founder, in the fea-language: A fhip is faid to
founder, when by an extraordinary leak, or by a great
fea breaking in upon her, fhe is fo filled with water,
that fhe cannot be freed of it ; fo that fhe can neither
veer nor fleer, but lie like a log ; and not being able
to fwim long, will at lafl fink.
FOUNDERED, in farriery. See there, § xli.
FOUNDERY, or Foundry, the art of calling all'
forts of metals into different forms. It likewife fignifies
the work-houfe or fmelting-hut wherein thefe opera-,
tions arc performed.
Foundery of Small-works, or Qafting in Sand. The
fand ufed for cafling fmall-works is at firfl of a pret¬
ty foft, yellowifh, and clammy natpre: but it being
neceffary to ftrew charcoal-dull in the mould, it at
length becomes of a quite black colour. This fand is
worked over and over, on a board, with a roller, and a
fort of knife; being placed over a trough to receive it,
after it is by thefe means fufficiently prepared.
This done, they take a wooden board of a length
and breadth proportional to the things to be call, and
putting a ledge round it, they fill it with fand, a little
moiflened, to ipake it duly cohere. Then they take
either wood or metal models of what they intend to
call, and apply them fo to the mould, and prefs them
into the fand, as to leave their impreffion there. Along
the middle of the mould is laid half a fmall brafs cy¬
linder, as .the chief canal for the metal to run through,
You. IV.
when melted, into the models or patterns ; and from Foundery.
this chief canal are placed feveral others, which extend
to each model or pattern placed in the frame. After
this frame is finifhed, they take out the patterns, by
firft loofening them all round, that the fand may not
give way.
Then they proceed to work the other half of the
mould with the fame patterns in juft fuch another
frame; only that it has pins, which, entering into holes
that correfpond to it in the other, make the two cavi¬
ties of the pattern fall exaftly on each other.
The frame, thus moulded, is carried to the melterj
who, after extending the chief canal of the counter¬
part, and adding the crofs canals to the feveral models
in both, and ftrewing mill-duft over them, dries them
in a kind of oven for that purpofe.
Both parts of the mould being dry, they are joined
together by means of the pins; and to prevent their
giving way, by reafon of the melted metal paffing thro'
the chief cylindrical canal, they are ferewed or wedged
up like a kind of prefs.
While the moulds are thus preparing, the metal is
fufing in a crucible of a fize proportionate to the quan*
tity of metal intended to be caff.
When the moulds are coolifli, the frames are un-
ferewed, or unwedged, and the call work taken out of
the fand, which fand is worked over again for other
callings.
Foundery of Statues. The calling of ftatues de*
pends on the due preparation of the pit, the core, the
wax, the outer mould, the inferior furnace to melt off
the wax, and the upper to fufe the metal. The pit is a
hole dug in a dry place fomething deeper than the in¬
tended figure, and made according to the prominence
of certain parts thereof. The infide of the pit is com¬
monly lined with Hone, or brick ; or, when the figure
is very large, they fometimes work on the ground, and
raife a proper fence to refill the impulfion of the melt¬
ed metal.
The inner mould, or core, is a rude mafs to which
is given the intended attitude and contours. It is rai¬
led on an iron grate, ftrong enough to fullain it, and
is ftrengthened within by feveral bars of iron. It is
generally made either of potter’s clay, mixed with hair
and horfe-dung ; or of plafter of Fan’s mixed with
brick-dull. The ufe of the core is to fupport the wax,
the Ihell, and leffen the weight of the metal. The iron
bars and the core are taken out of the brafs figure
through an aperture left in it for that purpofe, which
is foldered up afterwards. It is neceffary to leave fome
of the iron bars of the core, that contribute to the ftea-
dinefs of the projecting part, within the brafs figure.
The wax is a reprefentation of the intended llatue.
If it be a piece of fculpture, the wax Ihould be all of
the fculptor’s own hand, who ufually forms it on the
core: Though it may be wrought feparately in cavities,
moulded on a model, and afterwards arranged on the
ribs of iron over the grate; filling the vacant fpace in
the middle with liquid plafter and brick-dull, whereby
the inner core is proportioned as the fculptor carries on
the wax.
When the wax, which is the intended thicknefs of
the metal, is finilhed, they fill fmall waxen tubes per¬
pendicular to it from top to bottom, to ferve both as
canals for the conveyance of the metal to all parts of
17 U the
F O U [ 3094 ] F O U
Foundery. the work; and as vent-holes, to give paffage to the air,
which would otherwife occafion great diforder when
the hot metal came to encompafs it.
The work being brought thus far, muft be covered
with its (hell, which is a kind of cruft laid over the
wax, and which being of a foft matter, eafily receives
the impreflion of every part, which is afterwards com¬
municated to the metal upon its taking the place of the
wax, between the {hell and the mould. The matter
cf this outer mould is varied according as different lay¬
ers are applied. The firft is generally a compofition of
«lay, and old white crucibles well ground and fifted,
and mixed up with water to the confidence of a colour
tit for painting; accordingly they apply it with a pen¬
cil, laying it feven or eight times over, and letting it
dry between whiles. For the fecond impreflion, they
add horfe-dung and natural earth to the former corn-
pofition. The third impreflion is only horfe-dung and
earth. Laftly, the ftiell is finiftied by laying on feveral
more impreflions of this laft matter, made very thick
with the hand.
The {hell, thus finiflied, is fecured by feveral iron
girts, bound round it, at about half a foot diftance from
each other, and faftened at the bottom to the grate un¬
der the ftatue, and at topto'a circle of iron where they
all terminate.
If the ftatue be fo big that it would not be eafy to
move the moulds with fafety, they muft be wrought
on the fpot where it is to be caft. This is performed
two ways: in the firft, a fquare hole is dug under
ground, much bigger than the mould to be made
therein, and its infide lined with walls of free-ftone or
brick. At the bottom is made a hole of the fame
materials with a kind of furnace, having its aperture
outwards : in this is a fire made to dry the mould,
and afterwards melt the wax. Over this furnace is
placed the grate, and upon this the mould, &c. formed
as above. Laftly, at one of the edges of the fquare
pit, is made another large furnace to melt the metal.
In the other way, it is fufficient to work the mould
above ground, but with the like precaution of a fur¬
nace and grate underneath. When finiflied, four
walls are to be run around it, and by the fide thereof
a maflive made for a melting-furnace. For the reft
the method is the fame in both. The mould being fi¬
niftied, andinclofed asdeferibed, whether under ground
or above it, a moderate fire is lighted in the furnace
under it, and the whole covered with planks, that the
wax may melt gently down, and run out at pipes con¬
trived for that purpofe, at the foot of the mould,
which are afterwards exa&ly clofed with earth, fo foon
as the wax is carried off. This done, the hole is filled
up with bricks thrown in at random^ and the fire in
the furnace augmented, till fuch time as both the
bricks and mould become red hot. After this, the fire
being extinguiftied, and every thing cold again, they
take out the bricks and fill up their place with earth
moiftened, and a little beaten to the top of the mould,
in order to make it the more firm and fteady. Thefe
preparatory meafures being duly taken, there remains
nothing but to melt the metal, and nin it into the
mould. Thip is the office of the furnace above deferi-
bed, which is commonly made in the form of an even
with three apertures, one to put in the wood, another
for a vent, and a third to run the metal out at. From
this laft aperture, which is kept very clofe, while the Foundery.
metal is in fufion, a fmall tube is laid, whereby the
melted metal is conveyed into a large earthen bafon,
over the mould, into the bottom of which all the big
branches of the jets, or cafts, which are to convey the
metal into all the parts of the mould, are inferted.
Thefe cafts or jets are all terminated with a kind
of plugs, which are kept clofe, that, upon opening
the furnace, the brafs, which gnflies out with violence,
may not enter any of them, till the bafon be full e-
nough of matter to run into them all at once. Upon
which occafion they pull out the plugs, which are long
iron rods with a head at one end, capable of filling
the whole diameter of each tube. The whole of the
furnace is opened with a long piece of iron fitted at
the end of each pole, and the mould filled in an in-
ftant. This completes the work in relation to the
calling part ; the reft being the fculptor’s or carver’s
bufinefs, who, taking the figure out of the mould and
earth wherewith it is encompaffed, faws off the jets
with which it appears covered over, and repairs it
with chiffels, gravers, puncheons, &c.
Foundery of Bells. The metal, it is to be obfer*
ved, is different for bells, from what it is for ftatues;
there being no tin in the ftatue metal: but there is a
fifth, and fometimes more, in the bell-metal.
The dimenfions of the core and the wax for bells,
if a ring of bells efpecially, are not left to chance, but
muft be meafured on a fcale, or diapafon, which gives
the height, aperture, and thicknefs, neceflary for the
feveral tones required.
It is on the wax that the feveral mouldings and o-
ther ornaments are formed to be reprefented in relievo,
on the outlide of the bell.
The bufinefs of bell-foundery is reducible to three
particulars. 1. The proportion of a bell. 2. The
forming of the mould ; and, 3. The melting of the
metal.
The proportions of our bells differ much from thofe
of the Chinefe : in ours, the modern proportions are,
to make the diameter fifteen times the thieknefs of the
brim, and twelve times the height.
There are two kinds of preparations, viz. the fim-
ple and the relative : the former are thofe proportions
only that are between the feveral parts of a bell, to
render it fonorous; the relative proportions eftablifti
a requifite harmony between feveral bells.
The particulars neceffary for making the mould of
a bell are, 1. The earth: the moft cohefive is the
beft ; it muft be well ground and fifted, to prevent
any chinks. 2. Brick-ftone ; which muft. be uied for
the mine, mould, or core, and for the furnace. 3.
Horfe-dung, hair, and hemp, mixed with the earth,
to render the cement more binding. 4. The wax for
inferiptions, coats of arms, &c. 5. The tallow e-
qually mixed with the wax, in order to put a flight
lay of it upon the outer mould, before any letters are
applied to it. 6. The coals to dry the mould.
For making the mould, they have a fcaffold con¬
fiding of four boards, ranged upon treffels. Upon
this they carry the earth, grofsly diluted, to mix it
with horfe-dung, beating the whole with a large fpa-
tula.
The compaffes of conftruftion is the chief inftru-
ment for making the mould, which confift of two dif¬
ferent
F O U [ 3095 ] F O U
Foundery. ferent legs joined by a third piece. And laft of all,
■“ the founders (helves, on which are the engravings of
the letters, cartridges, coats of arms, &c.
They firft dig a hole of a fufficient depth to contain
the mould of the bell, together with the cafe, or can¬
non, under ground ; and about fzx inches lower than
the terreplain, where the work is performed. The
hole mull be wide enough for a free palfage between
the mould and walls of the hole, or between one
mould and another, when feveral bells are to be call.
At the centre of the hole is a (lake ere&ed, that is
ftrongly fallened in the ground. This fupports an
iron peg, on which the pivot of the fecond branch of
the compaflcs turns. The ftake is encompafled with
a folid brick-work, perfectly round, about half a foot
high, and of the propofed bell’s diameter. This they
call a mill-Jione. The parts of the mould are, the core,
the model of the bell, and the (hell. When the outer
furface of the core is formed, they begin to raife the
core, which is made of bricks that are laid in courfes
of equal height upon a lay of plain earth. At the lay¬
ing of each brick, they bring near it the branch of the
compaffes, on which the curve of the core is (haped,
fo as that there may remain between it and the curve
the diftance of a line, to be afterwards filled up with
layers of cement. The work is continued to the top,
only leaving an Opening for the coals to bake the core.
This work is covered with a layer of cement, made
of earth and horfe-dung ; on which they move the
compaffes of conllru&ion, to make it of an even fmooth-
nefs every where.
The firft layer being finifhed, they put the fire to
the core, by filling it half with coals, through an open¬
ing that is kept (hut, during the baking, with a cake
of earth that has been feparately baked. The firft
fire confumes the ftake, and the fire is left in the core
half or fometimes a whole day : the firft layer being
thoroughly dry, they cover it with a fecond, third,
and fourth ; each being fmoothed by the board of the
compaffes, and thoroughly dried before they proceed
to another.
The core being completed, they take the compaffes
to pieces, with intent to cut off the thicknefs of the
model, and the compaffes are immediately put in their
place to begin a fecond piece of the mould. It con-
lifts of a mixture of earth and hair, applied with the
hand on the core, in feveral cakes that clofe together.
This work is finilhed by feveral layers of a thinner
cement of the fame matter, fmoothed by the compaffes,
and thoroughly dried before another is laid on. The
firft layer of the model is a mixture of wax andgreafe
fpread over the whole. After which are applied the
infcriptions, coats of arms, &c. befmeared with a pen¬
cil dipped in a veffel of wax in a chaffing-difti: this is
done for every letter. Before the (hell is begun, the
compaffes are taken to pieces, to cut off all the wood
that fills the place of the thicknefs to be given to the
(hell.
The firft layer is the fame earth with the reft, fifted
very fine ; whilft it is tempering in water, it is mixed
with cow’s hair, to make it cohere. The whole being
a thin cullis, is gently poured on the model, that fills
exadlly all the finuofities of the figures, &c. and this
is repeated till the whole is two lines thick over the
model. When this layer is thoroughly dried, they
cover it with a fecond of the fame matter, but fome- Foundery.
what thicker; when this fecond layer becomes of
fome confidence, they apply the compaffes again, and
light a fire in the core, fo as to melt off the wax of
the infcriptions, &c.
After this, they go on with other layers of the (hell,
by means of the compaffes. Here they add to the
cow’s hair a quantity of hemp, fpread upon the layers,
and afterwards fmoothed by the board of the compaf¬
fes. The thicknefs of the (hell comes to four or five
inches lower than the mill-ftone before obferved, and
furrounds it quite clofe, which prevents the extrava-
fation of the metal. The wax (hould be taken out be¬
fore the melting of the metal.
The ear of the bell requires a feparate work, which
is done during the drying of the feveral incruftations
of the cement. It has feven rings; the feventh is cal¬
led the bridge, and unites the others, being a perpen¬
dicular fupport to ftrengthen the curves. It has an
aperture at the top, to admit a large iron peg, bent at
the bottom ; and this is introduced into two holes in
the beam, faftened with two ftrong iron keys. There
are models made of the rings, with maffes of beaten
earth, that are dried in the fire, in order to have the
hollow of them. Thefe rings are gently preffed upon
a layer of earth and cow’s hair, one half of its depth;
and then taken out, without breaking the mould*
This operation is repeated 12 times for 12 half-moulds,
that two and two united may make the hollows of the
fix rings: the fame they do for the hollow of the bridge,
and bake them all, to unite them together.
Upon the open place left for the coals to be put in,
are placed the rings that conftitute the ear. They firft
put into this open place the iron-ring to fupport the
clapper of the bell ; then they make a round cake of
clay, to fill up the diameter of the thicknefs of the
core. This cake, after baking, is clapped upon the
opening, and foldered with a thin mortar fpread over
it, which binds the cover clofe to the core.
The hollow of the model is filled with an earth,
fufficiently moift to fix on the place, which is ftrewed
at feveral times updn the cover of the core ; and they
beat it gently with a peftle, to a proper height; and a
workman fmooths the earth at top with a wooden
trowel dipped in water.
Upon this cover, to be taken off afterwards, they
affemble the hollows of the rings. When every thing
is in its proper place, they ftrengthen the outfide of the
hollows with mortar, in order to bind them with the
bridge, and keep them fteady at the bottom, by means
of a cake of the fame mortar, which fills up the whole
aperture of the (hell. This they let dry, that it may
be removed without breaking. To make room for the
metal, they pull off the hollows of the rings, through
which the metal is to pafs, before it enters into the va¬
cuity of the mould. The (hell being unloaded of its
ear, they range under the millftone five or fix pieces
of wood, about two feet long, and thick enough to
reach almoft the lower part of the (hell; between thefe
and the mould, they drive in wooden wedges with a
mallet, to (hake the (hell of the model whereon it refts,
fo as to be pulled up and got out of the pit.
When this and the wax are removed, they break
the model and the layer of earth, through which the
metal muft run, from the hollow of the rings, between
17 U 2- the
V O V [ 3096 ] F O U
Foumlery. the fhell and the core. They fmoke the infide of the
fhell, by burning ftraw under it, that helps to fmooth
the furface of the bell. Then they put the fhell in
the place, fo as to leave the fame interval between that
and the core; and .before the hollows of the rings or
the cap are put on again, they add two vents, that are
united to the rings, and to each other, by a mafs of
baked cement. After which they put on this mafs of
the cap, the rings, and the vent, over the fhell, and
folder it with thin cement, which is dried gradually by
covering it with burning coals. Then they fill up the
pit with earth, beating it ftrongly all the time, round
the mould.
The furnace has a place for the fire, and another for
the metal. The fire-place has a large chimney with a
fpacious afh-hole. The furnace which contains the
metal, is vaulted, whofe bottom is made of earth,
rammed down ; the reft is built with brick. It has
four apertures; the firft, through which the flame re¬
vibrates ; the fecond is clofed with a ftopple that is
opened for the metal to run 5 the others are to fepa-
rate the drofs, or fcoriae, of the metal by wooden rakes:
through thefe laft apertures pafles the thick fmoke.
The ground of the furnace is built floping, for the me¬
tal to run down.
Foundery of Great Guns and Mortar-Pieces. The
method of cafting tbefe pieces is little different from
that of bells: they are run maffy, without any core,
being determined by the hollow of the fhell; and they
are afterwards bored with a fteel trepan, that is worked
either by horfes or a water-mill.
For the metal, parts, proportions, &c. of thefe
pieces, fee Gunnery.
ZeWer-Foundery, or Cajiing of Printing-Letters.
The firft thing requifite is to prepare good fteel-
punohes, on the face of which is drawn the exaft fhape
of the letter with pen and ink, if the letter be large,
or with a fmooth blunted point of a needle, if fmall;
and then, with proper gravers, the cutter digs deep be¬
tween the ftrokes, letting the marks Hand on the punch;
the work of hollowing being generally regulated by
the depth of the counter-punch : then he fills the
outfide, till it is fit for the matric'e.
They have a mould to juftify the matrices by, which
confifts of an upper and under part, both which are
alike, except the ftool and fpring behind, and a fmall
roundifh wire in the upper part, for making the nick,
in the fhank of the letter. Thefe two parts are exactly
fitted into each other, being a male and female gage,
to Aide backwards and forwards.
Then they juftify the mould, by cafting about 20
famples of letters, which are fet in a compofing-ftick,
with the nicks towards the right hand ; and comparing
thefe every way with the pattern-letters fet up in the
fame manner, they find the exaft meafure of the body
to be caft.
Next they prepare the matrix, which is of brafs or
copper, an inch and a half long, and of a proportion-
able thicknefs to the fize of the letter it is to contain.
In this metal is funk the face of the letter, by ftriking
the letter-punch the depth of an n. After this, the
fides and face of the matrice are juftified, and cleared,
with files, of all bunchings that have been made by fink¬
ing the punch.
Then it U brought to the furnace, which is built up¬
right of brick with four fquare fides, and a ftone at top, FoumJery.
in which is a hole for the pan to (land in.  “
Printing-letters are made of lead, hardened with
iron or ftub-nails. To make the iron run, they mingle
an equal weight of antimony, beaten fmall in nn iron
mortar, and ftub-nails together. They charge a pro¬
per number of earthen-pots, that bear the fire, with the
two ingredients, as full as they can hold; and melt it in
Sm open furnace, built for that purpofe.
When it bubbles, the iron is then melted, but it eva¬
porates very much. This melted compoft is ladled
into an iron-pot, wherein is melted lead, that is fixed
on a furnace clofe to the former, 3 lb of melted iron
to 25 lb of lead ; this they incorporate according to
art.
The cafter taking the pan off the ftone, and having
kindled a good fire, he fets the pan in again, and me¬
tal in it to melt. If it be a fmall-bodied letter, or a
thin letter with great bodies, that he intends to caft,
his metal mull be very hot, and fometimes red-hot, to
make the letter come. Then taking a ladle, of which
he has fevsral forts, that will hold as much as will
make the letter and break, he lays it at the hole where
the flame burfts out: then he ties a thin leather, cut
with its narrow end againft the face, to the leather
groove of the matrice, by whipping a brown thread
twice about the leather groove, and fattening the thread
with a knot. Then he puts both pieces of the mould
together, and the matrice into the matrice-cheek; and
places the foot of the matrice on the ftool of the mould,
and the broad end of the leather on the wood of the
upper haft of the mould, but not tight up, left it hin¬
der the foot of the matrice from finking clofe down
upon the ftool, in a train of work. Afterwards lay¬
ing a little rofin on the upper part of the mould,-and
having his cafting-ladle hot, he, with the boiling fide,
melts the rofin, and preffes the broad end of the leather
hard down oa the wood, and fo faftens it thereto. Now
he comes to cafting; when placing the under half of
the mould in his left hand, with the hook or jag for¬
ward, he holds the ends of its wood between the lower
part of the ball of his thumb and his three hinder fin¬
gers: then he lays the upper half of the mould upon
the under half, fo as the male gages may fall into the
female, and at the fame time the foot of the matrice
places itfelf upon the ftool; and clafping his left-hand
thumb ftrongly over the upper half, he nimbly catches .
hold of the bow or fpring, with his right-hand fingers
at the top of it, and his thumb under it, and places the
point of it againft the middle of the notch in the back-
fide of the matrice, prefling it forwards as well to¬
wards the mould, as downwards, by the fhoulder of the
notch, clofe upon the ftool, while, at the fame time,
with his hinder fingers, as aforefaid, he draws the un¬
der half of the mould towards the ball of his thumb,
and thrufts, by the ball of his thumb, the upper part
towards his fingers, that both the regifters of the
mould may prefs againft both fides of the matrice, and
his thumb and fingers prefs both fides of the mould
clofe together.
Then he takes the handle of his ladlerin his right
hand, and with the ball of it gives two or three ftrokes
outwards upon the furface of the melted metal, to clear
it of the fcum ; then he takes up the ladle full, and ha¬
ving the mould in his left hand, turns his left fide a
little
F O U [ 3097 ] F O U
Fount, little from the furnace, and brings the geat of his
Fountain. ja(j]c t0 the mouth of his mould; and turns the upper
part of his right hand towards him, to pour the metal
into it, while, at the fame inftant, he puts the mould
in his left hand forwards, to receive the metal with a
ftrong (hake, not only into the bodies of the mould,
but, while the metal is yet hot, into the very face of
the matrice, to receive its perfect form there as well as
in the (hank. Then he takes the upper half of the
piould off, by placing his right thumb on the end of
the wood next his left thumb, and his two middle
fingers at the other end of the wood: he toffes the
letter, break and all, out upon a fheet of wafte paper,
laid on a bench, a little beyond his left hand; and then
is ready to cafl another letter, as before, and likewife
the whole number in that matrix.
Then boys, commonly employed for this purpofe,
feparate the breaks from the (hanks, and rub them on
a (tone, and afterwards a man cuts them all of an even
height, which (inilhes the fount for the ufe of the
printer. See the next article.
A workman will ordinarily caft 3000 of thefe letters
in a day. The perfection of letters thus caft, confifts
in their being all feverally fquareand ftraight on every
fide; and all generally of the fame height, and evenly
lined, without (looping oneway or other; neither too
big in the foot, nor the head ; well grooved, fo as the
two extremes of the foot contain half the body of the
letter; and well ground, barbed, and fcrapped, with
a fenfible notch, &c. See Printing.
FOUNT, or Font, among printers, a fet or quan¬
tity of letters, and all the appendages belonging there¬
to; as numeral chara&ers, quadrates, points, &c. caft
by a letter-founder, and forted.
FOUNTAIN, in philofophy, a fpring or fource of
water rifing out of the earth. Among the ancients,
fountains were held facred, and even worfhipped as a
kind of divinities. For the phenomena, theory, and
origin of fountains or fprings, fee Spring.
Artificial fountain, called alfo a jet d’eau, is.
a contrivance by which water is violently fpouted
upwards. See Hydraulics.
Fountain -T^ree^ a very extraordinary vegetable
growing in one of the Canary iflands, and likewife faid
to exiil in fome other places, which diftils water from
its leaves in fuch plenty as to anfwer all the purpofes
of the inhabitants who live near it. Of this tree we
have the following account in Glade’s hiftory of the
Canary Iflands. There are only three fountains of
water in the whole ifland of Hierro, wherein the foun¬
tain-tree grows. One of thefe fountains is called A-
cqf, which, in the language of the ancient inhabitants,
fignifies river; a name, however, which does not feem
to have been given it on account of its yielding much
water, for in that refpedl it hardly deferves the name
of a fountain. More to the northward is another call¬
ed Hapio ; and in the middle of the ifland is a fpring,
yielding a ftream about the thicknefs of a man’s finger.
This laft was difcovered in the year 1565, and is call¬
ed the fountain of Anton. Hernandez. On account of
the fcarcity of water, the fheep, goats, and fwine,
here do not drink in the fummer, but are taught to dig
up the roots of fern, and chew them to quench their
third. The great cattle are watered at thofe foun¬
tains, and at a place where water diftils from the leaves
of a tree. Many writers have made mention of this Foufltain.
famous tree, fome in fuch a manner as to make it ap- ———“
pear miraculous: others again deny the exiftence of
any fuch tree ; among whom is Father Feyjoo, a mo¬
dern Spanifh author, in his Theatro Critico. But he,
and thofe who agree with him in this matter, are as
much miftaken as thofe who would make it appear to
be miraculous. This is the only ifland of all the Ca¬
naries which I have not been in; but I have failed
with natives of Hierro, who, when queftioned about
the exiftence of this tree, anfwened in the affirma¬
tive.
“ The author of the Hiftory of the difcovery and
conquefl has given us a particular account of it, which
I (hall here relate at large.
‘ The diftridl in which this tree ftands is called 7/-
gulahe; near to which, and in the cliff, or deep rocky
afcent that furrounds the whole ifland, is a narrow gut¬
ter or gulley, which commences at the fea, and conti¬
nues to the fumrhit of the cliff, where it joins or co¬
incides with a valley, which is terminated by the fteep
front of a rock. On the top of this rock grows a tree,
called in the language of the ancient inhabitants,
Garfe, “ Sacred or HolyT ree,”' which for many years
has been preferved found, entire, and frefti. Its leaves
conftantly diftil fuch a quantity of water as is fufficjent
to furnifh drink to every living creature ^11 Hierro ;
nature having provided this remedy for the drought of
the ifland. It is fituat&d about a league and a half
from the fea. Nobody knows of what fpecies it is, on¬
ly that it is called Til. It is diftinft from other trees,
and ftands by itfelf; the circumference of the trunk is
about izfpans, the diameter four, and in height from
the ground to the top of the higheft branch, 40 fpans:
the circumference of all the branches together is 120
feet. The branches are thick and extended ; the lovveft
commence about the height of an ell from the ground.
Its fruit refembles the acorn, and taftes fomething like
the kernel of a pine-apple, but is fofter and more aro¬
matic. The leaves of this tree refemble thofe of the
laurel, but are larger, wider, and more curved; they
come forth in a perpetual fucceffion, fo that the tree
always remains green. Near to it grows a thorn
which faftens on many of its branches, and interweaves
with them ; and at a final) diftance from the garfe are
fome beech-trees, brefos, and thorns. On the north
fide of the trunk are two large tanks or cifterns, of
rough (tone, or rather one ciftern divided, each half
being 20 feet fquare, and 16 fpans in depth. One of
thefe contains water for the drinking of the inhabi¬
tants ; and the other that which they ufe for their cat¬
tle, waftiing, and fuch-like purpofes. Every morning,.,
near this part of the ifland, a cloud or mift arifes
from the fea, which the fouth and eafterly winds force
again ft the fore-mentioned fteep cliff; fothat the cloud
having no vent but by the gutter, gradually afcends it,,
and from thence advances flowly to the extremity of the
valley, where it is flopped and checked by the front of
the rock which terminates the valley, and then refts
upon the thick leaves and wide-fpreading branches of
the tree, from whence it diftils in drops during, the re¬
mainder of the day, until it is at length exhaufted, in-
the fame manner that we fee water drip from the leaves-
of trees after a heavy (hower of rain. This diftiJla-
tion. is'not peculiar to the garfe, or tilj for the brefos,
which.
F O U [ 3098 ] F O W
fountain, which grow near it, likewife drop water ; but their
leaves being but few and narrow, the quantity is fo
trifling, that though the natives fave fome of it, yet
they make little or no account of any but what diftils
from the til, which, together with the water of fome
fountains, and what is faved in the winter feafon, is
fufficient to ferve them and their flocks. This tree
yields moft water in thofe years when the Levant or
eafterly winds have prevailed for a continuance; for,
by thefe winds only the clouds or mills are drawn hi¬
ther from the fea. A perfon lives on the fpot near
which this tree grows, who is appointed by the coun¬
cil to take care of it and its water; and is allowed a
houfe to live in, with a certain falary. He every day
diftributes to each family of the diftridl feven pots or
velfels full of water, befides what he gives to the prin¬
cipal people of the ifland.’
“ Whether the tree which yields water at this pre-
fent time be the fame as that mentioned in the above
defcription, I cannot pretend to determine : but it is
probable there has been a fucceffion of them ; for Pli¬
ny, defcribing the Fortunate ifland, fays, ‘ In the
mountains of Ombrion are trees refembling the plant
ferula, from which water may be procured by preffure.
What comes from the black kind is bitter, but that
which the white yields is fweet and potable.”
Trees yielding water are not peculiar to the
ifland of Hierro ; for travellers informs us of one of
the fame kind on the ifland of St Thomas, in the bight
or gulph of Guiney. In Cockburn’s voyages we find
the following account of a dropping tree, near the
mountains of Fera Paz, in America.
‘ On the morning of the fourth day, we came out
on a large plain, where were great numbers of fine
deer, and in the middle flood a tree of unufual fize,
fpreading its branches over a vaft compafs of ground.
Curiofity led us up to it. We had perceived, at fome
diftance off, the ground about it to be wet; at which
we began to be fomewhat furprifed, as well knowing
there had no rain fallen for near fix months paft, ac¬
cording to the certain courfe of the feafon in that lati¬
tude : that it was impoflible to be occafioned by the
fall of dew on the tree, we were convinced, by the
fun’s having power to exhale away all moifture of that
nature a few minutes after its rifing. At laft, to our
great amazement as well as joy, we faw water drop¬
ping, or as it were diftilling, fall from the end of e-
very leaf of this wonderful (nor had it been amifs if I
hadfaid miraculous} tree ; at leaft it was fo with refpedl
to us, who had been labouring four days through ex¬
treme heat, without receiving the leaft moifture, and
were now almoft expiring for the want of it.
‘ We could not help looking on this as liquor fent
from heaven to comfort us under great extremity. We
catched what we could of it in our hands, and drank
very plentifully of it; and liked it fo well, that we
could hardly prevail with ourfelves to give over. A
matter of this nature could not but incite us to make
the ftri&eft obfervations concerning it; and according¬
ly we ftaid under the tree near three hours, and found
we could not fathom its body in five times. We ob-
ferved the foil where it grew to be very ftrong ; and
upon the niceft inquiry we could afterwards make,
both of the natives of the country and the Spanifti in¬
habitants, we could not learn there was any fuch tree
known throughout New Spain, nor perhaps all Ame- Fouquierc
rica over ; but I do not relate this as a prodigy in na- li
ture, becaufe I am not philofopher enough to afcribe *ow ing-
any natural caufe for it: the learned may perhaps give
fubftantial reafons in nature for what appeared to us a
great and marvellous fecret.’
FOUQUIERE (James), an excellent Flemifh pain¬
ter of landfcapes, born at Anvers. De Piles fays, the
difference between his pi&ures and thofe of Titian con-
fift rather in the countries reprefented, than in tlm
goodnefs of the pieces ; the principles of both are the
fame, and the colouring alike good and regular. He
painted for Rubens, of whom he learned the moft ef-
fential part of his art. The elector Palatine employed
him at Heidelberg ; and thence going to Paris, he
painted the Louvre, under the reign of Lewis XIII.
and acquired great reputation by his pictures. He died
at Paris, in 1659.
FOURCHEE, or Fourchy, in heraldry, an ap¬
pellation given to a crofs forked at the ends. Sec
Heraldry.
FOURMONT (Stephen), profeffor of the Arabic
and Chinefe languages, and one of the moft learned
men of his time, was born Herbidai, a village four
leagues from Paris, in 1683. He ftudied in Mazarine
college, and afterwards in the Seminary of Thirty-
three. He was at length profeffor of Arabic in the
Royal college, and was made a member of the Aca¬
demy of Infcriptions. In 1738, he was chofen a
member of the Royal Society in London, and of that
of Berlin in 1741. He',was often confulted by the
duke of Orleans, firft prince of the blood; who had a
particular efteem for him, and made him one of his fe-
cretaries. He wrote a great number of books; the
moft confiderable of thofe which have been printed are,
1. The roots of the Latin tongue, in verfe. 2. Criti¬
cal reflections on the hiftories of ancient nations, two
volumes, quarto. 4. A Chinefe grammar, in Latin,
folio. 5. Several differtations printed in the Memoirs
of the Academy of Infcriptions, &c. He died at Pa¬
ris, in 1745.
He ought not to be confounded with Michael Four-
mont, his youngeft brother; who took orders, was
profeffor of the Syriac language in the Royal college,
and a member of the Academy of Infcriptions. He
died in 1746.
FOURTH redundant, in mufic. See Interval.
FOWEY, or Foy, a town of Cornw'all in England.
It is featedon an afcent, is fortified, and its haven well
fecured with blockhoufes. It is a good trading place,
and its market well fupplied with corn. It fends two
members to parliament. W. Long. 50. N. Lat 50. 27.
FOWL, among zoologifts, denotes the larger forts
of birds, whether domeftic or wild : fuch as geefe,
pheafants, partridges, turkey, ducks, &c.
Tame fowl make a neceffary part of the flock of a
country farm. See the article Poultry.
Fowls are again diftinguifhed into two kinds, viz.
land and water fowl, thefe laft being fo called from
their living much in and about water : alfo into thofe
which are accounted game, and thofe which are
not. See the article Game.
FOWLING, the art of catching birds by means
of bird-lime, decoys, and other devices, or the killing
of them by the gun. See 'Env.V-Catching, Bird-Z/Va?,
FOX [ 3099 ] FRA
■JFowling, Decoy, Shooting, and the names of the different
B F'x. bjrris in the order of the alphabet.
Fowling, is alfo ufed for the purfuing and taking
birds with hawks, more properly called falconry or
hawking. See thefe articles.
FowLiNG-P/Vce, a light gun for fhooting birds.
That piece is always reckoned beft which has the long-
eft barrel, from 54- to 6 feet, with a moderate bore ;
though every fowler fliould have them of different
fizes, fuitable to the game he defigns to kill. The bar¬
rel fhould be well polifhed and fmooth within, and the
bore of an equal bignefs from one end to the other ;
which may be proved, by putting in a piece of pafte-
board, cut of the exaft roundnefs of the top : for if
this goes down without ftops or flipping, you may con¬
clude the bore good. The bridge-pan muft be fome-
what above the touch-hole, and ought to have a notch
to let down a little powder l this will prevent the piece
from recoiling, which it would otherwife be apt to do.
As to the Jocks, choofe fuel) as are well filed with true
wgrk, whofe fprings muft be neither too ftrong nor too
weak. The hammer ought to be well hardened, and
[ pliable to go down to the pan with a quick motion.
FOX, in zoology. See Canis.
The fox is a great nuifance to the hufbandman, by
taking away and deftroying his lambs, geefe, poultry,
See. The common way to catch him is by gins ;
which being baited, and a train made by drawing raw
flefh acrofs in his tifual paths or haunts to the gin, it
proves an inducement to bring him to the place of de-
ftruftion.
The fox is alfo a bead of chace, and is taken with
gre-hounds, tarriers, &c. See the article Hunting.
Fox (John), the martyrologift, was born at Bofton
in Lincolnfhire, in the year 1517. At the age of i6he
was entered a ftudent of Brazen nofe college in Oxford:
and in 1543, he proceeded mafterof arts,and was chofen
fellow of Magdalen college. He difeovered an early
genius for poetry, and wrote feveral Latin comedies,
the fubjedts taken from feripture, which his fon affures
us were written in an elegant ftyle. Forfaking the
mufes, he now applied himfelf with uncommon afii-
duity to the ftudy of divinity, particularly church-hi-
ftory; and, difeovering a premature propenfity to the
doffrine of reformation, he was expelled the college as
an heretic. His diftrefs on this occafion was very great;
but it was not long before he found an afylum in the
houfe of Sir Thomas Lucy, of Warwicklhire, who em¬
ployed him as a tutor to his children. Here he mar¬
ried the daughter of a citizen of Coventry. Sir Tho¬
mas’s children being now grown up, after refiding a
fliort time with his wife's father, he came to London ;
where finding no immediate means of fubfiftence, he
was' reduced to the utmoft degree of want; but was at
length, (as his fon relates) miraculofly relieved, in the
following manner: As he was one day fitting in St
Paul’s church, emaciated with hunger, a ftranger ac-
cofted him familiarly, and, bidding him be of good
cheer, put a fum of money into his hand; telling him
at the fame time, that in a few days new hopes were
at hand. He was foon after taken into the family of
the duchefs of Richmond, as tutor to the earl of Sur¬
rey’s children, who, when their father was fent to the
tower, were committed to her care. In this family he
lived, at Ryegate in Surrey, during the latter part of
the reign of Henry VIII. the entire reign of Ed- Fox,
ward VI. and part of that of queen Mary: but at Ffacaftor.
length, perfecuted by his implacable enemy bilhop
Gardiner, he was obliged to feek refuge abroad. Ba-
fil in Switzerland was the place of his retreat, where
he fubfifted by correfting the prefs. On the death of
queen Mary, be returned to England; where he was
graeioufly received by his former pupil the duke of
Norfolk, who retained him in his family as long as he
lived, and bequeathed him a penfion at his death. Mr
fecretary Cecil alfo obtained for him the re&ory of
Shipton, near Salifbury; and we are affured that he
might have had confiderable church-preferment, had it
had not been for his unwillingnds to fubferibe to the
canons. He died in the year 1587, in the 70th year
of his age; and was buried in the chancel of St Giles’s,
Cripplegate. He was a man of great induftry, and con¬
fiderable learning ; a zealous, but not a violent reform¬
er; a nonconformift, but not an enemy to the church of
England. He left two fons ; one of which was bred
a divine, the other a phyfician. He wrote many pieces:
but his principal work is the //flr and monuments of
the church, &c. commonly called Fox's Book of Mar¬
tyrs. His fadts are not always to be depended on, and
he often lofes his temper; which, confidering the fub-
je&, is not much to be wondered at.
Fox (George), the foundt: of the fe& of Engli/h
Quakers, was a ftioemaker in Nottingham. The ac¬
counts of thofe times tells us, that as he wrought at
his trade, he ufed to meditate much on the feriptures:
which, with his folitary courfe of life, improving his
natural melancholy, he began at length to fancy him¬
felf infpired ; and in confequence thereof fet up for a
preacher.
He propofed but few articles of faith ; infilling chief¬
ly on moral virtue, mutual charity, the love of God,
and a deep attention to the inward motions and fecret
operations of the fpirit : he required a plain fimple
worfhip, and a religion without ceremonies, making it
a principal point to wait in profound filence the direc¬
tions of the Holy Spirit. Fox met with much rough
treatment for his zeal, was often imprifoned, and fe¬
veral times in danger of being knocked on the head.
But all difeouragements notwithftanding, his fe£t pre¬
vailed much, and many confiderable men were drawn
over to them; among whom were Barclay and Penn.
He died in 1681. His followers were called Quakers,
in derifion of fome unufual fhakings and convulfiona-
with which they were feized at their firft meetings. See
the article Quakers.
Yoyc-Glove, in botany. See Digitalis.
FRACASTOR (Jerome), a moft eminent Italian;
poet and phyfician, was born at Verona in the year
1482. Two Angularities are related of him in his in¬
fancy: one is, that his lips adhered fo clofely to each
other, when he came into the world, that a chirurgeon
was obliged to divide them with his incifion-knife; the
other, that his mother was. killed with lightning, while
he, though in her arms at the very moment, efcaped
unhurt. Fracaftor was of parts fo exquifite, and made
fo wonderful a progrefs in every thing he undertook,
that he became eminently {killed, not only in the belles
lettres, but in all arts and fciences. He was a poet, a
philofopher, a phyfician, an aftronomer, a mathema¬
tician, and wh@t not? He was a man of vaft confe-
. quence
F Pv A r ^100 1 FRA
Fracaftor quence in his time} as appears from pope Paul III.’s
I . making ufe of his authority to remove the council of
ragai !a' Trent to Bologne, under the pretext of a contagious
diftemper, which, as Fracaftor depofed, made it no
longer fafe to continue at Trent. He was intimately
acquainted with cardinal Bembus, Julius Scaliger, and
all the great men of his time. He died of an apoplexy
at Cafi near Verona, in 1553: and in 1559, the town
of Verona ere&ed a ftatue in honour of him.
He was the author of many performances, both as
a poet and asaphyfician ; yet never man was more dif-
interefted in both thefe capacities than he. Evidently
fo as a phyfician, for he pradlifed without fees; and as
a poet, whofe ufual reward is glory, nothing could be
more indifferent. It is owing to this indifference, that
v'e have fo little of his poetry, in comparifon of what
he wrote ; and that, among other compofitions, his
Odes and Epigrams, which were read in manufcript
with infinite admiration, yet, never paffing the prefs,
were loft. What we have now of his, are the three
books of “ Siphilis, or of the French difeafe;” a book
of Mifcellaneous Poems; and two books of his poem in-
titled Jofepbi which he began at the latter end of his
life, but did not live to finifh. And thefe works, it is
faid, would have periftied with the reft, if his friends
had not taken care to preferve and communicate copies
of them: for Fracaftor, writing merely for amufement,
never troubled himfelf in the leaft about what became of
his works after they once got out of his hands. Fracaftor
compofed alfo a poem, called Alcon,fivc de cura canum
venaticorum. His poems, as well as his other works,
are written all in Latin. His medical pieces are, De
Sympathia & Antipatbia,—De contagione & contagio/is
morbis,—-De caujis criticorum dierum,— De vinitempe-
ratura*, &c. His works have been printed feparately
and colle&ively. The beft edition of them is that of
Padua 1735, in 2 vols 410.
FRACHES, in glafs-making, flat iron-pans, where¬
in the new-made vefiels are put, to be removed gra¬
dually from the fire. See the article Glass.
FRACTION, in arithmetic. See Arithmetic,
n° 21. 26.
FRACTURE, in furgery, a rupture of a bone, or
a folution of continuity in a bone when it is crufhed
or broken by fome external caufe. See Surgery.
FRALNUM, in anatomy, a term applied to fome
membranous ligaments of the body ; as,
Frjenum See Anatomy, n°403, d.
Fr^num Penis. See Anatomy, n°38i,r.
FRAGA, a ftrong town with a handfome caftle in
the kingdom of Arragon in Spain. It is ftrong by
fituation among the mountains; having the river Cinca
before it, whofe high banks are difficult of accefs ;
and at its back a hill, which cannot eafily be ap¬
proached with large cannon. Alphonfo VII. king of
Arragon, and the firft of that name of Caftile, was
killed by the Moors in 1134, when he befieged this
town. E. Long. o. 23. N. Lat. 41. 28.
FRAGARlA, the Strawberry ; a genus of the
polygynia order, belonging to the icofandria clafs of
plants. There is but one fpecies, viz. the vefca, or
cultivated ftrawberry. The principal varieties are,
t. The fylveftris, or wood-ftrawberry, with oval fawed
leaves, and fmall round fruit. 2. rJ he Virginian fear-
let, or Virginia ftrawberry, with oblong oval fawed
leaves, and a roundifti fcarlet-coloured fruit. 3. The Fragada
mofchata, or hautboy, or muflcy ftrawberry, having I)
oval, lanceolate, rough leaves, and large pale-red rai e‘
fruit. 4. The Chiloeniis, or Chili ftrawberry, with
large, oval, thick, hairy leaves, large flowers, and very
large, firm fruit. 5. TheAlpina, Alpine, or monthly
ftrawberry, having fmall oval leaves, fmall flowers,
and moderate fized, oblong, pointed fruit.
All thefe varieties are hardy, low, perennials, du¬
rable in root, but the leaves and fruit-ftalks ^re re¬
newed annually in fpring. They flower in May and
June, and their fruit comes to perfection in June, July,
and Auguft ; the Alpine kind continuing till the be¬
ginning of winter. They all profper in any common
garden foil, producing abundant crops annually with¬
out much trouble. They increafe exceedingly every
fummer, both by off-fets or fuckers from the fides of
the plants, and by the runners or firings, all of which
rooting and forming plants at every joint, each of
which feparately planted bears a few fruit the follow¬
ing year, and bear in great perfection the fecond fum¬
mer. Thofe of the Alpine kind will even bear fruit
the fame year that they are formed. All the forts arc
commonly cultivated in kitchen-gardens, in beds or
borders of common earth, in rows length wife 15 or
18 inches diftance ; the plants the fame diftance from
one another in each row. Patches of the different forts
difpofed here and there in the fronts of the different
compartments of the pleafure ground, will appear or¬
namental both in their flowers and fruit, and make
an agreeable variety.
Strawberries, eaten either alone, or with fugar and
milk, are univerfally efteemed a moft delicious fruit.
They are grateful, cooling, fubacid, and juicy. Tho’
taken in large quantities, they feldom difagree. They
promote perfpiration, impart a violet fmell to the urine,
and diffolve the tartareous incruftations on the teeth.
People afHi&ed with the gout or (tone have found re¬
lief by ufing them very largely; and Hoffman fays, he
has known confumptive people cured by them. The
bark of the root is aftringent.—Sheep and goats eat
the plant; cows are not fond of it; horfes and fwine
rsfufe it.
FRAGUIER (Claude Francis), a polite and
learned French writer, born at Paris, of a noble family,
in 1666. He was educated under the Jefuits, and
was even admitted into the order, though he after¬
wards quitted it ; and being thus at liberty to follow
his inclinations, he foon after affifted the Abbe Bignon
in conduCling the Journal de Scavans, having all the
qualifications -.or fuch a work. His works confift of
Latin poems, and a great number of very excellent
differtations. He died in 1728.
FRAIL, a bafket made of ruflies, or the like, in
which are packed up figs, raifins, &c. It figuifies alfo
a certain quantity of raifins, about 75 pounds.
FRAISE, in fortification, a kind of defence, con-
fifting of pointed ftakes, fix or feven feet long, driven
parallel to the horizon into the retrenchments of a
camp, a half-moon, or the like, to prevent any ap¬
proach or fcalade.
Fraifes differ from palifades chiefly in this, that the
latter ftand perpendicular to the horizon, and the
former jet out parallel to the horizon, or nearly fo, be¬
ing ufually made a little Hoping, or with the points
hanging
FRA [ 31
Fraifc hanging down. Fraifes are chiefly ufed in retrench-
!1 ments and other works thrown up of earth ; fometimes
rance' they are found under the parapet of a rampart, ferving
inftead of the cordon of (tone ufed in ftone-works.
To Fraise a Battalion, is to line the mufqueteers
round with pikes, that, in cafe they fhould be charged
with a body of a horfe, the pikes being prefented, may
cover the mufqueteers from the (hock, and ferve as a
barricade.
FRAME, in joinery, a kind of cafe, wherein a thing
is fet or inclofed, or even fupported; as a window-
frame, a pi&ure-frame, &c.
Frame is alfo a machine ufed in divers arts; as,
Frame, among printers, is the ftand which fupports
the cafes. See Case.
Frame, among founders, a kind of ledge inclofing
a board; which, being filled with wetted fand, ferves
as a mould to call their works in. See Foundery.
Frame is more particularly ufed for a fort of loom,
"whereon artificers ftretch their linens, filks, Huffs, &C.
to be embroidered, quilted, or the like.
Frame, among painters, a kind offquare, confifting
of four long flips of wood joined together, whofe in¬
termediate fpace is divided by threads into feveral little
fquares like a net; and hence fometimes called reticu¬
la. It ferves to reduce figures from great to fmall;
or, on the contrary, to augment their lize from fmall
to great.
FRANCE, a large kingdom of Europe, fituated
between 50 W. and 7° E. Long, and between 430 and
510 N. Lat. being bounded by the Englilh channel and
the Auftrian Netherlands, on the north ; by Germany,
Switzerland, Savoy, and Piedmont, iif Italy, on the
eafi; by the Mediterranean fea, and the Pyrenean
mountains, which feparateit from Spain, on the fouth ;
and, by the bay of Bifcay, on the weft.
The kingdom of France was originally poffeffed by
, the Celtes or Gauls. They were a very warlike peo-
Firft fub- pie, and often checked the progrefs of the Roman
diied by Ju- armg. nor djj tjjey till the time of Julius Caefar,
ins Caefar. wj10 tota]]y fubdutd their country, and reduced it to
* See Gaul. t^ie f°rra a Roman province *. The Romans con¬
tinued in quiet poffeffion of Gaul, aslong as theirem-
pire retained its (Length, and they were in a condition
to reprefs the incurfions of the German nations, whom
even in the zenith of their power they had not been able
to fubdue. But, in the reign of the emperor Valerian,
the ancient Roman valour and difcipline had begun to
decline, and the fame care was not taken to defend the
Invaded by Prov'nces that had formerly been done. The barbarous
the Franks, nations, therefore, began to make much more frequent
incurfions ; and among the reft the Franks, a Ger¬
man nation, inhabiting the banks of the Rhine,
proved particularly troublefome. Their firft irruption,
we are told by Valelius, happened in the year 254,
the fecond of Valerian’s reign. At this time they
were but few in number; and were repulfed by Aure-
lian, afterwards emperor. Not difcouraged by this
check, they returned two years afterwards in far
greater numbers ; but were again defeated by Gallienus,
whom Valerian had chofen for his partner in the em¬
pire. Others, however, continued to pour in from
their native country in fuch multitudes, that Gallie¬
nus, no longer able to drive them out by force of arms,
made advantageous propofals to one of their chiefs,
Vol. IV.
01 ] FRA
whom he engaged to defend the frontiers againft his France,
countrymen as well as other invaders. *
This expedient did not long anfwer the purpofe.
In 260 the Franks, taking advantage of the defeat
and captivity of Valerian in Perfia, broke into Gaul,
and afterwards into Italy, committing every where
dreadful ravages. Five years afterwards they invaded
Spain ; which they poffeffed, or rather plundered, for
the fpace of 12 years: nor could they be driven out
of Gaul till the year 275, when the emperor Probus
not only gave them a total overthrow in that country,
but purfued them into their own, where he built fe¬
veral forts to keep them in awe. This intimidated
them fo much, that nine of their kings fubmitted to
the emperor, and promifed an annual tribute.—They
continued quiet till the year 287 ; when, in conjunc¬
tion with the Saxon pirates, they plundered the coafts
of Gaul, carrying off an immenfe booty. To revenge
this infult, the emperor Maximian entered the country
of the Franks the following year, where he committed
fuch ravages that two of their kings fubmitted to him;
and to many of the common people who chufe to re¬
main in Gaul, he allowed lands in the neighbourhood
of Treves and Cambray.
The reftlefs difpofition of the Franks, however, did
not allow them to remain long in quiet. About the
year 293, they made themfelves mailers of Batavia,
and part of Flanders ; but were entirely defeated and
forced to furrender at difcretion, by Conftantius the
father of Conftantine the Great, who tranfplanted
them into Gaul. Their countrymen in Germany con¬
tinued quiet till the year 306, when they renewed
their depredations ; but being overcome by Conftan¬
tine the Great, two of their kings were taken pri-
foners, and thrown to the wild beads in the (hews ex¬
hibited, on that occafion.
All thefe vi&ories, however, as well as many others
faid to have been gained by the Romans, were not fuf-
ficient to prevent the incurfions of this reftlefs and tur¬
bulent nation; infomuch that, in the year 355, they
had made themfelves mailers of 40 cities in the pro¬
vince of Gaul. Soon after, they were totally de¬
feated by the emperor Julian, and again by count
Theodofius father to the emperor of that name ;
but, in the year 388, they ravaged the province with
more fury than ever, and cut off a whole Roman ar¬
my that was fent againft them. As the weilern em¬
pire wds at this time in a very low (late, they for
fome time found more interruption from other barba¬
rians than from the Romans, till their progrefs was
checked by Aetius.
When the war with Aetius broke out, the Franks pharamond
were governed by one Phararnond, the firft of their the firft
kings of whom we have any diftindl account. He is^'^g-
fuppofed to have reigned from the year 417 or 418,
to the year 428 ; and is thought by archbiftiop Ufher,
to have been killed m the war with Aetius. By fome
he is fuppofed to have compiled the Salique Laws, with
the afliftance of four fages named IVifegaJl, Lofegajl,
Widegajl, and Solegajl. But Valefius is of opinion that
the Franks had no written laws till the time of Clovis. 4
Pharamond was fucceeded by his fon Clodio, who Clodio.
likewife carried on a war againft the Romans. He is
faid to have received a terrible overthrow from Aetius
near the city of Lens; notwithftanding which, he ad-
17 X vanced
FRA [3
France- vanced to Cambray, and made himfclf raafter of that
cityf where for fome time he took up his refidence.
After this he extended his conquefis as far as the river
Somme, and deftroyed the cities of Treves and Co¬
logne, Tournay and Amiens. He died in the year
s 44^, and was fucceedcd by Merovaeus.
Merovaeus. Authors are not agreed whether the new king was
brother, or fon, or any relation at all, to Clodio. It
It feems probable, indeed, that he was of a different
family ; as from him the firft race of French kings
were ftiled Merovingian. He was honoured and re-
fpefted by his people, but did not greatly enlarge the
6 boundaries of his kingdom. He died in 458.
Childeric. Merovxus was fucceeded by his fon Childeric; who
being no longer kept in awe by Aefius, made war on
the Romans, and extended his conquefts as far as the
river Loire. He is faid to have taken the city of Pa¬
ris after a fiege of live years, according to fome, and
of ten, according to others. The Roman power was
now totally dettroyed in Italy ; and therefore Clodo-
vxus, Clovis, or Louis, for his name is differently
written, who fucceeded Childeric, fet himfelf about
making an entire conqueft of Gaul. Part of the pro¬
vince was dill retained by a Roman named Syagrius,
who probably had become fovereign of the country
on the downfall of the Wettern empire in 476. He
was defeated and taken prifoner by Clovis, who after¬
wards caufed him to be beheaded, and foon after totally
T reduced his dominions.
French mo- Thus was the French monarchy eftablifhed by Clo-
iiarchy efta- vis jn t^e year pje now pofiVAfed a]] the coun-
Clovis ^ try ¥ng between the Rhine and the Loire ; which,
though a very extenfive dominion, was yet confider-
ably inferior to what it is at prefent. In 493, he
married Clotildis, niece to Gondebaut duke of Bur¬
gundy ; and embraced the Chriftian religion. He re¬
duced Armorica, or Brittany ; and afterwards made
war on the Burgundians, in which he had Theodoric
king of the Oltrogoths for his ally. About this time)
however, Alaric king of the Vifigoth* inhabiting Au¬
vergne, made war upon Clovis; and a decifive battle
enfuing, the former were entirely defeated, their king
killed, and his dominions became a province of France.
Clovis after this deftroyed all the petty kings or
Chriftians among the Franks, which he did-not ac-
complifh without the vileft treachery ; but by that
means his power became abfoiute throughout all bis
dominions. Having removed the feat of his govern¬
ment firft from Tournay to Soiffons, and then to Pa¬
ris, he died in 511 ; and was buried in the church of
Sts. Peter and Paul, now Genevieve, where his tomb
8 is ftill to be feen.
His domi- After the death of Clovis, his dominions were dh
nionsdivi- vided among his four fons. Thieri, or Theodoric,
ded among the eldeft, had the eaftern part of the empire ; and,
his children from his making the city of Metz his capital, is com¬
monly called the king of Metz. Clodomir, the eldeff
fon by Clotildis, had the kingdom of Orleans; Chil-
debert, and Clotaire, who were both infants, had the
kingdoms of Paris and Soiffons, under the tutelage of
their mother. The prudence of Clotildis kept matters
quiet in all the parts of the empire for eight years :
but, about the year 520, a numerous fleet of Danes
arrived at the mouth of the Meufe; and their king
Cochiliac, having landed his forces, began to deftroy
102 ] FRA
the country with fire and fvvord. Againft him Thieri Fiance,
fent his fon Theodobert, who defeated the Daniflr ar-
my and navy, and killed their king, forcing the reft
to retire with precipitation.
In 522, Hermanfroi king of Thuringia, having de-
ftroyed one of his brethren named.Berthaire, and feized
on his dominions, applied to Thieri for afiiftance a-
gainft his other brother Balderic, whom he intended
to treat in the fame manner. In this infamous enter-
prize Thieri embarked, on condition that he fhould
have one half of Balderic’s dominions ; but after the
unhappy prince was overcome and killed in battle,
Hermanfroi feized all his dominions. Thieri had no
opportunity of revenging himfelf till the year 531 ;
when perceiving the power of the Oftrogoths, whom
he much dreaded, to be confiderably leffened by the
death of king Theodoric, he engaged his brother Clo¬
taire to afiift him, and they accordingly entered Thu¬
ringia with two powerful armies. They joined their
forces as foon as they had pafl'ed the Rhine, and were
quickly after reinforced by a conliderable body of
troops under the command of Theodobert. The al¬
lies attacked the army of Hermanfroi, which was ad-
vantageoufly polled; and having totally defeated it, he
was forced to fly from place to place in difguife. Soon
after this the capital was taken, and Hermanfroi him¬
felf being invited to a conference by Thieri was trea-
cheroufly murdered ; after which his extenfive domi¬
nions became feudatory to Thieri.
In the mean time, Clotildis had excited her children
to make war on the Burgundians, in order to revenge
the death of her father Chilperic, whom Gondebaud
king of Burgundy had caufed to be murdered. Gon¬
debaud was now dead, and had left his dominions to
his fons Sigifmund and Godemar. Sigifmund’s forces
were quickly defeated; and he himfelf was foon after
delivered up by his own fubje£ls to Clodomir, who caufed
him to be thrown into a pit, where he perilhed mifer-
ably. By his death Godemar became foie mailer of
Burgundy. Clodomir marched againft him, and de¬
feated him ; but purfuing his vitftory too eagerly, was
furroundedby his enemies and flain. After the reduc¬
tion of Thuringia, however, Childebert and Clotaire
entered the kingdom of Burgundy at the head of a
powerful army, and in 534 compleated the conqueft
of it; in which, according to fome, Godemar was kill¬
ed ; according to others, he retired into Spain, and
from thence into Africa. 9
In yffo Clotaire became foie monarch of France. He Clotaire be-
had murdered the fons of Clodomir, who was killed in comes foie
Burgundy as above related. Thieri and his children monarc
were dead, as was alfo Childebert; fo that Clotaire was
foie heir to all the dominions of Clovis. He had five
fons; and the tided of them, named Chramnes, had fome
time before rebelled againft; bis father in Auvergne.
As long as Childebert lived, he fupported the young
prince; but on his death, Chramnes was obliged to
implore his father’s clemency. He was at this time
pardoned; but he foon began to cabat afrefh, and en¬
gaged the count of Bretagne to aflift him in another
rebellion. The Bretons, however, were defeated, and
Chfamnes determined to make his efcape ; but percei¬
ving that his wife and children were furrounded by his
father’s troops, he attempted to refeue-them. In this
attempt he was taken prifoner* and with his family
was
FRA [ 3003 ] FRA
Prance, was thrufl; into a thatched cottage near the field of
battle ; of which the king was no fooner informed, than
he commanded the cottage to be fet on fire, and all
that were in it perifhed in the flames.
. Clotaire did not long furvive this cruel execution of
aeafn'di-11"' ^'‘s ^on» ^ut *n 5^2 > anc^ a^t<:r c?eatk t^le
vtded. French empire was divided among his four remaining
fons, 'Caribert, Gontran, Sigebert, and Chilperic.—
The old king made no divifion of his dominions before
he died, which perhaps caufed the. young princes to fall
out fooner than they would otherwife have done. After
his death, however, they divided the kingdom by lot;
when Caribert, the eldeit, had the kingdom of Paris ;
Gontran, the fecond, had Orleans; ciigebert, had Metz,
(or the kingdom of Auftrafia); and Chilperic had Soif-
fons. Provence and Aquitaine were pofleffed by all of
them in common. The peace of the empire was firft dif-
turbed in 563, by an invafton of the Abares ; a barba¬
rous nation, faid to be the remains of the Hunns.
They entered Thuringia, which belonged to the domi¬
nions of Sigebert ; but by him they were totally de¬
feated, and obliged to repv ; the Elbe with precipita¬
tion. Sigebert purfued them clofe, but readily con¬
cluded a peace with them on their firft propofals. To
this he was induced, by hearing that his brother Chil¬
peric had’ invaded his dominions, and taken Rheims
and fome other places in the neighbourhood. Againft
him, therefore, Sigebert marched with his vi&orious ar¬
my, made hirnfeif mafter of Soiflbns his capital, and
of the perfon of his eldtft ton Theodobert. He. then
defeated Chiiperic in battle ; and not only recovered
the place which he had feized, but conquered the great¬
er part of bis'dominions : neverthelefs, on the media¬
tion of the other two brothers, Sigebert abandoned all
his conquefts, fet Tlieodobert at liberty, and thus re-
ftored peace to the empire.
Soon after this, Sigebert married Brunehaut daugh¬
ter to Athanagilde king of the Viligoths in Spain; and
in a little time after the marriage died Caribert king of
Paris, whofe dominions were divided among his three
Infamous brethren. In 567 Chiiperic married Galfwintha, Brune-
conduft of haul’s eldeft lifter, whom he did not obtain without
Chilperic. fome difficulty. Before her arrival, he difmiffed his
miftrefs vMiA Fredegonde ; a woman of great abilities
and firmnefs of mind, but ambitious to the bigheft de¬
gree, and capable of committing the blackeft crimes
in order to gratify her ambition. The queen, who
brought with her immenfe treafures from Spain, and
made it her whole ftudy to pleafe the king, was for fome
time entirely acceptable. By degrees, however, Chil¬
peric fuffered Fredegonde to appear again at court, and
was fufpefted of having renewed his intercourfe with
her ; which gave fuch umbrage to the queen, that fhe
defired leave to return to her own country, promifing
to leave behind her all the wealth fhe had brought.
The king, knowing that this would render him ex¬
tremely odious, found means to diffipate his wife’s fu-
fpicions, and foon after caufed her to be privately
ftrangled, upon which he publicly married Fredegonde.
Such an atrocious action would not fail of exciting
the greateft indignatiou againft Chilperic. His domi¬
nions were immediately invaded by Sigebeft and Gon¬
tran, who conquered the greateft part of them ; after
which they fuddenly made peace, Chilperic confent-
ing that Brunehaut fhould enjoy thofe places which on
his marriage he had bellowed upon Galfwintha, viz. France.
Bourdeaux, Limoges, Cahors, Bigorre, and the town
of Bearn, -now called Lsfcar.
The French princes, however, did not long conti¬
nue at peace among ihemfelvts. A war quickly en-
fued, in which Gontran and'Chilperic allied themfelves
againft Sigebert. The latter prevailed, and having,
forced Gontran to a feparate peace, feemed determi; ed
to make Chilperic pay dear for his repeated perfidy r
infdmousco-n.luft ; when he was affaflinated by a con- ^
trivance of Fredegonde, who thus faved berfelf and
Chilperic from the moft imminent danger. Immediate¬
ly on his death, Brunehaut fell into the hands of Chil¬
peric ; but Gondebaud,- one of Sigebert’s beft: gene¬
rals, made his efcape into Auftrafia with Cliildebert,
the only fon of Sigebert, an infant of about five years
of age, who was immediately proclaimed king in room,
of his father. In a fhort time, however, Meroveus,
eldeft fon to Chilperic, fell in love with Brunehaut, and
married,her without acquainting his father. Chilpe¬
ric, on this news, immediately went to Rouen, where
Meroveus and his confort were ; and having feized
them, fent Brunehaut aud her two daughters t# Metz,
and carried Meroveus to Soiffons. Soon after, one of
his generals being defeated by Gontran, who efpoufed
Brunehaut’s caufe, Chilperic in a fit of rage caufed
Meroveus to be fhaved and confined in a monaftery.
From hence he found means to make his efcape, and
with great difficulty arrived in Auftrafia, where Brune¬
haut would gladly have prote&ed him : but thejealou-
fy of the nobles was fo ftrong, that he was forced to
leave that country; and being betrayed into the hands
of his father’s forces, was murdered, at the mitiga¬
tion of Fredegonde, as was generally believed.
The French empire was at this time divided between
Gontran king of Orleans, called alfo king of Burgun¬
dy, Chilperic king of SoifTons, and Childebert king
.of Auftrafia. Chilperic found his affairs in a very dif-
agreeable fituation. In 579, he had a difpute with
Varoe count of Bretagne, who refufed to do him ho¬
mage. Chilperic difpatched a body of troops againft
him ; who were defeated, and he was then forced to
clap up a difhonourable peace. His brother and ne¬
phew lived in ftridt union, and had no reafon to be very
well pleafed with him. His own fubjefts, being op-
prefted with heavy taxes, were miferably poor and dif-
contented. His fon Clovis, by a former queen named
dndovera, hated Fredegonde, and made no fecret of
his averfion. To add to his embarafiment, the feafons
were for a long time fo unfavourable, that the country
was threatened with famine and peftilence at the fame
time. The king and queen were both attacked by an
epidemic difeafe which then raged. They recovered:
but their three fons, Clodobert, Samfon, and Dago-
bert, died ; after which, the fight of Clovis became fo
difagreeable to Fredegonde, that fhe caufed him to be
murdered, and like wife his mother Andovera, left Chil-
peric’s affeftion for her fhould return after the tragi¬
cal death of her fon.
In 583 Chilperic himfelf was murdered by fome un- And like-
known aflaffins, when his dominions were on the point wife Chil-
of being conquered by Gontran and Childebert, who Peric*
had entered into a league for that purpofe. After his
death Fredegonde implored the prote&ion of Gontran
for hcrfelf and her infant fon Clotaire ; which he very
17 X 2 readily
FRA
France, readily granted, and obliged Childebert to put an end
to the war. He found himfelf, however, greatly dif-
ficulted to keep Fredegonde and Brunehaut in awe ;
for thefe two princefTes having been long rivals and im¬
placable enemies, were continually plotting the de-
ftruftion of each other. This, however, he accom-
plifhed by favouring fometimes Brunehaut and fome-
times Fredegonde ; fo that, daring his life, neither of
them durft undertake anything againft the other.
*4 On the 28th of March 593, died Gontran, having
Goutran^ uPwar^s an<^ reigned 32 years. Childebert
fucceeded to his dominions without oppofition, but did
not long enjoy them; he himfelf dying in the year 596,
and his queen ihortly after. His dominions were di¬
vided between his two fons Theodobert and Thierri;
the firft of whom was declared king of Auftrafia, and
the latter king of Burgundy. As Theodobert was
only in the iithvyear of his age, and Thierri in his
10th, Brunehaut governed both kingdoms with an ab-
folute fway. Fredegonde, however, took care not to
let flip fuch a favourable opportunity as was offered her
by the death of Childebert, and therefore made her-
felf miftrefs of Paris and fome other places on the Seine.
1S Upon this Brunehaut fent againft her the bed part of
And Fre- the forces in Auftrafia, who were totally defeated; but
degonde. Fredegonde died before (he had time to improve her
victory, leaving her fon Clotaire heir to all her domi¬
nions.
For fome time Brunehaut preferved her kingdom in
peace; but in the end her own ambition proved her
ruin. Inftead of inftructing Theodobert in what was
neceffary for a prince to know, (he took care rather to
keep him in ignorance, and even fuffered him to marry
a young and handfome flave of his father’s. The new
queen was poffeffed of a great deal of affability and
good-nature ; by which means fhe in a fhort time gain¬
ed the affe&ion of her hufband fo much, that he readily
confented to the banifhment of Brunehaut. Upon this
banithd*11 ^’%race ^>e t0 ^ ^'err' king of Burgundy, in the
anl C ’ year 599. By him (he was very kindly received ; and
inftead of exciting jealoufies or mifunderftandings be¬
tween the two brothers, fhe engaged Thierri to at¬
tempt the recovery of Paris and the other places which
had been wrefted from their family by Fredegonde,
procuring at the fame time a confiderable body of aux¬
iliaries from the Vifigoths, This meafure was fo ac¬
ceptable to Theodobert, that he likewifed railed a nu¬
merous army, and invaded Clotaire’s dominions in con-
jun&ion with his brother. A battle enfued, in which
the forces of Cloitaire were totally defeated, and himfelf
obliged foon after to foe for peace; which was not grant¬
ed, but on condition of his yielding up the beft part
of his dominions.
This treaty was concluded in the year 600; but
three years afterwards, it was broken by Clotaire. He
was again attacked by the two brothers, and the war
carried on with great vigour till the next fpring. At
this time Thierri having forced Landri, Clotaire’s ge¬
neral, to a battle, gave him a total overthrow, in which
the king’s infant fon Merovaeus, whom he had fent a-
long with Landri, was maffacred; to gratify, as Clo¬
taire pretended, the malice of Brunehaut. After this
vidtory, Thierri marched diredtly to Paris; fully bent
on the deftruftion of his coulin, which now feemed in¬
evitable. This, however, was prevented by Theodo-
F R A
bert; who no fooner heard of the vidory gained by France.
Thierri, than he became jealous of his foccefs, and of-
fered Clotaire foch terms of peace as he gladly accep¬
ted. The latter having then nothing to fear on the
fide of Auftrafia, quickly compelled Thierri to liften to
terms of accommodation alfo.
This behaviour of Theodobert greatly provoked his
brother; and bis refentment was highly inflamed by
Brunehaut, who never forgot her difgrace in being ba-
niihed from his court. A war was therefore commen¬
ced between the two brothers in 605 ; but it was fo
highly difapproved of by the nobility, that Thierri
found himfelf obliged to put an end to it. The tran¬
quillity which now took place, was again difturbed in
607, by Theodobert’s fending an cmbaffy to demand
fome part of Childebert’s dominions which had been
added, by the will of that monarch, to thofe of Bur¬
gundy. The nobility of both kingdoms were fo much
averfe to war, that they conftrained their kings to con-
fent to a conference, attended by an equal number of
troops; but Theodobert, by a fcandalous breach of his
faith, brought double the number, and compelled his
brother to fubmit to what terms he pleafed. This piece
of treachery inftantly brought on a war ; for Thierri
was bent on revenge, and his nobility no longer oppo-
fed him. It was neceflary, however, to fecure Clotaire
by a negociation ; and accordingly a promife was made
of reftoring thofe parts of his dominions which had
formerly been taken from him, provided he would re¬
main quiet. This treaty being finiftied, Thierri en¬
tered Theodobert’s dominions, defeated him in two
battles, took him prifoner, ufed him with the utmoft
indignity ; and having caufed an infant fon of his to
be put to death, fent him to his grandmother Brune¬
haut. By her orders he was firft (hayed and confined
in a monaftery; but afterwards, fearing left he (hould
make his efcape, fhe caufed him to be put to death.—
Clotaire, in the mean time, thought that the bert me¬
thod of making Fhierri keep his word was to feize on
thofe places which he had promifed to reftore to him,
before his return from the war with Theodobert. This
he accordingly did ; and Thierri no fooner heard of his
having done fo, than he fent him a meffage requiring
him to withdraw his forces, and, in cafe of his refufal,
declared war. Clotaire was prepared for this; and ac¬
cordingly affembled all the forces in his dominions, in
order to give him a proper reception. But before '
I hiern could reach his enemies, he was ieized with a xhierri.
dyfentery ; of which he died in the year 612, having
lived 26 years, and reigned 17.
On the death of Thierri, Brunehaut immediately
caufed his eldeft fon, named Sigijbert, then in the 10th
year of his ag^ to be proclaimed king. It is probable
that (he intense! to have governed in his name with
an abfdlute fway; but Clotaire did not give her time
to difeover her intentions. Having great intelli¬
gence in Auftrafia and Burgundy, and knowing that
the nobility in both kingdoms were difaffedfed to
Brunehaut, he declared war againft her ; and (he being ^
betrayed by her generals, fell into the hands of her Brunehaut
enemies. Clotaire gave her up to the nobles ; who ge- put to a
nerally hated her, and who ufed her in the molt cruel cruel death,
manner. After having led her about the camp, expo-
fed to the infults of all who had the meannefs to infult
her, (he was tied by the leg and arm to the tail of an
uu.-
[ 3104 1
FRA
[ 3I05 ]
FRA
untamed horfe, which, fetting off at full fpeed, quickly
~ da(hed out her brains. After this her mangled body
was reduced to afhes, which were afterwards interred
in the abbey of St Martin at Autun.
Thus Clotaire became foie monarch of France; and
quietly enjoyed.his kingdom till his death, which hap¬
pened in the year 628. He was fucceeded by Dago-
bert; who proved a great and powerful prince, and rai-
fed the kingdom of France to a high degree of fplen-
dor. Dagobert was fucceeded by his fons Sigebert and
Clovis; the former of whom had the kingdom of Au-
ftrafia, and the latter that of Burgundy, Both the
kings were minors at the time of their acceffion to the
throne, which gave an opportunity to the mayors of the
palace (the higheft officers under the crown) to ufurp
the whole authority. Sigebert died in 640, after a (hort
reignof oneyear; leavingbehindhimaninfant fonnamed
Dagobert, whom he ftrongly recommended to the care of reftoring to him a territory which was juftly his right.
thus left Pepin abfolute mafter of the empire ; who, France,
five years afterwards, refolved to affume the title of"
king, as he had long poffeffed the authority of one. This *0of
prince, furnamed le Bref, or the Short, was the firlt of t|,e
the fecond race of French kings named Carlovingian; short,
and was one of the greateft and moft prudent monarchs
that ever fat on the throne of France. He protected
pope Stephen III. againit Aftolphus king of the Lom¬
bards, who had feized the exarchate of Ravenna, and
infifted upon his being acknowledged king of Rome.
Pepin conducted the pope, who had come to France,
with an army back into Italy; befieged Aftolphus in
Pavia ; and obliged him to renounce, not only all claim
to the fovereignty of Rome, but alfo the exarchate of
Ravenna, and all his other conquefts in Italy. The
exarchate he bellowed upon the pope ; who, however,
did not confider it as a gift from him, but only as the
Grimoalde his mayor of the palace. The minifter cau-
fed Dagobert to be immediately proclaimed king, but
did not long fuffer him to enjoy that honour. He had
not the cruelty, however, to put him to death ; but fent
him to a monaftery in one of the Weftern iflands of
Scotland; and then, giving out that he was dead, ad¬
vanced his own fon Childebert to the throne. Childe-
bert was expelled .by Clovis king of Burgundy; who
placed on the throne Chiideric, the fecond fon of Si¬
gebert. Clovis died foon after the revolution, and was
fucceeded in his dominions by his fon Clotaire; who
died in a fhort time, without iffue. He was fucceed¬
ed by his brother Chiideric; who, after a Ihort reign,
was murdered with his queen, at that time big with
child, and an infant fon named Dagobert; tho’ another,
named Daniel, had the good luck to efeape.
. The affairs of the French were now in the moft de¬
plorable fituation, without king, magiftrates, or law
of any kind ; nor did this confulion end but with the
total extin&ion of the family of Clovis. The princes
of the Merovingian race were, in faft, deprived of
Pepin was no former gone, than Allolphus broke the
treaty he had concluded, and laid fiege to Romeitfelf.
However, the king of France very foon returned, and
forced him to accept of a peace on vaftly worfe terms
than before ; after which he made a tour to Rome : but
finding that his ftay gave great uneafinefs to the Greeks,
as well as to the pope himfelf, he quickly left the city.
After his return to his own dominions, Pepin em¬
ployed himfelf in regulating the national affairs ; but
was foon obliged to take the field againlt the duke of
Aquitaine, which country he entirely reduced in the
fpace of nine years. Soon after this, he died of a
dropfy at St Denis, in the year 768, the 17th of his
reign, and 54th of his life.
Pepin was fucceeded by his two fons Charles and
Carloman. The latter, who was the younger, died in
769, the year after their acceffion to the throne; and of chai-ft*
thus Charles became foie mafter of the French empire, the Great,
which he enlarged farther than ever it was either be¬
fore or fince His firft expedition was againft the
Saxons, who had long been tributaries to France, but
their power by Pepin d’Heriftal, who obliged Thierri frequently revolted, and now thought they had a good
Exploits
Charles
Martel.
king of Auftrafia to receive him as mayor of the pa.
lace. He governed every thing in the moft abfolute
manner; but, however, conduced matters with fo much
prudence, that the nation was very much refpetfted du¬
ring the time of his adminiftration, which continued
28 years. He died in 711, and was fucceeded in his
poft by his youngeft fon Theudobalde, at that time
but fix years old. In 717, Theudobalde was expelled
by Charles Martel, Pepin’s fon by a former wife, who
compelled the nominal king at that time to own him as
mayor of the palace. He was attended with furprifing
fuccefs in all his undertakings ; defeated the Arabs
who invaded the kingdom * ; overthrew the Frifons,
a> n° ,74, and killed their duke with his own hands. At laft he
was chofen by pope Gregory III. for his prote&or.
He offered to lhake off his dependence on the Greek
emperor, and to make Charles conful at Rome, fend¬
ing him at the fame time the keys of the tomb of St
Peter. But while this affair was in agitation, Charles
Martel died, and was fuccceded in his power by his
fons Carloman and Pepin.
Though Charles had never affumed the title offove-
reign, he divided the empire between his fons as if he
bad been adtually king. In 746, Carloman being
weary of his greatnefs, retired into a convent, and
opportunity, by the death of Pepin, of freeing them-
felves from that tribute, which they regarded as an in¬
tolerable grievance. Charles, however, entered their
country with a great army ; and having defeated them
in a number of fmall engagements, advanced to their
capital poft of Erefbourg near Paderborn; where was
the temple of their god Irminful, reprefented as a man
completely armed, w ith a ftandard in one hand, placed
on a column. The Saxons made an obftinate defence
but were at laft obliged to yield, and Charles employed
his army three days in demolifhing the monuments of
pagan fuperftition in this place. This diffieartened
them to fuch a degree, that they fubmitted to what¬
ever terms he chofe to preferibe; and which were ren¬
dered eafier to them than, perhaps, they would have
been, by the news which Charles now received from
Italy.
Didier, king of the Lombards, having feized and
fi-ighted to death pope Stephen IV. endeavoured to the
utmoft of his power to reduce his fucceffor Adrian I.
to a (late of dependence. . The pope implored the af-
liftance of Charles againft his adverfaries, and this
Charles was very ready of himfelf to grant; but the
nobility were fo much ave.rfe to an Italian war, that he
was obliged to aft with the greatell circumfpeflion..
He:
FRA [ 3106 ] ■ FRA
France. He fent, therefore, feveral embafiies to Didier; in which,
after exprefling a great defire to preferve a itrift har¬
mony between the two nations, he at length offered
him a large fnm of money if he would reftore the places
he had taken from the pope. Thefe offers being re-
jefted, Charles at length obtained the confent of his
nobility, and fet out for Lombardy with a powerful
army. Didier, however, had made inch excellent dif-
pofitions, that all Charles’s officers reckoned it would
be impoffible for him to force a paffage. But Didier’s
troops being feized with a fudden panic, abandoned all
their polls, and retired with precipitation. Charles pur-
fued them with fuch impetuofity, that numbers were
killed. Didier with one part of the troops took fhcl-
ter in Pavia; the reft,- under the command of his only
fon Adalgife, threw themfelves into Verona. Charles
formed the fiege of both places at once. Both of them
were taken, after making a vigorous refiftance. Didier
fell into the hands of Charles, who carried him prifoner
into France ; but Adalgife efcaped to Conftantinople:
after which all the other places of ftrength in the
He con- country fubmitted to the conqueror, and thus Charles
quers the became mafter of the whole kingdom of the Lombards
Lombards.' Jn a fmgle campaign.
After this fuccefs the king fet out for Rome, whence
he w'as very foon recalled by the news of a frefh revolt
of the Saxons. Them he quickly reduced ; but was
next year obliged to return into Italy, in order to fnb-
due fome of the Lombard lords who had fet up for
independent princes. While he was employed in fub-
duing them, the Saxons revolted, fo that Charles
found himfelf again under a neceffity of returning into
Germany. They fubmitted in a ftiort time, and pro-
mifed to become Chriftians ; and the king took care
now to force them to keep their promifes, by building
forts in feveral parts of the country.
His con- In 778,being invited by iomeMoorilh lords, he made
quefts in an expedition into Spain. Here he took Pompeluna
Spain and antj Savagolfa ; after which, the emirs of Huefca and
Cl Jacca voluntarily fubmitted to him, as did alfo the go¬
vernor of Barcelona and Gironne. Having taken all
methods in his power to fecure his new eonqueils, he
fet out on his return; but the Gafcons, having attack*-
ed the rear of his army, cut off great numbers of his
men. In 779 and 780, he was employed in quelling
new infurrttlions in Saxony and Italy. The Saxons
be treated with the utmoft cruelty, caufing 4500 pri-
foners to be beheaded at once, becaufe they could not
deliver up Witikind, one of their chiefs who had fled
into Denmark. This piece of barbarity foon excited
a general revolt; and it was not till the year 785, that
Charles was able totally to reduce them. This, how¬
ever, he at laft accompliffied, after having made ter¬
rible devaftation.
All the endeavours of this great monarch, however,
to keep his new fubjedis quiet, were ineffedlual. He had
no fqoner finiftied this laft conqueft of the Saxons, than
he was called into Italy to quiet fome new infurredlions
which had taken place there. This was no fooner ac-
complifhed, than he was obliged to take the field againft
the Sclavonians, who haraffed fome of his Germans fub-
-jedts. In the mean time the duchy of Bavaria was ha-
raffed by the Hunns to fuch a degree, that after fub-
duing the Sclavonians, Charles found it neceffary. to
turn his arms againft; them. But while he meditated
this expedition the Saxons again revolted, and new France
troubles broke out in Italy. Charles behaved with the "
greateft prudence and refolution. In 794, he marched
againft the Saxons ; and fo great was their fear of him,
that their army began to diffiand as foon as he entered
the country. Upon this the Saxon chiefs fued for peace ;
which they could obtain upon no other terms than that
they (hould receive the Chriftian clergy, and deliver up
a third part of the army to be lent wherever he plea-
fed. Hard as this laft article was, they complied with
it ; and Charles diftributed thefe Saxon troops on the
coafts of Holland and Flanders, where they proved of
great ufe in repelling the invafions of the Normans,
who about this time began to be formidable. The war
with the Abares, or Hunns, was conduced by Pepin
fon to Charles, whom he had appointed king of Italy,
and who is faid to have almoll extirpated the nation.
After this Charles himfelf returned into Italy; and having
there quieted all dilturbances, he proceeded to Rome, 24
where he was folemnly crowned emperor of the Welt Is crowned
by pope Leo III. in the year 800. He continued to ^Jufweft0
reign with uninterrupted profperity till the year 813;
when he died of a pleurify on the 28th of January,
leaving the empire to his only furviving fon, Lewis
king of Aquitaine, whom he had before taken for his
partner in the imperial dignity.
The good fortune of Charles did not defeend to his
children. Lewis, though a very mild and religious
prince, was by no means lit for governing thole turbu¬
lent nations with whom he had to do. His reign, there¬
fore, was a continued feene of troubles. His own chil¬
dren confpired againft him ; and more than once made
him prifoner, and treated him with the utmoft indig¬
nity. Lothaire, the eldeft, even pronounced a formal
fentence of depofition againft him. At laft, however,
this ungrateful prince was obliged to fubmit to his fa¬
ther, and aili his pardon in the mod humble manner;
who forgave him, and did not punilh his affociates with
fuch feverity as they deferved. This lenity produced st
frefh cabal among his children ; and before they could
be reduced the emperor died, being worn out with fick-
ilefs and grief for the unnatural conduct of his fons.
Lewis left behind him three fons: Lothaire, whom
he had affociated with himfelf in the empire ; Lewis,
king of Bavaria; and Charles, only 17 years of age,
king of France, under the tuition of his mother. On
the death of their father, however, Lothaire attempted
to feize the whole empire for himfelf; but after a long *
and ruinous war with his two brothers, was forced to *S
confent to a new division: by which Charles had Aqui-
taine and all the country between the Loire and three parts.
Meufe ; Lewis had the whole of Germany; and Lo¬
thaire, befides Italy, had the whole trail of country
lying within the rivers Rhone, Rhine, Saone, Meufe,
and Scheld. The whole of what he held on this fide of
the mountains, was from him called Lotharingia, and
by corruption Zortw'/z; though this flame is now given
to a duchy which contains only a fmall part of that
kingdom. 3(j
This divifion happened in the year 845 ; and thePecl‘ne°f
empire was now fo much weakened by the civil warslts f*rcn8th‘
which had preceded, that it became a prey to the bar¬
barous nations, who invaded it in on all fides. The
Spanifh dominions were almoft entirely loft; the Bretons
revolted, and could not be fubdued; and in 855, Lo¬
thaire
FRA [31
France, thaire died, leaving his dominions among his three fons:
‘ fo that, by the fetting up of fo many independent fo-
vereigns, it was next to impoffible that the empire could
preferve its tranquillity, which had been fo dearly
bought. In fa£t, for a long time the hiftory of France
affords nothing but an account of civil difcords. Charles
(furnamed the Bald), king of France, by deceit got
himfelf-crowned emperor in preference to Lewis, who
was his elder brother; and having made himfelf mafter
of Italy, he thought it would be an eafy matter to feize
on all the dominions of his brother Lewis, who died
about the year 876. In this, however, he was decei¬
ved; being defeated with great lofs, and obliged totally
to abandon the enterprize. Next year he himfelf was
poifoned by a Jewifh phyfician. named Zedechiar ; and
died in the 34th year of his reign, and 54th of his
age-
Charles the Bald was fucceeded by his only fon, na¬
med Lewis; and, from an impediment in his fpeech,
furnamed the Stammerer. He was a prince of no great
abilities; and as he found the affairs of the kingdom in
oonfiderable diforder at the time of his acceffion, fo it
was not in his power to extricate them from it. He
died on the 10th of April 879, while on a march
to fupprefs fome infurreftions in Burgundy. He left
his queen Adelaide pregnant; who fome time after his
deceafe was delivered of a fon, named Charles. After
his death followed an interregnum ; during which a fac¬
tion was formed for fetting alide the children of Lewis
the Stammerer, in favour of the German princes, fons
to Lewis the brother of Charles the Bald. This fcheme,
however, proved abortive; and the two fons of the late
king, Lewis and Carloman, were crowned kings of
France. Another kingdom, however, was at that time
ere&ed by an affembly of the dates, namely, the king¬
dom of Provence, which confided of the countries now
called Lyotwois, Savoy, Dauphiny, Franche Comte, and
part of the duchy of Burgundy; and this kingdom was
given to duke Bofon, brother-in-law to Charles the
Bald. In 881, both kings of France died; Lewis, as
was fufpefted, by poifon ; and Carloman of a wound he
received accidentally while hunting. This produced a
fecond interregnum ; which ended with the calling in
of Charles the Grofs, emperor of Germany. His reign
was more unfortunate than that of any of his prede-
ceffors. The Normans, to whom he had given leave to
fettle in Friefland, failed up the Seine with a deet of
700 {hips, and laid fiege to Paris. Charles, unable to
force them to abandon their undertaking, prevailed on
them to depart by a large fum of money. But as the
king could not advance the money at once, he allowed
them to remain in the neighbourhood of Paris during
the winter ; and they in return plundered the coun¬
try, thus amaffing vaft wealth befides the fum which
Charles had promifed. After this ignominious tranf-
aftion Charles returned to Germany, in a very decli¬
ning ftate of health both as to body and mind. Here
he quarrelled with his emprefs; and being abandoned
by all his friends, he was depofed, and reduced to fuch
diftrefs, that he would not even have had bread to eat,
had not he been fupplied by the archbiftiop of Mentz,
out of a principle of charity.
On thedepofition of Charles the Grofs, Fudes count
of Paris was chofen king by the nobility during the
minority of Charles the fon of Adelaide, afterwards
107 ] FRA
named Charles the Simple. He defeated the Normans, France,
and reprefied the power of the nobility; on which ac-
count a fa&ion was formed in favour of Charles, who
was fent for, with his mother, from England. Eudes
did not enter into a civil war; but peaceably refigned
thegreateft part of the kingdom to him, and confent-
ed to do homage for the reft. He died foon after this
agreement, in the year 898.
During the reign of Charles the Simple, the French
government declined. By the introdu&ion of fiefs,
thofe noblemen who had got into the poflcfiion of go¬
vernments,havingthefeconfirmed tothem andtheir heirs
for ever, became in a manner independent fovereigns:
and as thefe great lords had others under them, and
they in like manner had others under them, and even
thefe again had their vaflah; inftead of the eafy and
equal government which prevailed before, a vaft num¬
ber of infupportable little tyrannies were eredfed. The
Normans, too, ravaged the country in the moft terrible
manner, and defolated fome of the iineft provinces in
France. ' At laft Charles ceded to Rollo, the king or
captain of thefe barbarians, the duchy of Neuftria ;
who thereupon became Chriftian, changed his own
name to Robert, and that of his principality to ATor-
viandy.
During the remainder of the reign of Charles the
Simple, and the entire reigns of Lewis IV. furnamed
the Stranger, Lothaire, and Lewis V. the power of
the Carlovingian race continually declined ; till at Jaft Family of
they were fupplanted by Flugh Capet, who had been Charles the
created duke of France by Lothaire. This revolution Great fup-
happened in the year 987, and was brought about P'al\te£by
much in the fame manner/as the former one had been 1 us> ape
by Pepin. He proved an active and prudent'monarch,
and poffeffed fuch other qualities as were requifite for
keeping his tumultuous fubje&s in awe. He died on the
24th of O&ober 997, leaving his dominions in perfect
quiet to his fon Robert. g
The new king inherited the good qualities of his fa- R0],Cft>
then In his reign the kingdom was enlarged by
the death of Henry duke of Burgundy, the king’s
uncle, to whom he fell heir. This new acceffion of
territory, however, was not obtained without a war of
feveral years continuance, on account of fome preten¬
ders to the fovereignty of that duchy ; and had it not
been for the affiftance of the duke of Normandy, it is
doubtful whether the king would have fucceeded.—As
Robert was of opinion, that peace and tranquillity
were preferable to wide extended dominions with a
precarious tenure, he refufed the kingdom of Italy and
the imperial crown of Germany, both which were of¬
fered him. He died on the 20th of July 1030 ; ha¬
ving reigned 33 years, and lived 60. 3
Robert was fucceeded by his eldeft fon Henry I. jjenry I.
who in the beginning of his reign met with great op-
polition from his mother. She had always hated him;
and preferred his younger brother Robert, in whofe fa¬
vour {he now raifed an infurre&ion. By the affiftance
of Robert duke of Normandy, however, Henry over¬
came all his enemies, and eftablifhed himfelf firmly up¬
on the throne. In return for this, he lupported Wil¬
liam, Robert’s natural fon, and afterwards king of
England, in the poffeffion of the duchy of Normandy.
Afterwards, however, growing jealous of his power,
he not only fupported the pretenders to the duchy of
Nor-
FRA [31
France. Normandy fecretly, but invaded that country himfelf in
their favour. This enterprize proved unfuccefsful, and
Henry was obliged to make peace : but no fincere re¬
conciliation ever followed ; for the king retained a deep
fenfe of the difgrace he bad met with, and the duke ne¬
ver forgave him for invading his dominions. The trea¬
ty between them, therefore, was quickly broken; and
Henry once more invaded Normandy with two ar¬
mies, one commanded by himfelf, and the other by his
brother. The firft was harafled by continual Ikirmifhes,
and the lad totally defeated ; after which Henry was
obliged to agree to fuch terms as the duke thought
proper: but the rancour between them never ceafed,
and was in reality the caufe of that implacable averfion
which for a long feries of years produced perpetual
quarrels between the kings of France and thofe of the
Norman race in England.
p,.,.30 Henry died in 1059, not without a-fufpicion of be-
ing poifoned; and was fucceeded by his eldeft fon Phi¬
lip, at that time in the eighth year of his age. Bald¬
win earl of Flanders was appointed his guardian ; and
died in the year 1066, about the time that William of
Normandy became king of England. After the death
of his tutor, Philip began to Ihew a very infincere,
haughty, and oppreflive difpofition. He engaged in a
war with William the Conqueror, and fupported his fpn
* See Robert in his rebellion againft him *. But after the
no”!/” ’ death of William, he afli'.led Robert’s brothers againft
him, by which means he was forced to confent to a
partition of his dominions.
In 1092, king Philip being wearied of his queen
Bertha, procured a divorce from her under pretence of
confanguinity, and afterwards demanded in marriage
Emma daughter to Roger count of Calabria. The
treaty of marriage was concluded; and the princefs was
fentover, richly adorned with jewels, and with a large
portion in ready money: but the king, inftead of e-
fpoufing her, carried off from her hufband the coun-
tefs of Anjou, who was efteemed the handfomeft wo¬
man in France. With her he was fo deeply enamour¬
ed, that not fatisfied with the illegal poffeffion of her
erfon, he procured a divorce between her and herhuf-
and, and prevailed upon fome Norman bifhops to fo-
lemnize his own marriage with her. The whole of
thefe tranfa£Hons, however, were fo fcandalous, that
the pope having caufed them to be revifed in a coun¬
cil at Autun, in the year 1094, pronounced fentence
of excommunication againft Philip in cafe he did not
part with the countefs. On his repentance, the cen-
fure was taken off; but as the king paid no regard to
his promifes, he was, in 1095, excommunicated a fe-
.cond time. He again profeffed repentance, and was
abfolved ; but foon after, living with the countefs of
Anjou as formerly, he was excommunicated a third
time. This conduct, fo unworthy of a prince, expo-
fed him to the contempt of the people. Too many of
the nobility followed his example, and at the fame
time defpifed his authority; not only making war up¬
on each other, but fpoiling and robbing his fubjefts
with impunity.
In the year 1110, Philip prevailed on the court of
Rome to have his affair reviewed in an affembly at
Poi&iers; where, notwithftanding his utmoft efforts,
fentence of excommunication was a fourth time pro¬
nounced againft him. Yet, in fpite of all thefe fen-
^8 ] FRA
tences, as queen Bertha was dead, and the count of France.
Anjou offered, for a large fum of money, to give """
whatever afliftance was rcquifite for procuring a dif-
penfation, Philip at laft prevailed, and the countefs
was proclaimed queen of France. But tho’ the king’s
domefticaffairs were nowin fome meafure quieted, his
negligence in government had thrown the affairs of the
nation into the greateft diforder. He therefore affo-
ciated with him in the government his eldeft fon Lewis.
This prince was the very reverfe of his father; and by
his aftivity and refolution, keeping conftantly in the
field with a confiderable body of forces, he reduced
the rebellious nobility to fubjeftion, and, according to
the beft hiftorians, at this timefaved the ftate from be¬
ing utterly fubverted.
For thefe fervices the queen looked upon the young
prince with fo jealous an eye, and gave him fo much
difturbance, that he found it neceflary to retire for fome
time into England ; where he was received by king
Henry I. with the greateft kindnefs. He had not been
long at court, before Henry received, by an exprefs, a
letter from Philip ; telling him, that, for certain im¬
portant reafons, he fhould be glad if he clofely confined
his fon, or even difpatched him altogether. The king
of England, however, inftead of complying with this
infamous requeft, fhewed the letter to Lewis, and fent
him home with all imaginable marks of refpedt. Im¬
mediately on his return, he demanded juftice ; but
the queen procured poifon to be given him, which o-
perated fo violently that his life was defpaired of. A
ftranger, however, undertook the cure, and fucceeded;
only a palenefs remained in the prince’s face ever af¬
terwards, though he grew fo fat that he was furnamed
tke Grofs.
On his recovery, the prince was on the point of re-
venging his quarrel by force of arms ; but his father
having caufed the queen to make the moft humble fub-
miflions to him, his refentment was at length appeafed,
and a perfeft reconciliation took place.
Nothing memorable happened in the reign of king
Philip after this reconciliation. He died in the year 3,
1108, and was fucceeded by his fon Lewis the Grofs. Lewis the
The firft years of his reign were difturbed by infur- Grofs.
reftions of his lords in different places of the king¬
dom ; and thefe infurre&ions were the more trouble-
fome, as they wrere fecretly fomented by Henry I. of
England, that by weakening the power of France
his duchy of Normandy might be the more fecure.
This quickly brought on a war; in which Henry
was defeated, and his fon William obliged to do
homage to Lewis for the duchy of Normandy. As
the kings of England and France, however, were ri¬
vals, and exceedingly jealous of each other, the lat¬
ter efpoufed the caufe of William the fon of Robert
duke of Normandy, whom Henry had unjuftly de¬
prived of that duchy. This brought on a new war .;
in which Lewis, receiving a great defeat from Henry,
was obliged to make peace upon fuch terms as his an-
tagonift thought proper. This tranquillity, however,
was but of (hort duration. Lewis renewed his in¬
trigues in favour of William, and endeavoured to form
a confederacy againft Henry. In this, however, he
was difappointed. Henry found means not only to
diflipate this confederacy, but to prevail upon Henry
V. emperor of Germany to invade France with the
whole
Prance.
JLewisVII.
prince.
Philip the
Great.
FRA [3I09] FRA
whole flrength of the empire on one fide, while he
prepared to attack it on the other. But, Lewis ha¬
ving collefted an army of 200,000 men, both of them
thought proper to defift. Upon this the king of
France would have marched into Normandy, in ordetk
to put William in pofieffion of that duchy. Hiagreat
vaffals, however, told him they would do no fuch
thing ; that they had affembled in order to defend the
territories of France from the invafion of a foreign
prince, and not to enlarge his power by deftroying
that balance which arofe from the king of England’s
pofleffion of Normandy, and which they reckoned ne-
ceiTary for their own fafety. This was followed by a
peace with Henry ; which, as both monarchshad now
feen the 'extent of each other’s power, was made on
pretty equal terms, and kept during the life of Lewis,
who died in 1137, leaving the kingdom to his fon
Lewis VII.
The young king was not endowed with any 6f thofe
qualities which conilitute a great monarch. From
the fuperftition common to the age in which he lived,
he undertook an expedition into the Holy Land, from
whence he returned without glory. In this expedition
he took his queen Eleanor along with him; but was
fo much offended with her gallantries during her (lay
there, as well as her behaviour afterwards, that he
divorced her, and returned the duchy of Guienne which
he received with her as a portion. Six weeks after
this fhe married Henry duke of Normandy, count of
Anjou and Maine, and heir apparent to the crown of
England. This marriage was. a very great mortifica¬
tion to Lewis ; and procured him the firname of the
Young, on account of the folly of his condudt. When
Henry afcetided the throne of England, fome wars
were carried on between him and Lewis, with little
advantage on either fide : at laft, however, a perfeft
reconciliation took place; and Lewis took a voyage to
England, in order to vifit the fiirine of St Thomas of
Canterbury. On his return he was (truck with an
apoplexy; and though he recovered for that time, yet
he continued ever after paralytic on the right fide.
After having langmflied for. about a year under this
malady, he died on the 18th of September 1x80,
leaving the kingdom to his fon Philip.
This prince, furnamed The Gift of God, The Magna¬
nimous, and The Conqueror, during his lifetime ; and, as
if all thefe titles had fallen fhort of his merit, ftyled
Slugujlus after his death,—is reckoned one of the
greateft princes that ever fat on the throne of France,
or any other.—It doth not, however, appear that thefe
titles were altogether well founded. In the beginning
of his reign he was oppofed by a ftrong faftiou excited
by his mother. Them indeed he reprefled with a vi¬
gour and fpirit which did him honour ; but his taking
part with the children of Henry II. of England in
their unnatural contefts with their father, and his
treacherous combination with John to feize his bro¬
ther’s kingdom when he was detained in prifon by the
emperor of Germany, nr.'ft be indelible ftains in his
chara&er, and for ever exclude him from the title of
Magnanitnous. As to military (kill and perfoual va¬
lour, he was evidently inferior to Richard I. of Eng¬
land ; nor can his recovering of the provinces held by
the Englifh in France, from fuch a mean and daftardly
prince as king John, entitle him with any juftice to
Vox.. IV.
the furname of Conqueror. In politics he was evidently Franttt.
the dupe of the Pope, who made ufe of him to inti¬
midate John into a fubmiffion, by promifing him the
kingdom of England, which he never meant that he
fhould enjoy. An account of thel'e tranfaflions, which
are the principal ones of this reign, is given under the
article Esgland, n° 119——139. .34
Philip died in 1223, and was fucceeded by his fon Re,8,n °-
Lewis VIII.; and he, in 1226^ by Lewis IX. after- Lcwls ‘•
wards flyled ;S/2><io/7. This prince was certainly poffeffed
of many good qualities, but deeply tindiured with the
fuperftitiqn of the times. This induced him to en¬
gage in two croifades. The firft was againft the
Saracens in Egypt : in which he was taken pri-
foner by the Infidels, and treated with gVeat cruelty 5
but at laft obtained his ranfom, on condition of paying
a million of pieces of gold, and furrendering the city
of Damietta. He no fooner regained his liberty, than
he entered Syria with a view of doing fomething wor¬
thy of his rank and charadler. From this expedition
he was obliged to return ffloncr than he intended, by
the news of the deceafe of his mother queen Blanch,
whom he had appointed regent in his abfence, and
who had managed the national affairs with the greateft
prudence. The king, however, found many diforderi
in the kingdom upon his return ; and thefe he fet
bimfelf to reform with the utmofl diligence. Ha‘
ving fucceeded in this, he yielded to Henry III. of
England, the Limoufin, Querci, Perigord, and fome
other places; in confideration of Plent y and his fort
prince Edward their renouncing, in the fulleft manner,
all pretenfions to Normandy and the other provinces of
France which the Englifh had formerly poflefied.
The reputation of this monarch for candour and
juftice was fo great, that the barons of England, as
well as king Henry III. confented to make him um¬
pire of the differences which fubfifted between them*
But though he decided this matter very juftly, his
decifion was not productive of any goGd effeft. At
laft the king, having fettled every thing relating to
his kingdom in a proper manner, fet out on another
croifade for Africa; where he died of the plague, oxt
the 25th of Auguft 1270.
During the reigns of Philip the Hardy, Philip the:
Fair, Lewis Hutin or the Quarrelfone, Philip the
Tall, and Charles the Fair, the French hiftory affords
no tranfa&ions which much affeClcd the general date
of the kingdom. The government, however, feems
to have declined ; the nation to have been, in low cir-*
cumftances ; and the feeds of thofe diforders fown,
which now brought it to the brink of ruin,
Charles the Fair died in 1328 without male iffue, Caufco/the
but leaving his queen pregnant. As it was neceffary war
in this cafe to appoint a regent, Philip count of Va- EAvarfII[*
lois offered himfelf. His title was founded on his be- ° <n£an
ing the late king’s coufin-german, and his neareft heir*
male defeended from a male. This title was difputcd
by Edward III. of England; who infifted, that he, *as
nephew to the deceafed king, was a nearer refatiort
than Philip. He acknowledged indeed, that his own
title came by a female ; but though he owned that
females were incapable of holding the crown of France
for themfelves, yet he maintained that this incapacity
did not extend to their male defeendants. The par¬
liament of France, however, thought ot her wife ; and
17 Y there-
F R A [ 31
Fran-re. ^ therefore fuftained Philip’s claim to the regency, in
preference to that of Edward. Soon after, the queen
dowager was delivered of a princefs, and thus Philip
became poiTcfled of the crown ; and his attaining it in
this manner procured him the furnamc of the Fortu¬
nate.
Philip was crowned at Rheims on the 29th of April
1328; and next year Edward III. of England came
over to France, in order to do homage for the terri¬
tories he had in that country, and to lay claim to fome
lands in Guienne. Great difputes arofe about the na¬
ture of the homage he was to pay : Philip, however,
contented himfelf with receiving homage in general
terms; and was afterwards toexaminehis owm archives
at leifure, h* ordler to determine what the nature of it
was. On thefe terms Edward did homage in the ca¬
thedral at Amiens, on the 6th of June; and very foon
after returned to England.
After a reafonable delay, the king fent ambafiadors
into England, in order to explain the nature of the
homage which Edward had done ; and Edward being
at that time embaraffed with his domeftic affairs, found
it requifite to own the homage to be of that nature
which he knew to be agreeable to Philip. Soon after
this, Edward again came over to France in order to
fettle fome new difputes; and in a little time returned
to England in perfefl friendfhip with the French mo¬
narch. This difpofition, however, was of no long
duration. Philip having found it neceffary to banifh
Robert de Artois his own brother-in-law, on account
of fome criminal pradlices, the latter fled to England;
where being well received by Edward, he never ceafed
to incenfe him againft Philip.
As both monarchs were pofleffed of great prudence
and fagacity, they foon penetrated each other’s de-
figns. Philip, under pretence of taking the crofs, be¬
gan to make prodigious armaments, ftrengthening him¬
felf at the fame time by alliances on every fide; while
Edward, determining to renew his claim to the crown
of France, projedfed the conqueft of Scotland. This,
however, he could not accomplifh; and in the mean
time Philip, in order to favour the Scots, with whom
he was in alliance, fuffered his fubjefts to make irrup-
3®' tions into-Guienne.
Reward’s Ini 337, the war broke out openly. Philip having
* detached a fquadron of his fleet againft the Infidels,
employed the reft, confiding chiefly of Genoefe veflels,
againft the Englifh. As in this war it was of great
importance which fide was taken by the Flemings,
thefe people were courted by both parties. Lewis
count of Flanders declared for Philip, but his fubjedls
were more inclined to king Edward. James Arteville
a brewer, the moft able and artful man in the country,
governed them at that time as much as if he had been
their prince ; and, the advantages arifing from the
Englifli commerce determining him in favour of Ed¬
ward, that prince, at his requeft, embarked for Sluys
with a numerous army. Here he landed in 13381 and
on his firft landing, it was refolved that the German
princes in alliance with him fhould a& againft France.
But for this a pretence was wanting. The vafials of
the empire could not a6I by Edward’s orders, or even
as his allies, without dire&ions from the emperor, and
he was in league with France. This difficulty, how¬
ever,, was foon overcome: the French had. made therm-
10 ] FRA
felves mafters of Cambray, and the emperor • refolved Frar.e*.
that it fliould be retaken. With this view he created
Edward Vicar General of the Empire ; an empty title,
but which feemed to give him a right of commanding
the fervices of the princes of Germany. The Flemings,
who were vaffals of France, likewife pretended fcruples
at invading the territories of their liege lord. To quiet
thefe, Edward, by the advice of Arteville, aflumed the
title of king of France ; and by virtue of this right,
challenged their affiftance for dethroning Philip de Va¬
lois, the ufurper of his kingdom. This ftep^ which,
he feared, would beget endlefs animofities and jealou-
lies, he did not take without heiitation ; and, accord¬
ing to Mr Hume, from this time we may date thecom-
mencement of that great animofity which the Englifli
have always borne to the French.
Edward’s firft attempt was upon the city of Cam¬
bray, to which he laid fiege ; but in a (hort time he
was prevailed upon by Robert de Artois, to raife the
fiege anti march into Picardy. This country he enter¬
ed with an army of near 50,000 men,compofed moftly
of foreigners. Philip came within fight of him with
an army of near 100,000, compofed chiefly of native
fubjedts; and it was daily expedted that a battle would
enfue. But the Englifti monarch was averfe to engage
againft fo great a fuperiority ; and Philip thought it
fufficient if he eluded the attacks of his enemy, w-ithout
running any unneceflary hazard. The two armies fa¬
ced each other for feveral days; mutual defiances were
fent; and Edward at laft retired into Flanders, and dif-
perfed his army.
Such was the fruitlefs, and almoft ridiculous conclu-
fion of Edward’s firft expedition, which had plunged
him into the greateft difficulties. He had contracted
near 300,000 pounds of debt ; he had anticipated all
his revenue; he had pawned every thing of value
which belonged either to himfelf or his queen ; nay, he
was obliged in fome meafure even to pawn himfelf to
his creditors, by defiring their permiffion to go over to
England in order to procure fupply, and by promifing
on his word of honour to return in perfon if he did not
remit their money. On his arrival in England, how¬
ever, he procured a large fupply, fufficient to enable
him to make all the neceflary preparations for a new
invalion ; and fo certain were the Englifli that France
would now be conquered, that the parliament, before
Edward’s departure, protefted that they owed him
no obedience asking of France, but thatihe two king¬
doms muft remain forever diftindl and independent...
The king of England fet out on his fecond expe- His fecond
dition with a fleet of 240 veffels. Philip had pre expediiion.
pared a fleet of 400 veflels, manned with 40,000
men; which he Rationed off Sluys, in order to intercept
him in hispaflage. The two fleets met on the 13th of The French
June 1340; but the Englifli, either by the fuperior entirely de¬
abilities of Edward, or the greater dexterity of his at
feamen, gained the wind of the enemy, and had the ea‘
fun in. their backs; and with thefe advantages began
the a&ion. The battle was fierce and bloody: the
Englifli archers, whofe force and addrefs were now
much celebrated, galled the French on their approach ;
and when the fliips grappled together; the exarpple.cf
the king and the nobility who were with him fo ani¬
mated the feamen and foldiers, that they maintained
eyery where a fugeriority over the enemy. The Fle_-
minga,
FRA [31
e- mings, obferving the battle, hurried out of their ports,
— and brought a reinforcement to the Engliih ; which,
coming unexpedfedly, had a greater effed than in pro¬
portion toils power and numbers. Two hundred and
thirty French (hips were taken; and 30,000 French¬
men were killed, with two of their admirals : the lofs
of the Englifh was inconfiderable, compared to the
greatnefs and importance of the vi&ory. None of Phi¬
lip’s courtiers, it is faid, dared to inform him of the
event; till his fool or jefter gave him a hint, by which
he difcovered the lofs he had fuftained.
After this great viftory, Edward landed his forces,
and laid fiege to Tournay. Philip marched to its re¬
lief with a very numerous army ; but a&ed with fo
much caution, that Edward found himfelf in a manner
blocked up in his camp : and the countefs dowager of
Hainault, filter to Philip, mother-in-law to Edward,
and fifter-in-law to Robert de Artois, coming out of a
convent, to which Ihe had retired, interpofed with fo
much fpirit and addrefs, that Hie engaged all parties to
agree to a truce for a year ; and might perhaps have
brought about a peace, if (he had furvived.
n-• In 1341, however, Edward’s ambition was once
no more excited by the invitation of the count de Mount-
fort, who had poffelfed himfelf of the province of
Brittany, and applied to Edward to fecond his claims.
An offer of this kind entirely coincided with Edward’s
moft fanguine defires. He was happy in the promifed
afiillance of Mountfort, an aftive and valiant prince,
clofely united to him by intereft, and thus opening to
him an entrance into the heart of France. Thefe flat¬
tering profpeffs, however, were for a while damped
by the imprifonment of Mountfort; whofe aims being
difcovered, he w'as befieged in the city of Nantz,and ta¬
ken. But Jane of Flanders, his wife, foon m?de up for
the lofs of her hufband. This lady courageoufly under¬
took to fupport the falling fortunes of her family. She
aflembled the inhabitants of Rennes, where fhe then
retided ; and carrying her infant fon in her arms, de¬
plored her misfortunes, and attempted to infpire the
citizens with an affe&ion for her caufe. The inhabi¬
tants of Nantz inftantly efpoufed her interefts, and all
the other fortrefles of Brittany embraced the fame re-
folution. The king of England was apprifed of her ef¬
forts ; and was intreated to fend her fuccours with all
poffible expedition to the town of Hennebone, in which
place (he refolved to fuftain the attacks of- the enemy.
Charles de Blois, Philip’s general, anxious to make
himfelf mailer of fo important a fortrefs as Hennebone,
and Hill more to take the countefs a prtfoner, fat down
before the place with a large army, and condufted the
fiege with indefatigable induftry. The defence was no
lefs vigorous; feveral fallies were made by the garri-
fon, in which the countefs herfelf was Hill the moft ac¬
tive, and led on to the aflault. Obferving one day that
their whole army had quitted the camp to join in a
general ftorm, flie fallied out by a poftern at the head
of 300 horfe, fet fire to the enemies tents and baggage,
put their fullers and fervants to the fwmrd, and occa-
fioned fuch an alarm, that the French defifted from the
affault, in order to cut olF her communication with the
town. Thus intercepted, Ihe retired to Auray, where
flic continued five or fix days ; then returning at the
head of 500 horfe, Ihe fought her way through one
quarter of the French camp, and ret urned to her faith-
11 ] FRA
ful citizens in triumph. But the befiegers had at FVjnce
length made feveral breaches in the walls; and it was
apprehended that a general aflault, which w-as hourly
expedled, would be fatal. A capitulation was there¬
fore propofed, and a conference was already begun,
when the countefs, who had mounted on a high tower,
and was looking towards the fea with great impatience,
defcried fome Ihips at a diftance. She immediately ex¬
claimed that fuccours were arrived, and forbid any fur¬
ther capitulation. She was not difappointed in her
wilhes; the fleet flie difcerned carried a body of Eng-
lilh gentlemen, with 6000 archers, whom Edward had
prepared for tbe relief of Hennebone, but who had been
long detained by contrary winds. They entered the
harbour, under the condufl of Sir Walter Manny, one
of the moft valiant commanders of his time. This re¬
lief ferved to keep up the declining fpirits of the Bre¬
tons, until the time appointed by the late truce with
Edward was expired, on which he was at liberty to re¬
new the war in greater form.
He accordingly foon after landed at Morbian, near
Vannes, with an army of 12,000 men; and being ma¬
iler of tbe field, where no enemy dared to appear a-
gainft him, he endeavoured to give luftre to his arms by
befieging fome of the moft capital of the enemy’s forti¬
fications. The vigour of his operations led on to ano¬
ther truce, and this was foon after followed by a frelh
infra&ion. The truth is, neither fide obferved a truce
longer than it coincided with their interefts; and both
had always fufficient art to throw the blame of perfidy
from themfelves. The earl of Derby was fent by Ed¬
ward to defend the province of Guienne, with inftruc-
tions alfo to take every pofiible advantage that circum-
ftances might offer. At firft, therefore, his fucceffes
were rapid and brilliant; but as foon as the French
king had time to prepare, he met with a very unex-
pefted refiftance; fo that the Englilh general was com¬
pelled to (land upon the defenfive. One fortrefs after
another was furrendered to the French ; till at length
nothing appeared but a total extin&ion of the power of
England upon the continent. In this lituacion, Edward
refolved to bring relief in perfon to his diftreffed fub-
je&s and allies; and accordingly embarked in 1346 at
Southampton, on board a fleet of near 1000 fail, of
all dimenlions. He carried with him, befides all the
chief nobility of England, his eldeft fon, the prince of
Wales (afterwards furnamed Black Prince)', a youth
of about 15 years old, and already remarkable both for
underftanding and valour above his age. His army He
confided of 4000 men at arms, 10,000 archers, w;th an ar-
10,000 Wellh infantry, and 6000 Irifh; all which he my in Nor-
landed fafely at La Hogue, a port in Normandy, ttundy-
which country he determined to make the feat of the
war.
The intelligence of Edward’s landing, and the deva-
ftation caufed by his troops, who difperfed themfelves
over the whole face of the country, foon fpread univer-
fal confternation through the French court. The rich
city of Caen was taken and plundered by the Englilh,
without mercy ; the villages and towns, even up to
Paris, lhared the fame fate ; and the French had no
other refource but by breaking down their bridges, to
attempt putting a flop to the invader’s career. In the
mean time, Philip was not idle in making preparations
to reprefs the enemy. He had ftationed one of his gene-
17 Y 2 rals,
FRA [ 31:
nice, rals, Godemar-de Faye, with an army on the oppofite
^5de of the river Somme, over which Edward was to
pafs; while he himfelf, at the head of 100,000 fight¬
ing men, advanced to give the EnglHh battle. Ed¬
ward, thus unexpettedly expofed to the danger of being
inclofed and ftarved in an enemy’s country, publifh-
ed a reward to any that (hould bring him intelligence
of a pafiage over the river Somme. This was difcover-
ed by a peafant of the country ; and Edward had juft
time to get his whole army over the river, when Philip
41 appeared in his rear.
battle As both armies had been for fome time in fight of each
rcCy' other, nothing was fo eagerly expected on each fide as a
battle: and although the forces were extremely difpro-
portioned, the Englifh amounting only to 30,000, the
French to 120,000 ; yet Edward refolved to indulge the
impetuofity of his troops, and put all to the hazard of
a battle. He accordingly chofe his ground, with ad¬
vantage, near the village of Crecy; and there deter¬
mined to wait with tranquillity the (hock of the ene¬
my. He drew up his men on a gentle afcent, and di¬
vided them into three lines. The firft was command¬
ed by the young prince of Wales ; the fecond was
conducted by the earls of Northampton and Arundel;
and the third, which was kept as a body of referve,
was headed by the king in perfon. As his fmall army
was in danger of being furrounded, he threw up
trenches on his flank; and placed all his baggage in a
wood behind him, which he alfo fecured by an en¬
trenchment. Having thus made the proper difpofi-
tions, he and the prince of Wales received the facra-
ment with great devotion; and all his behaviour de¬
noted the calm intrepidity of a man refolved on con-
queft or death. It is fatd alfo by fome, that he firft
made ufe pf artillery upon this occafion; and placed
in his front fome pieces, which contributed not a little
to throw the enemy into diforder.
On the other fide, Philip, impelled by refentment,
and confident of his numbers, was more felicitous in
bringing the enemy to an engagement, than prudent
in taking meafures for the fuccefs of it. He was ad-
vifsd by fome of his generals to defer the combat till
the enfuingday, when his army would have recovered
from their fatigue, and might be difpofed into better
order than their prefent hurry permitted them to ob-
ferve. But it was now too late; the impatience of his
troops was too great to be reftrained; they preffed one
upon the other, and no orders could curb their blind
impetuofity. They were led on, however, in three
bodies to oppofe thofe of theEnglijh. The firft line,
confifting 15,000 Genoefe crofs-bow men, were com¬
manded by Anthony Doria. The fecond body was led
by the count Alen^on, brother to the king ; and the
king himfelf was at the head of the third.
About three in the afternoon, the famous battle of
Crecy began, by the French king’s ordering the Ge¬
noefe archers to charge t but they were fo fatigued
with their march, that they cried out for a little reft
before they (hould engage. The count Alen$on, be¬
ing informed of their petition, rode up and reviled them
as cowards, commanding them to begin the onfet with¬
out delay. Their reluctance to. begin was (till more
increafed by an heavy (liower which fell that inftant
and relaxed their bow-ftrings, fo that the difeharge
they made produced but very little effedl. On the o-
12 ] F R A
ther hand, the Englifh archers, who had kept their France,
bows in cafes, and were favoured by a fudden gleam ' "
of fun-(hine, that rather dazzled the enemy, let fly
their arrows fo thick, and with fuch good aim, that
nothing was to be feen among the Genoefe but hurry,
terror, and difmay. The young prince of Wales had pre¬
fence of mind to take an advantage of their confufion,
tind to lead on his line to the charge. The French caval¬
ry, however, commanded by count Alen5on, wheeling
round, fuflained thecombat, and began to hem the Eng¬
lifh round. The earls of Arundel and Northampton
now came in to aflilt the prince, who appeared foremoft
in the very (hock; and, wherever he appeared, turning
the fortune of the day. The thickeft of the battle was
now gathered round him, and the valour of a boy fill¬
ed even veterans with allonifhment; but, being appre-
henfive that fome mifchance might happen to him in
the end, an officer was difpatched to the king, defiring
that fuccours might be fent to the prince’s relief. Ed¬
ward, who had all this time, with great tranquillity,
viewed the engagement from a wind-mill, demanded
with feeming deliberation if his fon were dead : but
being anfwered that he ftiil lived, and was giving afto-
nifhing inftances of valour; “ Then tell my generals,
(cried.the king), that he fhall have no afliltance from
me; the honour of this day fhall be his; let him fhew
himfelf worthy the profeffion of arms, and let him be
indebted to his own merit alone for vidlory.” This
fpeech being reported to the prince and his attend¬
ants, it infpired them with new courage: they made a
ffefh attack upon the French cavalry; and count Alen-
500, their braveft commander, was (lain. This was
the beginning of their total overthrow: the French, be¬
ing now without a competent leader, were thrown into
confufion; the Welfh infantry rufhed into the midft of
the confliA, and difpatched thofe with their long
knives who had furvived the fury of the former onfet.
It was in vain that the king of France himfelf feemed
almoft fingly to maintain the combat; he endeavoured
to animate his few followers, both by his voice and ex¬
ample, but the vi&ory was too decifive to be refifted ^
while he was yet endeavouring to face the enemy, John
de Hainault feized the reins of his horfe, and, turning 41
him round, carried him off the field of battle. In this French to-
engagement, 30,000 of the French were killed upon ,allV d£fea'L“
the field : and, among this number, were John king c '
of Bohemia; James, king of Majorca; Ralph, duke
of Lorrain ; 9 counts, 24 bannerets, 1200 knights,
1500 gentlemen, and 4000 men at arms. There was
fomething remarkable in the fate of the Bohemian
king; who, though blind, was yet willing to fhare in
the engagement. This unfortunate monarch, inqui¬
ring the fate of the day, was told that all was loft, and
his fon Charles obliged to retire defperately wounded t
and that the prince of Wales bore down every thing
before him. Having received this information, blind
as he was, he commanded his knights to lead him into
the hotteft part of the battle againft the young war¬
rior; accordingly, four of them ruflied with him into
the thicke.ft part of the enemy, where they were all
quickly (lain.
The whole French army took to flight; and were-
put to the fword by the purfuers without mercy, till,
night flopped the carnage. The next morning was
foggy; and a party of the militia qf Rouen coming to
Joia
FRA [ 31
France, join the French army, were routed by the Engliih at
' the firft onfet; many more alfo were decoyed by fotne
French ftandards, which the viftors placed upon the
mountains, and to which the fugitives reforted, where
they were cut in pieces without mercy. Notwithlland-
ing the great daughter of the enemy, the conquerors
loft but one efquire, three knights, and a few of infe¬
rior rank- ’'The ertft of the king of Bohemia was three
ofliich feathers, with this motto, Ich Dien; which fig-
nifies, in the German language, “ I ferve.” This was ■
thought to be a proper prize to perpetuate the vi&o-
ry ; it was accordingly added to the arms of the prince
of Wales, and it has been adopted by all his fuccef-
fors.
Calais ta- Edward next laid fi.ege to Calais, which was then
ken. defended by John de Vienne, an experienced command¬
er, and fupplied with every thing neceffary for defence.
It was at length taken, after a twelvemonth’s fiege,
the defendants having been reduced to the laft extre¬
mity by famine and fatigue. The obftinate refiftance,
made by the townfmen, was not a little .difpleafing to
Edward; and he had often declared, that when put in
pefleffion of the place, he would take figoal revenge
for the numbers of men he had loft during the fiege.
It was with great difficulty, therefore, that he was per-
fuaded to accept of their fubrrdlfion; and to fpare their
livjes, upon condition, that fix of the moil confiderable
citizens fhould be fent to him, to be difpofed of as he
fhould think proper: but on thefe he ^as refolved to
wreck his refeutment; and he gave orders that they
fhould be led into his camp, bare-headed and bare¬
footed, with.ropes about their necks, in the manner of
criminals juft preparing for inftant execution. When
the news of this fierce refolution was brought into the
city, it fpread new confternation among the inhabi¬
tants. Who fhould be the men, that were thus to be
offered up as viAims to procure the fafety of all the
reft, and by their deaths appeafe the viAor’s refent-
ment? In this terrible fufpenfe, one of the principal
inhabitants, whoffc name was Euftace de St Pierre,
walked forward, and offered himfelf as willing to un¬
dergo any tortures that could procure his fellow-citi¬
zens fafety. Five; move foon followed his noble ex¬
ample ; and thefe, marching out like criminals, laid the
keys of their city at Edward s feet: but no 1'ubmiffions
feemed to appeafe his refenfment; and. they would in
all probability have fuffered death, had not the gene-
rofity of their condtiA affeAed the queen, who inter¬
ceded in their behalf, and with fome difficulty obtain¬
ed their pardon.
In 1350, a fhort truce, which had been concluded
between Edward and Philip, wasdiflblved by the death
of the latter, who was fucceeded by his fon John ; and
Edward, well pleafed with the faAions that then pre¬
vailed in France, was refolved to feize the opportuni¬
ty of increafing its diftreffes. Accordingly, the Black
Prince was fent into France with an army, on board a
fleet of too fail ; and landing in Gafcony, carried his
devallations into the heart of the country. At the fame
time, Edward himfelf made an irruption on the fide of
Calais, at the head of a numerous army, and ravaged
all the open country. On the other hand, John, who was
as yet unpreparedho oppofe the progrefsof the enemy,
continued a fpeAator of their infults; nor was it till the
fummes’s campaign, in 1355, that he refolved to attack
13 ] FRA
the Black Prince, whofe army was by this time reduced France.
to a body of about 12,000 men. With fuch a trifling —   
complement of forces had this young warrior ventured
to penetrate into the heart of France, with a defign
of joining the duke of Laneafter in Guienne. But
he loon found that bis fcheme was impraAicable: the
country before him was too well guarded to permit his
advancing further; and all the bridges behind were
broken down, which effeAually barred a retreat. In
this embarrafling fituation, his perplexity was increa-
fed, by being informed, that the king of France was
aAually marching at the head of 60,000 men to inter¬
cept him. Heat firft thought of retreating : but foon
finding it impolfible, he determined calmly to await
the approach of the enemy ; and, notwithttanding the
diiparity of forces, to commit all to the hazard of a
battle.
It was at a place called Maupertnis, near PotAiers, Battle of
that both armies came in fight of each other. The Poifliers.
French king might veryeafily have ftarved the Englilh
into any terms he thought proper to impofe; but fuch
was the impatient valour of the French nobility, and
fuch their certainty of fuccefs, that it might have been
equally fatal to attempt reprefling their ardour to en¬
gage. In the meUn time, while both armies were
drawn out, and expeAing the lignal to begin, they
were flopped by the appearance of the cardinal of Pe-
rigord, who attempted to be a mediator between them.
However, John, who made himfelf fure of viAory,
would liften to no other terms than the reftitution of
Calais ; with which the Black Prince refufing to com¬
ply, the onfet was deferred till the next morning, for
which both Tides waited in anxious fufpence.
During this interval, the young prince ftrengthen-
ed his poll by new entrenchments; and placed 300 *■
men in ambufb, with as many archers, who were com¬
manded to attack the enemy in flank during the heat
of the engagement. Having taken thefe precautions,
he ranged his army in three divifions; the van was com¬
manded by the earl of Warwick, the rear by the earls
of Salilbury and Suffolk, and the main body by him¬
felf. In like manner, the king of France arranged his
forces in three divifions ; the firft commanded by the
duke of Orleans ; the feeond by the Dauphin, attend¬
ed by his younger brothers ; while he himftlf led up
the main body, feconded by hisyoungeft and favourite
fon, then about 14 years of age. As the Englifh were
to be attacked only by marching up a long narrow
lane, the French fuffered greatly from their archers,
who were polled on each fide, behind the hedges. Nor
were they m a better fituation upon emerging from
this danger, being met by the Black Prince himfelf,
at the head of a chofen body of troops, who made a
furious onfet upon their forces, already id great difor-
der. A dreadful overthrow enfued : thofe who were as French
yet in the lane recoiled upon their own forces ; while the feated,
Englilh troops who had been placed in ambufh, took
that opportunity to increafe the confufion, and confirm
the viAory. The dauphin and the duke of Orleans were
among the firft that fled. The king of France himfelf
made the utmoft efforts to retrieve, by his valour, what
his ralhnefs had forfeited : but his fingle courage was.
unable to flop that confternation, which had now be¬
come general through his army ; and his cavalry foon
flying, he found Uimfelf exjpofed to the enemy’s fury.
At
FRA [ 3014 ] FRA
Franee. At length, fpent with fatigue, and defpairingof fuc-
cefs, he thought of yielding himfelf a prifoner; and
4« frequently cried out, that he was ready to deliver him-
taken ^ri-" to ^lls cou^in prince of Wales. The honour
oncr> of taking him, however, was referved for a much more
ignoble hand ; he was feized by Dennis de Morbec, a
knight of Arras, who had been obliged to fly his
country for murder.
In April following, the prince conduced his royal
prifoner through London, attended by an infinite con-
courfe of people of all ranks and ftations* His mode-
fty upon this occafion was very remarkable : the king
of France was clad in royal apparel, and mounted on a
white deed diftinguiflied by its fize and beauty 5 while
the prince himfelf rode by his fide upon a mean little
47 horfe, and in very plain attire.
^eCli.,ie rn Notwithftanding all this fuccefs of the Englifli, how-
affairs"^ ever» t^ie conc]ueft of France appeared very diftant; nor
could all the valour of the Black Prince afterwards ae-
complifli any thing of moment. The dauphin, being
created regent of France, colle&ed all his forces; and,
by acting on the defenfive, prevented Edward from
gaining any confiderable advantage. All the confider-
able towns were put into a pofture of defence, and every
thing valuable in the kingdom was fecured in fortified
places. It was therefore at laft concluded, that king
John fliould be reltored to liberty upon paying a ran-
fom of about a million and a half of our money. It was
ftipulated, that Edward fliould for ever renounce all
claim to the kingdom of France : and fliould only re¬
main pofiefled of the territories of Poiftou, Xaintonge,
1’Agenois, Perigord, the Limoufin, Qnercy, Rou-
vergne, I’Angoumois, and other diftriifts in that quar¬
ter, together with Calais, Guifnes, Montreuil, and
- the county of Ponthieu on the other fide of France.
Some other ftipulations were made in favour of the al¬
lies of England, as a fecurity for the execution of thefe
conditions.
Upon John’s return to his dominions, he found him¬
felf very ill able to ratify thofe terms of peace that had
been juft concluded. He was without finances, at the
head of an exhaufted ftate ; his foldiers without difei-
pline, and his peafants without fubordination. Thefe
had rifen in great numbers ; and one of the chiefs of
their banditti aflumed the title of Ths Friend of God,
■and the Terror of Man. A citizen of Sens, named
John Gouge, alfo got himfelf, by means of his robbe¬
ries, to be acknowledged king ; and he foon caufed as
many calamities by his devaftations, as the real king
had brought on by his misfortunes. Such was the
ftate of that wretched kingdom, upon the return of its
captive monarch : and yet, fuch was his abfurdity,
that he immediately prepared for a croifade into the
48 Holy Land, before he was well replaced on the throne.
John, un- Had his exhaufted fubje&s been able to equip him for
able to pa/ th;s chimerical projedt, it is probable he would have
h's”" gone through with it ; but their miferies were fuch,
returns to q , 0 , ■ r ■
England, that they were even too poor to pay his ranfom. This
was a breach of treaty that John would not fubmit to ;
and he was heard to exprefs himfelf in a very noble
manner upon the occafion: “ Tho’ (fays he) good
faith ftiould be banilhed from the reft of the earth, yet
fhe ought ftill to retain her habitation in the breaft of
kings.” In confequence of this declaration, he ac¬
tually returned to England once more ; and yielded
himfelf a prifoner, fince he could not be honourably Franca.
free. It is fa id by fome, that his paflion for the
countefs of Salifbury was the real caufe of his journey:
but we want at this time the foundations for fuch an
injurious report. He was lodged in the Savoy, the pa¬
lace where he had refided during his captivity ; and
foon after he clofed a long and unfortunate reign, by 49
his death, which happened in the year 1384, about the Dies, and is
56th year of his age. fucceeded
Charles, furnamed the Wife, fucceeded his father on ^
the throne of France; and this monarch, merely by
the force of a finely conduced policy, and even tho’
fuffering fome defeats, reftored his country once more
to tranquillity and power. He quelled and diflipated
a fet of banditti, who had affociated themfelves under
the name of Companions, and who had long been a ter¬
ror to the peaceable inhabitants. He had them enrol¬
led into a body, and led them into the kingdom of
Caftile againft Peter, furnamed the Cruel, whom hi*
fubjedls had dethroned, and who, by means of an al¬
liance with the Englifli, endeavoured to get himfelf re-
inftated upon the throne. In confequeuce of thefe al¬
liances, the Englifli and French again came to an en¬
gagement ; their armies on the one fide commanded by
the Black Prince ; on the other, by Henry of Tranfta-
marre, and Bertrand du Guefclin,one of the moft con-
fummate generals and accompliflied chara&ers of the
age in which he lived. However, the ufual good for¬
tune of the Englifli prince prevailed ; the French loft
above 20,000 men, while only four knights and 40
private men on the fide of the Englifli were flain. JO
Neverthelefs, thefe vi&ories were attended with very Bad fuccefs
few good effe£ts. The Englifli, by their frequent le- ‘he Eng-
vies, had been quite exhaufted, and w=ere unable to
continue an army in the field. Charles, cn the other
hand, cautioufly forbore coming to any decifive en¬
gagement 5 but was contented to let his enemies w'afte
their ftrength in attempts to plunder a fortified coun¬
try. When they were retired, he then was fure to
fally forth, and poflefs himfelf of fuch places as they
were not ftrong enough to defend. He firft fell upon
Ponthieu ; the citizens of Abbeville opened their gates
to him ; thofe of St Valois, Rue, and Crotoy, imita¬
ted the example ; and the whole country was, in a
little time, reduced to total fubmiflion. The fouthern
provinces were, in the fame manner, invaded by his
generals with equal fuccefs : while the Black Prince,
deftitute of fupplies from England, and wafted by a
cruel and confumptive diforder, was obliged to return
to his native country, leaving his affairs in the fouth of
France in a defperate condition.
In this exigence, the refentment of the king of
England was excited to the utmoft pitch ; and he feem-
ed refolved to take fignal vengeance on his enemies of
the continent. But the fortunate occafion was now
elapfed; and all his fucceeding defigns were marked
with ill fuccefs. The earl of Pembroke, and his whole
army, were intercepted at fea, and taken prifoners by
Henry king of Caftile. Sir Robert Knolles, one of
his generals on the continent, at the head of 30,000
men, w7as defeated by Bertrand du Guefclin ; while
the duke of Lancafter, at the head of 25,000 men,
had the mortification of feeing his troops diminifhed
one half by flying parties, without ever coming to a
battle.
At
FRA [ 3oic 1 FRA
France. At laft, the Englifh affairs were totally ruined by the
“ death of the Black Prince and king Edward. On recei¬
ving this news, the armiesof Charles attacked the Englifh
on all tides. One, under the command of the duke of
Burgundy, entered Artois ; another entered Auvergne,
under the command of the duke of Berry ; that which
afled in Guienne was commanded by the duke of An¬
jou ; and the forces in Bretagne were under the con-
ftable Guefclin : the king himfelf had a powerful bo¬
dy of troops, that he might be able to repair any acci¬
dent which thould happen through the chance of war.
The conftable joined the duke of Burgundy, who found
it difficult to oppofe Sir Thomas Felton and the Sene-
fchal of Bourdeaux. Soon after his arrival, the con¬
ftable attacked and defeated them, making both the
commanders prifoners of war. This vi&ory was fo
well purfued, that, at the clofe of the campaign 1377,
Bayonne and. Bourdeaux, with the diftritfts about them,
and the fortrefs of Calais with its dependencies, were all
j, the places left to England on the continent.
Charles VI. In 1379 the kingdied ; and was fucceeded by his fon
Charles VI. at that time 12 years old. Duringvhis
minority, the public affairs fell into confufion, and the
people were plundered by the nobility with impunity.
In 1385, a prodigious armament was fitted out againlt
England. A vaft fleet was affembled in the harbour
of Sluys, and a very numerous army in the neighbour¬
hood. According to fome writers, the armament con-
fifted of 1200 Ihips, 20,000 foot differently armed,
20,000 cavalry, and 20,ooocrofs-bow men. There was
befides a vaft wooden edifice or floating-town,, which
was contrived for the proteftion of the foldiers when
landed : but all thefe preparations were at laft
brought to nothing through the obftinacy of the duke
of Berry ; who, having been originallyagainft this mea-
fure, carried on his part of the armament fo llowly,
that he did not arrive at Sluys till the middle of Sep¬
tember, when the feafon was fo far advanced, that no
invafion was practicable. A'ftorm that happened foon
after, drove the greateft part of the fleet on fhore, and
beat the wooden edifice all to pieces ; the remains of
which the king beftowedon the duke of Burgundy, to
whom he gave alfo the port of Sluys, w’hich was then
very commodious, and of the utmoft importance.
In 1391, one P. Craon attempted to affaffiuate the
new conftable de Cliffon ; and, (after having, with a
band of ruffians, given him 50 wounds, of all which,
however, he recovered), fled to Bretagne, where he
was protected by the duke of that country. The king
demanded the affaffin to be given up to him in chains ;
but the duke anfwered, that he knew nothing of him
to which the king giving no credit, marched with all his
forces into his territories. When the army arrived at
Mans, the king was feized with a flow fever; but could
Is feized not prevailed upon to reft or take phyiic. On the
with lunatic 5th of Auguft, having marched all day in the heat of
fits. the fun, a miferable, ragged, wild-looking fellow dart¬
ed from behind a tree, and laying, hold of the bridle of
his horfe, cried out, “ Stop ! where are you going,,
king ? You are betrayed and immediately withdrew
again into the wood. The king paffed on, not a little
difturbed ; and foon after one of the pages, who rode
behind and carried his lance, overcome with heat, fell
afleep, and let it fall upon the helmet which was car¬
ried by the other. The king, hearing the noife^look-
ed about; and perceiving the page lifting the lance, Frame,
killed him immediately : then riding furioufiy with his- '
fword drawn, he (truck on every fide of him, and at e-
very perfon, till he broke his fword ; upon which one
of his gentlemen leaped up behind him and held his
arm. He fell foon after, and lay as if he had been
dead ; fo that being taken up and bound in a wag¬
gon, he was carried back to Mans, where he lay two
days in a lethargy, after which he came a little to him¬
felf. From this time the king continued frantic at in-
vervals, which gave occafion to the greateft diforders
throughout the kingdom. The adminiftration of af¬
fairs was difputed between his brother Lewis duke of
Orleans, and his confin-german John duke of Bur¬
gundy. Ifabella, his queen, alfo had her party; and
the king vainly attempted to fecure one likewife in his
favour. Each of thefe, as they happened to pn.v3ilr
branded their captives with the name of traitors; and
the gibbets were at once bung with the bodies of the
accufed and the aceufers. This, therefore, was thought
by Henry V. ofEnglanda favourable opportunity to re¬
cover from France thofe grants that had been formerly
given up by treaty. But previoufly, to give his intended
expedition the appearance of juftice, he fent over am-
baffadors to Paris, offering a perpetual peace and al¬
liance, on condition of being put in poffeffion of all thofe
provinces which had been raviflied from the Englifh
during fome former reigns, and of efpoufing Catharine,,
the French king’s daughter, in marriage, with a fuit-
able dowry. Though the French court was at that
time extremely averfe to war, yet the exorbitance of
thefe demands could not be. complied with ; and Henry
veey probably made them in hopes of a denial. He Invafion by
therefore aflembled a great fleet and army at South- Hcn|yv-<)f
ampton ; and having allured all the military men ofEl1^
the kingdom to attend him, from the hopes of con-
queft, he put to fea, and lauded at Harfleur, at the
head of an army of 6000 men at arms,, and 24,000
foot, moftly archers.
His firft operations were upon Harfleur; which be¬
ing preffed hard, promifed at a certain day to furren--
der, unlefs relieved before that time. The day arri¬
ving, and the garriion, unmindful of their engagement^
ftill refolving to defend the place, Henry ordered an
affault to be made, took the town by ftorm, and put
all the garrifon to the fword. From thence, the vic¬
tor advanced farther into the country, which had beenr
already rendered defolate by factions, and which he:
now totally laid wafte. But although the enemy made
a feeble refiftance, yet the climate feemed to fight a-
gainft the Englifh; a contagious dyfentery carrying,
off three parts of Henry’s army. In this fituation.
he had recourfe to an expedient common enough in that
barbarous age, to infpirs his troops with confidence it*
their general. He challenged the dauphin, who com¬
manded in the French army, to fingle combat, offer¬
ing to flake his pretenfions on the event. This chal¬
lenge, as might naturally, be expedfed, was rejedled ;.
and the French, though difagreeing internally, at lalt
feemed. to unite, at the appearance of the common-
danger. A numerous army of 14,000 men at arms,,
and 40,000 foot, was by. this time afftmbled under the
command of count Albert, and was now placed to in¬
tercept Henry’s weakened forces on their return. Th^
Englifh monarch, when it was. too late, began to re.-
rep.entt
FRA [31
France, pent of his rafii inroad into a country, where difeafe
’ and a powerful army every where threatened ddlruc-
tion ; he therefore thought of retiring into Calais. In
this retreat, which was at once both painful and dan¬
gerous, Henry took every precaution to infpire his
troops with patience and perfeverance ; and fhewed
them in his own perfon the brighteft example of forti¬
tude and refignation. He was continually harraffed
on his march by flying parties of the enemy; and
whenever be attempted to pafs the river Somme, acrofs
which his march lay, he faw troops on the other fide
ready to oppofe his paffage. However, he was fo for¬
tunate as to feize by furprife a paffage near St Quin tin,
which had not been fufficiently guarded; and there he
fafely carried over his army.
But the enemy was ftill refolved to intercept his re¬
treat : and after he had paffed the fmall river of Ter-
trois at Blangi, he was furprifed to pbferve from the
heights the whole French army drawn up in the plains
Battle of °f Azincourt; and fo ported, that it was impofiible for
Azincourt. him to proceed on his march, without coming to an
engagement. No fituation could be more unfavourable
than that in which he then found himfelf. His army
was wafted by difeafe; the foldiers fpirits worn down
with fatigue ; ddlituteof provifions,and difcouraged by
their retreat. Their whole body amounted but to 9000
men; and thefe were to fuftain the fliock of an enemy
pear ten times their number, headed by expert gene¬
rals, and plentifully fupplied with provilions. This
difparity, as it depreffed the Englifh, fo it raifed the
courage of the French in proportion ; and fo confident
were thefe of fuccefs, that they began to treat for the
ranfom of their prifoners. Henry, on the other hand,
though f&nfible of his extreme danger, did not omit any
circumftance that could afiift his fituation. As the
enemy were fo much fuperior, he drew up his army on
a narrow ground between two woods, which guarded
each flank; and patiently expecled, in that pofition,
the attack of the enemy. The conftable of Fiance was
at the head of one army; and Henry bimfelf, with Ed¬
ward duke of York, commanded the other. For a
time both armies, as if afraid to begin, kept filently ga¬
zing at each other, neither being willing to break their
ranks by making the onfet: which Henry perceiving,
with a cheerful countenance he cried out, “ My friends,
fince they will not begin, it is ours to fet them the ex¬
ample; come on, and the Bleffed Trinity be our prO-
te&ion.” Upon this, the whole army fet forward with
a (bout, while the French ftill continued to wait their
approach with intrepidity. The Englifh archers, who
had long been famous for their great fkill, firft let fly
a (bower of arrows three feet long, which did great
execution. The French cavalry advancing to repel
thefe, 200 bow-men, who lay till them-copcealed, ri-
fing on a fudden, let fly among them, and produced
fuch a confufion, that the archers threw by their ar¬
rows, and, rufhing in, fell upon them fword in hand.
The French at firft repulfed the affailants, who were
enfeebled by difeafe: but thefe foon made up the deleft
by their valour; arid, refolving to conquer or die, burft
in upon the enemy with fuch impetuofity, that the
French were obliged to give way.
In the mean time a body of Englifh horfe, which
had been concealed in a neighbouring wood, ruffling
out, flanked the French infantry, and a general difor-
16 ] FRA
der began to enfue. The firft line of the enemy being France.
routed, the fecond line began to march up to interrupt  
the progrefs of the victory. Henry, therefore, alight¬
ing from his horfe, prefented himfelf to the enemy with
an undaunted countenance ; and at the head of his
men fought on foot, encouraging fome and affifting
others. Eighteen French cavaliers, who were refolved
to kill him, or die in the attempt, ruffing from the
ranks together, advanced ; and one of them ftunned
the king with a blow of his battle-ax. They then fell
upon him in a body ; and he was upon the point of
finking, under their blows, when David Gam, a valiant
Welftiman, aided by two of his countrymen, came up
to the king’s affiftance, and foon turned the attention
of the aflailants from the king to themfelves, till at
length, being overpowered, they fell dead at his feet.
Henry had by this time recovered hisfenfts; and frefh
troops advancing to his relief, the 18 French cavaliers
were (lain ; upon which he knighted the Welchmen
who had io valiantly fallen in his defence. The heat
of the engagement ftill increafing, Henry’s courage
feemed alio to increafe; and the moft dangerous fitua¬
tion was where he fought in perfon: his brother, who
was ftunned by a blow, fell at his feet; and while the
king was endeavouring to fuccour him, he received
another blow himfelf, which threw him upon his knees.
But he foon recovered : and leading on his troops with
frefh ardour, they ran headlong upon the enemy; and
put them into fuch diforder, that their leaders could
never after bring them to the charge. The duke of
Alen§on, who commanded the fecond line, feeing it
fly, refolved by one defperate ftroke to retrieve the
fortune of the day, or fall in the attempt. Wherefore,
running up to Henry, and at the fame time crying a-
loud, “ that he was the duke of Alen5on,” he difchar-
ged fuch a blow on his head, that it carried off a part
of the king’s helmet; while, in themean time, Henry,
not having been able to ward off the blow, returned it,
by finking the duke to the ground, and he was foon kill¬
ed by the furrounding crowd, all the king’s efforts to
fave him proving ineffeftual. In this manner, the
French were overthrown in every part of the field;
their number, being crowded into a very narrow (pace,
were incapable of either flying, or making any refift-
ance ; fo that they covered the ground with heaps of si
flain. After all appearance of oppolition was over, the French de-
Engiifh had lei fare to make prifoners ; and having ad- bated,
vanced with uninterrupted fuccefs to the open plain,
they there law the remains of the French rear-guard,
which ftill maintained a fliew of oppofition. At the
fame time was heard an alarm from behind, which pro¬
ceeded from a number of pealants, who had fallen up¬
on the Engliffi baggage, and were putting thofe who
guarded it to the fword. Henry, now feeing the ene¬
my entail fides of him, began to entertain apprehen-
fions from his prifoners, the number of whom exceed¬
ed even that of his army. He thought it neceffary,
therefore, to iffue general orders for putting them to
death; baton the difeovery of the certainty of his vic¬
tory, he flopped the flaughter, and was ftill able to fave
a great number.
This battle was very fatal to France, from the num¬
ber of princes and nobility flain or taken prifoners.
The killed are computed on the whole to have amount¬
ed to 10,000 men ; and as the lofs fell chiefly upon the
ca-
FRA t 3
France, cavalry, it is pretended, that of thefe 8000 were gen-
” ~~ tlemen. The number of prifoners are computed at
14,000. All the Englilh who were flain did not ex¬
ceed 40; a number amazingly inconfiderable, if we
compare the lofs with the victory.
This vidtory, gained on the 25th of Oftober 1415,
how great foever it might have been, was attended
with no immediate effedts. Henry Hill continued to
retreat after theT>attle of Azincourt, out of the king-
jdbm ; and carried his prifoners to Calais, and from
Henry thence to England. In 1517, he once more landed
lands again an army of 25,000 men in Normandy; and prepared to
in Nor- ftrike a decifive blow for the crown of France, to which
11 y' the Englifh monarchs had long made preteolions. That
wretched country was now in a moft deplorable fitua-
tion. The whole kingdom appeared as one vaft theatre
of crimes, murders, injuftice, and devailation. The
duke of Orleans was aflaffinated by the duke of Bur-
undy ; and the duke of Burgundy, in his turn, fell
y the treachery of the dauphin. At the fame time,
the duke’s fon, defirous of revenging his father’s death,
entered into a fecret treaty with the Englifh ; and a
league was immediately concluded at Arras, between
Henry and the young duke of Burgundy, in which the
king promifed to revenge the murder of the late duke;
and the fon feemed to infift upon no further ftipula-
tions. Henry, therefore, proceeded in his conquefts,
without much oppofition from any quarter. Several
towns and provinces fubmitt.ed on his approach; the
city of Rouen was befieged and taken ; Pontoife and
Gifors he foon became mafter of. He even threaten¬
ed Parig by the terror of his power, and obliged the
court to remove to Troye. It was at this city that the
duke of Burgundy, who had taken upon him the pro-
teftion of the French king, met Henry in order to
ratify that treaty which was formerly begun, and by
which the crown of France was to be transferred to a
ftranger. The imbecillity into which Charles had fal¬
len, made him paffivc in this remarkable treaty ; and
Henry di&ated the terms throughout the whole nego¬
tiation. The principal articles of this treaty were, That
Henry fhould efpoufe the princefs Catharine; that
king Charles fhonld enjoy the title and dignity of king
for life ; but that Henry fhould be declared heir to the
crown, and fhould be intrufted with the prefent admi-
niftration of the government; that France and Eng¬
land fhould for ever be united under one king, but
fhould {till retain their refpeftive laws and privileges ;
that Henry fhould unite his arms with thofe of king
Charles and the duke of Burgundy, to deprefs and
57 fubdue the dauphin and his purtizans.
He marries Jt was not long after this treaty, that Henry mar-
the princefs rje£j t^e pr|ncefs Catharine ; after which he carried his
at anne. t0 pariS) and took a formal pofleffion of
that capital. There he obtained, from the eftates of
the kingdom, a ratification of the late compa&; and
then turned his arms, with fuccefs, againft the adhe¬
rents of the dauphin, who, in the mean time, wan¬
dered about a ftranger in his own patrimony, and to
his enemies fucceffes only oppofed fruitlefs expoflu-
lations.
Henry’s fupplies were not provided in fnch plenty
as to enable him to carry on the war, without return¬
ing in perfon to prevail upon his parliament for frefh
fuccours ; and, upon his arrival in England, though
Vol. IV.
■7 1 F R A
he found his fubjeAs highly pleafed with the fplendor France.
of his conquefts, yet they feemed fomewhat doubtful   
as to the advantage of them. A treaty, which in its
confequences was likely to transfer the feat of empire
from England, was not much relifhed by the parlia¬
ment. They therefore, upon various pretences, refufed
him a fupply equal to his exigencies or his demands:
but he was refolved on purfuing his fchemes; and,
joining to the fupplies granted at home, the contribu¬
tions levied on the conquered provinces, he was able
once more to affemble an army of 28,000 men, and
with thefe he landed fafely at Calais.
In the mean time, the dauphin, a prince of great
prudence and a&ivity, omitted no opportunity of re¬
pairing his ruined filiation, and to take the advantage
of Henry’s abfence from France. He prevailed upon
the regent of Scotland to fend him a body of 8000 men
from that kingdom ; and with thefe, and fome few
forces of his own, he attacked the duke of Clarence,
who commanded the troops in Henry’s abfence, and
gained a complete viftory.
This was the firft a&ion which turned the tide of
fuccefs againft the Englifh. But it was of fliort dura¬
tion : for Henry foon after appearing with a confider-
able army, the dauphin fled at his approach ; while
many of the places, which held out for the dauphin
in the neighbourhood of Paris, furrendered to the con¬
queror. In this manner, while Henry was every where
vi&orious, lie fixed his refidence at Paris; and While
Charles had a fmall court, he was attended with a
very magnificent one. On Whitfunday 1421, the two
kings and their two queens with crowns on their heads
dined together in public ; Charles receiving apparent
homage, but Henry commanding with abfolute autho¬
rity.
In the mean time, the dauphin was chafed beyond
the Loire, and almoft totally difpoffefled of all the
northern provinces. He was even purfued into the
fouth, by the united arms of the Englifh and Burgun¬
dians, and threatened with total deftru&ion. In this
exigence, he found it neceflary to fpinout the war, and
to evade all hazardous aftions with a rival who had
been long accuftomed to victory. His prudence was
every where remarkable; and, after a train of long
perfecutions from fortune, he found her at length will¬
ing to declare in his favour, by the death of the king j8
of England. . Death of
Charles VI. died a fhort time after; and Charles VII. Henry and
fucceeded his father to a nominal throne. Nothing Charles,
could be more deplorable than the iituation of that
monarch on afluming his title to the crown. The Eng¬
lifh were mafters of almoft all France ; and Henry VI.
though yet but an infant, was folemnly invefted with
regal power by legates from Paris. The duke of Bed¬
ford was at the head of a numerous army, in the heart
of the kingdom, ready to oppofe every infurre&ion;
while the duke of Burgundy, who had entered into a
firm confederacy with him, ftill remained ftedfaft, and
feconded his claims. Yet, notwithftanding thefe fa¬
vourable appearances, Charles found means to break JP
the leagues formed againft him, and to bring back his Defperate
fubje&s to their natural interefts and their duty. CharlesYII.
However, his firft attempts were totally deftitute of
fuccefs. Wherever he endeavoured to face the enemy
he was overthrown, and he could fcarcely rely on the
17 Z friends
FRA [ 3*
France, friends next his perfon. His authority was infulted
even by his own fervants; advantage after advantage
was gained againft him; and a battle fought nearVer-
neuil, in which he was totally defeated by the duke of
Bedford, feemed to render his affairs altogether defpe-
*ate. But from the impoffibility of the Englifh keep¬
ing the field without new fupplies, Bedford was obli¬
ged to retire into England ; and, in the mean time, his
vigilant enemy began to recover from his late confter-
nation. Dumois, one of his generals, at the head of
1000 men, compelled the earl of Warwick to raife
the fiege of Montargis ; and this advantage, flight as
it was, began to make the French fuppofe that the
TheFrench were not invincible.
affairs re- ®ut; they foon had ftill greater reafon to triumph in
trieved by their change of fortune, and a new revolution was pro-
the Maid duced by means apparently the molt unlikely to be at-
of Orleans, tended with fuccefs. In the village of Domremi, near
Vaucouleurs, on the borders of Lorrain, there lived a
country-girl, abour 27 years of age, called Joan of
Arc. This girl had been a fervant at a fmall inn ; and
in that humble ftation had fubmitted to thofe hardy
employments which fit the body for the fatigues of
war. She was of an irreproachable life, and had hi¬
therto teftified none of thofe enterprizing qualities
which difplayed themfelves foon after. She content¬
edly fulfilled the duties of her fituation, and was re¬
markable only for her modefty and love of religion.
But the miferies of her country feemed to have been
one of the greateft obje&s of her compaffion and re¬
gard. Her mind inflamed by thefe objefts, and brood¬
ing with melancholy ftedfaftnefs upon them, began to
feel feveral impulfes, which (he was willing to miltake
for the infpirations of heaven. Convinced of the rea¬
lity of her own admonitions, Ihe had recourfe to one
Baudricourt, governor of Vaucouleurs, and informed
him of her deftination by heaven to free her native
country of its fierce invaders. Baudricourt treated her
at firft with negleft: but her importunities at length
prevailed ; and willing to make a trial of her preten-
fions, he gave her fome attendants, who conduced
her to the court, which at that time refided at Chinon.
The French court were probably fenfible of the weak-
nefs of her pretenfions ; but they were willing to make
ufe of every artifice to fupport their declining fortunes.
It was therefore given out, that Joan was actually in-
fpired; that flie had been able to difcover the king a-
mong the number of his courtiers, although he had laid
afide all the diftin&ions of his authority ; that (he had
told him fomefecrets, which were only known to him-
felf; and that fhe had demanded, and minutely de-
fcribed, a fword in the church of St Catharine de Fier-
bois, which fhe had never feen. In this manner, the
minds of the vulgar being prepared for her appearance,
file was armed cap-a-pee, and fhown in that martial
drefs to the people. She was then brought before the
dodors of the univerfityand they, tin&ured with the
credulity of the times, or willing to fecond the impo-
fture, declared that fhe had a&ually received her com-
miffion from above.
When the preparations for her miffion were com¬
pletely blazoned, the next aim was to fend her againft
the enemy. The Engltfh were at that time befieging
the city of Orleans, the laft refource of Charles, and
every thing promifcd them a fpeedy furrender. Joan
iS ] FRA
undertook to raife the fiege ; and to render herfelf ftill France;
more remarkable, girded herfelf with the miraculous '
fword, of which fhe before had fuch extaordinary no¬
tices. Thus equipped, fhe ordered all the foldiers to
confefs themfelves before they fet out; fhe difplayed in
her hand a confecrated banner, and allured the troops
of certain fuccefs. Such confidence on her fide foon
raifed the fpirits of the French army ; and even the
Englifh, who pretended to defpife her efforts, felt
themfelves fecretly influenced with the terrors of her
million. A fupply of provifions was to be conveyed
into the town ; Joan, at the head of fome French
troops, covered the embarkation, and entered Orleans
at the head of the convoy which fhe had fafely pro-
tefted. While fhe was leading her troops along, a dead
filence and aftonifhment reigned among the Englifh ;
and they regarded with religious awe that temerity,
which they thought nothing but fupernatural aflillance
could infpire. But they were foon rouzed from their
ftate of amazement by a fally from the town; Joan led
on the btfieged, bearing the facred ftandard in her hand,
encouraging them with her words and adtions, bring¬
ing them to the trenches, and overpowering the befie-
gers in their own redoubts. In the attack of-one of
the forts, fhe was wounded in the neck with an arrow;
but inftantly pulling out the weapon with her own
hands, and getting the wound quickly dreffed, fhe ha-
flened back to head the troops, and to plant her victo¬
rious banner on the ramparts of the enemy. Thefe fuc-
ceffes continuing, the Englilh found that it w-as impof-
fible to refift troops animated by fuch fuperior energy;
and Suffolk, who conduced the attack, thinking that
it might prove extremely dangerous to remain any
longer in the prefence of fuch a courageous and vidto-
rious enemy, raifed the fiege, and retreated with all
imaginable precaution.
From being attacked, the French now in turn be¬
came the aggreffors. Charles formed a body of 6000
men, and fent them to befiege Jergeau, whither the
Englifh, commanded by the earl of Suffolk, had re¬
tired, with a detachment of his army. The city was
taken; Suffolk yielded himfelf a prifoner; and Joan
marched into the place in triumph, at the head of the
army. A battle was foon after fought near Patay,
where the Englifh Were worfted, as before; and the
generals, Scales and Talbot, were taken prifoners.
The raifing of the fiege of Orleans was one part of
the maid’s promife to the king of France; the crown¬
ing him at Rheims was the other. She'now declared,
that it was time to complete that ceremony; and
Charles, in purfuance of her advice, fet out for Rheims
at the head of 12,000 men. The towns thro’ which he
paffed opened their gates to receive him ; and Rheims
lent him a deputation, with its keys, upon his ap¬
proach. The ceremony of his coronation was there
performed with the utmoft folemnity ; and the Maid
of Orleans (for fo fhe was now called) feeing the com¬
pletion of her mifiion, defired leave to retire, alleging,
that file had now accomplifhed the end of her calling.
But her fervices had been fo great, that the king
could not think of parting with her ; be preffed her to
flay fo earneftly, that fhe at length complied with his
requeft.
A tide of fucceffes followed the performance of
this folemnity ; Laon, Soiffons, Chateau-Thierri, Pro-
vins!
F R A [ 3
France* vins, an3 many other fortrefles in that neighbourhood,
'' fubmitted to him on the firft fummons. On the other
hand, the Englifh, difcomfited and difpirited, fled on
every quarter; not knowing whether to afcribe their
misfortunes to the power of forcery, or to a celeftial
influence ; but equally terrified at either* They now
found themfelves deprived of the conquefts they had
gained, in the fame manner as the French had former¬
ly fubmitted to their power. Their own diviiions,
both abroad and at home, unfitted them entirely for
carrying on the war; and the duke of Bedford, not-
withflanding all his prudence, faw himfelf divefted of
his ftrong-holds in the country, without being able to
flop the enemy’s progrefs. In order, therefore, to re-
61 vive the declining ftate of his affairs, he refolved to
Henry VI. [jave Henry crowned king at Paris, knowing that the
crowned2'1” nat*ves would be allured to obedience by the fplendor of
king.of the ceremony. In 1430, Henry was accordingly crown-
Franee. ed, all the vaflals that ffill continued under the Englifli
power fwearing fealty and homage. But it was now
too late for the ceremonies of a coronation to give a
turn to the affairs of the Englifh; the generality of the
kingdom had declared againft them, and the remain¬
der only waited a convenient opportunity to follow the
example.
An accident enfued foon after, which, though it pro-
mifed to promote the Englifh caufe in France, in the
end ferved to render it odious, and conduced to the
total evacuation of that country. The duke of Bur¬
gundy, at the head of a powerful army, had laid fiege
to Compeign; and the Maid of Orleans had thrown
herfelf into the place, contrary to the wifhes of the
governor, who did not dehre the company of one
whofe authority would be greater than his own. The
garrifon, however, were rejoiced at her appearance,
6t and believed themfelves invincible under her protedlion.
Maid of But their joy was of fhort duration; for Joan having
Orleans the jgy after her arrival headed a fally, and twice dri-
Ibner Pn" ven the enemy ^rom t^e‘r intrenchments, fhe was at
laft obliged to retire, placing herfelf in the rear, to
proteA the retreat of her forces. But in the end, at¬
tempting to follow her troops into the city, flie found
the gates fhut, and the bridge drawn up by order of the
governor, who is faid to have longVifhed for an op¬
portunity of delivering her up to the enemy.
Nothing could exceed the joy of the befiegers, in
having taken a perfon who had been fo long a terror to
their arms. The fervice of Te Deum was publicly ce¬
lebrated on this occation ; and it was hoped, that the
capture of this extraordinary perfon would reftore the
Englifh to their former vi&ories and fucceffes. The
duke of Bedford was no fooner informed of her being
taken, than he purchafed her of the count Vendome,
who had made her his prifoner, and ordered her to be
committed to clofe confinement. The credulity of
both nations was at that time fo great, that nothing
was too abfurd to gain belief, that coincided with their
paflions. As Joan but a little befpre, from her fuccef¬
fes, was regarded as a faint, fhe was now, upon her
captivity, confidered as a forcerefs, forfaken by the
daemon who had granted her a fallacious and tempo¬
rary afliitance. Accordingly it was refolved in coun¬
cil to fend her to Rouen to be triejl for witchcraft: and
the bifhop of Beauvais, a man wholly devoted to the
Englifh intereft, prefented a petition againft her for
119 ^1 FRA
that purpofe. The univerfity of Paris was fo mean as France
to join in the fame requeft. Several prelates, among ~
whom the cardinal of Winchefter was the only Englifii-
man, were appointed as her judges. They held their
court in Rouen, where Henry then refided ; and the
Maid, clothed in her former military apparel, but
loaded with irons, was produced before this tribunal.
Her behaviour there noway difgraced her former gal¬
lantry ; (he betrayed neither weaknefs nor womanifh
fubmifiion ; but appealed to God and the pope for
the truth of her former revelations. In the iffue, flic
was found guilty of herefy and witchcraft ; and fenten-
ced to be burnt alive, the common punifliment for fuch
offences.
But previous to the infli&ion of this dreadful fen-
tence upon her, they were refolved to make her abjure
her former errors; and at length fo far prevailed up¬
on her, by terror and rigorous treatment, that her fpi-
rits were entirely broken, by the hardfhips flie was ob¬
liged to fuffer. Her former vifionary dreams began
to vanifh, and a gloomy diliruft to take place of her
late infpirations. She publicly declared herfelf willing
to recant, and promifed never more to give way to the
vain delufions which had hitherto miffed her, and im-
pofed on the people. This was what her oppreffors
delired ; and willing to (hew fome appearance of mer¬
cy, they changed her fentence into perpetual imprifon-
ment, and to be fed during life on bread and water.
But the rage of her enemies was not yet fatiated. Su-
fpe&ing that the female drefs, which flie had confent-
ed to wear, was difagreeable to her, they purpofely
placed in her apartment a fuit of mens apparel, and
watched for the effe& of their temptation upon her.
Their cruel artifices prevailed. Joan, ftruck with the
fight of a drefs in which flic had gained fo much glo¬
ry, immediately threw off her penitent’s robes, and
put on the forbidden garment. Her enemies caught
her equipped in this manner ; and her imprudence was
confidered as a relapfe into her former tranfgreffions. 63
No recantation would fuffice, and no pardon would Ar|d cruel-
be granted. She was condemned to be burnt alive Pjj1 to
in the market-place of Rouen; and this infamous
fentence was accordingly executed with molt brutal
feverity.
One of the firft misfortunes which the Englifli felt
after this punifliment, was the defe&ion of the duke
of Burgundy; who had for fome time feen the error
of his condud, and wiftied to break an unnatural con¬
nexion, that only ferved to involve his country in ruin.
A treaty was therefore begun, and concluded, be¬
tween him and Charles, in which the former agreed to
aflift him in driving the Englifli out of France. This
was a mortal blow to their caufe ; and fuch was its ef-
feXs upon the populace of London, when they were
informed of it, that they killed feveral of the duke of
Burgundy’s fubjeXs, who happened to be among
them at the time. It might perhaps alfo havehaftened
the duke of Bedford’s death, who died at Rouen a few
days after the treaty was concluded; and the earl of
Cambridge was appointed his fucceffor to the regency
of Frartce.
From this period, the Englifli affairs became total- Affant of
ly irretrievable. The city of Paris returned once more Englilh to-
to a fenfe of its duty. Lord Willoughby, who com- tally ruin-
manded it for the Englifli, was contented to ftipulate ei1,
17 Z 3 for
FRA
France, for the fafe retreat of his troops to Normandy. Thus
ground was continually, though {lowly, gained by the
French j and notwithilanding their fields were laid
wafte, and their towns depopulated, yet they found
prote&ion from the weaknefs and divifions of the Eng-
lifli. At length, both parties began to grow weary
of a war, which, though carried on but feebly, was yet
a burden greater than either could fupport. But the
terms of peace infilled upon by both were fo wide of
each other, that no hopes of an accommodation could
quickly be expected. A truce, therefore, for twenty-
two months, was concluded in 1443, which left every
thing on the prefent footing between the parties. No
fooner was this agreed upon, than Charles employed
himfelf with great jndultry and judgment In repairing
thofe numberlefs ills to which his kingdom, from the
continuance of wars, both foreign and domeftic, had
fo long been expofed. He eftabli/hed difcipline a-
mong his troops, and juftice among his governors.
He revived agriculture, and reprefled faction. Thus
being prepared once more for taking the field, he took
the nrll favourable occalion of breaking the truce ; and
Normandy was at the fame time invaded by four
powerful armies; one commanded by Charles him¬
felf, a fecond by the duke of Brittany, a third by the
count of Alen$on, and a fourth by the count Dunois.
Every place opened their gates almoll as foon as the
French appeared before them. Rouen was the only
one that promifed to hold out a fiege; but the inha¬
bitants clamoured fo loud for a furrender, that the duke
of Somerfet, who commanded the garrifon, was obli¬
ged to capitulate. The battle, or rather the fldrmilh,
of Fourmingi, was the laft Hand which the Englilh
made in defence of their French dominions. However,
they were put to the rout, and above a thoufand were
{lain. All Normandy andGuienne, that had fo long
acknowledged fubjeftion to England, were loft in the
{pace of a year ; and the Englifti faw themfelves en¬
tirely difpofleffed of a country, which for above three
centuries they had confidered as annexed to their native
dominions. Calais alone remained of all their conquefts;
and this was but a fmall compenfation for the blood
and treafure which had been lavifhed in that country,
and only ferved to gratify ambition with a tranfient ap-
plaufe.
Charles having thus expelled the Englifti, found him¬
felf involved in domeftic troubles. His fon Lewis re¬
belled againft him, and neither the king’s valour nor
wifdom were fufficient to bring him back to a fenfe of his
6s duty. Theking died in 1461, ofa very ftrange diforder.
One of his old fervants intimated to him that he would
C ar esv . we]j tQ jje caut;ous> fince there was reafon to fuf-
peft a defign to poifon him: which affe&ed the king
to fuch a degree, that he obftinateiy refufed all fufte-
nance for feveral days; and being at length perfuaded
to eat, it proved too late, for his bowels were collap-
fed, and nothing would pafs. He died on the 22d of
July 1461, in the 60th year of his age, and 39th of his
66 reign- .
JLtwis XI. Lewis XI. who fucceeded his father Charles, was
reckoned one of the greateft politicians that ever ex-
ifted. He managed all his affairs with his neighbours,
indeed, in fuch a manner as always to have the advan¬
tage over them, though this was often very much to
the detriment of his moral chara&er. He united to the
FRA
crown of France, Burgundy, Anjou, Maine, Bar, and France.
Provence, the beft part of the county of Artois, and ———
fome great towns in Picardy; together with the coun¬
ties of Roufillon, Cerdagne, and Boulogne. He firft
ufed the title of Moji Cbriftien King conftantly, which
has fince palled to his fucceffors; and he feems like-
wife to have been the firft French monarch treated with
the title of Majejiy, in addreffes to him from foreign¬
ers, as well as from his own fubjedls. He died in 1483,
in the 61 ft year of his age, and 23d of his reign. ^
His fucceffor Charles VIII. conquered Bretagne in the Charles
year 1489. The duke of this country was in alliance VIII.
with Henry VII. of England. It was the intereft of this
monarch to have exerted himfelf to prevent fuch a con-
queft ; but as his predominant paflion was the love of
money, he could not bear the thoughts of embarking
in fuch an expenfive projedf, till it was too late. In
1491, the king of France annexed that duchy unalien¬
ably to his crown, by marrying the young duebefs,
though {he had been already contra&ed to the empe¬
ror Maximilian. By this piece of negligence, Henry
fuffered a great check on the power of the French mo-
narchs to be removed; and ever fince that time, Eng¬
land, even though united to Scotland, hath found it
much harder to cope with France than before. After
Bretagne was irreparably loft, however, the Englifh
monarch, urged by the clamours of his people, invaded
France in 1492. He gave out that he had nothing
lefs in view than an entire conqueft of the country : ne-
verthelefs, on the third of November the fame year, he
thade peace with Charles, on condition of his paying
him 745,000 crowns, at that time, and a yearly pen-
fion of 25,000 crowns ever after.
The king of France agreed to thefe terms the more His expedj.
readily, that he was impatient to undertake an expc- tion into
dition into Italy, in order to conquer the kingdom of Italy, and
Naples, to which he claimed a right. Moft of his coun- j“rPrj/*nS
fellors were againft the expedition ; but the king was*ucce
inflexible, even though Ferdinand king of Naples of¬
fered to do homage for his kingdom, and pay him a
tribute of 50,000 crowns a-year. He appointed Peter
duke of Bourbon regent, in his abfence, after which he
fet out on his expedition with very few troops and
very little money. By the way he fell ill of the fmall-
pox, but in a ftiort time recovered, and entering Italy
with only 6000 horfe and 12,000 foot, he was attend¬
ed with the moft furprifing fuccefs, traverfing the
whole country in fix weeks, and becoming mailer of
the kingdom of Naples in lefs than a fortnight. Such
extraordinary good fortune feemed miraculous, and he
was reckoned an inftrument railed up by God to de-
ftroy the execrable tyrants with which Italy was at
that time infefted. Had Charles made ufe of this pre-
poffefiion in his favour, and aided up to the character
enerally given him, he might have raifed his name as
igh as any hero of antiquity. His behaviour, how¬
ever, was of a very different nature. He amufed him¬
felf with feafts and (hews : and leaving his power in
the hands of favourites, they abandoned it to whoever
would purchafe titles, places, or authority, at the rates
they impofed; and the whole force he propofed to
leave in his new conquered dominions amounted to no
more than 4000 men.
But while Charles was thus lofing his time, a league
was concluded againft him at Venice; into which en¬
tered
[ ]
Expedition
of Lewis
XII. into
Italy.
F R A [31
tercd the pope, the emperor Maximilian, the archduke
Philip, Ludowic Sforza, and the Venetians. The con¬
federates affembled an army of 40,000 men, command¬
ed by Francis marquis of Mantua ; and they waited
for the king in the valley of Farnova, in the duchy
of Parma, into which he defeended with 9000 men.
On the 6th of July 1495, he attacked the allies; and
notwithftanding their great fuperiority, defeated them,
with the lofs of only 80 of his own men. Thus he got
fafe to France; but his Italian dominions were loft al-
mod as foon as he departed. Some fchemes were pro
pofed for recovering thefe conquefts ; but they were ne¬
ver put in execution, and the king died of an apoplexy
in 1498.
Lewis XII. duke of Orleans, fucceeded to the throne
of France; and on his acceffion found the face of affairs
in Italy very much changed to his advantage. The pope,
Alexander VI. was very much in his interefts, from the
hopes of getting his fon Cefar Borgia provided for:
he had conciliated the friendftiip of the Venetians by
promifing them a part of the Milanefe; he concluded
a truce with the archduke Philip ; and renewed his
alliances with the crowns of England, Scotland, and
Denmark. He then entered Italy with an army of
20,000 men; and, being aflifted by the Venetians,
quickly conquered one part of the duchy, while they
conquered the other, the duke himfelf being obliged
to fly with his family to Infpruck. He then attacked
Ferdinand of Spain with three armies at once, two to
a& by land, and one by fea ; but none of thefe per¬
forming any thing remarkable, he was obliged to eva¬
cuate the kingdom of Naples in 1504.
In 1506, the people of Genoa revolted; drove out
the nobility; chofe eight tribunes; and declared Paul
Nuova, a ftlk-dyer, their duke: after which they
expelled the French governor, and reduced a great part
of the Riviera. This oecafioned Lewis’s return into
Italy; where, in 1507, he obliged the Genoefe to fur-
render at diferetion; and, in 1508, entered into the
league of Cambray, with the other princes who at
that time wanted to reduce the overgrown power of
the Venetians. Pope Julius II. who had been the firft
contriver of this league, very foon repented of it; and
declared, that if the Venetians would reftore the cities
of Faenza and Rimini, which had been unjuftly taken
from him, he would be contented. This was refufed ;
and'in 1509, the forces of the republic received fuch an
entire defeat from Lewis, that they agreed to reftore
not only the two cities demanded by pope Julius, but
whatever elfe the allies required.
The pope now, inftead of executing his treaties with
his allies, made war on the king of France without the
leaft provocation. Lewis called an affembly of his
clergy; where it was determined, that in fome cafes it
was lawful to make war upon the pope; upon which
the king declared war againft him, and committed the
care of his army to the Marfhal de Trivulce. He foon
obliged the pope to retire into Ravenna; and in 1511,
Gafton de Foix, duke of Nemours, gained a great
viftory at Ravenna, but was himfelf killed in the en¬
gagement. After his death the army difbanded for
want of pay; and the French affairs in Italy, and every
where elfe, fell into great confufion. They recovered
the duchy of Milan, and loft it again in a few weeks.
Henry VIII. of England invaded France, and took
21 ] FRA
Terruenne and Tournay; and the Swifs invaded Bur- France,
gundy with an army of 25,000 men. In this defpe-
rate lituation of affairs the queen died, and Lewis put
an end to the oppofition of hismoft dangerous enemies
by negociating marriages. To Ferdinand of Spain,
he offered his feepnd daughter for either of his grand-
fons, Charles or Ferdinand; and to renounce, in fa¬
vour of that marriage, his claims on Milan and Genoa. y{
This propofal was accepted; and Lewis himfelf mar-flis mar¬
ried the princefs Mary, tiller to Henry VIII. of Eng- r’3ge
land. This marriage he did not long furvive, but died ^r^n^'fce * ,
on the 2d of January 1514; and was fucceeded by Engjanjt
Francis I. count of Angoulefme, and duke of Bretagne and death,
and Valois.
The new king was no fooner feated on the throne, Francis I.
than he refolved on an expedition into Italy. In this invades
he was at firft. fuccefsful, defeating the Swifs at Marig- ItaIy*
nano, and reducing the duchy of Milan. In 1518, the
emperor Maximilian dying, Francis was very ambitious
of being his fucceffor, and thereby reftoring to France
fuch a fplendid title, which had been fo long loft. But
Maximilian, before his death, had exerted himfelf fo
much in favour of Charles V. of Spain, that Francis
found it impoffible to fucceed ; and from that time an
irreconcileable hatred took place between the two mo-
narchs. In 1521, this ill-will produced a war; which,
however, might perhaps have been terminated if Fran¬
cis could have been prevailed upon to reftore the town
of Fontarabia, which had been taken by his admiral
Bonivet: but this being refufed, boftilities were renew¬
ed with greater vigour than ever; nor were they con¬
cluded till France was brought to the very brink of de-
ftrudlion. The war was continued with various fuccefs,
till the year 1524; when Francis, having invaded Italy, ^
and laid fiege to Pavia, he was utterly defeated before Defeated
that city, and taken prifoner on the 24th of February, and taken
This difafter threw the whole kingdom into the ut- Pdfoner,
moft confufion. The Flemifh troops made continual in¬
roads ; many thoufand boors affembled in Alface, in
order to make an invafion from that quarter; Hen¬
ry VIII. had affembled a great army, and threatened
the kingdom on that fide alfo; and a party was form¬
ed in the kingdom, in order to difpoffefs the duchefs
of the regency, and confer it upon the duke de Ven-
dofme. This prince, however, who, after the conftable,
was the head of the Houfe of Bourbon, went on por-
pofe to Lyons, where he affured the regent that he
had no view but for her fervice, and that of his coun¬
try ; upon which the formed a council of the ableft
men of the kingdom, and of this (he made him prefi-
dent. The famous Andrew Doria failed with the
French galleys to take on board the remains of the
French troops under the duke of Alva, whom he land¬
ed fafely in France. Thofe who efcaped out of the Mila¬
nefe alfo made their way back again as well as they could.
Henry VIII. under the influence of cardinal Wolfey,
refolved not to opprefs the oppreffed : he therefore affu¬
red the regent that ihe had nothing to fear from him;
and at the fame time advifed her not to confent to any
treaty by which France was to be difmembered. To
the emperor, however, he ufed another language. He
told him, that the time was now come when this puif-
fant monarchy lay at their mercy ; and therefore, that
fo favourable an opportunity fhould not be let flip:
that, for his part, he Ihould be content with Norman¬
dy.
FRA [ 3122 ] FRA
France, dy, Guienne, and Gafcony, and hoped the empire
would make no fcruple of owning him king of France;
adding, that he expefted the emperor would make a
right ufe of his viftory, by entering Guienne in per-
fon, in which cafe he was ready to bear half the ex-
pences of the war. He forefaw what fell out: the
emperor was alarmed at thefe conditions, and did not
care to have him for a neighbour ; for which reafon he
agreed to a truce with the regent for fix months. In
Picardy the Flemings wererepulfed ; and the count de
Guife, with the duke of Lorrain, had the good fortune,
with a handful of troops, to defeat and cut to pieces
Francis I. German peafants.
carried to In the mean time, Francis was detained in captivity
Madrid, in Italy : but being wearied of his confinement in that
fijtnsVdif country» and the princes of Italy beginning to Cabal
advanta- ^or his deliverance, he was carried to Madrid ; where,
geous trea- on the 14th of January 1525, he figtied a treaty, the
ty > principal articles of which were, That he (hould refign
to the emperor the duchy of Burgundy in full fove-
reignty ; that he {hould defift from the homage which
the emperor owed him for Artois and Flanders ; that
he fhould renounce all claim to Naples, Milan, Afti,
Tournay, Lifle, and Hefdin, &c. ; that he {hould per-
fuade Henry d’Albret to refign the kingdom of Na¬
varre to the emperor, or at leaft {hould give him no af-
fiftance ; that within 40 days'he (hould rdtore the duke
of Bourbon and all his party to their eftates; that he
{hould pay the king of England 500,000 crowns which
the emperor owed him; that when the emperor went
to Italy to receive the Imperial crOwn, he (hould lend
him 12 galleys, four large {hips, and a land-army, or
inftead of it 200,000 crowns.
All thefe articles the king of France promifed on
the word and honour of a prince to execute ; or, in
cafe of non-performance, to return prifoner into Spain!
But, notwithftanding thefe profeffions, Francis had al¬
ready protefted before certain notaries and witnefles in
whom he could truft, that the treaty he was about to
fign was againft his will, and therefore null and void.
On the 21 ft of February, the emperor thought fit to
releafe him from his prifon, in which he had been
clofely confined ever fince his arrival in Spain ; and
after receiving the ftrongeft aflurances from his own
mouth, that he would literally fulfil the terms of the
treaty, fent him under a ftrong guard to the frontiers,
where he was exchanged for his two eldeft fons, who
7S were to remain as hoftages for his fidelity.
And breaks When the king returned to his dominions, his firft
care was to get himfelf abfolved by the Pope from the
oaths he had taken; after which he entered into a
league with the pontiff, the Venetians, the duke of
Milan, and the king of England, for preferving the
peace of Italy. In the month of June, he publickly
received remonftrances from the dates of Burgundy^;
in which they told him, witho'ut ceremony, that by
the treaty of Madrid he had done what he had no right
to do, in breach of the laws and his coronation-oath ;
adding, that if he perfifted in his refolution of throw¬
ing them under a foreign yoke, they muft appeal to
the General States of the kindom. At thefe remon¬
ftrances the viceroy of Naples and the Spanifti mi-
nifters were prefent. They perceived the end which
the king aimed at, and therefore expoftulated with
him in pretty warm terms. At laft the viceroy told
him, that he had now nothing left but to keep his royal Francs,
word in returning to the caftle of Madrid, as his pre- ~
decefibr John had done in a like cafe. To this the
king replied, that king John adted rightly ; that he
returned to a king who had treated him like a king,
but that at Madrid he had received fuch ufage as
would have been unbecoming to a gentleman : that he
had often declared to the emperor’s minifters, that the
terms they extorted from him were unjuft and imprac*
ticable: but, that he was ftill willing to do all that
was fit and reafonable ; and to ranfom his fons, at the
rate of two millions of gold, in lieu of the duchy of
Burgundy.
Hitherto the treaty for the tranquillity of Italy had
been kept fecret, in hopes that fome mitigation of the
treaty of Madrid would have been obtained : but now
it was judged expedient to publidi it, though the vice¬
roy of Naples and the Spanifti lords were ftill at the
French court; and the emperor was to be admitted
into it, provided he accepted the king’s offer of two
millions for the releafe of his children, and left the
duke of Milan and other Italian princes in quiet pof-
fefiion of their dominions. It is the common misfor¬
tune of all leagues, that the powers who enter into them
keep only their own particular interefts in view, and
thus defeat the general intention of the confederacy.
This was the cafe here. The king’s great point was
to obtain- his children upon the terms he had propo-
fed ; and he was defirous of knowing what hopes there
were of that, before- he a<fted againft the monarch who
had them in his power. Thus the duke of Milan and
the Pope were both facrificed. The former was ob¬
liged to furrender to the duke of Bourbon, and "the
latter was furprifed by the Colonnas; both of which
difafters would have been prevented if the French fuc-
cours had entered Italy in time. See Italy.
According to an agreement which had been made
between Francis and Henry, their ambaffadors went
into‘Spain, attended each of them by a herald, in or¬
der to fummon the emperor to accept the terms which
had been offered him; or, in cafe of refufal, to.declarc
war. It feems the emperor’s anfwer was forefeen in
the court of France : and therefore, the king had pre-
vioufly called together an affembly of the notables ;
that is, perfons of the feveral ranks of his people in
whom he could confide. To them he propofed the
great queftion : Whether he was bound to perform the
treaty of Madrid ; or, Whether, if he did not perform
it, he was obliged in honour to return to Spain ? To
both thefe queftions, the affembly anfwered in the ne¬
gative : they faid, that Burgundy was united to the
crown of France, and that he could not feparate it by
his own authority ; that his perfon alfo was the pro¬
perty of the public, of which therefore he could not
difpofe ; but for the two millions, which they looked
upon as a juft equivalent, they undertook that it (hould
be raifed for his fervice. When the ambaffadors de¬
livered their propofitions, Charles treated the Englifli
herald with refpeift, and the French one with con¬
tempt ; which produced a challenge from Francis to
the emperor *. All differences, however, were at laft • See Duel.
adjufted; and a treaty was concluded at Cambray, on
the 5th of Auguft 1528. By this treaty, inftead of Trcaty^of
the poffeffion, the emperor contented himfelf with re- ,ira ray’
ferving his rights to the duchy of Burgundy, and the
two
FRA [31
France, two millions of crowns already mentioned. Of thefe
he was to receive 1,200,000 in ready money: the
prince’s lands in Flanders belonging to the Houfe of
Bourbon, were to be delivered up ; thefe were va¬
lued at 400,000 more : and the remaining 400,000
were to be paid by France in difcharge of the empe¬
ror’s debt to England. Francis was likewife to dif¬
charge the penalty of 500,000 crowns which the em¬
peror had incurred, by not marrying his niece the
princefs Mary of England ; and to releafe a rich fleur
de lys which had been many years before pawned by
the houfe of Burgundy for 50,000 crowns. The town
and caftle of Hefdin were alfo yielded ; together with
the fovereignty of Flanders and Artois, and all the
king’s pretenfions in Italy. As for the allies of France,
they were abandoned to the emperor’s mercy, with¬
out the leaft ftipulation in their favour; and Francis
himfelf protefted againft the validity of the treaty be¬
fore he ratified at, as did alfo his attorney general be¬
fore he regiftered it in parliament ; but both of them
with the greateft fecrecy imaginable.
Nothing farther of much confequence happened du¬
ring the remainder of the reign of Francis I. The war was
foon renewed with Charles, who made an invafion into
France, but with very bad fuccefs ; nor was peace fully
Francis dies eftabliflied but by the death of Francis, which happened
and is fuc- on the 3d of March, 1547. He wasfucceeded by his
ceeded by fon Henry II. who afcended the throne that very day
Henry II. on he was years of age. In the beginning
of his reign, an infurrettion happened in Guienne,
owing to the oppreffive conduit of the officers who
levied the fait tax. The king difpatched againft. the
infurgents two bodies of troops; one commanded by
the duke of Aumale fon to the duke of Guife, the other
by the conftable. The firft behaved with the greateft
moderation, and brought back the people to their
duty without making many examples: the other be¬
haved with the utmoft haughtinefs and cruelty ; and
though the king afterwards remitted many of his pu-
niffiments, yet from that time the conftable became
odious to the people, while the family of Guife were
M highly refpeifed.
fecutes rtfe* 154^» t®ie k*0? began to execute the ediils which
’roteftants ^een ma^e againft the Proteftants, with the ut-
* moft feverity ; and, thinking even the clergy too mild
in the profecution of herefy, eredled for that purpofe
a chamber compofcd of members of the parliament of
Paris. At the queen’s coronation, which happened
this year, he caufed a number of Proteftants to be
burned, and was himfelf prefent at the fpe6tade. He
was, however, fo much ftiocked, that he could never
forget it; but complained, as long as he lived, that,
at certain times, it appeared before his eyes, and
79 troubled his underftanding.
\.dvanta- ln 1549, a peace being concluded with England, the
JkhET'7 kln8 Purc^a^ Boulogne from the latter, for the fum
of 400,000 crowns; one half to be paid on the day
of rertitution, and the other a few months after.
Scotland was included in the treaty, and the Englifti
reftored fome places they had taken there. This was
the moft advantageous peace that France had hitherto
made with England ; the vaft arrears which were due
to that crown being in effedt remitted; and the penfion,
which looked fo like tribute, not being mentioned,
was in fadt extinguiflied. The earl of Warwick him-
23 ] FRA
felf, who had concluded the peace, was fo fenfible of France,
the difgrace fuffered by his nation on this occafion,
that he pretended to be fick, in order to avoid fetting
his hand to fuch a fcandalous bargain.
This year, an edidl was made to reftrain the extra¬
vagant remittances which the clergy had been in ufe
of making to the court of Rome, and for cqrredting
fome other abufes committed by the papal notaries.
With this edidfpope Julius III. was highly difpleafed;
and the following year (1550), war was declared by
the king of France againft the pope and the emperor.
The pretence was, that Henry protedled Odfavio Far-
nefe duke of Parma, whom the pope was defirous of
depriving of his dominions. In this war the king was
threatened with the cenfures of the church, more ef-
pecially when it was known that he had entered into
an alliance with the Turks, andaTurkilh fleet entered
the Mediterranean, where they threatened the Ifle of
Gozo, and made defcents upon Sicily,. Henry, how¬
ever, ftrongly denied any fuch connedlion, and iiififted
that the emperor had given them fufficient provoca¬
tion : but, be this as it will, the emperor foon found
himfelf in fuch danger from thefe new enemies, that
he could not fupport the pope as he intended, who on 19
that account was obliged to fue for peace. After *
this, the king continued'the war againft the emperor ga;„ft thc
with fuccefs ; reducing the cities of Toul, Verdun, emperor,
and Metz. He then entered the country of Alface,
and reduced all the fortrefles between Hagenau and
Wiflenburg. He failed, however, in his attempt on
Strafburgh ; and was foon after obliged by the Ger¬
man princes and the Swifs to defift from further con-
quefts on that fide. This war continued with very
little interruption, and as little fuccefs on the part
of the French, till the year 1557, when a peace was .8o
concluded; and foon after, the king was killed at a ^Ytourna'*
tournament by one count de Montgomery, who was ment.
reckoned one of the ftrongeft knights in France, and
who had done all he could to avoid this encounter with
the king.
The reign of his fuccefibr Francis II. was remarkable
only for the perfecution of the Proteftants ; which be¬
came fo grievous, that they were obliged to take up arms 81
in their own defence. This occafioned feveraf civil wars, c;.vil warS
the firft of which commenced in the reign of Charles IX. pit!l
who fucceeded to the throne in 1560. This firft war r°te antSl
continued till the year 1562, when a peace was con¬
cluded, by which the Proteftants wrere to have a free
pardon, and liberty of confcience. In 1565, the war
broke out anew, and was continued with very little
interruption till 1569, when peace was again con¬
cluded upon very advantageous terms for the Prote¬
ftants. After this, king Charles, who had now taken
the government into his hands, carefled the Proteftants
in an extraordinary manner. He invited to court the
admiral Coligni, who was the head of the Proteftant
party; and cajoled him fo, that he was lulled into a
perfetl fecurity, notwithftanding the many warnings
given him by his friends, that the king’s fair fpeeche*
were by no means to be trufted : but he had foon.rea-
fon to repent his confidence. On the 2ad of Auguft
1571, as he was walking from the court to his lodg¬
ings, he received a (hot from a window; which carried
away the fecond finger of his right hand, and wound¬
ed him grievoufty in the left arm. This he himfelf
afcribed
FRA [ 3124 ] FRA
France, afcribed to the malice of the duke of Guife, the head
of the Catholic party. After dinner, however, the
king went to pay him a vifit, and amongft others
made him this compliment, “ You have received the
wound, but it is I who fulfer 5” defiring at the fame
time, that he would order his friends to quarter about
his houfe, and promiling to hinder the Catholics from
entering that quarter after it was dark. This fatis-
hed the admiral of the king’s fincerity ; and hindered
him from complying with the defires of his friends, who.
would have carried him away, and who were firong
enough to have forced a pafi'age out of Paris if they
8z had attempted it.
Dreadful In the evening, the queen-mother, Katherine de
^e*pCret °f Medicis, held a cabinet-council to fix the execution of
Hants™'6" t^le uiaffacre of the Protefiants, which had been long
meditated. The perfons of which this council was
Compofed, were, lienry duke of Anjou, the king’s bro¬
ther; Gonzagua duke of Nevers ; Henry of Angou-
lefme, grand prior of France, and baltard brother of
the king ; the marfhal de Tavauhes; and Albert de
tGondi, count de Rhetz. The direction of the whole
was given to the duke of Guife, to whom the ad-
miniltration had been entirely confided during the
former reign. The guards were appointed to be in
arms, and the city-officers were to difpofe the militia
to execute the king’s orders, of which the fignal was
the ringing of a bell near the Louvre. Some fay, that
when the hour approached, which was that of mid¬
night, the king grew indetermined : that he expref-
fed his horror at fhedding fo much blood, efpecially con-
fidering that the people whom he was going to deftroy
were his fubje&s, who had come to the capital at his
command, and in confidence of his word ; and parti¬
cularly the admiral, whom he had detained fo lately
by his careffes. The queen-mother, however, re¬
proached him with his cowardice, and reprefented to
him the great danger he was in from the Proteftants;
which at laft induced him to confent. According to
others, however, the king himfelf urged on the maf-
facre; and when it was propofed to him to take off
only a few of the heads, he cried out, “ If any are
to die, let there not be one left to reproach me with
breach of faith.”
As foon as the fignal was given, a body of Swifs
troops, of the Catholic religion, headed by the duke
of Guife, the chevalier d’Angoulefme, accompanied by
many perfons of quality, attacked the admiral’s houfe.
Having forced open the doors, the foremoft of the af-
faflins ruftied into his apartment; and one of them afk-
ed if he was Coligni? To this he anfwered that he was;
adding, “ Young man, refpe& thefe grey hairs:” to
which the afi'affin replied by running him through the
body with his fword. The duke of Guife and the che¬
valier, growing impatient below Hairs, cried out to
know if the bulinefs was done; and being told that it
was, commanded that the body fhould be thrown out
at the window. As foon as it fell on the ground, the
chevalier, or (as fome fay) the duke of Guife, wiping
the blood off the face kicked it with his foot. The
body was then abandoned to the fury of the populace;
who, after a feries of indignities, dragged it to the com¬
mon gallows, to which they chained it by the feet, the
head being cut off and carried to the queen-mother;
who, it is faid, caufed it to be embalmed and fent to
Rome. The king himfelf went to fee the body hang France,
upon the gibbet; where, a fire being kindled under it, '
part was burnt, and the reft fcorched. In the Louvre
the gentlemen belonging to the king of Navarre and
the prince of Conde were murdered under the king’s
eye. Two of them wounded, and purfued by the af-
faffins, fled into the bed-chamber of the queen of Na¬
varre, and jumped upon her bed, befeeching her to fave
their lives; and as fhe went to afk this favour of the
queen-mother, two more, under the like eircnmftances,
ruftied into the room, and threw themfelves at her feet.
The queen-mother came to the window to enjoy thefe
dreadful fcenes ; and the king, feeing the Proteftants
who lodged on the other fide of the river, flying for
their lives, called for his long gun, and fired upon them.
In the fpace of three or four days, many thoufands
were deftroyed in the city of Paris, by the moft cruel
deaths which malice itfelf could invent. Peter Ramus,
profeffbr of philoiophy and mathematics, after being
robbed of all he had, his belly being firft ripped open,
was thrown out of a window. This fo much affedted
Denis Lambin the king’s profelfor, that, though a
zealous Catholic, he died of terror. The firft two days,
the king denied it was done by his orders, and threw
the whole blame on the houfe of Guife : but, on the
z8th of Auguft, he went to the parliament, avowed it,
was complimented upon it, and diredled a procefs a-
gainft the admiral, by which he was ftigmatized as a
traitor. Two innocent gentlemen fuffered as his ac¬
complices in a pretended plot againft the life of the
king, in order to fet the crown on the head of the
prince of Conde. They were executed by torch-light;
and the king and the queen-mother (with the king of
Navarre and the prince of Conde by force), werefpec-
tators of this horrid faft; and they alfo affifted at the
jubilee to thank God for the execution of fuch an infa¬
mous defign.
This maflacre was not confined to the city cf Paris
alone. On the eve of St Bartholomew, orders had
been fent to the governors of provinces to fall upon
the Proteftants themfelves, and to let loofe the people
upon them: and though an edift tvas publilhed before
the end of the week, alluring them of the king’s pro-
tedfion, and that he by no means defigned to extermi¬
nate them becaufe of their religion, yet private orders
were fent, of a nature dire&ly contrary; in confequence
of which, the maflacre, or (as, in allufion to the Sici¬
lian vefpers *, it was now ftyled) the Matins of Paris, * See Sicily.
were repeated in Meaux, Orleans, Troyes, Angers,
Tholoufe, Rouen, and Lyons; fo that in the fpace of
two months 30,000 Protettants were butchered. The
next year Rochelle, the only ftrong fortrefs which the
Proteftants held in France, was befieged, but was not
taken without the lofs of 24,000 of the Catholics who
befieged it. After this a pacification enfued on terms
favourable to the Proteftants, but to which they never
trufted. *-
This year the duke of Anjou was ele&ed king of
Poland, and foon after fet out to take poffeffion of his
new kingdom. The king accompanied him to the fron¬
tiers of the kingdom ; but during the journey was fei-
zed with a flow fever, which from the beginning had g3
a very dangerous appearance. He lingered for fome Death of
time under the moft terrible agonies both of body and Charles IX^
mind; and at laft died on the 30th of May 1572, ha-
aftcr
FRA [ 3025 ] FRA
France. ving lived 24 years, and reigned 13. It is laid, that
after the deadful maffacre abovementioned, this prince
had a fiercenefs in his looks and a colour in his cheeks
which he never had before. He flept little, and never
found. He waked-frequently in agonies, and had foft
g4 inufic to compofe him again to reft.
iiHeiiry III. During the firft years of the reign of Henry III.
who fucceeded his brother Charles, the war with the
Proteftants was carried on with indifferent fuccefs on
the part of the Catholics. In 1575, a peace was
concluded, called by way of eminence the Edid of
Pacification. It confifted of no fewer than 63 articles ;
the fubftance of which was, that liberty of confcience,
and the public exercife of religion, were granted to the
reformed, without any other reftri&ion than that they
ftiould not preach within two leagues of Paris or any
other part where the court was : Party-chambers were
ere&ed in every parliament, to confift of equal num¬
bers of Catholics and Proteftants, before whom all
judgments were to be tried: The judgments againft the
admiral, and, in general, all who had fallen in the war
or been executed, were reverfed ; and eight cautionary
8j towns were given to the Proteftants.
Catholic This edidi gave occafion to the Guifes to form an
league affociation in defence, as was pretended, of the Catho-
:ormed. i;c religion, afterwards known by the name of the
Catholic League. In this league, though the king was
mentioned with refpedt, he could not help feeing that
it ftrnck at the very root of his authority : for, as the
Proteftants had already their chiefs, fo the Catholics
were, for the future, to depend entirely upon the
chief of the league; and were, by the very words of
it, to execute whatever he commanded, for the good of
the caufe, againft any, without exception of perfons.
The king, to avoid the bad effefts of this, by the ad¬
vice of his council declared himfelf head of the league ;
and of confequence recommenced the war againft the
Proteftants, which was not extinguilhed as long as he
lived.
The faftion of the duke of Guife, in the mean time,
took a refolution of fupporting Charles cardinal of
Bourbon, a weak old man, as prefumptive heir of the
crown. In 1584, they entered into a league with
Spain, and took .up arms againft the king: and tho’
peace was concluded the fame year, yet, in 1587, they
again proceeded to fuch extremities, that the king was
forced to fly from Paris. Another reconciliation was
foon after effe&ed, but it is generally believed that
the king from this time refolved on the deftruftion
of Guife. Accordingly, finding that this nobleman
ftill behaved towards him with his ufual infolence,
the king caufed him to be (tabbed, as he was coming
86 into his prefence, by his guards, on the 23d of De-
Dukc of cember 1587. The king himfelf did not long fur-
dercd 'and* v*vc *1‘m ’ ^eing (tabbed by one James Clement, a Ja-
jllikewife the c°bine monk, on the id of Auguft 1588. His wound
a king. at firft was not thought mortal : but his frequent
fwooning quickly difcovered his danger; and he died
next morning, in the 39th year of his age, and 16th
of his reign.
Before the king’s death, he nominated Henry Bour¬
bon king of Navarre for his fuccefibr on the throne
of France ; but as he was a Proteftant, or at lead
one who greatly favoured their caufe, he was at firft
owned by very few except thofe of the Proteftant party.
Vol. IV.
He met with the moft violent oppofition from the France.
members of the Catholic league; and was often re-
dnced to fuch (trails, that he went to people’s houfes
under colour^of vifits, when in reality he had not a
dinner in his own. By his a&ivity and perfeverance,
however, he was at laft acknowledged throughout the
whole kingdom, to which his abjuration of the Pro¬
teftant religion contributed not a little. As the king
of Spain had laid claim to the crown of France, Hen¬
ry no fooner found himfelf in a fair way of being firm¬
ly feated on the throne, than he formally declared war
againft that kingdom; in which he at laft proved fuc- S7,
cefsful, and in 1597 entered upon the quiet poflef-Henry IV.
lion of his kingdom.
The king’s firft care was to put an end to the
religious difputes which had fo long diftradted the g8
kingdom. For. this purpofe, he granted the famous Edia of
edift, dated at Nantes, April 13th 1398. It re- Nantes,
eftabliflied, in a moft (olid and effedhial manner, all
the favours that had ever been granted to fhe reformed
by other princes ; adding fome which had not been
thought df before, particularly the allowing them a
free admiflion to all employments of truft, profit, and
honour; the eftablifhing chambers in which the mem¬
bers of the two religions were equal; and the per¬
mitting their children to be educated without con-
ftraint in any of the univerfities. Soon after, he con¬
cluded peace with Spain upon very advantageous
terms. This gave him an opportunity of reftoring
order and juftice throughout his dominions; of repair¬
ing all the ravages occafioned by the civil war; and
aboliftiing all thofe innovations which had been made,
either to the prejudice of the prerogatives of the
crown, or the welfare of the people. His fchemes
of reformation, indeed, he intended to have carried be- The king
yond the boundaries of France. If we may believe propofes to
the duke of Sully, he had in view no lefs a defign than ne"'-model
the new-modelling of all Europe. He imagined that p^n uro"
the European powers might be formed into a kind of powers.
Chriftian republic, by rendering them as nearly as pof-
fible of equal ftrength ; and that this republic might
be maintained in perpetual peace, by bringing all their
differences to be decided before a fenate of wife, dif-
interefted, and able judges: and then, bethought,
it would be no difficult matter to overturn the Otto¬
man empire. The number of thefe powers was to be
15, viz. the Papacy ; the empire of Germany; France,
Spain; Hungary; Great Britain; Bohemia; Lombardy;
Poland; Sweden; Denmark; the Republic of Venice;
the States-General; the Swifs Cantons ; and the Ita¬
lian commonwealth, which was to comprehend the
States of Florence, Genoa, Lucca, Modena, Parma,
Mantua, and Monaco. In order to render the States
equal, the empire was to be giyen to the duke of Ba¬
varia ; the kingdom of Naples to the pope; that of
Sicily to the Venetians; Milan to the duke of Savoy,
who, by this acquilition, was to become king of Lom¬
bardy ; the Auftrian Low Countries were to be added
to the Dutch republic; Franche Compte, Alface, and
the country of Trent, were to be given to the Swifs.
With a view, it Is now thought, of executing this grand
projeft, but under pretence of reducing the exorbitant
power of the Houfe of Auftria, Henry made immenfe
preparations both by fea and land ; but if he realiy
-had fuch a defign, he was prevented by death from
18 A at-
FRA [ 3026 ] FRA
France, attempting to execute it. He was ftabbed in his
^ coach by one Raviliiac, on the 12th of May 1608.
He is mur- On the death of Henry IV. the queen-mother af-
dered. fumed the regency. Raviliiac was executed, after fuf-
fering horrid tortures. It is faid that he made, a con-
feilion, which was fo written by the perfon who took
it down, that not one word of it could ever be read,
and thus his inftigators and accomplices could never
pi be difeovered. The regency, during the mitiority of
Lewis XIII. Lewis XIII. was only remarkable for cabals and in¬
trigues of the courtiers. In 1617, the king aflumed
the government himfelf, banilhed the queen-mother
to Blois, and caufed her favourite tnarfhal d’Ancre to
be killed. In 1620, a new war broke out between
the Catholics and Proteftants, which was carried on
with the greateft fury on both tides; and we may
judge of the fpirit which aftuated both parties, by
what happened at Negrepliffe a town in Quercy. This
place was befieged by the king’s troops, and it was
vefolved to make an example of the inhabitants. The
latter, however, abfolutely refufed to furrender upon
any terms. They defended themfelves, therefore, motl
defperately ; and'the city being at laft taken by ftorm,
they were all maffacred, without refpeft of rank, fex,
or age, except ten men. When thefe were brought
into the king’s prefence, he told them they did not
deferve mercy : they anfwered, that they would not
receive it ; that the only favour they alked, was to be
hanged on trees in their own gardens; which was
granted, and the place reduced to afhes. Both par¬
ties foon became weary of fuch a deftruftive war; and
a peace was concluded in 1621, by which the edi& of
Nantes was confirmed. This treaty, however, was of no
long duration. A new war broke out which lafted till
the year 1628, when the edi& of Nantes was again con¬
firmed, only the Proteftants were deprived of all their
cautionary towns, and confequently of the power of de¬
fending themfelves in time to come. The next year, the
king was attacked with a flow fever which nothing
could allay, an extreme depreffion of fpirits, and a fur-
prifingfwellinginhis ftomach and belly. The year after,
however, he recovered, to the great difappointment of
his mother, who had been in hopes of regaining her
power. She was arrefted ; but found means to efcape
into Flanders, where fhe remained during the reft of this
reign. The king died in 1643, having carried on a
J3, long war with Spain with indifferent fuccefs.
Lewis XIV. Lewis XIV. furnamed Le Grand, fucceeded to the
throne when he was only five years of age. During
his minority, the cardinal Mazarine, to whom the ad-
miniftration was wholly intrufted, procured a revoca¬
tion of the edift of Nantes, and rendered the govern¬
ment abfolute. This monarch brought the glory of
France to the higheft pitch, for which he was indebted
to the famous generals who commanded his armies,
the vifeount Turrenne, the prince of Conde, &c. ; an
account of whofe exploits is given under the articles
Spain, Germany, Italy, Provinces, &c.
At laft the immeafurable ambition of Lewis occa-
fioned a general confederacy of the ftates of Europe
againft him. At the head of this confederacy was
William III. king of England ; but as long'as he had
the command of the allied army, the arms of Lewis
proved fuccefsful. On his death, the war was renewed ;
and the allies, under the command of the duke of Marl¬
borough and prince Eugene, reduced France to the France. I
loweft ebb*. When the Britifti forces were with-
drawn, it became neceffary for the other contending * ?ee B,‘‘*
powers to conclude a peace ; which was done at
recht, in 1713.
Lewis XIV. died on the 1 ft of September 1715; and Lewfs3XY
was fucceeded by his fon Lewis XV. at that time only fix and XVI.
years of age. He maintained two bloody wars with
Great Britain, an account of which is given under the
article Britain. After a reign of 59 years, he died
in 1774 ; and was fucceeded by his fon Lewis XVI.
the prefent king of France.
The kingdom of France, according to Mr Tempi - Divifitn of
man, is divided into the following provinces. the king-
.—t..,* •t-'i-.... '   ;   dom.
[Countries Names.
jOrleannois
Guienne
jGafcoigne
[Languedoc
'Lyonnois
Champagne
Bretagne
Normandy
Provence
Burgundy
Dauphine
Ifle of France
French Compte
Picardy
Roufillon
Total
Square
miles.
22,050.:
12,800!:
8.800
‘3.175
1 2,500
10,000
9,100
8.200
6.800
6,700
5,820
5.200
4,000
3.650
1,400
3‘.Q95
. Chief Cities.
301 80 Orleans
Bourdeaux
Aux or Augh
Thoulcufe
Lyons
Rheims
85
92
86
9°
85
60
87
50 44
Rouen
Aix
Dijon
Grenoble
5 N. Lnt. 4R. ;o.
? E. Loo. i-i.5.
Befangon
Amiens
Perpignan
To thefe may be added feveral fine provinces,
which, fince the Reformation, have been annexed to
this overgrown kingdom by marriage, purchafe, or
conqueft, viz. part of the Netherlands, which will be
found under the article Netherlands ; the duchy of
Lorrain ; the countries of Alface, Lower Navarre,
and the ifland of Corfica : but the city of Avignon,
with the Venaiffin, was, in 1774, ceded to the pope. 9S |
The air is pure, healthy, »r,d temperate. The king- ciimatei
dom is fo happily feated in the middle of the temperate foil, inha-
zone, that fome make it equal to Italy, with regard to'°i<ants, &cd
the delightfulnefs of the landlkips, and the fertility of
the foil : however, it is certainly much more healthful.
The foil produces corn, wine, oil, and flax, in great
abundance; and they have very large manufa&ures of
linen, woollen, filk, and lace. They have a foreign
trade to Spain, Italy, Turkey, and to the Eaft and
Weft Indies. They themfelves reckon that the number
of the inhabitants is 20,000,000. This kingdom con¬
tains 21 univerfities; 18 archbiftiopricks; 12 parlia¬
ments; 12 boards of accounts; 12 courts of aids;
2 courts, and 30 mints, for coining money ; 2 fupreme
councils, befides the grand council; and 31 gover¬
nors. The king has the title of TIL/? Chriflian; and
is an abfolute prince, to whom his fubje&s are ex¬
tremely devoted, though he rule them ever fo fevtre-
ly. The politenefs of the inhabitants is well known ;
but moft people think them too ceremonious. In ge¬
neral, they are men of bright parts; and have fo high
an opinion of thendelves, that they look upon other
nations.
FRA
f 3127 ]
FRA
France nations with contempt: however, they are of a very the fundamental laws of the empire. The emperor is Francfort
Francia.
1 other country in Europe; for which reafon they are ge- not admit of the folemnities proper to the occafion. It
nerally poor, though they might certainly be very is feated in a fine fertile plain, in E. Long. 8. 40. N.
rich, if they could let their neighbours live in quiet, Lat. 49. 55.
without attempting continually to enlarge their domi- Francfort, on the Oder, a rich and handfome
nions. They are. fuch ill obfervers of treaties, that town of Germany, in the middle Marche of Bran-
French faith is now become a proverb; for they are denburg, formerly imperial, but now fubjedl to the
bound by no ties, and never fail beginning a war when king of Pruffia. E. Long. 15.0. N. Lat. 52. 20.
they think it is for their advantage. The king’s revenue FRANCHE-compte, a province of France, bound-
is large, his army very numerous, and he has [ 0,000 ed on the fouth and weft by Champagne and Burgun-
men always about his perfon. The kingdom is water- dy ; on the north by Lorrain ; and to the eaft by the
ed by a great number of rivers; of which the four prin- earldom of Mumplegard, and Switzerland. It is in
cipal are, the Loire, the Seine, the Rhone, and the length from north to fouth about 30 leagues, in breadth
Garonne, or Gironde. The parliaments have little or about 20. It is partly flat and partly hilly. The
no (hare in the government; and their bufinefs now is, flat country is fruitful in grain, wine, hemp, and pa-
to pafs the arrets or laws which the king is pleafed to fture ; and the hilly country abounds in cattle, produ-
fend them : however, they do not always pay a blind cing alfo fome wine and corn, copper, lead, iron, and
obedience to the king, for we have recent inftances of filverores, mineral waters, and quarries of ftone, marble,
their making a noble ftand. Yn civil caufes thefe par- and alabafter.
liamentsare ftill the laft refort, provided the court does FRANCHISE, in law. Franchife and liberty are
not interpofe;. That of Paris is the moft confiderable, ufed as fynonymous terms ; anti their definition is, “ a 23
where the king often comes in perfon to fee his royal royal privilege, or branch of the king’s prerogative, G
a£ts recorded. It confifts of the dukes and peers of fubfifting in the hands of a fubjeft.” Being therefore
France, befides the ordinary members, who purchafe derived from the crown, they muft arife from the king’s
their places ; and they only take cognizance of caufes grant; or, in fome cafes, may be held by preferip-
belonging to the crown. The revenues of the crown tion, which, as has been frequently faid, prefuppofes
arife from the taille or land-tax, and the aids which a grant. The kinds of them are various, and almoft
proceed from the cuftoms and duties on all merchan- infinite. We fhall here briefly touch upon fome of the
dize except fait, for the tax upon that commodity is principal; pre'mifing only, that they may be veiled in
called the gabelles : befides thefe, there are other taxes; either natural perfons or bodies-politic ; in one man, or
as, the capitation or poll-tax; the tenths of all eftates, in many : but the fame identical franchife, that has be-r
offices, and emplayments; befides the 15th penny, fore been granted to one, cannot be bellowed on ano-
from which neither the nobility nor clergy are exempt- ther, for that would prejudice the former grant,
ed. Add to thefe, the tenths and free-gifts of the To be a county-palatine, is a franchife veiled in a
clergy, who are allowed to tax themfelves; and laftly, number of perfons. It is likewife a franchife for a
crown-rents, fines, and forfeitures, which bring in a number of perfons to be incorporated and fubfift as a
confiderable fum. All thefe are faid to amount to body politic; with a power to maintain perpetual fuc-
15,000,000 Sterling a-year. But the king has other ceffion, and do other corporate adls: and each indivi-
refources and ways of railing money, whenever necef- dual member of fuch corporation is alfo faid to have a
fity obliges him. The army, in time of peace, is faid franchife or freedom. Other franchifes are, to hold a
to confift of 200,000 men, and in time of war of court leet: to have a manor or lordihip; or, at leaft,
400,000 ; among which are many Swifs, Germans, to have a lordihip paramount: to have waifs, wrecks,
Scots, Irifn, Swedes, and Danes. There is no reli-
gien allowed in France but the Roman Catholic, ever
fince the revocation of the editl of Nantz, in 1685 ;
though they are not fo devoted to the Pope as other
nations of that communion, nor have they any inquifi-
tion among them.
France, the Ife of a province of France, fo called,
becaufe it was formerly bounded by the river Seine,
Marne, Oife, Aifne, and Ourque. It comprehends.
eilrays, treafure-trove, royal fiih, forfeitures, anddeo-
dands: to have a court of one’s own, or liberty of
holding pleas and trying caufes : to have the cogni¬
zance of pleas; which is a ftill greater liberty, being
an exclufive right, fo that no other court fhall try cau¬
fes arifing within that jurifdiclion: to have a bailiwick,
or liberty exempt from the fheriff of the county; where¬
in the grantee only, and his officers, are to execute all
procefs: to have a fair or market; with the right of ta-
befides Paris, the Beauvofis, the Valcis, the county of king toll, either there or at any other public places^as
Senlis, the Vexin, the Hurepois, the Gatinois, the
Multien, the Goele, and the Mantois. Paris is the ca¬
pital.
FRANCESCA (Peter), an eminentFlorentine paint
at bridges, wharfs, or the like ; which tolls muft have
a reafonable caufe of commencement, (as in confide-
ration of repairs, or the like), elfe the franchife is ille¬
gal and void,: or laftly, to have a foreft, chafe, park,
• of night-pieces and battles, was employed to paint warren, or fifhery, endowed with privileges of royalty,
the Vatican. He drew feveral portraits, and wrote on See Chase, Forest, &c.
arithmetic and geometry : he died in 1458.
FRANCFORT on the Main, an Imperial and
FRANCIA (Francefia), a celebrated Bolognefe
painter, born in 1450. He was firft a goldfmith or
Hanfeatic town of Franconia in Germany. It is a hand- jeweller, afterwards a graver of coins and medals ; but
fome, ftrong, and rich place, and has a great deal of applying at laft to painting, obtained great reputation
commerce, hut is built after the ancient tafte. Here by his works, particularly by a piece of St Sebaftian,
the golden bull is preferved, which is the original of whom he had drawn bound to a tree with his hands
18 A 3 tied
FRA [ 31
Francis tied over his head. He pined himfelf Into a confump-
ffl tion, by defpairing to equal Raphael; and died in 1518.
Franfc‘ _ VRANCIS I. king of France, the rival of the em¬
peror Charles V. and the reftorer of learning and po-
litenefs in France. See (HiJIory of) France.
Francis of AfJifi (St), founder of the Francifcan
friars, was born at Affifi in Italy in 1181. One of the
mod extraordinary things told of St Francis of Affifi
is, that Jefus Chrift imprinted on him the marks of
his five wounds; and there is a feftival in memory of
thofe holy prints, and an office for it. His preaching
to the fifties to make them Chriftians, and his conver-
iion of millions of them, is famous; as is his mercy to
worms and lice. The order he founded, and which
bears his name, was approved by Innocent III. in 1215,
and confirmed by Honorius III. in 1223. It has fince
branched into feveral others, as Minims, Rieolets, Ca¬
puchins, &c. called in Roman-Catholic countries,
Fratres Minores.
FRANCISCAN monks, Friars Minor, or Grey-
Friars; religious of the order of St Francis, founded
by him in the year 1209. See Francis of Ajffi.
The rule of the Francifcans, as eftablifhed by St Fran¬
cis himfelf, is briefly this: they are to live in common,
to obferve chaftity, and to pay obedience to the pope
and their fuperiors.
Before they can be admitted into the order, they
are obliged to fell all they have, and give it to the
poor: they are to perform a year’s noviciate ; and,
when admitted, never to quit the order upon any ac¬
count. They are to fail from the feaft of All-faints,
to the Nativity. This order has produced four popes,
42 cardinals, and an infinite number of patriarchs.
FRANCONIA, a circle of the German empire,
lying between Bohemia on the eaft, and the eledlo-
rate of Mentz on the weft. Its capital is Nuremburg ;
and from this country the Franks, who conquered and
gave name to the kingdom of France, are faid to have
come.
FRANGULA, in botany. See Rhamnus.
FRANK language, Lingua Franca, a kind of
jargon fpoken on the Mediterranean, and particularly
throughout the coafts and parts of the Levant, com-
pofed of Italian, Spanifti, French, vulgar Greek, and
other languages.
Frank, or Franc, an ancient coin, either of gold
or filver, ftruck and current in France. The value of
the gold franc was fomething more than that of the
gold crown ; the filver franc was a third of the gold
one : this coin is long out of ufe, tho’ the term is ftill
retained as the name of a money of account; in which
fenfe it is equivalent to the.livre, or 20 fols.
Frank, or Franc, meaning literally free from
charges and impofitions, or exempt from public taxes,
has various fignifications in the ancient Englifti cuftoms.
Frank Abnoigne, {libera eleemofyna}, or “ free
alms a tenure of a fpiritual nature, whereby a re¬
ligious corporation, aggregate or foie, holdeth lands
of the donor to them and their fucceflbrs forever. The
fervice which they were bound to render for thefe
lands was not certainly defined : but only in general to
pray for the fouls of the donor and his heirs, dead or
alive; and therefore they did no fealty, (which is in¬
cident to all other fervices but this), becaufe this divine
fervice was of a higher and more exalted nat ure. This
28 ] FRA
is the tenure by which almoft all the ancient monafte- Fr311
ries and religious houfes held their lands; and by
which the parochial clergy, and very many ecclefiafti-
cal and eleemofynary foundations hold them at this
day ; the nature of the fervice being upon the reforma¬
tion altered, and made conformable to the purer doc¬
trines of the church of England. It was an old Saxon
tenure ; and continued under the Norman revolution,
through the great refpedl that was (hewn to religion
and religious men in ancient times. This is alfo the
reafon that tenants in frankalmoign were difeharged of
all other fervices except the trinoda necefitas, of repair¬
ing the highways, building caftles, and repelling inva-
fions ; juft as the druids, among the ancient Britons,
had omnium rerum immunitatern. And even at pre-
fent, this is a tenure of a very different nature from all
others; being not in the leaft feoda!, but merely fpi¬
ritual. For, if the fervice be negle&ed, the law gives
no remedy by diftrefs, or otherwife, to the lord of
whom the lands are holden ; but merely a complaint to
the ordinary or vifitor to correft it.
FranK-C/tare is defined to be a liberty of free chace,
whereby perfons that have lands within the compafs of
the fame, are prohibited to cut down any wood, &c.
out of the view of the forefter.
FRANK-FVe, fignifies the fame thing as holding
lands and tenements in fee-fimple; that is, to any
perfon and his heirs, and not by fuch fervice as is re¬
quired by ancient demefne, but is pleaded at common
law. See Fee.
Frank-Zato, a word applied to the free and com¬
mon law of the land, or the benefit a perfon has
by it.
He that for any offence lofeth this frank-law, incurs
thefe inconveniencies, viz. He may not be permitted
to ferve on juries, nor ufed as an evidence to the
truth ; and if he has any thing to do in the king’s
court, he muft not approach it in perfon, but appoint
his attorney ; his lands, goods, and chattels, (hall be
feized into the king’s lands; and his lands be eftrea-
ted, his trees rooted up, and his body committed to
cullody.
Y^kvi^-Marriage, in law, is where tenements are
given by one man to another, together with a wife,
who is the daughter or coufin to the donor, to hold in.
frank-marriage. By fuch gift, though nothing but
the word frank-ntarriage is expreffed, the donees (hall
have the tenements to them, and the heirs of their two
bodies begotten ; that is, they are tenants in fpecial
tail. For this one word, frankmarriage, denotes, ex vi
termini, not only an inheritance, like the word frank-
almoigne, but likewife limits that inheritance ; fupply-
ing, not only words of defeent, but of procreation al¬
fo. Such donees in frank-marriage are liable to no
fervice but fealty ; for a rent referved therein is void
until the' fourth degree of confanguinity be paft be¬
tween the iffues of the donor and donee.
Pledge, law, fignifies a pledge or furety for
the behaviour of freemen.
According to the ancient cuftomof England, for the
prefervation of the public peace, every free-born man,
at the age of fourteen, except religious perfons, clerks,
knights, and their eldeft Tons, was obliged to give fe-
curity for his truth and behaviour towards the king and
his fubje&a, or elfe be imprifoned. Accordingly,, a
certain
FRA
Franked certain number of neighbours became interchangeably
II bound for each other, to ice each perfon of their pledge
Frarik5, forthcoming at all times, or to anfwer for the offence
of any one gone away : fo that whenever any perfon
offended, it was prefently inquired in what pledge he
was, and there the perfons bound either produced the
offender in 3 r days, or made fatisfa&ion for his of¬
fence.
Frank Tenement. See Tenure.
FRANKED letters. The privilege of letters
coming free of portage, to and from members of par¬
liament was claimed by the houfe of commons in t66o,
when the firft legal fettlement of the prefent poft-office
was made ; but afterwards dropped, upon a private af-
furance from the crown, that this privilege fhould be
allowed the members. And accordingly a warrant was
conftantly iffued to the poftmafter-general, directing
the allowance thereof to the extent of two ounces in
weight: till at length it was exprefsly confirmed by
4 Geo. III. c. 24. which adds many new regulations,
rendered neceffary by the great abufes crept into the
practice of franking; whereby the annual amount of
franked letters had increafed from L. 23,600 in the
year 1715, to L. 170,700 in the year 1763.
FRANKEN (Francifcus), commonly called Old
Frank, a famous Flemifh painter, fuppofed to have
been born about the year 1544: but tho’ his works
are well known, very few of the arcumftances of his
life have been tranfmitted to pofterity. This mafter
painted hiftorical fubjefts from the Old and New Te-
ftaments ; and wTas remarkable for introducing a great
number of figures into his compofitions, which he had
the addrefs to groupe very diftindtly. Vandyck often
commended his works, and thought them worthy of a
place in any colleftion.
Franken (Francifcus), diftinguifhed by the name
of Voting Frank, was the fon of the former, born in the
year 1580.. He w'as inftru&edFy his father ; whofe
ftyle he adopted fo clofely, that their works are fre¬
quently miftaken. When he found himfelf fufficiently
fkilled at home, he travelled into Italy for improve¬
ment in colouring ; and, on his return, his works were
much coveted. The moft capital performance of this
painter are, a fcriptural performance in the church of
Notre-dame at Antwerp ; and an excellent picture, in a
fmall fize, of Solomon’s idolatry. Young Frank died
in 1642.
FRANKENDAL, a ftrong town of Germany, in
the dominions of the Ele6tor Palatine. It was taken
by the Spaniards in 1623, by the Swedes in 1632, and
burnt by the French in 1688. E. Long. 8. 29. N.
Lat. 49. 28.
FRANKINCENSE. See Incense.
FRANKS, Frankis, or Franquis, an appellation
given by the Turks, and other nations of Afia, to all
the people of the weftern parts of Europe, to which
they give the name of Frankijlan.
Frank, or Frenc, primarily denotes a Frenchman ;
and, by extenfion, an European, becaufe, according
to fome, the French dirtinguifhed themfelves above the
* See other nations engaged in the holy war *. But Fa.
Cro'fade. Goar, in his notes on Codinus, cap. v. n. 43. fur-
nifites another origin of the appellation Frank, of grea¬
ter antiquity than the former.—He obferves, that the
Greeks at Erll confined the name to the Franei, i. e, the
FRA
German nations, who had fettled themfeJves in France Frafcatl
or Gaul: but afterwards they gave the fame name to II
the Apulians and Calabrians, after they had been con- Fr3‘lt*‘
quered by the Normans; and at length the name was
further extended to all the Latins. In this fenfe, is
the word ufed by divers Greek writers; as Comnenus,
&c. who, to diftinguifh the French, call them the
nuejlern Franks.
Du Cange adds, that about the time of Charle¬
magne, they diftinguifhed—eaftern France; weftern
France; Latin, or Roman, France; and German
France, which was the ancient France, afterwards call¬
ed Franconia.
FRASCATI, a handfome town of Italy, feated
near the fame fpot with the Tufculum of Cicero. Here
are a great number of magnificent palaces and delight¬
ful gardens. E. Long. 11. 43. N. Lat. 41.48.
FRATERNITY, in the Roman Catholic coun¬
tries, fignifies a fociety for the improvement of devo¬
tion.
Of thefe there are feveral forts ; as, r. The frater¬
nity of the rofary, founded by St Dominic. It is di¬
vided into two branches, called the common rofary,
and the perpetual rofary; the former of whom arc
obliged to confefs and communicate every firft Sunday
in the month, and the latter to repeat the rofary con¬
tinually, See Rosary.
2. The fraternity of the fcapulary, whom the blefs-
ed Virgin, according to the fabbatin bull of pope
John XXII. has promifed to deliver out of hell the
firft Sunday after their death. See Scapulary.
3. The fraternity of St Francis’s girdle, are cloath-
ed with a fackpf a grey colour, which they tie with a
cord; and, in proceffions, walk bare-footed, carrying
in their hands a wooden crofs.
4. That of St Auftin’s leathern girdle, compre¬
hends a great many devotees.
Italy, Spain, and Portugal, are the countries
where one fees the greateft number of thefe frater¬
nities, fome of which aflume the name of arch-frater¬
nities. Pope Clement VII. inftituted the arch-fra¬
ternity of charity, which diftributes bread every Sun¬
day among the poor, and gives portions to 40 poor
girls on the feaft of St Jerom their patron. The fra¬
ternity of death, buries Inch dead as are abandoned by
their relations, and caufes maffes to be celebrated for
them.
FRATRICELLI, little brothers, in church-
hiftory, a fed of heretics who appeared in Italy about
the year 1298, and afterwards fpread all over Europe.
They wore the habit of the Francifcan order, and pre¬
tended that ecclefiaftics ought to have no poffefiions of
their own.
FRATRIAGE, the partition among brothers or
coheirs, coming to the fame inheritance or fucceffion.
FRATRES arvales. See Arvales.
FRATRICIDE, the crime of murdering one’s
brother. See Parricide.
FRAUD, in htw, fignifies deceit in grants, or con¬
veyances of lands, &c. or in bargains and fales of
goods, &c. to the damage of another perfon.
A fraudulent conveyance of lands or goods to de¬
ceive creditors, as to creditors is void in Taw. And a
fraudulent conveyance in order to defraud purchafers,
is alfo to fuch purchafers void ; and the perfons jufti-
fying
I 3129 ]
F R E [ 3130 ] F R E
Fmiftadt fylng or putting off fucb grants as good, (hall forfeit
11 a year’s value of the lands, and the full value of the
goods and chaUels, and likewife (hall be imprifon-
ed. See Cheating.
FRAUSTADT, a town of Silefia, on the fron¬
tiers of Poland, remarkable for a battle gained by the
Swedes over the Saxons in 1706. E. Long. 15. 50.
N. Lat. 51. 45.
FRAXINUS, the Ash ; a genus of the dioecia
order, belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants.
There are fix fpeeies ; of which the mod ufeful is the
common afh, which is fo well known, that it needs no
defcnption. If a wood of thefe trees is rightly mana¬
ged, tt will turn greatly to the advantage of the owner;
for, by the underwood, which will be fit to cut every
eight or ten years, there will be a continual income,
more than fufficient to pay the rent of the ground and
all other charges; and (till there will be a (lock pre-
ferved for timber, which in a few years will be worth
40s. or 50s. per tree. This tree flourifiies bed in
groves, but grows very well in rich foil in open fields.
It bears transplanting and lopping. In the north of
Lancafhire they lop the tops of thefe trees to feed the
cattle in autumn when the grafs is on the decline; the
cattle peeling off the bark as food. The wood hath
the fingnlar property of being nearly as good when
young as when old. It is hard and tough, and is much
ufed to make the tools employed in hufbandry. The
a(hes of the wood afford very good potaff. The bark
is ufed in tanning calf-fldn. A flight infufion of it
appears of a pale yellowifh colour when viewed betwixt
the eye and the light; but when looked down upon,
or placed betwixt the eye and an opake objeft, appears
blue. This bluenefs is deftroyed by the addition of an
acid, but recovered by alkalies. The feeds are acrid
and bitter. In the church-yard of Lochaber in Scot¬
land, Dr Walker meafured the trunk of a dead afh-tree,
which at five feet from the furface of the ground was
58 feet in circumference.—Horfes, cows, (heep, and
goats eat it; but it fpoils the milk of cows, fo that it
(hould not be planted in dairy farms.
FRAY, among fportfmen. A deer is faid to fray
its head, when it rubs it againft a tree, to caufe the
pills of the new horns to come off.
FREAM, a name given by farmers to ploughed lands
worn out of heart, and laid fallow till it recover.
FRECKLES, lentigines, fpots of a yellowiflt co¬
lour, of the bignefs of a lentile-feed, fcattered ewer the
face, neck, and hands. Freckles are either natural, or
proceeding accidentally from the jaundice, or the ac¬
tion of the fun upon the part. Heat, or a fudden
change of the weather, will often caufe the (kin to ap¬
pear of a darker colour than natural; and thereby pro¬
duce what is called tan, funburn, and morphe'w, which
feem to differ only in degree; and ufually difappear in
winter.
Perfons of a fine complexion, and fuch whofe hair
is red, are the mod fubjedl to freckles, efpecially in
thofe parts which they expofe to the air.
To remove freckles, put juice of lemons in a glafs-
vial, and, mixing it with fugar and borax finely powder¬
ed, let it digeft eight days, and then ufe it. Hom-
berg propofes bullock’s gall mixed with alum, and,
after the alum has precipitated, expofed three or four
months to the fun in a clofe vial, as one of the bed re¬
medies known for the removing of freckles. Fredberg
FREDBERG, a rich, ffrong, and fine town of Ger- II
many, in Mifnia, remarkable for its mines, and for be- rree'
ing the burying place of the princes of the houfe of
Saxony. It is a delightful place, feated on the river
Multa. E. Long. 13. 40. N. Lat. 51. 2
FREDERICA, a town of North America, in Geor¬
gia, feated at the mouth of the river Alatamaha, lately
built and fortified by general Oglethorpe. Theifland
it dands upon is called St Simon’s', and is about 13
miles in length, and 4 in breadth. W Long. 81. 35.
N. Lat. 31.6.
FREDERICKSBURG, a fort and eolefny of Bran¬
denburg, on the gold-coad of Guinea, in Africa, near
Cape Three-points, and about 75 miles from Cape
Coad. It mounts 46 pieces of cannon on four batte¬
ries; and formerly belonged to the Pruflians, but is now
fubjeft to Denmark. W. j_,on. 1. 15. N. Lat. 4. 30.
FREDER1CKSHALL, or Fredericktadt, a
drong town of Norway, in the prefefture of Agerhuys,
where Charles XII. king of Sweden was killed by a
mu(ket-ball in 1718, when he was befieging this town.
It is feated on the coad of the Catagate, in E. Long.
10 45. N. Lat. 59. 2.
FREDER1CKSGDE, a town of Denmark, in Jut¬
land, taken by the Swedes in 1657, but now fubjedl
to Denmark. It is feated near the fea,. in E. Long.
10. o. N. Lat. 55. 42.
FREDERICKS FADT, a town of Denmark, in
South Jutland, built in 1621. It is feated on the ri¬
ver Eyder, in E. Long. 9. 23. N. Lat. 54. 32.
Frederickstadt, a town of Norway, in the pro¬
vince of Agerhuys, feated on a bay of the fea, near the
frontiers of Sweden, in E. Long. 11. 6. N. Lat. 59.
FREE, in a general frnfe, is ufed in oppofition to
whatever is condrained or neceffitated. When applied
to things endowed with underftanding, it more pecu¬
liarly relates to the liberty of the will.
FREE-Z?ewA fignifies that edatein copy-hold which
the wife, being efpoufed a virgin, has after the deceafc
of her hufband for her dower, according to the cultom
of the manor.
In regard to this frce-bench, different manors have
different cudoms : and in the manor of ead and wed
Enbourne in the county of Berks, and in other parts
of England, there is a cudom, that when a copyhold
tenant dies, the widow (hall have her free-bench in all
the deceafed hulband’s lands, dum fola it cajia fuerit,
“ whild (he lives (ingle and chade;” but if (he is found
to be guilty of incontirtency, (he (hall forfeit her ettate.
Neverthelefs, upon her coming into the court of the
manor riding backwards on a black ram, with his tail
in her hand, rehearfing a certain form of words, the
deward is bound by cudom to redore her to her free-
bench. The words are,
Here I am.
Riding on a black Ram,
Like a whore as I am ;
And for my crincum crancum
Have loft my hincum bancum.
And for my tail’s game
Have done this worldly fhame :
Therefore, pray, Mr Steward, let me have my land again.
Free Fi/hery. See /Vre-FisHERY.
Free Warren. See Warren.
Free-
F R E [3.
Fite FREE-^/i/, fignifies lands or tenements which a
„ II perfon holds in fee-fimple, fee-tail, or for term of life.
Freedom, f, , m r
 bee Fee and Iail.
Free-5/cw, a whitifh ftone, dug up in many parts
of Britain, that works like alabafter, but is more hard
and durable; being of excellent ufe in building, &c.
It is a kind of the grit ftone, but finer fanded, and
fmoother ; and is called free, from its being of fuch a
conftitution as to cut freely in any dire&ion.
The qualities of the feveral kinds of free-ftones ufed
in the difterent parts of Europe are very different.
They all agree in this general property indeed, that
they are fofter while in the quarry, than when they
have been fome time expofed to the air: but even this
general property differs greatly in degree. They have a
fort of grey free-ftone in ufirst Paris, (of which we do
not yet feem to have met wifh any in this country,)
which has the abovementioned quality in fo great a
degree, that the expence of working it is in a great
meafure faved.
This ftone lies every-where on the fouth-fide of the
river Seine, and is of a coarfe and large grit. It is fo
foft when newly taken out of the ftrata, that they fa-
fhion it very conveniently with a fort of broad ax, and
form as many ftones for building in this manner in
an hour, as an equal number of our people do in a day
<fr two. Though this ftone is as foft as dry clay when
firft taken up, it is found to harden fo confiderably in
the air, that it becomes more than equal to our ordi¬
nary free-ftone.
Our Portland ftone of the fineft kind, which is white,
and of a clofe grit, is very fit for hewing and carving;
but it will neither refill water nor fire, which is a very
lingular inftance in fo denfe a ftone; while the free-
flone of Kent, which is lefs beautiful to the eye, and is
of a greyilh colour, and confiderably clofe, though of
a larger grain, refills the air and water very well.
The free-ftone of Derbylhire, on the other hand, is
fo brittle as to be unfit for any fine working; and fo
coarfe and open in its texture, that it lets water thro’:
yet it bears the fire extremely well, and is fit for ovens,
hearths, &.c,
FREEBOOTER, or Flibuster, a name given to
the pirates who fcour the American feas, particularly
fuch as make war againft the Spaniards. See Buca-
neer.
The French call them ftibujlers, deducing the word
from the Englilh ftibote, or flybote; by reafon the firft
adventurers of this kind were the people of St Domin¬
go, who made their excursions with flybotes, which
they had taken from the Englilh.
FREEDOM, in general, the Hate or quality of be¬
ing free. See Liberty.
Freedom of a Corporation, the right of enjoying all
the privileges and immunities belonging to it. See
Corporation.
The freedom of cities, and other corporations, is re¬
gularly obtained by fe.ving an apprenticelhip; but it
is alfo purchaful with money, and fometimes conferred
by way of compliment.
Freedom of Confcience. See Toleration.
Freedom of fbe Will, that power or faculty of the
f flee Mr- ir,,n^» whereby it is capable of adding or not adding,
taphyfia, choofing or rejefting whatever it judges proper-}-. Of
a0 j8 8c. this every man mull be fenfible, who finds in himfelf a
31 ] F R E
power to begin or forbear, continue or end feveral ac- Freeze
tions, barely by a thought or preference of the mind. 11
FREEZE, or Frieze, prize, in commerce, a coarfe rcin ‘
kind of woollen.ftuff, or cloth, for winter wear; fo
called, as being freezed or naped on each fide f. ^ gee Fri-
FREEZING, in philofophy, the fame with conge- zing.
lation. See Congelation and Frost.
Freezing Rain, or Raining Ice, a very uncommon
kind of fhower, which fell in the weft of England, in
December 1672 ; whereof we have divers accounts in
the Philofophical Tranfa&ions.
This rain, as foon as it touched any thing above
ground, as a bough or the like, immediately fettled
into ice ; and by multiplying and enlarging the icicles,
broke ail down with its weight. The rain that fell on
the fnow, immediately froze into ice, without finking
in the fnow at all.
It made an incredible deftrudlion of trees, beyond
any thing in all hiftory. “ Had it concluded with fome
guft of wind, (fays a gentleman on the fpot), it might
have been of terrible confequence.
“ I weighed the fprig of an afti tree, of juft three
quarters of a pound; the ice on which weighed 16
pounds. Some w-ere frighted with the noife in the air ;
till they difeerned it was the clatter of icy boughs,
daftied againft each other.” Dr Beale obferves, that
there was no confiderable fioft obferved on the ground
during the whole ; whence he concludes, that a froft
may be very iutenfe and dangerous on the tops of fome
hills, and plains ; while in other places it keeps at two,
three, or four foot diftance above the ground, rivers,
lakes, &c. and may wander about very furious in forae
places, and remifs in others not far off. The froft was
followed by glowing beats, and a wonderful forward-
nefs of flowers and fruits. See Frost.
FREIGHT, in navigation and commerce, the hire
of a (hip, or a part thereof, for the conveyance and
carriage of goods from one port or place to another;
or the him agreed on between the owner and the mer¬
chant, for the hire and ufe of a veffel. See Maritime
Laws.
FRElND (John), a mod learned Englifti phyfi-
cian and writer in the 1 8th century, was born at Croton,
Northamptonftiire, in 1675. *696, he pnbliftied, in
in conjun&ion with Mr P. Foulkes, an edition of two
Greek orations, one of fEichines againft Ctefiphon,
and the other of Demofthenes de Corona, with a new
Latin verfion. In 1699, he wrote a letter to Dr Sloane
concerning an Hydrocephalus, publiftied in the Philo-
lofophical Tranfadlions; and another letter in Latin to
the fame gentleman, De fpafmis rarior. hiftoria, print¬
ed in the fame Tran factions. In 1703, his Emmena-
hgia appeared ; which gained him great reputation^
In 1704, he was chofen profeffor of chemiftry in the
univerlity of Oxford. In 1705, he attended the earl
of Peterborough to Spain, as phyfician to the army
there; and upon his return in 1707, publiftied an
account of the earl’s expedition and condudl. In
1709, he publiihed his Chemical Leftures. In 1712,
he attended the duke of Ormond in Flanders, as his
phyfician. In 1716, he was admitted a fellow of the
college o£ phyficians in London. This year he pub¬
liftied the firft and third books of Hippocrates Demor-
bis popularibus, with a Commentary on Fevers, writ¬
ten by himfelf. He fat a member for the borough of
Lou a.-
F R E [ 3132 ] F R E
Freinflie- Launcefton in Cornwall, in 1722, where he diftinguifh-
n ius r,jr u.. u:., r:.. ^
n ms
Frifco
ed himfelf by his oppofition to the adminiftration.
March 1722, he was committed to the tower on a
. charge of high-treafon: and while he was under con¬
finement, he wrote a Latin epiftle to Dr Mead, De
qaibufdam variolarum generibus; and began his Hi-
ftory of Phyfic, the firft part of which was publilhed
in 1725, and the fecond in 1726. Upon the acceffion of
George II. to the throne, he was appointed phyfician
in ordinary to the queen, who fhewed the utmoft re¬
gard and efteem for him. He died at London in 1728.
His works were publilhed together in Latin at Lon¬
don, 1733, in folio, and dedicated to the queen.
FREINSHEMIUS, a learned and elegant author,
born at Ulm in 1608. He made fupplements to Livy,
Tacitus, and Q^Curtius, in 60 books, printed at Straf-
burg in 1654. He wrote likewife Notes upon Q^Cur-
tius. Floras, Tacitus, and fome other Latin authors;
and died in 1660.
FRENCH, in general, fomething belonging to
France: thus we fay, the French language, French
cuftoms, polity, &c.
The French language is made up of Latin, Greek,
Teutonic, and the language fpoken by the old Gauls.
It is natural, and eafily pronounced; and therefore ufed
by moft nations in Europe in converfing with foreign¬
ers. There are very few compound words in French;
which is acknowledged to be its difadvantage. It has
alfo few diminutives: but as to purity, eafinefs, and
flexibility, it yields to none.
FRESCO, a method of painting in relievo on walls,
fo as to endure the weather.
It is performed with water-colours on frefh plafter,
or on a wall laid with mortar not yet dry. This fort
of painting has a great advantage by its incorporating
with the mortar, and, drying along with it, becomes
very durable.
The compoft fhould be made of rubbifli flones mix¬
ed with well-burnt flint, or lime and water: but the
faltncfs of the lime mull be walhed out, by pouring
water frequently on it. But this fhould not be done in
moift weather.
To prevent the plafier from peeling, ftrike into the
joints of the wall flumps of horfe-nails fix inches di-
flant from each other. Firft plafler the walls pretty
thick; then let it dry for fome time, the defign and
colours being firft ready prepared. This painting is
chiefly performed on walls and vaults newly plaftered
with lime and fand ; and the plafter is only to be put
on in proportion as the painting proceeds.
Plafter the wall a fecond time, about the thicknefs
of half a crown, only fo much as you intend to work
upon ; and while it is wet, work the colours therein,
which will incorporate with the plafter fo as never to
wafh out.
The painting muft be worked with a freehand, and
your colours made high enough at firft, as there can be
no alteration made after the firft painting.
In this work fcarce any thing elfe is ufed but earths,
which ftill retain their colour, defending it from the
burning and fait of the lime. The colours are white,
made of lime flacked fome time, and white marble dull,
red and yellow oker, violet red, verditer, lapis lazuli,
fmalt, black Spanifh brown, Spanifh white, &c. all
which are grounded and worked up with water.
The brufhes and pencils for this work muft be long
and foft, or elfe they wilt rake and raze the painting:
the colours muft be full and flowing from the brufh,.
and the defign or cartoon muft be perfedt in the paper-
copy.
FRESNOY(Charles Alphonfedu), anexcellent poet
and painter, was born at Paris in i6it. He wasinftruc-
ted there by Perrier and Simon Vouet, but did not long
adhere to Vouet’s manner of colouring; for as foon as
he fixed himfelf at Rome, he made the works of Titian
the models for his imitation. He was, however, more
celebrated as a poet than as a painter; and beftowed
more attention to the theory than to the pradlice of the
pencil. Accordingly, he is better known by his in¬
comparable poem De arte graphica, than by his per¬
formances on the canvas: and on this poem he beftow¬
ed fo much pains, that he died in 1665, before it was
publifhed. It was printed afterward, with a French
profe tranflation and notes, by M. de Piles; and was
tranflated into Englifh by Mr Dryden, who prefixed
to it an original preface containing a parallel between
painting and poetry.
FRET, or Frette, in archite&ure, a kind of knot
or ornament, confifting of two lifts or fmall fillets va-
rioufly interlaced or interwoven, and running at paral¬
lel diflances equal to their breadth.
Fret, in heraldry, a bearing compofed of fix bars,
croffed, and varioufly interlaced. Some call it the true-
lover's knot. See Heraldry.
Fret, in mufic, fignifies a kind of flop on fome in-
ftruments, particularly bafs-viols and lutes. Frets con-
fift of firings tied round the neck of the inflrument, at
certain diftances, within which fuch and fuch notes are
to be found.
Fret /^wL that adorned with frets. It is fome-
times ufed to fill up and enrich flat empty fpaces; but
it is moftly praftifed in roofs, which are fretted over
with plafter work.
FRIABLE, among naturalifts, an appellation gi¬
ven to bodies that a.re eafily crumbled to pieces: fuch
are pumice and all calcined ftones.
FRIAR, a term common to all monks of all orders;
founded on this, that there is a kind of fraternity, or
brotherhood, between the feveral religious perfons of
the fame cohvent or monaftery.
Friars are generally diflinguifhed into thefe four
principal branches, viz. t. Minors, grey friars, or
francifcans. 2. Auguftines. 3. Dominicans, or black
friars. 4. White friars, or Carmelites. From thefe
four the reft of the orders defcend, See Franciscans,
Augustines, &c.
FRIBURG, a large town of Germany, and capital
of Brifgavv; remarkable for the fteeple of the great
church, which, next to that of Strafburg, is the fineft
in Germany; and for its univerfity. The inhabitants
are famous for polifliing cryftal and precious ftones. It
has been feveral times taken and retaken, particularly
by the French in 1744, who demolilhed the fortifica¬
tions. It is fcated on the river Trifer, ten miles eaft
of Brifach, and 30 fouth of Strafhurgh. E. Long.
7. 57. N. Lat. 48. 4.
Friburg, a town of Swifierland, and capital of the
canton of the fame name. The public buildings, Spe¬
cially the cathedral, are very handfome; and the inha¬
bitants are Papifts. It is governed infpirituals by the
biihop
Frefnoy
li
Friburg.
F R I f 3
Friturg bidiop of Laufanne, who refid'es there-; and In tempo*
, | rals by a council, over which an avoyer prefides. Its
ri£ and' fituation is very extraordinary; for only the weftern fide
is near plain ground, and all the relt is built among
rocks and hills. The ftreets are clean and large ; and
it is divided into four parts, the town, the city, the
off-land or meadow, and the hofpital. In 1737, the
powder-magazine, which contained 750 tons of gun¬
powder, was fet on fire by lightning, which did con-
fiderable damage. It is feated on the river Save, in
E. Long. 7. 5. N. Lat. 46. 50.
Frieurg (the canton of), and one of the 13 repub¬
lics of Switzerland. It is furrounded on all fidcs by
the canton of Bern. The land is fertile in corn, fruits,
and pallures; and it is faid the canton can fend 18,000
men into the field.
Friuurg (the hermitage of) ; a celebrated hermi¬
tage in Switzerland, three miles from the city of Fri-
burg. It is cut in a rock; and contains a church and
fteeple, a veftry, a kitchen, a large hall, two rooms on
each fide, two pair of flairs, and a cellar. The church
is 63 feet long, 36 broad, and 22 high. But the
moft wonderful thing of all is the fteeple, which is 70
feet high above the rock. The chimney of the kitchen
is alfo very furprifing, for the paffage up it is 90 feet
in height. This hermitage is faid to have been the
work of one man with his fervant, who were employed
in it 25 years.
FRICENTI, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the farther principato, near
the river Tripalto, in E. Long.. 14. 13. N. Lat. 40.
59-
FRICTION, in mechanics, the rubbing of the parts
of the engines and machines againft each other, by
which means a great part of their effedt is deftroyed.
See Mechanics.
Friction, in medicine. See (the Index fubjoined
to) that article.
FRIDAY, the fixth day of the week; fo named of
Freya, a Saxon deity. By the Romans it was called
dies Veneris. See Day.
Friday. See G<sot>-Friday.
FRIDBURG, an imperial town of Germany, in
Wctteravia. It is feated on a mountain, in E. Long.
8. 50. N. Lat. 50. 14. It was formerly much more
confiderable than at prefent.
FRIDSTOL, mentioned, in our ancient writers, a-
mong the immunities granted to churches, fignifies a
feat, chair, or place of peace and fecurity, where cri¬
minals might find fafety and prote&ion: of thefe there
were many in England; butthe moft famous were that at
Beverly, and that in St Peter’s church at York, grant¬
ed by charter of king Henry I.
FRIENDSHIP, a ftateof mutual good-will, or de-
fire of doing good to each other, betwixt two or more
individuals. See Morals, n° 142, 143.
FRIESLAND, one of the united provinces of the
Low Countries. It is bounded on the eaft by the ri¬
ver Lauvers, which parts it from the lordlhip of Gro¬
ningen, on the fouth by Overyffel, on the weft by
the Zuider-Zee, and on the north by the German o-
cean. It is 30 miles from north to fouth, and 28
from eaft to weft. The land is very fertile in corn-
and pafture, the horfes are large, and the cows and
Iheep prolific. It is divided into three parts; We-
Vol. IV.
33 1 F R I
ftergo to the weft, Oftergo to the eaft, and Seven- Fnoate
walden to the fouth. The iflands of Sheling, Ameland, H
and other fmall ones, are dependent on this province. “ngl l~
The principal towns are Leuwarden the capital, Fra-
neker, Dockum, Harlingen, and Staveren.
Friesland (Eaft), a province of Germany, in the
circle of Weftphalia, lying near the German ocean. It
is bounded on the fouth by the bifhopric of Munfter.
on the eaft by the county of Oldenburg, on the well
by the province of Groningen, and on the north by
the fea. It is about 50 miles in length, and 30 in
breadth, and was formerly ca\\e& the county of Embden.
It is a very fertile country, and feeds a great num¬
ber of cattle; but it was greatly damaged by an in¬
undation in 1717, and the repair of the dykes colt
an immenfe fum. The principal towns are Norden,
Leer, Ellens, Whitmunde, and Aurick. Embden was
an imperial city, and the principal place in the coun¬
try ; but now belongs to the king of Prulfia, who
height it of the Dutch.
FRIGATE, in the navy, a light nimble Ihip built
for the purpofes of failing fwiftly. Thefe veflels mount
from 20 to 38 guns, and are efteemed excellent crui-
zers.
Formerly the name of frigate was only known in
the Mediterranean, and applied to a kind of long vef-
fel navigated in that fea with fails and oars. The
Englifli were the firft who appeared on the ocean with
thofe Ihips, and equipped them for war as well as com*
merce.
FRIGID, is applied to a jejune ftyle, that is unani¬
mated by any ornaments, and confequently without any
force or vigour.
FRIGIDITY, in medicine, the fame with Impo¬
tence.
FRIGORIFIC, in phyfiology, fmall particles of
matter, which, according to Galfendus and others, be¬
ing actually and efientially cold, and penetrating other
bodies, produce in them that quality which we call
cold. See Cold.
FRILL, in falconry. When a hawk trembles, or
fhivers, they fay fhe frills.
FRINGILLA, in ornithology, a genus belonging
to the order of pafieres. The bill is conical, ftraight,
and fliarp-pointed. There are no lefs than 30 fpecies
comprehended under this genus, dilhinguiflied princi¬
pally by varieties in their colour. The following are
natives of Britain.
1. The carduelis, or goldfinch, with the quill- Gold-finch,
feathers red forwards, and the outermoft without any
fpots ; the two outermoft are white in the middle, as
the reft are at the point. The young bird, before it
moults, is grey on the head ; and hence it is termed by
the bird-catchers a grey-pate. There is a variety of
goldfinches called by the London bird-catchers a che-
"jerely from the manner in which it concludes its jerk.
It is diftinguilhed from the common fort by a white
ftreak, or by two, fometimes three, white fpots under
the throat. Their note is very fweet; and they are
much efteemed on that account, as well as for their
reat docility. Towards winter, they aflemble in
ocks; and feed on feeds of different kinds, particular¬
ly thofe of the thiftle. It is fond of orchards, and
frequently builds in an apple or pear tree : its neft is
very elegantly formed of fine mofs, liverworts, and
18 B bents,
F R I [31
Vringil'a. bents, on the outfide ; lined firft with wool and hair,
and then with the gollin or cotton of the fallow. It
laysfive white eggs, marked with deep purple fpotson
the upper end.
This bird feems to have been the xsv,r6y-,TS^ of A-
riftotle ; being the only one that we know of that
could be diftinguifhed by a golden fillet round its head,
feeding on the feeds of prickly plants.
2. The coelebs, or chAffinch, hath black limbs,
and the wings white on both fides ; the three firft fea¬
thers of the tail are without fpots, but two of the chief
are obliquely fpotted. It has its name from its delight¬
ing in chaff.
Chaffinch. This fpecies entertains us agreeably with its fong
very early in the year, but towards the latter end of
fummer aflumes a chirping note: both fexes continue
with us the whole year. What is very lingular in Swe¬
den, the females quit that country in September, mi¬
grating in flocks «nto Holland, leaving their, mates
behind ; in the fpring they return. In Hampfhire Mr
White has obferved fomething of this kind; vaft flocks
of females with fcarcely any males among them. Their
neft is almoft as elegantly conftrufted as that of the
goldfinch, and of much the fame materials, only the
wifide has the addition of fome large feathers. They
lay four or five eggs of a dull white colour, tinged and
fpotted with deep purple.
They are caught in plenty in flight-time ; but their
nefts are rarely found, though they build in hedges and
trees of all forts. They make their nefts of mofs and
wool, or any thing they can gather up; and have
young ones thrice a-year. They are feldom bred from
the neft, as being a bird not apt to learn another’s
fong, nor to whiftle ; fo that it is beft to leave the old
ones to bring them up.
The Eflex finches are generally allowed to be the
beft fort, both for length of fong and variety, ending
with feveral notes that are very pretty. It is an hardy
bird, and will live almoft upon any feeds, none coming
amifs to him. He is feldom fubjedf to difeafe, but will
be very loufy if not fprinkled with wine two or three
times a-month.
3. The domeJUca> or sparrow, hath the prime fea¬
thers of the wings and tail brown, the body variegated
w ith grey and black, and a Angle white ftreak on the
wings.
Sparrow. Thefe birds are proverbially falacious : they breed
early in the fpring; make their nefts under the eaves of
houfes, in holes of walls, and very often in the nefts of
the martin, after expelling the owner. Linnaeus tells
us (a tale from Albertus Magnus), that this infultdoes
not pafs unrevenged : the injured martin aflembles its
companions, who aflift in plaftering up the entrance
with dirt ; then fly away, twittering in triumph, and
leave the invader to perifh miferably. See the article
Brute.
They will often breed in plumb-trees and apple-
trees, in old rooks nefts, and in the forks of boughs
beneath them.
ftlfkiir. 4. The fpinus, or siskin, hath the prime feathers of
the wings yellow in the middle, and the four firft chief
tail-feathers without fpots; but they are yellow at the
bafe, and black at the points.
Mr Willoughby tells us, that this is a fong-bird : that
ta Suffex it is called the barhj{-hird% becaufe it comes
to them in barley-feed time. We are informed that it Fringilla.
vifits thefe iflands at very uncertain times, like the grofs-
beak, &c It is to be met with in the bird-fhops in
London; and being rather a fcarce bird, fells at a high¬
er price than the merit of its fong deferves : it is known
there by the name of the aberdavine. The bird-
catchers have a notion of its coming out of Ruflia. Dr
Kramer informs us, that this bird conceals its neft with
great art; though there are infinite numbers of young
birds in the woods on the banks of the Danube, that
feem juft to have taken flight, yet no one could difeo-
ver it.
5. The linaria, or linnet, hath the bottom of the Linnet. ;
breaft of a fine blood-red, which heightens as the
fpring advances.
Thefe birds are much efteemed for their fong: they
feed on feeds of different kinds, which they peel before
they eat: the feed of the linum or flax is their favou¬
rite food ; from whence the name of the linnet tribe.
They breed among furze and white thorn : the outfide
of .their rteft is made with mofs and bents, and lined
with wmol and hair. They lay five whitifh eggs, fpot¬
ted like thofe of the goldfinch.
6. The cannabina, or red-headed linnet, is lefs
than the former, and hath a blood-coloured fpot on the
forehead.
It is a common fraud in the bird-fliops in London,,
when a male-bird is diftinguiflied from the female by a.
red breaft, as in the cafe of this bird, to ftain or paint
the feathers, fo that the deceit is not eafily difeovered,
without at lead clofe infpe&iou. Thefe birds are fre¬
quent on our fea-coafts ; and are often taken in flight¬
time near London : it is a familiar bird; and is cheer¬
ful in five minutes after it is caught.
7. The canaria, or Canarv-bird, hath a whitifli Canary- I
body and bill, with the prime feathers of the wings-bir<i‘
and tail greenilh. It was originally peculiar to thofe
ifies to which it owes its name; the fame that were:
known to the ancients by the addition of the for¬
tunate. Though the ancients celebrate the ifle of Ca¬
naria for the multitude of birds, they have not men¬
tioned any in particular. It is probable, then, that our
fpecies was not introduced into Europe till after the fe-
cond difeovery of thefe ifles, which was between the
13th and 14th centuries. We are uncertain when it
firft made its appearance in this quarter of the globe..
Belon, who wrote in 1555, is filent in refpe& to thefe
birds : Gefner is the firft who mentions them ; and Al-
drovand fpeaks of them as rarieties; that they were
very dear on account of the difficulty attending the
bringing them from fo diftant a country, and that they
were purchafed by people of rank alone. Olina.fays,
that in his time there was a degenerate fort found on *
the ifle of Elba, off the coaft of Italy, which came
there originally by means of a fhip bound from the Ca¬
naries to Leghorn, and was wrecked on that ifland..
Thefe birds will produce with the goldfinch- and lin¬
net; and the offspring is called a mule-bird, becaufe,
like that animal, it proves barren. They are ftill
found on the fame fpot to which we were.firft indebt¬
ed for the produ£lion of fuch charming fongfters ; but
they are now become fo.numerous in our own coun¬
try, that we are under no neceffity of croffing. the ocean,
for them.
FRIPPERY, a French termfometimes ufed incur
language
F R I [ j,
Fritt language to fignify the trade or traffic of old fecond-
. !i hand clothes and goods. The word is alfo ufed for the
112ln£' place where fuch fort of commerce is carried on, and
even for the commodities themfelves. The company
of frippiers, or fripperers, at Paris, are a regular corpo¬
ration, of an ancient {landing, and make a coniiderable
figure in that city.
FRITT, a mixture of feveral fubftances intended
to be fufed together for the purpofe of making glafs.
After thefe fubftances have been mixed together, they
are generally expofed during a certain time to a more
or lefs ftrong heat, which is, however, incapable of
completely fufing them. The intention of this opera¬
tion is either to efft& a flight union betwixt thefe mat¬
ters, or to free them more perfedtly from any inflam¬
mable or extraneous matter, by this calcination.
FRITH, in its moll ufual acceptation, fignifies an
arm of the fea; fuch are the Frith of Forth or of Edin¬
burgh, the Frith of Clyde, Murray Frith, &c.
FRITILLARIA, fritillary ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants. There are five fpecies, all of them bulbous-
rooted flowery perennials, producing annual {talks from
about one foot to a yard or more high, terminated by
large, bell-fliaped, liliaceous flowers, of a great variety
of colours. They are all propagated by offsets, which
they furnilh abundantly from the fides of their roots,
and which may be feparated every fecond or third year ;
they are hardy plants, and will thrive in any of the
common borders.
FRIULI, a province of Italy, fubjeft to Venice,
and bounded by Carinthia in Germany on the north,
by Carniola on the call, by the Gulph of Venice on
the fouth, and by the Bellunefe and Feltrin on the
weft.
FRIZINGip/'Cloth, a term in the woollen manu-
fa&ory, applied to the forming of the nap of cloth,
or fluff, into a number of little hard burrs or prominen¬
ces, covering almoft the whole ground thereof.
Some cloths are only frized on the back fide, as
black cloths; others on the right fide, as coloured and
and mixed cloths, rateens, bays, friezes, &c.
Frizing may be performed two ways ; one with the
hand, that is, by means of two workmen, who con-
duft a kind of plank that ferves for a frizing inftru-
ment.
The other way is by a mill, worked either by wa¬
ter or a horfe, or fometimes by men. This latter is
efteemed the better way of frizing, by reafon the mo¬
tion being uniform and regular, the little knobs of the
frizing are formed more equably and regularly. The
ftrudture of this ufeful machine is as follows.
The three principal parts are the frizer or crifper, the
frizing table, and the drawer or beam. The two firft
are two equal planks or boards, each about to feet
long and 15 inches broad; differing only in this, that
the frizing-taHe is lined or covered with a kind of
coarfe woollen fluff, of a rough fturdy nap; and the
frizer is incruftated with a kind of cement compofed
of glue, gum-arabic, and a yellow fand, with a little
aqua-vita;, or urine. The beam, or drawer, thus call¬
ed, becaufe it draw's the fluff from between the frizer
and the frizing-table, is a wmoden roller, befet all over
with little, fine, fhort points or ends of wire, like
thofe of cards ufed in carding of wool.
35 ] FRO
The difpofition and ufe of the machine is thus. The Frobenius,
table Hands immoveable, and bears or fuflains the cloth Frobhher.
to be frized, which is laid w ith that fide uppermoft on ‘
which the nap is to be raifed : over the table is placed
the frizer, at fuch a diflance from it as to give room
for the fluff to be paffed between them: fo that the
frizer, having a very flow femicircular motion, meeting
the long hairs or naps of the cloth, twills, and rolls
them into little knobs or burrs; while, at the fame time,
the drawer, which is continually turning, draws away
the fluff from under the frizer, and winds it over its
own points.
All that the workman has to do while the machine
is a-going, is to ftretch the fluff on the table as fall as
the drawer takes it off, and from time to time to take
off the fluff from the points of the drawer.
The defign of having the frizing-table lined with
fluff of a fliort, fliff, ftubby nap, is that it may detain
the cloth between the table and the frizer long enough
for the grain to be formed, that the drawer may not take
it away too readily, which muft otherwife be the cafe,
as it is not held by any thing at the other end. It were
unneceffary to fay any thing particular of the manner
of frizing fluffs with the hand, it being the aim of the
workmen to imitate, as near as they can with their
wooden inftrument, the flow, equable, and circular
motion of the machine : it needs only be added, that
their frizer is but about two feet long and one broad ;
and that to form the nap more eafily, they moiften the
furface of the fluff lightly, with water mingled with
whites of eggs or honey.
FROBENIUS (John), a famous and learned print-
er in the 16th century, was born at Hamelburgh in
Franconia, and fettled at Bafil. He had before flu-
died in that univerfity, where he acquired the reputa¬
tion of being uncommonly learned; and nowfetting up
a printing-houfe in that city, was the firft; of the Ger¬
man printers who brought that admirable art to any
degree of perfe&ion. Being a man of great probity
and piety, as well as {kill, he was particularly choice
in the authors he printed; and would never, for the
fake of profit, fuffer libels, or any thing that might
hurt the reputation of another, to go through his
prefs. The great charadler of this printer was the
principal motive which induced Erafmus to refide at
Bafil, in order to have his own works printed by him.
A great number of valuable authors were printed
by Frobenius, with great care and accuracy; among
which were the works of St Jerome, Auguftine, and
Erafmus. He defigned to have printed the Greek
Fathers; but died in 1527, before he could execute
his defign. Erafmus wrote his epitaph in Greek and
Latin.
John Frobenius left a fon, named Jerome Frobenius,
and a daughter married to Nicholas Epifcopius; who,
joining in partnerfhip, continued Frobenius’s printing-
houfe with reputation, and printed correil editions of
the Greek Fathers.
FROBISHER, or Forbisher, (Sir Martin), an
excellent navigator andfea-officer in the 16th century,
was born near Doncafter in Yorkftiire, and was from
his youth brought up to navigation. He was the firfl:
Engliftiman who attempted to find a north-weft paf-
fage to China; and, in 1576, he failed with two barks
and a pinnace, in order to attempt that paffage. In
18 B 2 this
FRO [31
Frobifiier, this voyage he difeovered a cape, to which he gave the
^rofi' name of Queen Elizabeth's Foreland, and the next day
difeovered a ftrait to which he gave his own name. This
voyage proving unfuccefsful, he attempted the fame
paffage in 1577 ; but difeovering fomeore in an illand,
and his commiffion dire&ing him in this voyage only to
fearch for ore, and to leave the farther difeovery of the
north-weft to another time, he returned to England.
He failed again, with 15 fliips, and a great number of
adventurers, to form a fettlement: but being obftruc-
ted by the ice, and driven out to fea by a violent
ftorm, they, after encountering many difficulties, re¬
turned home, without making any fettlement, but
brought a large quantity of ore.—He afterwards com¬
manded the Aid in Sir Francis’s Drake’s expedition to
the Weft Indies, in which St Domingo in Hifpaniola,
Carthagena, and Santa Juftina, in Florida, were taken
and facked. In 1588, he bravely exerted himfelf in
defence of his country, againft the Spaniffi armada,
when he commanded the Triumph, one of the largeft
Ihips in that fervice ; and, as a reward for his diftin-
guilhed bravery, received the honour of knighthood
from the lord high-admiral at fea. He afterwards
commanded a fquadron which was ordered to cruife on
the Spaniffi coaft ; and, in 1592, took two valuable
ftips and a rich carrack. In 1594, he was fent to the
affiftance of Henry IV. king of France againft a body
of the Leaguers and Spaniards, who had ftrongly en¬
trenched themfelves at Croyzon near Breft ; but in an
a (fault upon that fort, on the 7th of November, Sir
Martin was unfortunately wounded with a ball, of which
he died foon after he had brought back the fleet to Ply¬
mouth, and was buried in that town.
Frobisher’s Straits, lie a little to the north¬
ward of cape Farewell in Weft Greenland, and were
difeovered by Sir Martin Frobiffier. W. Long. 48.
j6. N. Lat. 63. 12.
FROG, in zoology. See Rana.
Bull-Fkog. See Rana.
Frog-FV/^ of Surinam, a very Angular animal, of
which a figure is given by Mr Edwards, Hijl. of Birds,
Vol. I. There is no fpecimen in the Britiffi mufeum,
nor in any private colleftion, except that of Dr Fo-
thergill. It was brought from Surinam in South A-
merica.—Frogs, both in Afia and Africa, according
to Merian, change gradually from fifties to frogs, as
thofein Europe; but after many years revert again in¬
to fifties, though the manner of their change has never
been inveftigated. In Surinam thefe fifties are called
jakjes. They are cartilaginous, of a fubftance like our
muftela, and exquifite food : they are formed with re¬
gular vertebrae, and fmall bones all over the body di¬
vided into equal parts ; are firft darkiffi, and then
grey : their feales make a beautiful appearance. Whe¬
ther this animal is, in its perfeA ftate, a fpecies of frog
with a tail, or a kind of water-lizard, Mr Edward’s does
not pretend to determine ; but obferves, that when its
fize is confidered, if it ftvould be deemed a tadpole at firft
produced from fpawn, and in its progrefs towards a
frog, fuch an animal, when full grown, if it bears the
fame proportion to its tadpole as thofe in Europe do,
muft be of enormous fize; for our full-grown frogs ex¬
ceed the tadpoles at leaft 50 times. See a reduced fi¬
gure on Plate CV.
FRONDESCENTIA, from frons, a « leaf;’’ the
36 ] FRO
precife time of the year and month in which each fpe¬
cies of plants unfolds its firft leaves.
All plants produce new leaves every year; but all do
not renew them at the fame time. Among woody
plants, the elder, and moft of the honey-fuckles; a-
mong perennial herbs, crocus and tulip, are the firft
that puffi or expand their leaves. The time of low¬
ing the feeds decides with refpeft to annuals. The
oak and affi are conftantly the lateft in puffiing their
leaves: thegreateft number unfold them in fpring ; the
mofles and firs in winter. Thefe linking differences
with refpedt to fo capital a circumftance in plants as
that of unfolding their leaves, feem to indicate that
each fpecies of plants has a temperature proper or pe¬
culiar to itfelf, and requires a certain degree of heat
to extricate the leaves from their buds, and produce
the appearance in queftion.
This temperature, however, is not fo fixed or con-
ftant as it may appear to a fuperficial obferver. A-
mong plants of the fame fpecies, there are fome more
early than others ; whether that circumftance depends,
as it moft commonly does, on the nature of the plants,
or is owing to differences in heat, expofure, and foil.
In general, it may be affirmed, that fmall and young
trees are always earlier than larger or old ones.
The pufhing of the leaves is likewife accelerated or
retarded according to the temperature of the feafon ;
that is, according as the fun is fooner or later in dif-
penfing that certain degree of heat which is fuitable to
each fpecies.
FRONTINUS (Sextus Julius), an ancient Roman
writer, was of confular dignity, and flouriffied under the
emperors Vefpafian, Titus, Domitian, Nerva, and
Trajan. He commanded the Roman armies in Bri¬
tain ; was made city-prsetor when Vefpafian and Ti¬
tus were confuls ; and Nerva made him curator of the
aqueducts, which occafioned his writing De aqusedufii-
bus urbis Rom*. He wrote four books upon the Greek
and Roman art of war; a piece De re agraria, and
another De limitibus. Thefe have been often feparate-
ly reprinted; but were all colledted together in a neat
edition at Amfterdam in 1661, with notes by Robertus
Keuchenius. He died under Trajan.
FRONTISPIECE, in architefture, the portrait
or principal face of a building. See Architec¬
ture.
Frontispiece, is alfo ufed to fignify an ornament
fronting the title-page of a book, which, in fome mea-
fure, ffiould exprefs the fubjeA treated of.
FRONTO (Marcus Cornelius), was chofen for his
eloquence to inllruft the emperors Marcus Aurelius and
Lucius Verus in rhetoric ; in recompence of which he
was promoted to the confulate, and a ftatue was erec¬
ted to his honour. He taught Marcus Aurelius not
only eloquence, but the duty of kings,, and excellent
morals. Some fay he wrote againft the Chriftians. A
feft was formed of thofe who looked upon him as a mo¬
del of perfeft eloquence, and thefe were called Fronto-
niani. The Civilians, whofe names were Pronto, men¬
tioned in the pandedts, were probably defetnded from,
him.
FROST, in phyfiology, fuch a ftate of the atmo-
fphere as occafions the congelation or freezing of wa¬
ter and other fluids. See Congelation-
Under the articles. Cold, Congelation, Eva-
fora-
1
Frondefi'
centia. 1
Froft. 1
FRO [ 31
Froft. poration, Fluidity, &c. it is fhewn, that water and
other fluids are capable of containing the element of
firt, or heat, in two very different ftates. In the one,
they feem to imbibe the fire in fuch a manner, that it
dudes all the methods by which we are accuftomed to
obferve it, either by our fenfation of feeling, or the
thermometer; in the other, it manifefts itfelf obvioufly
to our fenfes, either by the touch, the thermometer,
or the emiflion of light.
In the firft of thefe ftates, we call the body cold}
and are apt to fay that this coldnefs is occafioned by
the cibfence oi heat. But this manner of exprefling
ourfelves is certainly improper; for, even thofe fluids
which are coldeft to the touch, contain a vafl deal of
heat. Thus, vapour, which is colder to the touch
than the water from which it was raifed, contains an
immenfe quantity of fire, even more than fufficient to
heat it red hot. The like may be faid of common fait,
and fnow, or ice. If a quantity of each of thefe fub-
ftances is feparately reduced to the degree of 28 or 30
of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, upon mixing them toge¬
ther, the heat which would have raifed the thermo¬
meter to the degree abovementioned, now enters into
the fubftance of them in fuch a manner that the mer¬
cury falls down to o.—Here an excefiive degree of
cold is produced, and yet we are fure that the fub-
ftances contain the very fame quantity of heat that
they formerly did: nay, they will even feem exceed•
ingly cold, when they mod certainly contain a
great deal more heat than they originally did; for they
abforb it from all bodies arourd them ; and if a fmall
veflel full of water is put in the middle of fuch a mix¬
ture, it will in a fhort time be full of ice.
It appears, therefore, that our fenfes, even when
aflilled by thermometers, can only judge of the ftate
in which the element of fire is with relation to the
bodies around us, without regard to the quantity con¬
tained in them. Thus, if heat flows from any part of
our body into any fubftance aftually in contadi with it,
the fenfation of cold is excited, and we call that fub¬
ftance cold; but if it flows from any fubftance into our
body, the fenfation of heat is excited, and we call that
fubftance hot, without regard to the abfolute quantity
contained in either cafe. See Heat.
Of all known fubftances, the atmofphere either ab-
forbs or throws out heat with the moft remarkable
facility : and in one or other of thefe ftates it always is
with refpeftto the furface of the earth, and fuch bodies
as are placed on or near it; for theft, properly fpeak-
ing, have no temperature of their cwn, but are en¬
tirely regulated by that of the atmtfphere.—When
the air has been for fome time abforbirg the heat from
terreftrial bodies, a froft mull be the undoubted con-
fequence, for the fame reafon that water freezes in a
veflel put into a freezing mixture ; and were this ab-
forption to continue for a length of tine, the whole
earth would be converted into a frozen nafs. There
are, however, certain powers in nature, by which
this effeft is always prevented; and the noft violent
frofl we can imagine, muft always as it vere defeat
its own purpofes, and end in a thaw. Tounderftand
this fubjeft, we muft; obferve,
1. In that ftate of the atmofphere which we deno¬
minate froft, there is a moft; intimate unioi between
the air and the water it contains j and theretjre frofty
37 ] . F R o
weather, except in very high latitudes, is generally Froft.
clear.
2. When fuch an union takes place, either in win¬
ter or fummer, we obferve the atmofphere alfo in¬
clined to abforb heat, and confequently to froft. Thus
in clear fettled weather, even in fummer, though
the day may be exceffively hot, by reafon of the con¬
tinued funfliine, yet the mornings and evenings are
remarkably cold, and fometimes even difagreeably fo.
3. The air being, therefore, always ready in the time
of froft, or in clear weather, to abforb heat from every
fubftance which comes into contact with it, it follows
that it mull alfo abforb part of that which belongs to
the vapours contained in it.
4. Though vapour is capable of becoming much
colder than water without being frozen, yet by a con¬
tinued abforption it muft at laft part with its latent
heat, i. e. that which eflentially conftitutes it vapour;
and without which it is no longer vapour, but water
or ice. No fooner, therefore, does the froft arrive at a
certain pitch, than the vapours, every where difperfed
through the air, give out their latent heat: the atmo¬
fphere then becomes clouded; the frofl; either totally
goes off, or becomes milder by reafon of the great
quantity of heat difeharged into the air; and the va¬
pours defeend in rain, hail, or fnow, according to the
particular difpofition of the atmofphere at the time.
5. Even in the polar regions, where it may be
thought that the froft muft increafe beyond meafure,
there are alfo natural means for preventing its running
to extremes. The principal caufe here is, the mixture
of a great quantity of vapours from the more temper
rate regions of the globe with the air in thofe dreary
climates. It is well known, that aqueous vapour always
flies from a warm to a colder place. For this reafon,
the vapours raifed by the fun in the more temperate re¬
gions of the earth, muft continually travel northward
and fouthward in great quantities. Thus they furnifli
materials for thofe immenfe quantities of fnow and ice
which are to be found in the neighbourhood oft the
poles, and which we cannot imagine the weak influ¬
ence of the fun in thefe parts capable of raifing. It is
impoffible that a quantity of vapour can be mixed with
frofty air, without communicating a great deal of heat
to it; and thus there are often thaws of confiderable
duration even in thofe climates where, from the little
influence of the fun, we fliould fuppofe the froft would
be perpetual.
6. We may now account with fome probability
for the uncertain duration of frofts. In this country
they are feldom of a long continuance; becaufe the va¬
pours raifed from the fea with which our ifland is fur-
rounded, perpetually mix with the air over the ifland,
and prevent a long duration of the froft. For the fame
reafon, frofts are never of fuch long duration in mari¬
time places on the continent, as in the inland ones.
There is nothing, however, more uncertain than the
motion of the vapours with which the air is conftantly
filled, and therefore it is impoffible to prognofticate the
duration of a froft with any degree of certainty. In
general, we may always be certain, that if a quantity
of vapour is accumulated in any place, no intenfe froft
can fubfill in that place for any length of time; and
by whatever caufes the vapours are driven from place
to place, by the fame caufes the frofts are regulated
throughout
FRO [ 3138 ] F R U
Froft. throughout the whole world. See Thaw, Vapour,
&c.
The effe&s of froft in feveral different countries, are
enumerated under the article Congelation. In the
northern parts of the world, even folid bodies are liable
to be affefted by froft. Timber is often apparently fro¬
zen, and rendered exceedingly difficult to faw. Marie,
chalk, and other lefs folid terreftial concretions, will be
fhattered by ftrong and durable frofts. Metals are con-
tra&ed by froft; thus, an iron tube, 12 feet long, up¬
on being expofed to the air in a frofty night, loft two
lines of its length. On the contrary, froft fwells or di¬
lates water near one tenth of its bulk. Mr Boyle made
feveral experiments with metalline veffels, exceedingly
thick and ftrong; which being filled with water, clofe
flopped, and expofed to the cold, burft by the expan-
fion of the frozen fluid within them. Trees are fre¬
quently deftroyed by froft, as if burnt up by the moft
cxceffive heat; and in very ftrong frofts, walnut-trees,
afhes, and even oaks, are fometimes fplit and cleft,
fo as to be feen through, and this with a terrible noife,
like the explofion of fire-arms.
Froft naturally proceeds from the upper parts of bo¬
dies downwards: but how deep it will reach in earth
or water, is not eafily known; becaufe this depth may
vary with the degree of coldnefs in the air, by a longer
or (horter duraton of the froft, the texture of the earth,
the nature of the juices wherewith it is impregnated,
the conftitution of its more internal parts as to heat
and cold, the nature of its effluvia, &c. Mr Boyle, in
order to afcertain this depth, after four nights of hard
froft, dug in an orchard, where the ground was level
and bare, and found the froft had fcarce reached three
inches and a half, and in a garden nearer the houfe
only two inches, below the furface. Nine or ten fuc-
cefiive frofty nights froze the bare ground in the gar¬
den fix inches and a half deep ; and in the orchard,
where a wall iheltered it from the fouth fun, to the
depth of eight inches and a half. He alfo dug in an
orchard, near a wall, about a week afterwards, and
found the froft to have penetrated to the depth of £4
inches. In a garden at Mofcow, the froft in a hard
feafon only penetrates to two feet: and the utmoft ef¬
fect that Captain James mentions the cold to have had
upon the ground of Charlton ifland, was to freeze it to
10 feet deep: whence may appear the different degrees
of cold of that ifland and Ruflia. And as to the freez¬
ing of water at the abovementioned ifland, the Cap¬
tain tells us, it does not naturally congeal above the
depth of fix feet, the reft being by accident. Water
alfo, expofed to the cold air in large veffels, always
freezes firft at the upper furface, the ice gradually in-
creafing and thickening downwards: for which reafon,
frogs retire in frofty weather to the bottom of ditches;
and it is faid, that ffloals of fifh retire in winter to thofe
depths of the fea and rivers, where they arc not to be
found in fummer. Water, like the earth, feems not
difpofed to receive any very intenfe degree of cold at a
confiderable depth or diftance from the air. The vaft
xnaffes of ice found in the northern feas being only
many flakes and fragments, which. Aiding under each
other,, are, by the congelation of the intercepted wa¬
ter, cemented together.
In cold countries, the froft often proves fatal to man¬
kind; not only producing gangrenes, but even death
itfelf. Thofe who die of it have their hands and feet Froft
firft feized, till they grow paft feeling it; after which II
the reft of their bodies is fo invaded, that they are ta- Fru^.®fcett*
ktn with a drowfiuefs, which if indulged, they awake ——
no more, but die infenfibly. But there is another way
whereby it proves mortal, viz. by,freezing the abdo¬
men and vifcera, which on diffedtion are found to be
mortified and black.
ifo^r-FROST, a cold moift vapour, that is drawn up
a little way into the air, and in the night falls again
on the earth, where it is congealed into icy cryftals of
various figures. Hoar-frolt, therefore, is nothing but
dew turned into ice by the coldnefs of the air.
Melioration of Aromatic Spirits ^ Frost. Mr Baume
obferves, that aromatic fpirituous waters have lefs fcent
when newly diftilled than after they have been kept a-
bout fix months: and he found that the good effedls of
age was produced in a fhort time by means of cold;
and that, by plunging quart-bottles of the liquor into
a mixture of pounded ice and fea-falt, the fpirit, after
having fuffered for fix or eight hours the cold hence
refulting, proves as grateful as that which hath been
kept many years. Simple waters alfo, after having been
frozen, prove far more agreeable than they were be¬
fore. Geoffroy takes notice of this melioration by
froft; Hijl. Acad. 1713.
Melioration of Land by Frost. See Agriculture,
n° 3°*
Ykost-Bitten. See (the Index fubjoined to) Me¬
dicine.
FROTH, a white, light fubftance, formed on the fur
face of fluids, by vehement agitation, confifting of little
fpherules or globules*
Froth-5/1/7, or Cucko'w-Spit, a name given to a
white froth, or fpume, very common in the fpring and
firft months of fummer, on the leaves of certain plants,
particularly on thofe of the common white field-lychnis
or catch-fly, thence called by fome fpatling poppy.
j^.11 writers on vegetables have taken notice of this
froth, though few have underftood the caufe or origin
of it till of late. It is formed by a little leaping ani¬
mal, called by fome the flea grafs-hopper, by applying
its anus clofe to the leaf, and difcharging thereon a
fmall drop of a white vifcous fluid, which, containing
fome air in it, is foon elevated into a fmall bubble: be¬
fore this is well formed, it depofits fuch another drop;
and fo on, till it is every way overwhelmed with a
quantity of thefe bubbles, which form the white frot
which we fee. Within this fpume it is feen to acquire
four tubercles on its back, wherein the wings are inclo-
clofed: thefe bnrfting, from a reptile it becomes a
winged animal: and thus, rendered perfeft, it flies to
meet its mate, and propagate its kind. It has an ob¬
long, obtufe body, and a large head with fmall eyes.
The external wings, for it has four, are of a duflty
brown colour, marTked with two white fpots: the head
is black. It is a fpecies of Cicada.
FRUCTESCENTIA, (from frutlus, “ fruit,5’)
comprehends the precife time in which, after the fall
of the flowers, the fruits arrive at maturity, and difperfe
their feeds.
In general, plants which flower in fpring, ripen their
fruits in fummer, as rye ; thofe which flower in fum¬
mer, have their fruits ripe in autumn, as the vine; the
fruit of autumnal flowers ripens in winter, or the fol¬
lowing
Fructife¬
rous
ii
Fruit.
F R U [31
lowing fpring, if kopt in a ftove or otkerwife defended
from exceffive frofts. Thefe frofts, fays M. Adanfon,
are frequently fo pernicious and violent as to deltroy
the greateft part of the perennial plants of Virginia
and Mifiifiippi, that are cultivated in France, even be¬
fore they have exhibited their fruit. The plants which
.flower during our winter, fuch as thofe of the Cape of
of Good Hope, ripen their fruit in fpring in our ftoves.
FRUCTIFEROUS, fignilies properly any thing
that produces fruit.
FRUCTIFICATION, among botanifts, in a more
lax fenfe, includes the flower and fruit, with their fe-
vtral coverings. See Fructus.
FRUCTUS, in botany, the Fruit, is defined by
Jungius and former botanifls to be an annual part of
the plant, which adheres to the flower and fucceeds it;
and. after attaining maturity, feparates or detaches it-
felf from the parent plant j and, being commodioufly
lodged in the bofom of the earth, gives birth to a new
vegetable. This definition is fufficiently accurate, and
fo perfpicuons, that it requires no illuftration whatever.
We fliall only obferve, that, in its vulgar acceptation,
the word fruit is expreffive, not of the feeds, which are
doubtlefs the efience of every fruit; but of the cafe or
vefiel in which they are contained. Thus, when we
fpeak of the fruit of an apple-tree, we always mean
the lufcious pulp which enfolds the feeds ; although
that, in drift propriety, is only the cover of the fruit.
Colours Extra fled from Fr.uits. See the article Co¬
lour-nG 35*
FruiT'/V/A, a name given by gardeners and others
to a fort of fmall black flies found in vaft numbers a-
mong fruit trees, in the fpring feafon, and fuppofed to
do great injury to them. Mr Lewenhoek preferred
fome of thefe flies for his microfcopical obfervations.
He found that they did not live longer than a day or two,
but that the females during this time laid a great num¬
ber of longifli eggs. The gardeners who fuppofe that
thefe flies wound the leaves of the trees, are miftaken :
k is true that they feed on their juices; but they have
no inftruments wherewith they can extraft thefe for
themfelves: they feed on fuch as are naturally extra-
vafated; and when there is not a fufficient quantity of
thefe for their purpofe, they haunt the places to which
the pucerons refort, and feed on the juices which thefe
little creatures extravafate by means of the holes they
bore in the leaves with their trunks.
Stones. The mifchiefs arifing from the cu-
ftom which many people have of fwallowing the ftones
of plums and other fruit are very great. The Phi-
lofophical Tranfaftions give an account of a woman
who fuffered violent pains in her bowels for 30 years,
returning once in a month or lefs. At length, a ftrong
purge-being given her, the occafion of all thefe com¬
plaints was driven down from the bowels to the anus;
where it gave a fenfation of diftenfion and ftoppage,
producing a continual defire of going to ftool, but
without voiding any thing. Qn the affiflance of a
careful hand in this cafe, there was taken out with a
forceps, a ball of an oval figure, of about ten drachms
in weight, and meafuring five inches in circumference.
This had caufed all the violent fits of pain which fhe
had fulfered for fo many years; and, after voiding it,
flie became perfcftly well. The ball extrafted looked
Kke a Rone, and felt very hard, but.it fwam in water*.
39 1 F R u
On cutting it through with a knife, there was found Ffuh
in the centre of it a plum-ftone; round which, feveral
coats of this hard and tough matter had gathered. teous.
Another inftance given in the fame papers is of a man,  —
who, dying of an incurable colic which had tormented
him many years, and baffled the effefts of medicines,
was opened after death ; and in his bowels was found
a ball fimilar to that abovementioned ; but fomewhat
larger, being 'fix inches in circumference, and weigh¬
ing an ounce and an half. In the centre of this, as of
the other, there was found the {tone of a common
plum, and the coats were of the fame nature with thofe
of the former.
Thefe and feveral other inftances mentioned in the
fame place, fufficiently (hew the folly of that common
opinion that the ftones of fruits are wholefome. For
though by nature the guts are fo defended by their
proper mucus, that people very feldom fnffer by things
of this kind; yet if we confider the various circumvo-
volutions of the guts, their valves and cells, and at the
fame time eonfider the hair of the {kins of animals we
feed on, the wool or down on herbs and fruit, and the
fibres, veffels, and nerves of plants, which are not al¬
tered by the ftomach ; it will appear a wonder that
inftances of this fort of raifchief are not much more
common. Cherry-ftones, fwallowed in great quanti¬
ties, have occafioned the death of many people ; and
there have been inftances even of the feeds of ftraw-
berries colledling into a lump in the guts, and caufing
violent diforders, which coifld not be cured without
great difficulty.
Fruit-77 ft?/. With regard to thefe it may be
obferved, 1. That the cutting and pruning them,
when young, fcrimp their bearing, though it contri-
tributes to the richnefs and flavour of the fruit, as well
as to the beauty of the tree. 2. That kernel-fruit
trees come later to bear than ftone-fruit trees: the
time required by the firft before they come to any fit
age for bearing, being one with another five years
but when they do begin,, they bear in greater plenty
than ftone-fruit. 3. That ftone-fruit, figs, andgrapes>
commonly bear confiderably in three or four years,
and bear full crops the fifth and fixth years; and hold
it for many years, if well ordered. 4. That fruit-
trees in the fame neighbourhood will ripen a fortnight
fooner in fome grounds, than in others of a different
temperature. 5. That, in the fame country, hot or
cold fummers fet confiderably forwards, or put back¬
wards, the fame fruit. 6. That the fruit on wall-trees
generally ripen before thofe on ftandards, and thofe
on ftandards before thofe on dwarfs. 7. That the fruit
of all wall-trees planted in the fouth and eaft quarters,,
commonly ripen about the fame time, only thofe in the
fouth rather earlier than thofe in the eaft; thofe in the
weft are later by eight or ten days; and thofe in the
north, by 15 or 20. For the planting, pruning,, graft¬
ing, &c. of fruit-trees, fee the articles Planting,
Transplanting, Pruning, Grafting, Orchard,>
Nursery, &c.
FRUITERY, a place for the keeping of fruit, a
fruit-houfe, or fruit-loft.
A fruitery fliould be inacceffible to any thing of
moifture; and ftiould be as much as poffible fo, even
to froft.
ERUMENTACEOUS,^a term applied by|bota-
mites
F R U [ 3140 ] F U C
Fromm- m'ftg to all fnch plants as have a- conformity with
ta."‘ wheat, in refpeft of their fruits, leaves, ears, or the
Fryth. 1Ike-
- FRUMENTARII, a kind of foldiers, or archers,
under the weftern empire.
The firft time we read of thefe officers is in the reign
of the emperor Adrian, who made ufe of them to inform
himfelf of whatever pafled. They did not make any
particular corps diftinft from the reft of the forces, but
there was a certain number of them in each legion. It
is fuppofed, that they were at firft a number of young
perfons, difpofed by Auguftus throughout the pro¬
vinces, particularly on all the grand roads, to acquaint
the emperor, with all expedition, of every thing that
happened.
Afterwards they were incorporated into the troops
themfelves, where they ftill retai-ned their ancient name.
As their principal office was the giving intelligence,
they were often joined with the curioli, with whom
they agreed in this part of their office.
Their name offrumentarii is derived from their be¬
ing alfoa fort of purveyors to the armies, cities, &c.
collefting all the corn from the feveral provinces to
furnifh the commonwealth.
FRUMENTATION, in Roman antiquity, a lar-
gefs of corn beftowed on the people. This pradice of
giving corn to the people was very ancient among the
Romans, and frequently ufed to foothe the turbulent
humour of the populace. At firft the number of thofe
to whom this largefs was given was indeterminate, till
Auguftus fixed it at 200,000.
FRUSH, or Running-thrush. See Farriery,
§. xliv.
FRUSTUM, in mathematics, a part of fome folid
body feparated from the reft.
The fruftum of a cone is the part that remains, when
the top is cut off by a plane parallel to the bafe; and
is otherwife called a truncated cone. See Conic Sec¬
tion?.
The fruftum of a pyramid is alfo what remains af¬
ter the top is cut off by a plane parallel to its bafe.
The fruftum of a globe or fphere is any part there¬
of cut off by a plane, the folid contents of which may
be found by this rule: To three times the fquare of
the femidiameter of the bafe, add the fquare of its
height; then multiply that fum by the height, and
this prqduft multiplied by .5236 gives the folidity of
the fruftum.
FRUTEX, a shrub. Shrubs, according to Lin-
nseus, make a branch of the feventh family in the ve¬
getable kingdom ; and are diftinguiihed from trees, in
that they come up without buds. But this diftinftion
is not univerfal, though it be generally juft with regard
thofe of Europe. Nature hath made no abfolute di-
ftindlion between trees and (hrubs. Frutex, in its ge¬
neral acceptation, is a plant whofe trunk is perennial,
gemmiparous, woody, dividing and fubdividing into a
great number of branches. In ftrort, it is the epitome
of a tree, exemplified in the rofe-bu(h.
FRYTH (John), a martyr to the Proteftant reli¬
gion in the reign of Henry VIII. He was the fon of an
inn-keeper at Seven-oaks in Kent; and educated in the
king’s college, Cambridge, where he took the degree
of bachelor of arts. Thence he removed to Oxford,
and was made a junior canon of Wolfey’s college. He
had not been long in this univerfity, before'he became Fuage-
acquainted with William Tyndale, a zealous Lutheran, II
with whom he converfed frequently on the abufes in re- ^11C11S'
ligion. Fryth became a convert to Lutheranifm, and
publicly avowed his opinions. He was apprehended,
examined by the commiffary, and confined to his col¬
lege. At length, having obtained his liberty, in 1528
he went over to Germany, where he continued about
two years; and then returned to England, more than
ever determined in his religious fentiments. Finding
at that time but few affociates, he wandered about
from place to place, till at laft he was taken up at
Reading as a vagrant, and fet in the flocks, where he
remained till he was near expiring for want of fufte-
nance. He was at length relieved by the humanity of
Leonard Cox, a fchoolmafter; who finding him a man
of letters, procured his enlargement, and adminifter-
ed to his neceflities. Fryth now fet out for London,
where, with more zeal than prudence, he began to
make profelytes ; but was foon apprehended by order
of the chancellor Sir Thomas More, and fent prifoner
to the Tower. Refufing to recant his opinions, he
was condemned to the flames, and accordingly burnt
in Smithfield, on the fourth of July 1533. He left
feveral works behind him, which were printed in fo¬
lio in 1573.
FUAGE, in old Englifti writers, a tax of izd.
for every fire, levied in the time of Edward III.
FRY, in zoology, lignfies the fpawn, or rather
young, of fiftr.
FUCUS; in botany, a genus of fubmarine plants,
belonging to the cryptogmia clafs.
The fucus confifts of a tough matter, formed into a
kind of leaves, which are flat and varioufly divarica¬
ted ; and which have fome appearance of fru&ification,
in pundtated tubercles, covering oblong veficles, fup¬
pofed by Linnaeus to be male flowers; and fmooth
roundifh veficles, hollow and interwoven with fila¬
ments, which appear to him to be female flowers.
There are 34 fpecies of fucus, or fea-wrack, many of
them to be found on our coafts.
The ancients ufed a purple fea-plant to dry woollen
and linen things of that colour, and called it fucus-.
The dye was very beautiful, but not lafting; for it foon
began to change, and in time went wholly off. This is
the account Theophraftus gives of it.
The women of thofe times alfo ufed fomething call-
fucus, to ftain their cheeks red; and many have fup¬
pofed, from the fame word exprefling both, that the
fame fnbftance was ufed on both occalions. But this,
on a ftridt inquiry, proves not to be the cafe. The
Greeks called every thing fucus, that would ftain or
paint the flefti. But this peculiar fubftance ufed by
the women to paint their cheeks was diftinguiftied from
the others by the name of rizion among the more cor-
reft writers, and was indeed a root brought from Syria
into Greece. The Latins, in imitation of the Greek
name, called this root radicula, and Pliny very erro-
neoufly confounds the plant with the radix lunaria, or
fruthion of the Greeks.
The word fucus was in thofe times become fuch an
univerfai tiame for paint, that the Greeks and Romans
had a fucus metallicus, which was the cerufs ufed for
painting the neck and arms white; after which they
ufed the purpurijfum, or red fucus of the rizium, to
give
FUG [ 3141 ] FUG
Fufgo give the colour to the cheeks. In after-times they alfo
!1 ufed a peculiar fucus or paint for this purpofe; prepa-
_ u"uc' red of the Greta argentaria, or filver-chalk, and fome of
the rich purple dyes that were in ufe at that time: and
this feems to have been very little different from our
rofe-pink; a colour commonly fold at the colpur-fhops,
and ufed on like occafions.
FUEGOj or Fogo, one of the Cape de Verd iflands,
in the Atlantic ocean. It is much higher than any of
the reft; and feems, at fea, to be one Angle mountain,
though on the fides there are deep valleys. There is a
volcano at the top, which burns continually, and may
be feen a great way off at fea. It vomits a great deal
of fire and fmoke, and throws out huge pieces of rock
to a vaft height; and fometimes torrents of melted mat¬
ter run down the fides. The Portuguefe, who firft
inhabited it, brought negro flaves with them, and a
ftock of cows, hprfes, and hogs; but the chief inha¬
bitants now are blacks, of the Romifh religion. W.
Long. 24. 47. N. Lat. 15. 20.
FUEL, whatever is proper to burn or make a fire;
as wood, turf, peat, bituminous earths, coal, &c.
FUGALIA, in Roman antiquity, a feaft fuppofed
by fome to be the fame with the refugium, held on the
24th of February, in memory of the expulfion of the
kings, and the abolifhing of monarchical government.
Others again diftinguifh the fugalia from the regifuge.
And others think, that the fugalia was the fame with
the poplifugia, or the feaft of Fugia, the goddefs of
joy, occafioned by the rout of an enemy, which was
the reafon the people abandoned themfelves to riot and
debauchery.
FUGITIVE, a perfon obliged to fly his country,
or remove from a place where he had fome abode or
eftablilhment, on account of his crimes, debts, or other
occafions.
FUGUE,in mufic, (fromthe Latin /agY?,a“chafe:”)
A piece of mufic, fometimes longer and fometimes (hor-
ter, in which, agreeable to the rules of harmony and
modulation, thecompofer treats a fubjedt; or, in other
words, what expreffes the capital thought or fentiment
of the piece, in caufing it to pafs fucceffively and al¬
ternately from one part to another,
Thefe are the principal rules of the fugue; of which
fome are peculiar to itfelf, and others common to it
with what the French call imitation.
1. The fubjeft proceeds from the tonic to the do¬
minant, or from the dominant to the tonic, in rifing or
defcending.
2. Every fugue finds its refponfe in the part imme¬
diately following that which commenced.
3. That refponfe ought to refume the fubjedf in the
interval of a fourth or fifth above or below the key,
and to purfue it as exadtly as the laws of harmony will
admit; proceeding from the dominant to the tonic
when the fubjedt is introduced from the tonic to the
dominant, and moving in a contrary diredtion when
the fubjedt is introduced from the dominant to the to¬
nic. One part may likewife refume the fame fubjedt
in the odtave or unifon of the preceding; but in that
cafe, it is a repetition rather than a real refponfe.
4. As the odtave is divided into two unequal parts,
of which the one contains four gradations afcending
from the tonic to the dominant, and the other only
three in continuing the afcent from the dominant to
Vol. IV.
the tonic'; this renders it neceffary to have fome regard Fngne.
to this change in the expreffion of the fubjed, and to
make fome alterations in the refponfe, that we may
not quit the chords that are effential to the mode. It
is a different cafe when the compofer intends to alter
the modulation; for there theexa&nefs of the refponfe
itfelf, when taken in a different tone, produces the al¬
teration proper for this change.
5. It is neceffary that the fijgue (hould be planned in
fuch a manner, that the refponle may commence before
the clofe of the firft air, fo that both the one and the
other may be in part heard at the fame time ; that, by
this anticipation, the fubjedf maybe as it were connec¬
ted with itfelf, and that the art of the compofer may
difcover itfelf in this concourfe. It is abfolute mockery,
inftead of a fugue, to impofe upon the hearers the fame
air, merely tranfpofed from one key to another, with¬
out any other reftraint than an accompaniment after¬
wards formed at pleafure. This deferves at beft no
better name than what the French call imitation. See
Imitation.
Befides thefe rules, which are fundamental, there are
others which, though prefcribed bytafte alone, are not
lefs effential. Fugues, in general, render mufic more noify
than agreeable; it is for this reafon that they are more
agreeable in the chorus than any where elfe. Now, as
their chief merit confifts in fixing the ear on the prin¬
cipal air or fubjed, which for this reafon is made to
pafs inceffantly from part to part, and from mode to
mode, the compofer ought to exert his care in prefer-
ving that air always diftind; or to prevent it from be¬
ing abforbed in, or confounded with, the other parts.
To produce this effed, there are two different ways:
one in the movement, which muft be inceffantly con-
trafted with itfelf; fo that, if the procedure of the
fugue be accelerated, the other parts move gravely and
with protraded notes; or, on the contrary, if the mo¬
tion of the fugue be flow and folemn, the accompani¬
ments muft have more and quicker bufinefs. The other
method is to extend the harmony, by removing the
parts at a greater diftance one from the other; left the
others, too nearly approximated to that which con¬
tains the fubjed, ftiould be confounded with it, and
prevent it from being diftinguilhed with fufficient
clearnefs; fo that what would be an imperfedion any
where elfe, becomes here a beauty.
The unity of melody ftiould be preferved: this is
the great and general rule, which muft frequently be
pradifed by different means. The chords muft be cho-
fen, and the intervals, fo that one particular found may
produce the chief effed: this can only refult from the
unity of the melody. It will fometimes be neceffary
to employ voices and inftruments of different kinds,
that the part which ought to prevail may be moft ea-
fily diftinguiftied: this again (hews the necefiity of pre-
ferving the unity of the melody. Another objed of
attention no lefs neceffary, is, in the different connec¬
tions of modulation which are introduced by the pro¬
cedure and progrefs of the fugue, to caufe all thefe
modulations to correfpond at the fame time in all the
parts, to conned the whole in its progrefs by an exad
conformity of modes; left, if one part be in one mode,
and another in another, the general harmony {hould be
in none at all, and for that reafon {hould no longer be
able to produce Ample effeds upon the ear, nor Ample
18 C ideas
F U L [ 3142 ] , F U L
Fulcrum ideas in the mind : which is another reafoiv for prefer-
ii ving unity of melody. In a word, in every fugue the
u ‘ca- confufion of melodies and modulations is at once what
a compofer has moil to fear, and will find the greateit
difficulty in avoiding; and as this kind of mufic never
produces a pleafure above mediocrity, one may fay that
a fine fugue is, though the mafterpiece of an excellent
harmonift, ungrateful to his toil.
There are ftill feveral other kinds of fugues; fuch as
Canon, the perpetual fugue *, the double fugue, the inverted
fugue. _
The inverted fugue is a manner of compofition, in
which the flying part proceeds in a contrary diredion
to the other fugue, which had been formerly fixed in
the fame piece of mufic. Thus, when the firll fugitive
part is heard in afcending from the tonic to the domi¬
nant, or from the dominant to the tonic, the counter
fugue ought to be heard in defcending from the domi¬
nant to the tonic, or from the tonic to the dominant,
and vice verfa. Its other rules are exactly like thofe of
the common fugue.
FULCRUM, in mechanics, the prop or fupport by
which a lever is fuftained.
FULDE, a confiderable town of Germany, in the
circle of the upper Rhine, and in the Buchow, with a
celebrated abbey; whofe abbot is primate of the ab¬
beys of the empire, perpetual chancellor of the empe¬
ror, and fovereign of a final] territory lying between
Heffe, Franconia, and Thuringia. It is feated on the
river Fulde, 55 miles fouth of Cafiel, and 58 north-eaft
of Francfort. E. Long. 9. 53. N. Lat. 50. 40.
FULICA, the coot, in ornithology, a genus of
birds, of the order of grallae’. It has a convex bill, with
the upper mandible fornicated over the lower at the
edge; the lower mandible is gibbous behind the tip.
The forehead is bald; and the feet have four toes, a
little lobated. There are four fpecies.
1. The atra, or common coot, hath a bald fore¬
head, a black body, and lobated toes. They frequent
lakes and ftill rivers; making their neft among the
ruflies, with grafs, reeds, &c. floating on the water, fo
as to rife and fall with it. They lay five or fix large
eggs, of a dirty whitifh hue, fprinkled over with mi¬
nute deep ruft-coloured fpots; and it is faid, that
fometimes they will lay 14 or more eggs. The young
when juft hatched are very deformed, and the head mix¬
ed with a red coarfe down. In winter they often re¬
pair to the fea, and the channel near Southampton is
fometimes obferved almoft covered with them. They
are often brought to that market, where they are ex-
pofed to fale without their feathers, and fcalded like
pigs.
2. The chloropus, or common gallinule, hath a
bald forehead, and toes without webs. It gets its food
on grafly banks, and borders near frefh waters, and in
the very waters if they be weedy. It builds upon low
trees and fhrubs by the water-fide ; breeding twice or
thrice in a fummer ; and, when the young are grown
up, drives them away to fhift for themfelves. They lay
feven eggs of a dirty white, thinly fpotted with ruft-
colour. This bird ftrikes with its bill like a hen, and
in the fpring has a fhrill call. In flying, it hangs down
its legs; in running, it often flirts up its tail, and (hews
the white feathers. We may obferve, that the bot¬
toms of its toes are fo very flat and broad- (to enable.
it to fwim), that it feems to be the bird which conne&s Fuligino
the cloven-footed aquatics with the next tribe, viz. the II,
fin-toed. Fu er‘
3. The fulica with a bald forehead, a violet-co¬
loured body, and toes without webs, is the purple wa¬
ter-hen of Edwards ; and it inhabits Afia and America.
4. The fulica with a carunenlated head, a varie-
ated body, fpinous fhoulders, and toes without webs;
ut the nail on the hinder toe is exceeding long. It is
the fpur-winged water-hen of Edwards, and is an in¬
habitant of South America., The nail on the hind toe
is ftraight, and longer than a man’s finger. The pollex
refts upon one joint, and the wings are green.
FULIGINOUS, whatever proceeds from a thick,
footy fmoke; fuch as litharge and lamp-black.
FULIGNO, a city of Italy, in the pope’s territo¬
ries, 10 miles north of Spoletto.
FULIGO, in natural hiftory, a fpecies of pumice-
ftone. See Pumice.
FULK (William), a learned and eminent divine of
the church of England, in the 16th century. He was
patronized by the earl of Leicefter, who, in 15.71, pre-
ferited him to the living of Warley in Effex, and fOon
after to that of Diddington in Suffolk. He attended
Leicefter, when he went ambaffador to France; and
on his return was made mafter of Pembroke-hall, and
Margaret profeffor of divinity at Cambridge. His
works are very numerous, levelled chiefly at the Pa-
pifts; the moft corifiderable of them is his Comment on-
the Rhemifh Teftament. He died in-1589.
FULLER (Nicholas), prebendary of Saliftmry, and
a learned Englifh critic; who publifhed, in 1617, Mif-
cellanea Theologica, in four books; and afterward two
more of Mifcellanea Sacra. He died in 1623; and,
there are fome MSS of his remaining in the Bodleian,
library, that (hew his great (kill in Hebrew and phi¬
lology.
Fuller (Dr Thomas), a learned Englifh divine?
was born at Allvinckle, near Oundle, in Northampton-
(hire, about the year 1608, and ftudied at Cambridge.
He was chofen minifter of St Bennet’s. there; and at
about 23 years of age, his merit procured him a fel-
lowfliip in Sidney college, and a prebend in Saliftmry
cathedral. He was foon after prefented to the reftory
of Broad Windfor, in Dorfetftiire; and afterwards was
made le&urer of the Sfvoy in London-: but upon the
preffing of the covenant, he retired to Oxford; and
foon after accompanied Sir Ralph Hopton as his cha¬
plain in the army, which he attended in their marches
from place to place. After the death of king Charles I.
he obtained the living of Waltham-abbey, and was ap¬
pointed ledturer of St Clement’s ; and (hortly after re¬
moved to the ledture of St Bride’s, Fleet-ftreet. Upon
the-reftoration, he recovered his prebend in the ca¬
thedral of Salifbury, was appointed chaplain extra¬
ordinary to his majefty, and created dodtor of divinity.
It is faid his memory was fo amazingly tenacious and
comprehenfive, that he could make ule of a fermon ver--
batim, if he once heard it. He once undertook, in paf-
fing to and from Temple-bar to the Poultry, to tell
at his return every fign as it flood in order on both
fides of the way, repeating them either backwards or
forwards; and this tafk he adtually performed. He
wrote, 1. A hiftory of the holy war. 2. The
church-hiftory of Britain, in folio. 3. Audronicus,
F tr L [ 3,43 ] F U L
i Fuller or the unfortunate politician, in Svo. 4. A Pifgah
1.1 fight of Paleftine. 5. A hiftory of Englifh worthies;
11 'n°'- and other works. He died in Auguft 1661; and was
interred in the chancel of Cranford church, in Middle-
fex, whither his body was attended by at leaft 200 of
his brethren of the miniftry.
FULLER, a workman employed in the woollen
manufactories, to mill or fcour cloths, ferges, and other
Ituffs, in order to render them more thick, compaCt,
and durable. See Cloth.
Fuller’s Earth, in natural hiftory, a foft, greyifti,
brown, denfe, and heavy marie: when dry, it is of a
greyilh a(h-coloured brown, in all degrees from very
pale to almoft black, and it has generally fomething of
a greenifti call: it is very hard and firm, of a compaCl
texture, of a rough and fomewhat dufty furface that
adheres (lightly to the tongue: it is very foft to the
touch, not ftaining the hands, nor breaking eafily be¬
tween the fingers: it has a little harftinefs between the
teeth, and melts freely in the mouth;, thrown into wa¬
ter, it makes no ebullition or hilling; but fwells gra¬
dually in bulk, and falls into a fine foft powder. It
makes no effervefcence with aqua fortis.
The greateft quantity, and the fineft earth of this
kind in the world, is dug in the pits at Wavedon, near
Woburn in Bedfordftiire. The ftrata in thefe pits lie
thus : From the furface to the depth of fix feet, there
are feveral layers or beds of fand, all reddilh, but
fome lighter-coloured than others. Under thefe there
is a thin ftratum of a fand-ftone, which they break
through, and then there is the fuller’s earth. The
upperftratum of this is about a foot thick : the work¬
men call it cledge, and throw it afide as ufelefs; being
commonly fouled with the fand which originally cover¬
ed it, and which infinuates itfelf a good way into it.
After this, they come to the fine fuller’s earth forfale,
v/hich lies to the depth of eight feet more. The mat¬
ter of this is divided into feveral layers, there being
commonly about a foot and an half between one hori¬
zontal fiffureand another. Of thefe feveral layers, the
upper half, where the earth breaks itfelf, is tinged red ;
which feems to be owing to the running of the water
upon it from among the fands above; fome of which
are probably of a ferruginous nature, or have ferrugi¬
nous matter among them. This Teddifti fuller’s earth
the workmen call crop ; and between the ejedge and
this there is a thin ftratum of matter, of lefs than an
inch, which in tafte, colour, and external appearance,
refembles the terra Japonica of the (hops. The lower
half of the ftrata of fuller’s earth they call ’wall-earth.
This is untinged with the red colour of the other, and
feems the molt proper for fulling. Under the fuller’s
earth there is a ftratum of white and coarfe ftone about
two feet thick. They feldom dig thro’ this; but if they
do, they find more ftrata of fand.
This earth is of great ufe in fcouring cloths, fluffs,
&c. imbibing all the greafe and oil ufed in prepa¬
ring, dreffing, &c. of the wool ; for which reafon it
is made a contraband commodity, and is not to be
exported under the penalty of 1 s. for every pound
weight. See Fulling.
Fuller’s-IFeei/, in botany. See Dipsacus.
FULLERY, a place where cloths, &c. are fulled.
See the next article.
FULLING, the art or adl of ckanfing, fcouring,
and preffing cloths, fluffs, and (lockings, to render
them ftronger, clofer, and firmer : called alfo milling.
Pliny, {lib. vii. cap. 56.) affures, that one Nicias, the
fon of Hermias, was the firft inventor of the art of
fulling : and it appears by an infeription, quoted by Sir
G. Wheeler, in his travels thro’ Greece, that this fame
Nicias was a governor in Geece in the time of the Ro¬
mans.
The fulling of cloths and other (luffs is performed
by a kind of water-mill, thence called a fulling or
fcouring mill.
Thefe mills, excepting in what relates to the mill-
ftones and hopper, are much the fame with corn-mills.
And there are even fome which ferve indifferently for
either ufe; corn being ground, and cloths fulled, by
the motion of the fame wheel. Whence, in fome pla¬
ces, particulary in France, the fullers are called millers;
as grinding corn, and milling (luffs, at the fame time.
The principal parts of the fulling-mill are, The
wheel, with its trundle; which gives motion to the
tree, or fpindle, whole teeth communicate it to the
peftles, or dampers, which are hereby raifed and made
to fall alternately according as its teeth catch on or quit
a kind of latch in the middle of each peftle. The peftles
and troughs are of wood; each trough having at leaft
two, fometimes three peftles, at the diferetion of the
mailer, or according to the force of the dream of wa¬
ter. In thefe troughs are laid the cloths, duffs, See.
intended to be fulled : then, letting the current of
water fall on the wheel, the peftles are fucceilively let
fall thereon, and by their weight and velocity (lamp
andprefs the (luffs very ftrongly, which by this means
become thickened and condenfed. In the couife of
the operation, they fometimes make ufe of urine,
fometimes of fuller’s earth, and fometimes of foap.
To prepare the (luffs to receive the firft impreflions of
the peftle, they are ufually laid in urine ; then in full¬
er’s earth, and water ; and laftly in foap, diffolved in
hot water. Soap alone would do very well; but this
is expenfive : though fuller’s earth, in the way of our
dreffing, is fcarce inferior thereto ; but then it mud be
well cleared of all (lones and grittineffes, which are apt
to make holes in the (luff. As to urine, it is certainly
prejudicial, and ought to be entirely difearded; not.
fo much on account of its ill fmell, as of its (harpnefs
and faltnefs, which qualities are apt to render the (luffs
dry and harfti.
The true method of fulling with foap is delivered by
Monf. Colinet, in an authentic memoir on that fubjecl,
fupported by experiments made by order of the mar¬
quis de Lonvois, then fuperintendant of the arts and
manufa&ories of France; the fubftance of which we
(hall here fubjoin.
Method of Fulling cloths and woollen fuffs with
Soap.—A coloured cloth, of about 45 ells, is to be laid
in the ufual manner, in the trough of a fulling-mill;
without firft foaking it in water, as is commonly prac-
tifed in many places. To full this trough of cloth, 15
pounds of foap are required ; one half of which is to
be melted in two pails of river or fpring water, made
as hot as the hand can well bear it. This folution is to
be poured by little and little upon the cloth, in pro¬
portion as it is laid in the trough : and thus it is to be
fulled for at lead two hours ; after which, it is to be ta¬
ken out and ftretched. This done, the cloth is imme-
18 C 2 diately
F U M [ 3144. ] FUN
Fulmar diately returned into the fame trough, without any
Fnlmaria new kaP ’ an(^ t^ere two hours more. Then
  1_ taking it out, they wring it well, to exprefs all the
greafe and filth. After the fecond fulling, the remain¬
der of the foap is diffolved as in the former, and call
four different times on the cloth ; remembering to
take out the cloth every two hours, to ftretch it, and
undo the plaits and wrinkles it has acquired in the
trough. When they perceive it fufficiently fulled, and
brought to the quality and thicknefs required, they
fcour it for good in hot water, keeping it in the trough
till it be quite clean. As to white cloths; in regard
thefe full more eafily and in lefs time than coloured
ones, a third part of the foap may be fpared.
Fulling of Stockings, Caps, <bc. fhould be per¬
formed fomewhat differently ; viz. either with the
feet or the hands ; or a kind of rack, or wooden ma¬
chine, either armed with teeth of the fame matter, or
elfe horfes or bullocks teeth. The ingredients made
ufc of herein, are urine, green foap, white foap, and
fuller’s earth. But the urine alfo is reckoned prejudi¬
cial here. Woven ftockings, &c. fhould be fulled with
foap alone : for thofe that are knit, earth may be
ufed with the foap. Indeed, it is frequent to full thefe
kinds of works with the mill, after the ufual manner of
cloth, &c. But that is too coarfe and violent a man¬
ner; and apt to damage the work, unlefs it be very
lirong.
FULMAR, in ornithology. See Procellaria.
FULMINATING, fomething that thunders, or
refembles thunder.
Fulminating See Chemistry, n° 256.
Fulminating See Chemistry, n° 475.
FULMINATION, in chemiftry, the fame with
detonation. See Nitre.
Fulmination, in the Romifh canon law, a fentence
of a bifhop, official, or other ecclefiaftic appointed by
the pope, by which it is decreed that fome bull fent
from the pope fhall be executed.
FUMARIA, fumitory; a genus of the hexan-
dria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants.
There are a number of different fpecies; all of them
low, fhrubby, and deciduous and evergreen plants,
growing from two to fix or feven feet high, adorned
with fmall fimple leaves, and papilionaceous flowers of
different colours. The moft remarkable is the officina¬
lis, or common fumitory ; which grows naturally in
fhady cultivated grounds, and produces fpikes of pur-
plifh flowers in May and June. It is very juicy, of a
bitter tafte, without any remarkable fmell.—The me¬
dical effe&s of this herb are, to ftrengthen the tone of
the bowels, gently loofen the belly, and promote the
urinary and other natural fecretions. It is principally
recommended in melancholic, fcorbutic, and cutaneous
diforders, for opening obftru&ions of the vilcera, atte¬
nuating and promoting the evacuation of vifcid juices.
Frederic Hoffman had a very great opinion of it as a
purifier of the blood; and affures us, that in this inten¬
tion fcarce any plant exceeds it.—Cows and fheep eat
the plant; goats are not fond of it; horfes and fvvine
*efufe it.
FUMIGATION, in chemiftry, a kind of calcina¬
tion, when metals, or other hard bodies, are corroded,
or foftened, by receiving certain fumes for that pur-
pofe.
Fumigation, in medicine. By the fubtile fumes Fumigation'
that are infpired as well as inhaled into our bodies, II
much benefit or prejudice is produced, according to the 11 nc s'
nature of the matter, and the conftitution into which it
is received; as is evident from the palfies produced a-
mong workers in lead-mines, See. and the benefits re¬
ceived in many cafes when the air is impregnated with
falutAry materials. Catarrhs and catarrhous coughs
are relieved by fumes received with the breath ; and,
by the fame method, expedioration is affifted in hu-
moural afthmas; and even ulcers in the lungs are faid
to have been healed by this method. The advantage of
mercurial fumigations in the cure of venereal ulcers is
known to every practitioner.
FUMITORY, in botany. See Fumaria.
FUNAMBULUS, among the Romans, was what
we call a rope-dancer, and the Greeks fchosnobates. See
£<?/>tf-DANCER.
There was a funambulus, it feems, who perform¬
ed at the time when the Hecyra of Terence was ac¬
ted ; and the poet complains, that the fpe&acle pre¬
vented the people from attending to his comedy. It a
populus Jiudio Jiupidus in funambulo, anhnum occu-
parat.
At Rome, the funambuli firfl appeared under the
confulate of Sulpicius Pseticus and Licinius Stolo, who
were the firft introducers of the fcenic reprefentations.
It is added, that they were firft exhibited in the ifland
of the Tyber, and that the cenfors Meflala and Caffius
afterwards promoted them to the theatre.
FUNCHAL, an epifcopal town of Madeira, in an
ifland of the Atlantic Ocean, over-againft the coaftof
Morocco. It is large, ftrong, handfome, and popu¬
lous, with fine churches. The principal trade confifta
in fweetmeats and wines. It belongs to the Portu-
guefe; and is feated in a fertile valley, at the foot of a
mountain from whence feveral ftreams proceed. W.
Long. 14. 30. N. Lat. 31. 30.
FUNCTION, the aCt of fulfilling the duties of any
employment.
Function, being alfo applied to the a&ionsof the
body, is by phyficians divided into vital, animal, and
natural. The vital fundions are thofe neceflary to life,
and without which the individual cannot fubfift; as the
motion of the heart, lungs, &c. The natural func¬
tions are fuch as it cannot fubfift any confiderable
time without; as the digeftion of the aliment, and its
converfion into blood. Under animal functions are in¬
cluded the fenfes of touching, tailing, &c. memory,
judgment, and voluntary motion; without any or all
of which an animal may live, but not very comfort¬
ably.
The animal-funCtions perform the motion of the
body by the aCtion of the mufcles; and this ac¬
tion confifts chiefly in the fliortening the flefliy fibres,
which is called contrattion, the principal agents of
which are the arteries and nerves diftributed in the
flelhy fibres.
All parts of the body have their own fun&ions, or
aftions, peculiar to themfelves. Life confifts in the ex-
ercife of thefe functions, and health in the free and
ready exercife of them.
FUND, in general, fignifies any fum of money ap¬
propriated for a particular purpofe. Thus, that part
of the national revenue which is fet afide for the pay¬
ment
F U U [ 3145 ] FUN
Fund*, ment of the national debt, is called the finking fund.
But, when we fpeak of the funds, we generally mean
the large fums which have been lent to government,
and conftitute the national debt ; and for which the
lenders, or their aflignees, receive interell from re¬
venues allotted for that purpofe. The term foek is
ufed in the fame fenfe, and is alfo applied to the fums
which form the capital of the bank of England, the
Eaft India and South-Sea companies ; the proprietors
of which are entitled to a fhare of the profits 0/ the
refpe&ive companies.
The practice of funding was introduced by the Ve¬
netians and Genoefe in the 16th century, and has
been adopted fince by moft of the nations in Europe.
Princes had often borrowed money, in former times,
to fupply their exigencies, and fometimes mortgaged
their territories in fecurity : but thefe loans were ge¬
nerally extorted, and their payment was always preca¬
rious; for it dependedon the good faith and fuccefs of
the borrower, and never became a regular burden on
pofterity. The origin of funds is derived from the
peculiar manners and circumftances of modern Europe.
Since the invention of gun-powder, and the progrefs
of commerce, the military occupation has become a
diftinCt employment in the hands of mercenaries ; the
apparatus of war is attended with more expence ; and
the decifion of national quarrels has often been deter¬
mined by command of money, rather than by national
bravery. Ambitious princes have therefore borrowed
money, in order to carry on their projedts with more
vigour. Weaker dates have been compelled, in felf-
defence, to apply to the fame refource ; the wealth
introduced by commerce has afforded the means ; the
regularity of adminiftration, eftablilhed in confequence
of the progrefs of civility, has increafed the confidence
of individuals in the public fecurity ; the complicated
fyftem of modern policy has extended the feenes of
war, and prolonged their duration; and the colonies
eftablifiied by the mercantile nations have rendered
them vulnerable in more points, and increafed the ex¬
pence of defending them.
When a greater fum has been required for the an¬
nual expence, than could eafily be fupplied by annual
taxes, the government have propofed terms, to their
own iubje&s, or foreigners, for obtaining an advance
of money, by mortgaging the revenue of future years
for their indemnification. This mortgage may either
be for a limited period, or perpetual. If the fum al¬
lotted annually for the benefit of thofe who advance
the money, be confiderably greater than the interells
of the fums advanced, they may agree to accept of
fuch allowance, for a limited time, as a full equivalent.
Thus, they may either agree for the cafual produce
of the revenue affigned ; or a fixed annuity for a
greater or lefs number of years ; or a life-annuity to
themfelves or nominees ; or an annuity for two or more
lives ; or an annuity, with the benefit of furvivorlhip,
called a tontine, in which fcheme, the whole fum to
which the original annuitants were entitled continues
to be diftributed among the furvivors.
When the fum alltoted to the creditors of the pub¬
lic is only equivalent to the intereft of the money ad¬
vanced, the grant muft be perpetual, unlefs the debt
be redeemed by payment of the principal.
The eftablifhmeat of the funds was introduced in
Britain at the revolution ; and has fince been gradually Fund
enlarged, and carried to an amazing extent. The va-
rious methods above mentioned have been ufed in their
turns ; but perpetual annuities have been granted for
the greateft part; and, even when the money was
originally advanced on other conditions, the lenders
have been fometimes induced, by fubfequent offers, to
accept of perpetual annuities, inftead of the former
terms. The debt for which perpetual annuities arc
granted, is called the redeemable debt, and the other is
called the irredeemable debt. Although the debts thus
contra&ed by government are feldom paid for a long
term of years; yet, any creditor of the public may
obtain money for what is due him when he pleafes*
by transferring his property in the funds to another;
and regular methods are appointed for tranfafting thefe
transfers, in an eafy manner. By means of this, the
flocks become a kind of circulating capital; and have
the fame eft'edl, in fome refpe£ts, as the circulating
money in the nation. When a ftockholder transfers
his fhare, he may fometimes be able to obtain a greater
price than the original value, and at other times be
obliged to accept of a lefs one. The value of the funds
depends on the proportion between the interefl they
bear, and the benefit which may be obtained by ap¬
plying the money to other purpofes. It is influenced
by the plenty or fcarcity of money, and by the quan¬
tity of the public debt; and it is impaired by any
event which threatens the fafety, or weakens the cre¬
dit, of the government.
The bufinefs of flock-jobbing is founded on the va¬
riation of the prices of flock. Perfons poffeffed of real
property may buy or fell flock, according to their
notion that the value is likely to rife or fall, in expec¬
tation of making profit by the difference of price.
And a pradice has taken place among perfons who
often poffefs no property in the funds, to contrad for
the fale of flock againft a future day, at a price now-
agreed on. For inftance : A agrees to fell B 1000 /.
of bank-flock, to be transferred, in 20 days, for
1200/. A has, in fad, no fuch flock ; but, if the
price of bank-flock, on the day appointed for the
transfer, fhould be only 118 per cent. A may pur-
chafe as much as will enable him to fulfil his bargain
for ti8o/., and thus gains 20/. by the tranfadion ;
on the contrary, if the price of bank-flock be 125 per
cent, he will lofe L. 50. The bufinefs is generally
fettled without anyadual purchafe or transfer of flock,
by A paying to B, or receiving from him, the differ¬
ence between the current price of the flock on the
day appointed, and the price bargained for.
This pradice, which is really nothing elfe than a
wager concerning the price of flock, is contrary to
law ; yet it is carried on to a great extent. In the
language of Exchange-alley, where matters of this
kind are tranfaded, the buyer is called a bull, and the
feller a bear. As neither party can be compelled by
law to implement thefe bargains, their fenfe of honour,
and the difgrace and lofs of future credit, which at¬
tend a breach of contrad, are the principles by which
the bufinefe is fupported. When a perfon declines to
pay his lofs, he is called a lame duck, and dare never
afterwards appear in the Alley. This opprobrious
treatment, however, is not beftowed on thofe whofe
failure is owing to want of ability, providing they
make
FUN [ 3146 ] FUN
Funds, make the fame furrender of their property voluntarily,
" which the law would have exafted if the debt had
been entitled to its fan&ion.
The intereft or dividend on the flock is paid half-
yearly ; and the purchafer has the benefit of the in¬
tereft due on the ftock he buys, from the laft term to
the time of purchafe. Therefore the prices of the flocks
rife gradually,paribus, from term to term, and
fall at the term when the intereft is paid. In com¬
paring the prices of the different flocks, it is neceflary
to advert to the term when the laft intereft was paid ;
and, allowance being made for this circumftance, the
prices of all the government flocks, which bear intereft
at the fame rate, muft be nearly the fame, as they all
depend on the fame fecurity.
When a loan is propofed, fuch terms muft be of¬
fered to the lenders, as may render the tranfa&ion
beneficial ; and this is now regulated by the prices of
the old flocks. If the flocks, which bear intereft at
4 per cent, fell at par, or rather above, the govern¬
ment may expe£t to borrow money at that rate ; but,
if thefe ftocks are under par, the government muft
either grant a higher intereft, or fome other advantage
to the lenders, in compenfation for the difference.
For this purpofe, befides the perpetual annuity, ano¬
ther annuity has fometimes been granted for life, or
for a term of years. Lotteries have frequently been
employed to facilitate the loan, by entitling the fub-
fcribers to a certain number of tickets, for which no
higher price is charged than the exadf value diftributed
in prizes, though their market-price is generally L. 2
or L. 3 higher. Sometimes an abatement of a certain
proportion of the capital has been granted, and a
lender entitled to hold L. too ftock, though in.re¬
ality he advanced no more, perhaps, than L. 95.
It belongs to the Chancellor of the Exchequer to
propofe the terms of the loan in parliament; and he
generally makes a previous agreement with fome weal¬
thy merchants, who are willing to advance the money
on the terms propofed. The fubfcribers to the loan
depofit a certain part of the fum fubfcribed ; and are
bound to pay the reft by inftalments, or ftated pro¬
portions, on appointed days, under pain of forfeiting
what they have depofited. For this they are entitled,
perhaps, not only to hold their ftiare in the capital,
but to an annuity for 10 years, and to the right of
receiving a certain number of lottery-tickets on ad¬
vantageous terms. They may fell their capital to one
perfon, their annuity to a fecond, and their right to
the tickets to a third. The value of all thefe interefts
together is called omnium ; and, in order to obtain a
ready fubfcription, it ought to amount to L. 102, or
upwards, on L. 100 of capital. This difference is cal¬
led the bonus to the fubfcribers.
When a loan is made, a new tax is impofed to de¬
fray the annuities. For fome time, each tax was par¬
ticularly appropriated for the payment of annuities
then created : but the method was found inconvenient,
as fome of the taxes fell fhort of the fum expe&ed,
while others exceeded it; and the multiplicity of
funds produced confufion. This gave occafion to
unite the various branches of the revenue into a few
funds. The South-Sea Fund was eftabliftied in the
year 1711, for payment of the annuities due to that
company. The Aggregate Fund was eftabliftied in
1715, and the General Fund in 1717, for the pay- Funds.
ment of other annuities. All the other branches of  
the revenue then fubfifting, except the annual land and
malt tax, and the branches applied for the fupport of
the civil government, were appropriated to one or
other of thefe funds. And, as thefe revenues were
confiderably greater than the charges for which the
funds were anfwerable, the overplus was appointed to
be colle&ed together, and remain at the difpofal of
parli^nent; and is known by the name of the Sinking
Fww^becaufe intended for the difcharge of the na¬
tional debt. At the beginning of the prefent reign,
the revenues appropriated to the civil lift were added
to the aggregate fund, and that fund charged with
the nett fum of L. 800,000, fince increafed to
L. 900,000, in place of the fame. When money has
been borrowed fince the eftabliftiment of thefe funds,
the finking fund is made a collateral fecurity, in cafe
the tax impofed for the payment of the annuity ftiould
prove deficient; and fometimes the new taxes have
been diredtly paid into that fund, and the annuities
charged on the fame; and the faith of parliament is
pledged to corroborate the fecurity. The finking
fund has yielded an annual overplus, for many years,
of more than two millions Sterling; which, in time
of war, is applied to the current fervices; and, even
in time of peace, a confiderable part is diverted to the
fame purpofe ; as the annual land and malt tax, the
only other unappropriated funds, are infufficient for
defraying the charge of a peace-eftablifliment.
The terms of the government loans have been very
different, according to the circumftances under which
they took place. The intereft has generally been
lower than the current intereft of the nation, becaufe
it is pundtually paid ; and the government fecurity is
efteemed preferable to any of a private kind. Some¬
times, however, when the exigencies were preffing,
and the national refources, in fome meafure, exhaufted
by the continuance of war, a higher intereft has been
granted than was current in private debts. But, as the
prices of fuch ftocks rofe above par in peaceable times,
advantage was taken of that circumftance to prevail
on the holders to confent to a redudtion of the intereft,
by offering payment of the principal, in cafe they re-
fufed. Thus, the intereft on the greater part of the
national debt, contrafted before the late war with
France, was reduced to 3 per cent, and the ftocks were
united under the names of reduced and confolidated an¬
nuities. Part of the confolidated annuities bear inte¬
reft at 4 percent, till the year 1781, when it falls,
like the reft, to 3 per cent. In fubfequent loans, the
faith of parliament has fometimes been engaged, that
the debt (hall not be redeemed, and, of confequence,
the intereft not reduced, for a number of years con-
defcended on.
The rife of the terms of the public loans, during the
continuance of war, will appear from the following
abftraft of thofe which was made during the late war
with France and Spain, and the prefent conteft with
America.
Loans for French War.
1755. At 3 per cent, by lottery L. 900,000
1756. At 34 per cent. - 1,500,000
At 3 per cent, by lottery 500,000
1757. At
Funds.
[
3,100,000
4,500,000
500,000
FUN
_ 1757. At 3 per cent, and an additional
life-annuity of 1 per cent.
1758. At 34 percent. • -
At 3 per cent, by lottery
1759. At 3 per cent, and a premium of
15 per cent, additional capita'.
1760. At 4 per cent, irredeemable for
20 years, and 3 per cent, there¬
after, with a premium of 3 per
cent, additional capital
1761. At 3 per cent, irredeemable for 20
years, befides ann. of L,. 1:2:6
per L,. 100 for 99 years
At 3 per cent, by lottery
1762. At 4 per cent, irredeemable for
20 years, and an annuity of 1 per
cent, for 98 years - 12,000,00a
The remaining debt, not provided
for at the peace, was partly
paid offin the fubfequent years,
and the reft funded at 3 percent.
Loans for American 'war.
1776. At 3 per cent, with premium of 8
per cent, additional capital, and
benefit of lottery - L. 2,160,000
1-777. At 4 per cent, irredeemable for to
years, with an annuity of 1 per
cent, for 10 years, and benefit
of lottery
1778. At 3 per cent, perpetual annuity,
with an additional annuity of
2 per cent- for 30 years, and be¬
nefit of lottery - 6,000,000
1777. At 3 per cent, perpetual annuity,
and L. 3 : 15 s. per cent, an¬
nuity for 29 years, and benefit
of lottery - - 7,000,000
The capital advanced to the^public, in the form of
transferable flocks, and bearing intereft from taxes
appropriated for that purpofe, is called the funded
debt. Befides, there is generally a confiderable fum
due by government, which is not difpofed of in that
manner, and therefore is diftinguilhed by the appella¬
tion of the unfunded debt. This may arife from any
fort of national expence, for which no provifion has
been made, or for wdiich the provifion has proved
fufficient. The forms of the unfunded debts are v
ous, according to the circumftances by which it is
3047 ] FUN
In time of war, the public expences, fihce the revo- Funds
lution, have always been much greater than the an*- II
nual revenue ; and large fums have confequently been
borrowed. In time of peace, the revenue exceeds the menta '
expence, and part of the public debts have frequently
7,590,000 been paid off. Bur, though there have been more years
of peace than of war fince the funds were eftablilhed,
the debts contra&ed during each war have much ex¬
ceeded the payments during the fubfequent peace.
8,240,000 This will appear by the following abftradt of the pro-
grefs of the national debt.
Debt at peace of Ryfwich, 1697 L. 21,515,472
11,400,000 - Debt at the beginning of war 1701 16,394,701
600,000 Difcharged during peace 1697 to 1701 5,121,071
Debt at peace of Utrecht 1714, inclu¬
ding value of annuities afterwards fub-
12,000,000 feribed to South-Sea ftock - 55,282,978
Contradted in war 1701 to 1714 38,888,277
Debt at beginning of war 1740, inclu¬
ding L. 1,000,000, charged on civil
lift • - - 47.954.623
Dilcharged during peace 171410 1739 7»328,355'
Debt at Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748 79,193,313
Contracted during war 1740 to 1748 31,238,690
Debt at beginning of war 1756 73,289,673
Paid off during peace 1748 to 1756 5,903,640
Debt funded at the peace 1763, inclu¬
ding L. 9,839,597 then owing, which
was funded in the fubfequent years 133,957,270
Befides this, there was about L.6,000,000
of debt paid off, without ever being
funded.
Funded debt, 1775 - 125,00,000
Paid off during peace 1763 to 1775, be¬
fides unfunded debt above mentioned 8,959,270
Funded debt contra&ed during the A-
merican war 1776 to 1779, incldfive 20,600,000
FUNDAMENT, in anatomy, the lowed part of
the inteftinum reCtum, called by anatomifts the anus.
See Anatomy, n° 354.
FUNDAMENTAL, in general, fomething that;
ferves as a bafe or foundation for another.
Fundamental, in mufic. K fundamental found is
that which forms the lowed note of the Chord, and
from whence are deduced the harmonica! relations of
the reft; or, which ferves for a key to the tone*. The *SeeTonic.
fundamental bafs is that which ferves for a foundation
to the harmony. A fundamental chord is-that whofe-
5,500,000
occafioned. But there are two regular branches of hafs is fundamental, and in which the founds are ran-
this debt, which always fubfift, to a greater or Idler
extent.
1 ft, Exchequer Bills. Theft are iffued from the
exchequer, generally by appointment of parliament, and
fometimes without fuch appointment, when exigencies
require. They bear intereft from the time when iffuedj
ged in the fame order as when they are generated, ac¬
cording to the experiment To often repeated by M.
d’Alembert, in his Preliminary Difcourfe and Elements
of Mufic f, But as this order removes the parts to an |SecM»/if.
extreme diftance one from the other, they muft be ap¬
proximated by combinations or inverfions; but if the
and are taken in by the bank of England, which pro- bafs remains the fame, the chord does not for this r
motes their circulation.
2d, Navy-Bills. The fums annually granted for the
navy have always fallen ftiort of what that fervice re¬
quired. To fupply that deficiency, the admiralty if-
ties bills in payment of vi&uals, ftores, and the like,
which bear intereft fix months after the time iffued.
The debt of the navy thus contradfed is difcharged,
from time to time, by parliament.
fon ceafe to bear the name of fundamental. Such an
example is this chord, ut mifol, included in the inter¬
val of a fifth: whereas, in the order of its generation,
ut fol mi, it includes a tenth, and even a feventeenth;
fince the fundamental ut is not the fifth of fol, but the
odtave of that fifth.
Fundamental ifo/i. This part in mufic is, ac¬
cording to Rouffeau, and indeed according to all au¬
thors
FUN [ 3048 ] FUN
Fundi* thors who have proceeded upon M. Rameau’s experi-
mcr'ta' ment, in its primary idea, that bafs which is formed
by the fundamental notes of every perfedf chord that
conftitutes the harmony of the piece; fo that under
each chord it caufes to be heard, or underftood, the
fundamental found of that particular chord; that is to
fay, the found from whence it is derived by the rules
of harmony. From wlunce we may fee, that the fun¬
damental bafs can have no other contexture than that
of a regular and fundamental fucceffion, without which
the procedure of the upper parts would be illegitimate.
To underftand this well, it is neceflary to be known,
that, according to the fyftem of Rameau, which Rouf-
feau has followed in his Di&ionary, every chord, tho’
compofed of feveral founds, can only have one which
is its fundamental, viz. that which produces this chord,
and which is its bafs according to the direft and natu¬
ral order. Now, the bafs which prevails under all the
other parts, does not always exprefs the fundamental
founds of the chords: for amonglt all the founds which
form a chord, the compofer is at liberty to transfer to
the bafs that which he thinks preferable; regard being
had to the procedure of that bafs, to the beauty of the
melody, and above all to the exprefiion, as may after¬
wards be explained. In this cafe the real fundamental
found, inftead of retaining its natural ftation, which is
in the bafs, will either be transferred to fome of the
other parts, or perhaps even entirely fuppreffed, and
fuch a chord is called an inverted chord.
In reality, fays Rameau, a chord inverted does
mot differ from the chord in its direft and natural or¬
der from which it was produced: but as thefe founds
form different combinations, thefe combinations have
long been taken for fundamental chords; different names
have been given them, (which may be feen at the word
Accord, in Rouffeau’s Di&ionary). Thefe names,
by the perfons who bellowed them, were thought to
create and fandlify their dillindlions; as if a difference
in names could really produce a difference in the fpe-
cies.
Mr Rameau in his Treatife of Harmony has fhown,
and M. D’Alembert in his Elements of Mufic has ftill
more clearly evinced, that many of thefe pretendedly
different chords were no more than inverfions of one
lingle chord. Thus the chord of the fixth is no more
than the perfect chord of the third transferred to the
bafs; by adding a fifth, we fhall have the chord of the
fixth and fourth. Here there are three combinations of a
chord, which only confifts of three founds; thofe which
contain four founds are fufceptible of four combina¬
tions, fince each of thefe founds may be transferred to
the bafs. But in adding beneath this another bafs
which, under all the combinations of one and the fame
chord, always prefents the fundamental found; it is e-
vident, that confonant chords are reduced to the num¬
ber three, and the number of diffonant chords to four.
Add to this all the chords by fuppofition, which may
likewife be reduced to the fame fundamentals, and you
will find harmony brought to a degree of fimplicity in
which no perfon could ever hope to fee it whilft its
rules remained in that flate of confufion where M. Ra¬
meau found them. It is certainly, as that author ob-
ferves, an aftonifhing occurrence, that the praftice of
this art could be carried fo far as it really was, with¬
out knowing its foundation; and that all the rules
were fo exaftly found, without having difeovered the FtmJs-
principle on which they depended. mental. |
After having fhown what is the fundamental bafs be¬
neath the chords, let us now fpeak of its procedure, and
of the manner in which it connefts thefe chords among
themfelves. Upon this point the precepts of the art
may be reduced to the fix following rules.
1. The fundamental bafs ought never to found any
other notes than thofe of the feries or tone in which
the compofer finds himfelf, or at leaft thofe of the fe¬
ries or tone to which he choofes to make a tranfition.
This of all the rules for the fundamental bafs is the firfl
and moft indifpenfable.
2. By the fecond, its procedure ought to be fo im¬
plicitly fubjedted to the laws of modulation, as never
to fuffer the idea of a former mode to be loft till that
of a fubfequent one can be legitimately affumed ; that
is to fay, that the fundamental bafs ought never to be
devious, or fuffer us to be one moment at a lofs in
what mode we are.
3. By the third, it is fubje&ed to the connedlion of
chords and the preparation of diffonances: a ma¬
noeuvre wdiich, as we (hall afterwards fee, is nothing
elfe but a method of producing this connedlion, and
which of confequence is only neceffary when the con¬
nedlion cannot fubfift without it. See Connection,
Preparation.
4. By the fourth, it is neceffitated, after every diffo-
nance, to purfue that career which the- refolution of
the diffonance indifpenlably preferibes. See Re&qlUi-
tion.
5. By the fifth, which is nothing elfe but a confe¬
quence of the former, the fundamental bafs ought only
to move by confonant intervals ; except alone in the
operation of a broken cadence, or after a chord of the
feventh diminifhed, where it rifes diatonically. Every
other motion of the fundamental bafs is illegitimate.
6. By the fixth, in Ihort, the fundamental bafs or
harmony ought not to befyncopated; but to diftinguifli
the bars and the times which they contain, by changes
of chords properly marked with cadences ; in fuch a
manner, for inftance, that the diffonances which ought
to be prepared may find their preparation in the im-
perfedl time, but chiefly that all the repofes may hap¬
pen in the perfedl time. This fixth rule admits of an
infinite number of exceptions; but the compofer ought
however to be attentive to it, if he would form a mufic
in which the movements are properly marked, and in
which the bars may end gracefully.
Wherever thefe rules are obferved, the harmony
ftiall be regular and without fault: this, however, will
not hinder the mufic from being deteftable. See Com¬
position.
A word of illuftration on the fifth rule may not be
ufelefs. Whatever turn may be given to a fundamental
bafs, if it is properly formed, one of thefe alternatives
mull always be found : either, perfedl chords moving by
confonant intervals, without which thefe chords would
have no connexion ; or, diffonant chords in operations
of cadence: in every other cafe, the diffonance can nei¬
ther be properly placed nor properly refolved.
From thence it follows, that the fundamental bafs
cannot move regularly but in one of thefe three man¬
ners. 1/?, To rife or defeend by a third or by a fixth.
idly, By a fourth or a fifth, $dly, To rife diatonically
by
pr
FUN [ 3149 ] FUN
Puntlamen- by means of the diflbnance which forms the cotmec-
ta1, tion, or by a licence upon a perfe& chord. With re-
fpeft to a diatonic defcent, it is a motion abfolutely
prohibited to the fundamental bafs; or, at moft, merely
tolerated in cafes where two perfeft chords are in fuc-
ceffion, divided by a clofe expreffed or underftood. This
rule has no other exception: and it is from not difeern-
ing the foundation of certain tranfitions, that M. Ra¬
meau has caufed the fundamental bafs to defeend dia-
tonically under chords of the feventh ; an operation
which is impra&icable in legitimate harmony. See
Cadence, Dissonance.
The fundamental bafs, which they add for no other
reafon than to ferve as a proof of the harmony, muft
be retrenched in execution, and often in practice it
would have a very bad effed; for it is, as M. Rameau
very properly obferves, intended for the judgment and
not for the ear. It would at leaft produce a monotony
extremely naufeous by frequent returns of the fame
chord, which they difguife and vary more agreeably
by combining it in different manners upon the conti¬
nued bafs, without reckoning upon the different inver-
fions of harmony which furniff a thoufand means of ad¬
ding new beauties to the mufic, and new energy to the
expreffion. See Chord, Inversion.
But it will be objeded, If the fundamental bafs
is not ufeful in compofing good mufic, if it muft even
be retrenched in pradice, what good purpofe, then, can
it ferve ? We anfwer, that, in the firft place, it ferves for
a rule to fcholars, upon which they may learn to form
a regular harmony, and to give to all the parts fuch
a diatonic and elementary procedure as is preferibed
them by that fundamental bafs. It does more, as we
have already faid: it proves whether a harmony already
formed be juft and regular; for all harmony which
cannot be fubjeded to the left of a fundamental bafs,
muft according to all rules be bad. Finally, it ferves
for the inveftigation of a continued bafs under a given
air: tho’ in reality, he who cannot diredly form a con¬
tinued bafs, will fcarcely be able to form a fundamen¬
tal bafs, which is better; and much lefs ftill will he be
able to transform that fundamental bafs into a legiti¬
mate continued bafs. Thefe which follow are, how¬
ever, the principal rules which M. Rameau preferibes
for finding the fundamental bafs of a given air.
1. To afeertain with precifion the mode in which
the compofer begins, and thofe through which he paffes.
There are alfo rules for inveftigating the modes; but
fo long, fo vague, fo incomplete, that, with refped to
this, the ear may be formed long before the rules are
acquired ; and the dunce who fiionld try to ufe them,
would gain no improvement but the habit of proceed¬
ing always note by note, without even knowing where
he is.
2. To try in fucceffion under each note the princi¬
pal chords of the mode, beginning by thofe which are
moft analogous, and palling even to the moft remote,
when the compofer fees himfelf under a necefiity of do¬
ing fo.
3. To confider whether the chord chofen can fuit
the upper part in what precedes and in what follows,
by a juft fundamental fucceffion; and when this is im-
pradticahle, to return the way he came.
3. Not to change the note of the fundamental bafs
till after having exhaufted all the notes which are al-
Vol. IV.
lowed in fucceffion in the upper part, and which catrFunikmjr,
enter into its chord; or till fome fyncopated note in t;'1
the air may be fuceptible of two or a greater number pun|,ira[
of notes in the bafs, to prepare the diffonance which.   
may be afterwards refolved according to rule.
5. To ftndy the iritertexture of the phrafes ; the,
poffible fucceffion of cadences, whether full or avoid¬
ed; and above all, the paufes which for ordinary re¬
turn at the end of every four, or of every two bars,
fo that they may always fall upon perfect and regular
cadences.
6. In Ihort, to obferve all the rules formerly given
for the compofition of the fundamental bafs.—Thefe
are the principle obfervations to be made for finding
one under any given air; for there are fometimes feve*
ral different ones which may be inveftigated. But,
whatever may be faid to the contrary, if the air has
accent and chara&er, there is only one juft fundamental
bafs which can be adapted to it.
After having given a fummary explication of the
manner in which a fundamental bafs fiiould be compo-
fed, it ffiould remain to fuggeft the means of tranf-
forming it into a continued bafs ; and this would be
eafy, if it were only neceffary to regard the diatonic
procedure and the agreeable air of this bafs. But let
us not imagine, that the bafs, which is the guide and
fupport of the harmony, the foul, and as it were the
interpreter, of the air, fiiould be limited to rules fo
fimple : there are others which depend upon principles
more certain and more radical; fruitful, but latent
principles, which have been felt by every artift of ge¬
nius, without having been dete&ed by any one. Rouf-
feau hopes, that in his letter upon French mufic he
infinuated this principle. For thofe who underftand
him, he imagines he has faid enough concerning it,
and can never fay enough of it for thofe who do not.
See Roujfeau’s Mifcellanies, Vol. II. ,p. 1.
He does not here mention the ingenious fyftem by
M. Serre of Geneva, nor his double fundamental bafs;
becaufe the principles, which, with a fagacity merito¬
rious of praife, he had half dete&ed, have afterwards
been unfolded by M. Tartini, in a work of which
Rouffeau has give an account in his article System.
FUNDY-bay, a bay feated between New-Englar.d
and Acadia or New-Scotland, in which there is au ex¬
cellent fifiiery.
FUNEN, or Fionia, a confiderable ifland in Den»
mark, feated on the Baltic fea, and feparated from Jut¬
land by a ftrait called the Lejfer Belt, and from the
ifiand of Zealand by another called the Great Belt. It
is fertile in wheat and barley; and abounds in cattle,
horfes, game of all forts, and fifii. Odenfee is the ca¬
pital town.
FUNERAL rites, ceremonies accompanying the
interment or burial of any perfon.
Thefe rites differed among the ancients according to
the different genius and religion of each country. The
Egyptians, among the reft of their funeral rites, em¬
balmed their dead.
Among the ancient Greeks it was ufual fometimes,
before the interment, to put a piece of money into the
mouth of the deceafed, which was thought to be Cha¬
ron’s fare for wafting the departed foul over the infer¬
nal river. This ceremony was not ufed in thofe coun¬
tries which were ftippofed to be fituated in the neigh-
18 D hour-
FUN [31
rnnerah boarliood of the infernal regions, and to lead thither
by a ready and direft road. The corpfe was like wife
furnifhed with a cake, compofed of flour, honey, &c.
which was defigned to appeafe the fury of Cerberus
the door-keeper of hell, and to procure the ghoft a
fafe and quiet entrance.
During the time the corpfe continued irr the hoofe,
there flood before the door a veffel of water: the defign
of which was, that thofe concerned about the body
might purify themfelves by walking ; it being the opi¬
nion of the Greeks, as well as of the Jews, that pollu¬
tion was contra&ed by touching a dead body.
The ceremonies by which they exprefled their for-
row for the death of their friends, w ere various ; but
it feems to have been aconftant rule to recede as much
as poflible in habit and behaviour from their ordinary
cuftoms. For this reafon they abftained from banquets
and entertainments; they diverted themfelves of all or¬
naments ; they tore, cut off, or lhaved their hair, which
they caft into the funeral pile, to be confumed with
the body of their deceafed friend. Sometimes they
threw themfelves on the ground, and rolled in thedufl,
or covered their head with afhes; they beat their
breafts, and even tore their flelh with their nails, upon
the lofs of a perfon they much lamented. When per-
fons of rank, fuch as public magiftrates. or great ge¬
nerals, died, the w-hole city put on a face of mourn¬
ing ; all public meetings were intermitted ; the fchools,
baths, (hops, temples, and all places of concourfe, were
fhut up.
Interring or laying the dead on the ground, feems to
have been the moft ancient pra&ice among the Greeks;
though burning came afterwards to be generally ufed
among them. It was cuftomary to throw into the fu¬
neral pile, thofe garments the deceafed nfually wore,
The pile was lighted by one of the deceafed’s neareft
relations or friends, who made prayers and vows to
the winds to affift the flames, that the body might
quickly bfe reduced to afhes; and during the time
the pile was burning, the dead perfon’s friends flood
by it, pouring libations of wine, and calling upon the
deceafed.
When Numa reformed the religion of Rome, he or¬
dered that the pontiff's fhould have the care of the fu¬
neral ceremonies ; which, in moft refpe&s, were like
thofe of the Greeks already defcribed.
The funeral rites among the Hebrews were folemn
and magnificent. When any perfon was dead, his rela¬
tions and friends rent their cloths; which cuftom is
but faintly imitated by the modern Jews, who only
cut off a bit of their garment, in token of affliftion. It
was ufual to bend the dead perfon’s. thumb into the
hand, and faften it in that pofture with a firing ; be-
caufe the thumb then having the figure of the namj of
God, they thought the devil would not dare to ap-
proach-it. When they came to the burying place, they
made a fpeech to the dead in the following terms::
“ Blefied be God, who has formed thee, fed thee,
maintained thee, and taken away thy life. O dead! he
knows your numbers, and fhall one day reftore your
life, See.” Then they fpoke the elogium, or funeral
oration, of the deceafed ; after which they faid a pray¬
er, called the righteoufnefs of judgment; then turning
the face of the deceafed towards heaven, they called
®ut, “ Go in peace.”
56 ] FUN
The ancient Chriflians teftified their abhorrence of Funeral,
the Pagan cuftom of burning the dead ; and always
depofited the body entire in the ground: and it was
ufual to beftow the honour of embalming upon the
martyrs at leaft, if not upon others. They prepared
the body for burial, by wafhing it with water, and
dreffing it in a funeral attire. The exportation or
carrying forth of the body was performed by near re¬
lations, or perfons of fuch dignity as the circumftances
of the deceafed required. Pfalmody, or Tinging of
pfalms, was the great ceremony ufed in all funeral pro-
ceflions among the ancient Chriftians.
In the Romifti church, when a perfon is dead, they
wafh the body, and put a crucifix in its hand. At its
feet ftands a veffel full of holy water, and a fprinkler,
that they who come in may fprinkle' both themfelves
and the deceafed. In the mean time fomepriqft ftands
by the corpfe, and prays for the deceafed till it is laid
in the earth. In the funeral proceffion, the exorcift
walks firft, carrying the holy water; next the crofs-
bearer, afterwards the reft of the clergy, and laft of all
the officiating prieft. They all iing the v/iferere, and
fome other pfalms ; and at the end of each pfalm a re¬
quiem. We learn from Alet’s ritual, that the faces of
deceafed laymen muff be turned towards the altar,,
when they are placed in the church ; and thofe of the
clergy, towards the people. The corpfe is placed in
the church furrounded with lighted tapers : after the
office for the dead, mafs is faid ; then the officiating
prieft fprinkles the corpfe thrice with holy water, and
as often throws incenfe on it. The body being laid in
the grave, the friends and relations of the deceafed
fprinkle the grave with holy water.
The funeral ceremonies of the Greek church, are
much the fame with thofe of the Latin. It needs on¬
ly be obferved, that, after the funeral fervice, they kifs
the crucifix, and falute the mouth and forehead of the
deceafed : after which each of the company eats a bit
of bread and drinks a glafs of wine in the church,
wifhingthe foul a good repofe, and the affli&ed family
all confolatfon.
FuNERAL-GtfM<\r, a part of the ceremony of the an¬
cient funerals.
It was cuftomary for perfons of quality, among the
ancient Greeks and Romans, to inftitute games, with,
all forts of exercifes, to render the death of their friends
more remarkable. This praftice was generally recei¬
ved, and is frequently mentioned by ancient writers.
Patroclus’s funeral games take up the greateft part of
one of Homer’s Iliads; and Agamemnon’s ghoft is
introduced by the fame poet telling the ghoft of A-
chilles, that he had been a fpedlator at a great num¬
ber of fuch folemnitits.
The celebration of thefe games among the Greeks,,
moftly confifted of horfe-races ; the prizes were of dif¬
ferent forts and value, according to the quality and. -
magnificence of the perfon that celebrated them. The
garlands, given to viclors on this occafion, were ufual-
ly of parfly, which was thought to have fome particu¬
lar relation to the dead.
Thofe games, among the Romans, confifted chief¬
ly of proceffions} and fometimes of mortal combats,
of gladiators around the funeral pile. They, as well
as the Greeks, had alfo a cuftom, though very an¬
cient, of cutting the throats of a number of captives
before
FUR
FUR
Funeral before the pile, as vi&ims to appeafe the manes of
II. the deceafed. Coefar relates, that the Gauls had this
Furies. n
 cuitom.
The funeral games were abolifhed by the emperor
Claudius.
YvnEKAL-Oration, a difcourfe pronounced in praife
of a perfon deceafed, at the ceremony of his funeral.
This cuftom is very ancient, both among the Greeks
and Romans. Before the company departed from the
fepulchre, they were often entertained with a panegy¬
ric upon the dead perfon, always pronounced by a near
relation, or one of the public magiftrates.
FUNGI (from a-<poyyo(, fungus), one of the feven fa¬
milies or tribes of the vegetable kingdom, according to
[ 3'5i ]
Linnseus, comprehending all thofe who are of the Jirious Grammarians.
enormous crime. Furius.
Mythologifts fuppofe, that Tifiphane punilhed the II
crimes which fprang from hatred or anger; Megaera,'_^^^_
thofe from envy ; and Alefto, thofe from an infatiable
purfuit after riches and pleafure. They were worfhip-
ped at Cafina in Arcadia, and at Carmia in Peloponne-
fus. They had a temple at Athens, near the Areopa¬
gus, and their priefts were chofen from amongft the
judges of that court. At Telphufia, a city in Arca¬
dia, a black ewe was facrificed to them.
FURIUS (Bibaculus), a Latin Poet, fiouriflied
about 103 B. C. He wrote annals in verfe, of which
Macrobius recites fome fragments. Suetonius alfo re¬
lates fome verfes of his on Valerius Cato, in his 7//a-
mulhroom kind, and which in Tournefort conftitute
the 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th genera of the
firft feftion in the clafs xvii.
Fungi, an order of plants in the fragmenta method's
naturalis of Linnaeus. See Botany, p. 1317.
FUNGIBLES, in Scots law, are fuch things as are
eftimated by number, weight, or meafure ; as, coin,
butter, ale, &c.
FUNGITiE, in natural hiflory, a kind of foflile
coral, of a conic figure, though fometimes flatted and
ftriated longitudinally.
FUNGUS, in furgery, denotes any fpongy excre-
fcence. See Surgkry.
FUNNEL of a Chimney, the (haft or fmalleft
part of the wafte, where it is gathered into its lead di-
menfions.
Palladio dire&s, that the funnels of chimneys be
carried through the roof four or five feet at lead, that
they may carry the fmoke clear from the houfe into
the air. See the article Chimney.
He alfo advifes, that chamber-chimneys be not made
narrower than xo or xx inches, nor broader than 15 :
for if too narrow, the fmoke will not be able to make
its way ; and, if too wide, the wind will drive it back
into the room.
FUR, or Furr, in commerce. See Furr.
FURBISHER, a perfon who furbilhes, polilhes, or
cleans arms, as guns, fwbrds, piftols, &c.; which is
chiefly performed with emery. Seethe article Emery.
FURCA,in antiquity, a piece of timber refembling
a fork, ufed by the Romans as an inftrument of pu-
nilhment.
The puniihment of the furca was of three kinds :
the firlt only ignominious, when a mailer, for fmall
offences, forced a fervant to carry a furca on his fhoul-
ders about the city. The fecond was penal, when the
party was led about the circus, or other place, with
the furca about his neck, and whipped all the way.
The third was capital, when the malefadtor having his
head fattened on the furca, was whipped to death.
FURCHE', in heraldry, a crofs forked at the ends.
FURIES, in Pagan antiquity, certain goddefles
whofe office it was to punilh the guilty after death.
They were three in number: Ale£lo, Megasra, and
FURLING, in the fea language, fignifies the
wrapping up and binding any fail clofe to the yard ;
which is done by bawling upon the clew-lines, bunt¬
lines, &c. which wraps the fail clofe together, and be¬
ing bound fall to the yard the fail is furled.
FURLONG, a long meafure, equal to one eighth
of a mile, or 40 poles.
It is alfo ufed in fome law-books, for the eighth part
of an acre.
FURLOUGH, in the military language, a licence
granted by an officer to a foldier, to be abfent for fome
time from his duty.
FURNACE, an utenfil, or veffel, proper to contain
fire, or to raife and maintain a vehement fire in, whe¬
ther of coal or wood.—Of thefe there are a great va¬
riety, according to the different ufes to which they are
applied.
An Effay or Cupelling Furnace is made in the p,ate
following manner. 1. Make with iron plates a ? 11'
hollow quadrangular prifm, eleven inches broad and
nine inches high (aa, bb), ending at top in a hollow
quadrangular pyramid (bb, cc) feven inches high,
terminating in an aperture at top feven inches fquare.
This prifm mull be clofed at bottom with another iron Cramer's
plate, which ferves as a bafis or bottom to it (a a).
2. Near the bottom make a door three inches d'ay,ni'
high, and five inches broad, that leads to the afh-hole.
3. Above this door, and at the height of fix inches
from the bafis, make another door (f), of the figure
of a fegment of a circle, four inches broad at its bafis,
and three inches and a half high in the middle. 4. Then
fallen three iron plates on the forepart of this furnace.
Let the firft of them (gg), eleven inches long and half
an inch high, be faflened, fo that its lower edge fhall
reft againft the bottom of the furnace, with three or
four rivets; and in fuch a manner, that there may be:
between the upper edge of the faid plate and the fide
of the furnace a groove fo. wide, as that the Aiders of
the lower door (<k k) may be put into it, and freely
move backwards and forwards therein : thefe mull be
made of a thicker iron-plate. The fecond iron-plate
(h h), eleven inches long, three inches high, and per-
fedtly parallel to the foregoing plate, mull be failened
in the fpace between the .two doors, in fuch manner
Tifipbone; who were defcribed with fnakes inflead of that both the upper and the lower, edges of it may form
hair, and eyes like lightening, carrying iron chains
and whips in one hand, and in the other flaming
torches; the latter to difcover, and the former to punifh,
the guilty : and they were fuppofed to be conllantly
•hovering over fuch jperfons as had been guilty of any
a hollow groove with the fide of the furnace. One of
thefe grooves, which is turned downwards, ferves to
receive the upper edge of the Aiders that fliut the
lower door (No. 2). The other, that turns upwards,
is to receive the inferior edges of the Aiders of the
18 D 2 fmall
FUR [3.
fmall door above (No. 3). The third plate (ii), which
is like the firtt, mult be rivetted clofe above the upper
door, in fuch manner, that it may form a groove turn¬
ing downwards, and contiguous to the upper edge of
the tipper door (No. 3.) 5. In order to /but both
doors (No. 2, 3.), you muft adapt to each of them two
Aiders made of iron-plates, that may move within
the above-mentioned grooves k, /1). But the two
Aiders belonging to the upper door (No. 3.) moft have
each a hole near the top ; that is, one a fmall hole
one fifth part of an inch broad, and one inch and ahalf
long (ot) ; and the other a femicircular aperture, one
inch high and two inches broad («). Let, befides, each
Aider have a handle, that they may be laid hold of when
they are to be moved. 6V Moreover, let five round
holes, one inch broad, be bored in the furnace; two
of which muft; be made in the fore-part of the furnace
(00), two others in the back part; all at the height
of five inches from the bottom, but three inches and a
half diftant from each fide, of the furnace; and, fi¬
nally, a fifth hole f/>J, at the height of one inch above
the upper edge of the upper door (f). 7. In ftiort,
let the infide of tire furnace be armed with iron-hooks,
jetting out half an inch, and about three inches di¬
ftant from each other, to faften the lute with which
the furnace is to be covered over within. 8. Let
then an iron, moveable, hollow, quadrangular' pyra¬
mid (g), three inches high, be adapted to tbe upper
aperture (tf) of the furnace, at the bafts feven inches
broad, ending upwards in a hollow tube (r), three
Inches in diameter, two inches high, almoft cylindri¬
cal, though fomewhat convergent at top. This pro¬
minent tube fervts to fupport a funnel or flue, which
is almoft cylindrical, hollow, .made of iron-plates, and
two foot high ; and which, when a very ftrong fire is
required, is put perpendicularly upon the (horter tube,
•in fuch a manner, that it enters clofe into it, one inch
•and a half or two inches deep, and may again be
taken off at pleafure, when there is no need ©f fo ftrong
a fire. But this pyramidal cover (y) muft befides
have two handles (rr) adapted to it, that it may be
laid hold of, and thus be taken away or put on again:
and that this, being put on the aperture (<i) of the
furnace, may not be eafily thrown down, let an iron
plate be rivetted to the right and left upper edge of
the furnace (cc), and be turned down towards the in¬
fide, fo as to make a furrow open before and behind,
into which the lateral edges of the cover may enter
and be faftened, and at pleafure be moved backwards
and forwards, whenever it muft be put on, or moved.
9. Let a fquare ledge, made of a thick iron-plate,
be faftened at top of the upper edge of the lower door
(e) : this is defigned to fupport the grate and tbe
lute ; but it muft be made of two pieces, that it may
‘be eafily introduced into the cavity of the furnace.
Thus you will have an affay-oven, which muft after¬
wards be covered over an the infide with lute. This
you are to do as follows :
That the fire may be better confined, and that
the iron may not be deftroyed by growing red-hot,
the whole infide of the- furnace muft be covered over
with lute, one finger or one finger and a half thick.
The lute fit for this is deferibed under the article Che¬
mistry, n°7S, 81. But before you cover the inlide of
your furnace with this lutea you muft firft put within
52 ] F U R
the furnace fmall iron bars, equal in length to the
diameter of the oven, quadrangular, prifmatical, half"
an inch thick, having their extremities fupported by
a fquare iron ledge, and three fourths of an inch di¬
ftant from each other ; and you muft faften them fo,
that their flat fides imay be oblique with regard to the
tranfverfe fedtion of the furnace, and that the two op-
polite angles may look one upwards and the other
downwards: the bat's muft not be laid flat, but edge-
wife ; by which fituation you hinder the alhes of the
fuel of the fire from being detained too long between
the interftices of the faid iron-bars, and from making
nn ©bftruction that would oppofe the free draught of
the air. The furnace being then covered over with
lute, and dried up by a gentle heat, is at laft fit for
doeimaftical operations, and efpecially for fuch as muft
be performed in the affay-oven.
If then an operation is to be made in the furnace
hitherto deferibed, you muft let through the four
lower holes above deferibed of the furnace [00) placed
before and behind, and dire&ly oppofite to each other,
two iron-bars one inch thick, and long enough that
their extremities on every fide may jut out of the holes
a fmall matter. Thefe ferve to fupport the muffle and
its bottom. You then introduce the muffle through
the upper aperture of the furnace [d), and place it
upon the above deferibed iron-bars, in fuch a manner,
that the open fore-fide of it be contiguous to the in¬
ward border of the upper door (/'). The fuel of the
fire is introduced through the top of the furnace (d) ;
the cover of which {g)> on this account, muft be
moveable and not very heavy. The beft fuel for the
fire is charcoal made of the hardeft wood, efpecially
of beech, broken into fmall pieces of the bignefs of
anr inch, wherewith the muffle muft be covered over
fount inches high. We then rejeft larger bits of coals,
becaiffe they cannot fall thro’ the narrow interftices,
between, the fides of the muffle and thofe of the fur¬
nace, and cannot of courfe fuiBciently furround the
circumference of the muffle. Whence it happens,
that there sre on every fide places void of fuel, and
the fire is either not ftrong enough or unequal. But
if, on the contrary, you ufe;coals too fmall, then a
great part fall immediately through the interftiees of
the grate into the ,aAi-hole ; and the tendereft particles
■of them turn too fnon into alhes, and, by increafing
the heap of allies, obiNuft the free draught of the air,
which is here greatly recjuilite.
A perfect management af the fire is moft commonly
neceffary in-the performing of operations in this fur¬
nace ; therefore the chemical reader muft give attentioa
to what follows. If the door of the alh-hole (<?) is quite
open ; and the Aiders of the upper door (/) drawn
towards each other,, fo as to touch one another in the
middle of the door; andif, befides, tlie cover (y), and
the funnel adapted to its tube (/•), is upon the top (7).
of the furnace ; the fire will be then in the higheft de¬
gree poffible ; though, in the mean time, it is hardly
ever neceffary to put the funnel on, except ki a wry
cold feafon : but if, after having difpofed the furaace
in tbe manner juft deferibed, you put red burning
coals into the open upper,door (/') of it, the fire is
{till more increafed thereby : however, this artifice is
never, or very feldom, neceffary. When you Ihut the
upper door with only that Aider that has a narrow ob*
Furnace.
1
FUR [3
Furnace, long hole in it (to), then the heat becomes a little lefs;
' 7 but it dimimflies fUll more when you rtrut the door
with the other Aider that has in it the femicircular hole
(w), which is larger than that of the firft Aider: nay,
the heat again is lefs when you take away the funnel
put at the top of the cover: finally, the door of the
afh-hole being either in part or totally fliut, the heat
is ftill diminifhed; becaufe the draught of air fo necef-
fary to excite the fire, is thereby hindered: but if, be*
fides all thefe, you likewife open the upper door quite,
then the cold air, ru-fhing into the muffle, cools the
bodies put under it, that are to be changed, to a de¬
gree never required in any operation, and fuch as will
entirely hinder the boiling of lead. If, during the ope¬
ration, the fire begins to decay, or to grow unequal, it
is a fign that there are places void of coals between
the fides of the furnace and thofe of the muffle: there¬
fore, in this cafe, you malt ftir your coals on every fide
with an iron-rod, which is to be introduced through
the upper hole (p) of the furnace, that they may fall
together, and thus in a proper manner and equa-
Hty.
However, you are to obferve concerning the regi-
tpen of the fire juft deferibed, that though the appa¬
ratus is made with all the exadnefs mentioned, never-
thelefs the effed does not always anfwer it* The caufe
of which difference has moft commonly its origin in
the various difpofitions of the air : for as every fire is
more excited by coals in proportion as the air, more
condenfed, and more quickly agitated, ftrikes them
more violently (which the effed of the bellows plainly
Ihews); it thence appears, that in warm and wet wea¬
ther, when the atmofphere is light, the fire muft be
lefs efficacious in furnaces ; that likewife, when feveral
furnaces, fituated near each other, are burning at the
fame time, the fire is in part fuffocated, becaufe the
ambient air is thereby rendered more rare and lighter.
The fame efled is produced by the fun, efpcially in
fummer-time, when it fhines upon the place where the
furnace is fituated. The atmofphere, on the contrary,
being heavier in cold dry weather, excites a very great
fire.
The heat of the fire ads the ftronger upon the bo¬
dies to be changed, as the muffle put in the furnace is
lefs; as the faid muffle has more and larger fegments
cut out of it; as the fides of this muffle are thinner; in
fhort, as there are more velfels placed in the hinder
. part of the muffle ; and on the contrary. In this cafe,
when many of the conditions requifite for the exciting
of fire are wanting, then indeed the artificer, with all
his fkill, will hardly be able to excite the foe to a fuf-
ficient degree, in order to perform operations well, in
common affay-ovens, even though he ufes bellows, and
puts coals into the upper door of the furnace. For this
reafon, the grate ought be put almoft three inches be¬
low the muffle, left the air, rufhing through the afh-
hole, fhould cool the bottom of the muffle, which hap¬
pens in common aflay-ovens; and again, that the fmal-
ler coals, almoft already confumed, and the alhes, may
more eafily fall through the interftices of the grate,
and the larger coals ftill fit to keep up the fire be re¬
tained. Laftly, The above-mentioned funnel is added,
that the blowing of the fire being, by means of it, in-
creafed as much as poffible, this might at laft be car¬
ried to the requifite degree} for the fire may always be
153 1 FUR
diminifhed, but not always be increafed at pleafure. Furnace;
without the affiftance of a proper apparatus.
Fig. 5. Ileprefents a longitudinal feflion of a Re¬
verberatory Furnace ufed in the fmelting of ores.
1. The mafonry. 2. The afh-hole. 3. A channel for
the evaporation of the moifture. 4. The grate. 5. The
fire-place. 6. The inner part of the furnace. 7. A
bafon formed of fand. 8. The cavity where the melt¬
ed metal is. 9. A hole through which the fcoria is
to be removed, 10. The paffage of the flame and
fmoke, or the lower part of the chimney; which is to
ba carried up to a height of about 30 feet. 11. A
hole in the~roof, through which the ore is thrown into
the furnace. This furnace is 18 feet long, 12 feet
broad, and <y^ high.
Fig. 6. Reprefents a longitudinal feflion of the
fining Furnace. 1. The mafonry of the pillars and
walls furrounding the furnace. 2. The channels for
carrying off the moifture. 3. Other fmall channels
which join in the middle of the bafon. 4. The bafon
made of bricks. 5. A bed of afhes. 6. The hollow
or bafon in which the metal is melted and refined.
7. The great flame-hole. 8. The two openings for
the entry of the tuyeres of the bellows. 9. The vault
or dome of the furnace, xo. The fire-place. 11. The
grate. 12. The draught-bole. 13. A hole in the
vault, which, being opened, ferves to cool the fur¬
nace.
Portable Furnace. See Chemistry, n° 98, 99.
Melting Furnace. Ibid. n° 101.
Lamp Furnace, Ibid. 2J 102.
Machines for Blowing Air into Furnaces. The
earlieft method of animating large fires in the furnaces
where ores were fmeked, feems to have been by expo-
fing them to the wind. Such was the pra&ice of the
Peruvians before the arrival of the Spaniards among
them. Alonfo Barba relates, that their furnaces, call¬
ed guairas, were built on eminences, where the air
was freeft ; that they were perforated on all fides with
holes, through which the air was driven in when the
wind blew, which was the only time when the work
could be carried on; that under each hole was made a
projection of the ftone-work, on which were laid burn¬
ing coals, to heat the air before it entered the furnace.
Some authors fpeak of feveral thoufands of thefe guairas
burning at once on the fides and tops of the hills of
Potofi ; and feveral remains of this praftice are to be
found in different parts of Great Britain.
This method of fupplying air being found excef-
fively ineffectual and precarious, the inftruments called
bellows focceeded. Thefe were at firft worked by the
ftrength of men ; but as this was found to be very labo¬
rious and expenfive, the force of running water was em¬
ployed to give motion to thefe machines. Thus a muck
greater quantity of metal could be procured than for¬
merly, and the feparation was likewife more complete;
infomueb, that in many places the flags or cinders from
which the iron had formerly been extracted were again,
ufed as freffl ore, and yielded plenty of metal.
But, though this method was found to be greatly
preferable to the others, yet great improvements were
ftill wanted. In order to melt very large quantities of
ore at a time, it was necefiary to ufe bellows of an im-
menfe fize; and in proportion to their fize they flood
in need of the more frequent and expenfive repairs.
The-
FUR [ 3154 ] F U S
Furnace. The oil, alfo, which the bellows required in large quan¬
tity, becoming rancid, was found to generate a kind
of inflammable vapour, which fometimes burft the bel¬
lows with explofion, and thus rendered them totally
tifelfs. A new method, therefore, of blowing up fire, by
means altogether free from the abovementioned incon¬
veniences was fallen upon by means of water. It de¬
pends on the following principle, viz. That a ftream
of water, running through a pipe, if by any means it
is mixed with air at its entrance into the pipe, will
carry that air along with it, and part with it again as
ibon as it comes out of the pipe ; and if the air is then
colle&ed by a proper apparatus, it may with fuccefs
be ufed for exciting the moft violent degrees of heat.
Machines of this kind are reprefented on Plate CXIV. ’
fig. 4. In the right-hand machine, AB reprefents a ftream
of water falling into the funnel, whofe throat is contrac¬
ted at B ; after which the ftream runs thro’ the perpen-
•dicular pipe EF, in the upper part of which there are
fome fmall holes reprefented by cdef. Through thefe
holes the air has accefs to mix itfelf with the defcend-
ing water, which being daftied againft the fides of the
pipe is reduced to froth, and thus fills the whole cavity
of the pipe EF, which is confiderably larger than the
throat of the funnel B. When this frothy ftream en¬
ters the vefiel C, the air extricates itfelf from the wa¬
ters and as it cannot return through the pipe EF be-
caufe it is continually filled with a ftream of liquid
matter, it flies off with confiderable force through the
fmaller pipe D, by which it is conveyed to the fur¬
nace.
From this defcription, it is evident that the princi¬
pal thing to be kept in view in the conftru&ion of
thefe machines is, to mix the defcending ftream of wa¬
ter with as great a quantity of air as poffible. For this
purpofe the contrivance reprefented in the left-hand ma¬
chines anfwers much better than the former. By this
the water defcending from the refervoir A, falls into a
kind of cullender B, perforated with a great number of
boles in its fides. Thus the water being forced out in
a number of fmall ftreams is very effectually dafhed a-
gainft the fides of the wide defcending pipe, when it
enters the condenfing veffel C, and.is fent off by the
pipe D, as in the former.
Phil. Com. I'1 f°me machines of this kind the conftrudtors feem
of Arts, to have been of opinion, that a great height was re-
p. 167. quired in the water-fall: but Dr Lewis, who hath
made a great number of experiments upon the fubjeCt,
fhews, that an excefs in height can never make up
for a deficiency in the quantity of the water. Four or
five feet, he thinks, is a fufficient height for the water¬
fall ; where there is a greater height, however, it may
be rendered ufeful, by joining two or more machines
together in the manner reprefented in the plate ;
where the water, after having once emitted its air in the
condenfing veffel C, flows out into a new refervoir E.
From thence it defcends through another cullender F,
and defcending from it into a condenfing veffel G,
the air is extricated, and carried off through the pipe
H. The upper figure reprefents the cullender, with
the (hapes of the holes and their proportional diftances,
according to Dr Lewis.
Thus, with very little expence, where there is a fuf-
cient quantity of water, as ftrong a blaft of air as can
be defined may be readily obtained j for feveral ma¬
chines may be conftrufted, and joined together in a Furor
manner fomewhat fimilar to that above mentioned, un- !l
til all the quantity of water is employed. It is pro- u £g‘ _
per to obferve, however, that as by this method the
air is loaded with moifture, it is proper to make the
condenfing veffel as high as conveniently may be, that
the air may arrive at the furnace in as dry a ftate as
poffxble.—The long flender pipes in the left-hand ma¬
chines reprefent a gage filled with mercury or water,
by which the ftrength of the blaft may be determined.
FUROR uterinus, a diforder peculiar to women.
See (the Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
FURR, in commerce, fignifies the fldn of feveral
wild beafts, dreffed in alum with the hair on ; and
ufed as a part of drefs, by'pn’nces, magiftrates, and o-
thers. The kinds moft in ufe are thofe of the ermine,
fable, caftor, hare, coney, Sec.
FURSTENBURGH, a town and caftle of Ger¬
many, the capital of a county of the fame name, 30
miles north-weft of Conftance. E. Long. 8. 30. N.
Lat. 47. 50.
FURTHCOMING, in law, the name of an ac¬
tion competent to any perfon who has ufed arreftment
in the hands of his debtor’s creditor, for having the
fubjeft arrefted declared his property.
FURUNCLE, or Boil, in forgery, a fmall refill¬
ing tumour, with inflammation, rednefs, and great
pain, ariling in the adipofe membrane, under the Ikin.
See Surgery.
FURZE, in botany. SeeUnEx; Agriculture,
n° 46.; and Fence.
FUSAROLE, in archite&ure, a moulding or or¬
nament placed immediately under the echinus, in the
Doric, Ionic, and Compofite capitals.
FUSE, or Fuze, in artillery. See Fusee.
FUSEE, in clock-work, is that conical part drawn
by the fpring, and about which the chain or firing is
wound ; for the ufe of which, fee Clock and Watch.
Fusee, ov Firelock. SeeMusquET.
Fusee, Fuze, or Fufe, of a bomb or granado, is that
which makes the whole powder or compofition in the
fliell take fire, to do the defigned execution.
Fuzes are chiefly made of very dry beech-wood, and
fometimes of hornbeam, taken near the root. They
are turned rough, and'bored at firft, and then kept for
feveral years in a dry place ; the diameter of the hole
is about I of an inch ; the hole does not come quite Military
through, leaving about -5- of an inch at the bottom ; Did- voce
and the head is made hollow, in the form of a bowl. Laboratory*
The compofition for fuzes is faltpetre 3, fulphur 1,
and mealed powder 3, 4, and fometimes 5. This com¬
pofition is drove in with an iron driver, (whofe ends
are capped with copper to prevent the compofition
from taking fire), and equally hard as poffible; the laft
ftiovel-full being all mealed powder, and two Hands of
quickmatch laid acrofs each other being drove in with
it, the ends of which are folded up into the hollow top,
and a cap of parchment tied over it till ufed.
When thefe fuzes-are driven into the loaded fliell,
the lower end is cut off in a flope, fo that the compo¬
fition may inflame the powder in the fliell: the fuze
muft have fuch a length as to continue burning all the
time the fliell is in its range, and to fet fire to the
powder as foon as it touches the ground, which in-
ftantly burfts into many pieces. When the diftance of
Fufibility
I!
Fuft
F U T [ 3]
the battery from the obje& is known, the time of the
ihell’s flight maybe computed to a fecond or two;
which being known, the fuze may be cut accordingly,
by burning two or three, and making ufe of a watch
or a tiring by way of a pendulum to vibrate feconds.
FUSIBILITY, in natural phiiofophy, that quality
of bodies which renders them fufible.
FUSIL, in heraldry, a bearing of a rhomboidal fi¬
gure, longer than the lozenge, 'and having its upper
and lower angles more acute and tharp than the other
two in the middle. It is called in Latin fafus, “ a
fpindle,” from its lhape.
FUSILIERS, Fusileers, or Fuzileers, in the
military art, are foldiers armed as the reft of the in¬
fantry, but wearing caps like the grenadiers, though
fomewhat ftiorter. There are three regiments in the
Britifh fervice: the royal regiment of Scots fuzileers,
railed in 1^78; the royal regiment of Englifh fuzileers,
railed in 1685 ; and the royal regiment of Welfti fu¬
zileers, railed in 1688-9.
FUSION, the ftate of a body rendered fluid by
fire. See Fluidity; and Chemistry, n° 35.
FUST, or Faustus, a citizen of Mentz, and one
of the earlieft printers. He had the policy to conceal
his art; and to this policy we are indebted for the tra¬
dition of “ The Devil and Dr Fauftus,” handed down
to the prefent times. Fuft, about 1460, aflbciated
with John of Gottenburgh: their types were cut in
wood, and fixed, not moveable as at prefent. Having
printed off a confiderable number of copies of the
Bible, to imitate thofe which were commonly fold in
MS, Fuft undertook the fale of them at Paris, where
the art of printing was then unknown. As he fold his
printed copies for 60 crowns, while the fcribes demand¬
ed 500, this created univerfal aftonifhment; but when
55 1 . . F u z
he produced copies'as faft as they were wanted, and Fuftian
lowered the price to 30 crowns, all Paris was agitated. Jj
The uniformity of the copies increafed the wonder; in- 1U1 eer5’
formations were given into the police againft him as a
magician; his lodgings were fearched; and a great
number of copies being found, they were feized t the
red ink with which they were embelliflied was faid to
be his blood; it was ferioufly adjudged that he was in
league with the devil; and if he had not fled, moft pro¬
bably he would have ftiared the fate of thofe, whom
ignorant and fuperftitious judges condemned, in thofe
days, for witchcraft. Fuft died at Mentz in 1466*
See (Hiftory of) Printing.
FUSTIAN, in commerce, a kind of cotton fluff,
which feems as it were whaled on one fide.
Right fuftians Ihould be altogether made of cotton-
yarn, both woof and warp; but a great many are made,
the warp of which is flax, or even hemp.
There are fuftians made of feveral kinds, wide, nar¬
row, fine, coarfe; with (hag or nap, and without it.
Fustian, is alfo ufedfor a bombaft ftyle, or a high
fwelling kind of writing made up of heterogeneous
parts.
FUSTICK, or Fustock, a yellow wood, that grows
in all the Caribbee iflands, ufed in dying yellow. It
pays no duty on importation.
FUSTIGATIO, in the Roman cuftoms, a punifli-
ment inflifted by beating with a cudgel. This punifli-
ment was peculiar to freemen : for the flaves were
fcourged or lafhed with whips.
FUTTOCKS, in a (hip, the timbers railed over the
keel, or the encompafling timbers that make her
breadth.
FUZES, or Fusees, in artillery. See Fusee.
FUZILEERS. See Fusileers.
END OF THE FOURTH VOLUME-
Directions for placing the Plates in this Volume.
ioi Plate LXXXVII. To face
ioz LXXXVIII.
103 L XXXIX.
104 xc. ...
105 XCL
to6 XCII.
107 XCIII.
108 XCIV.
109 XCV.
no XCVI. ?
in xcvn. 5
112 XCVIII.
113 XCIX. 7
114 C. 3 * ”
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Page 2708
2822
2900
- 2968
302S
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3* 45.
2V. B. Errata, Omissions, &c. noticed and fupplied in the APPENDIX at the end of the Work.